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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recurrent_malaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recurrent_malaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Recurrent malaria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recurrent_malaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathophysiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathophysiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Pathophysiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pathophysiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetic_resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Genetic resistance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liver_dysfunction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liver_dysfunction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Liver dysfunction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liver_dysfunction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_vaccine_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_vaccine_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Effects on vaccine response </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_vaccine_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Diagnosis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Diagnosis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Prevention </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prevention subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mosquito_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mosquito_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Mosquito control </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mosquito_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Insecticide-treated_nets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insecticide-treated_nets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Insecticide-treated nets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insecticide-treated_nets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indoor_residual_spraying" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indoor_residual_spraying"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Indoor residual spraying </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indoor_residual_spraying-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_modifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_modifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.3 Housing modifications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_modifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass_drug_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_drug_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.4 Mass drug administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_drug_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mosquito-targeted_drug_delivery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mosquito-targeted_drug_delivery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.5 Mosquito-targeted drug delivery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mosquito-targeted_drug_delivery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_mosquito_control_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_mosquito_control_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.6 Other mosquito control methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_mosquito_control_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Medications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_on_malaria_vaccines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_on_malaria_vaccines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Research on malaria vaccines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_on_malaria_vaccines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Others </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-One_Health_Approach_to_Malaria_Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#One_Health_Approach_to_Malaria_Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 One Health Approach to Malaria Prevention </div> </a> <ul id="toc-One_Health_Approach_to_Malaria_Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Treatment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Treatment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Uncomplicated_malaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uncomplicated_malaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Uncomplicated malaria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uncomplicated_malaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Severe_and_complicated_malaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Severe_and_complicated_malaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Severe and complicated malaria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Severe_and_complicated_malaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monoclonal_antibodies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monoclonal_antibodies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Monoclonal antibodies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monoclonal_antibodies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Resistance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prognosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prognosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Prognosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prognosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Epidemiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Epidemiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Effects of climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urbanization_and_malaria_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urbanization_and_malaria_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Urbanization and malaria trends </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urbanization_and_malaria_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drug_and_Insecticide_Resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drug_and_Insecticide_Resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Drug and Insecticide Resistance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drug_and_Insecticide_Resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elimination_Efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elimination_Efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Elimination Efforts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elimination_Efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_COVID-19" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_COVID-19"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Effects of COVID-19 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_COVID-19-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Names </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eradication_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eradication_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Eradication efforts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Eradication_efforts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Eradication efforts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Eradication_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initial_WHO_program_(1955–1969)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_WHO_program_(1955–1969)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Initial WHO program (1955–1969) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_WHO_program_(1955–1969)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_1969" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_1969"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 After 1969 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_1969-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_eradication_of_malaria_by_year_2050" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_eradication_of_malaria_by_year_2050"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Potential eradication of malaria by year 2050 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_eradication_of_malaria_by_year_2050-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Economic consequences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Counterfeit_and_substandard_drugs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Counterfeit_and_substandard_drugs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Counterfeit and substandard drugs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Counterfeit_and_substandard_drugs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Research </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Research subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medications_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medications_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Medications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medications_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_targets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_targets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 New targets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_targets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genomic_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genomic_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.3 Genomic research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genomic_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.4 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Other animals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Malaria</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 165 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-165" aria-hidden="true" > 165 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0" title="शीतज्वर – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="शीतज्वर" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="ملاريا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ملاريا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A4" title="Դողտենդ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Դողտենդ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="মেলেৰিয়া – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মেলেৰিয়া" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="मलेरिया – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="मलेरिया" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akanundu_ro%27y" title="Akanundu ro'y – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Akanundu ro'y" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malyariya" title="Malyariya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Malyariya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="مالاریا – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مالاریا" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="ম্যালেরিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ম্যালেরিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma-l%C3%A1-l%C3%AD-%C3%A1" title="Ma-lá-lí-á – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ma-lá-lí-á" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Тапма – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Тапма" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Малярыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Малярыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Малярыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Малярыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="मलेरिया – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="मलेरिया" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Малария – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Малария" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malarija" title="Malarija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Malarija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kle%C3%B1ved_ar_paludo%C3%B9" title="Kleñved ar paludoù – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kleñved ar paludoù" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0" title="Хумхаа – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хумхаа" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A0ria" title="Malària – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Malària" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A1rie" title="Malárie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Malárie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kpa%C9%A3i%CA%92i%C9%9B%C9%A3u" title="Kpaɣiʒiɛɣu – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Kpaɣiʒiɛɣu" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%89%DE%AC%DE%8D%DE%AD%DE%83%DE%A8%DE%94%DE%A7" title="މެލޭރިޔާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="މެލޭރިޔާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaaria" title="Malaaria – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Malaaria" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ελονοσία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ελονοσία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malario" title="Malario – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malario" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ee mw-list-item"><a href="https://ee.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Ewe" lang="ee" hreflang="ee" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Eʋegbe" data-language-local-name="Ewe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eʋegbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="مالاریا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مالاریا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurri" title="Jurri – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Jurri" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paludisme" title="Paludisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Paludisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A1ire" title="Maláire – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Maláire" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail%C3%A8iria" title="Mailèiria – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Mailèiria" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE" title="મલેરિયા – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="મલેરિયા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A2-l%C3%A0-li-%C3%A2" title="Mâ-là-li-â – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Mâ-là-li-â" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%90%EB%9D%BC%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84" title="말라리아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="말라리아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutar_zazza%C9%93in_cizon_sauro" title="Cutar zazzaɓin cizon sauro – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Cutar zazzaɓin cizon sauro" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Մալարիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մալարիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="मलेरिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मलेरिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malarija" title="Malarija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Malarija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malario" title="Malario – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Malario" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iba" title="Iba – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Iba" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imalariya" title="Imalariya – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Imalariya" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umalaleveva" title="Umalaleveva – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umalaleveva" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malar%C3%ADa" title="Malaría – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Malaría" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94" title="מלריה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלריה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C9%A9s%C9%A9_k%CA%8Bd%C9%94%C5%8B" title="Wɩsɩ kʋdɔŋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Wɩsɩ kʋdɔŋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE" title="ಮಲೇರಿಯಾ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಲೇರಿಯಾ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მალარია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მალარია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Безгек – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Безгек" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marariya" title="Marariya – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Marariya" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malarya" title="Malarya – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Malarya" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palidism" title="Palidism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Palidism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lerzeta" title="Lerzeta – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Lerzeta" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Безгек – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Безгек" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C4%81rija" title="Malārija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Malārija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%B9_(%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80)" title="ЦӀай (азар) – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="ЦӀай (азар)" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maliarija" title="Maliarija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Maliarija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malariy%C3%A1" title="Malariyá – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Malariyá" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A1ria" title="Malária – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Malária" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Маларија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Маларија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tazomoka" title="Tazomoka – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tazomoka" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF" title="മലമ്പനി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മലമ്പനി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malarja" title="Malarja – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Malarja" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="मलेरिया – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मलेरिया" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მალარია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მალარია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="مالاريا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مالاريا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1h-b%C3%B3k-g%C3%A0ng" title="Páh-bók-gàng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Páh-bók-gàng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0" title="Хумхаа – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хумхаа" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%84%E1%80%BE%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%96%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB" title="ငှက်ဖျားရောဂါ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ငှက်ဖျားရောဂါ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcm mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Nigerian Pidgin" lang="pcm" hreflang="pcm" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Naijá" data-language-local-name="Nigerian Pidgin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Naijá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B" title="औलो – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="औलो" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%B2" title="अउल – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अउल" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%83%A9%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2" title="マラリア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マラリア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A0ria" title="Malària – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Malària" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B2%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%86" title="ମ୍ୟାଲେରିଆ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମ୍ୟାଲେରିଆ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busaa" title="Busaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Busaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezgak" title="Bezgak – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bezgak" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%86" title="ਮਲੇਰੀਆ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਲੇਰੀਆ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="ملیریا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ملیریا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="ملاريا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ملاريا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malieria" title="Malieria – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Malieria" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A1ria" title="Malária – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Malária" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malarie" title="Malarie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Malarie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chukchu" title="Chukchu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Chukchu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Маларія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Маларія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Малярия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Малярия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%8B_(%D1%8B%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8B)" title="Кумахы (ыарыы) – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Кумахы (ыарыы)" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83" title="मलेरियारोगः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="मलेरियारोगः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F.%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A4_%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%A3%E1%B1%9F." title="ᱯᱟ.ᱨᱤ ᱨᱩᱣᱟ. – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱯᱟ.ᱨᱤ ᱨᱩᱣᱟ." data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A0ria" title="Malària – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Malària" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="මැලේරියාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මැලේරියාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="مليريا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مليريا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A1ria" title="Malária – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Malária" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malarija" title="Malarija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Malarija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duumo" title="Duumo – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Duumo" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="مالاریا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مالاریا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Маларија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Маларија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malarija" title="Malarija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Malarija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Malaria" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malarya" title="Malarya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Malarya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE" title="மலேரியா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மலேரியா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lmalarya" title="Lmalarya – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Lmalarya" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B3%D3%99%D0%BA_%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%83%D1%8B" title="Бизгәк авыруы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Бизгәк авыруы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE" title="మలేరియా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మలేరియా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="มาลาเรีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มาลาเรีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayo%C5%8B" title="Mayoŋ – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Mayoŋ" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target">Thuɔŋjäŋ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D2%B7%D0%B0" title="Вараҷа – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Вараҷа" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%B6%E1%8F%82%E1%8E%A8_%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%93%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%9E%E1%8E%B2%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%AC" title="ᏓᎶᏂᎨ ᎠᏓᏗᏞᎲᏍᎬ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏓᎶᏂᎨ ᎠᏓᏗᏞᎲᏍᎬ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE" title="ಮಲೇರಿಯಾ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಮಲೇರಿಯಾ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%B1tma" title="Sıtma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sıtma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atiridii" title="Atiridii – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Atiridii" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Малярія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Малярія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="ملیریا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ملیریا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binghfatnit" title="Binghfatnit – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Binghfatnit" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A4rii" title="Malärii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Malärii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BB%91t_r%C3%A9t" title="Sốt rét – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sốt rét" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaaria" title="Malaaria – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Malaaria" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malarya" title="Malarya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Malarya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibiru" title="Sibiru – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Sibiru" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%96%9F%E7%96%BE" title="疟疾 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="疟疾" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzedzedze" title="Dzedzedze – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Dzedzedze" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="מאלאריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מאלאריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ak%E1%BB%8D_ib%C3%A0" title="Akọ ibà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Akọ ibà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E5%86%B7" title="發冷 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="發冷" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maliar%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Maliarėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Maliarėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%96%9F%E7%96%BE" title="疟疾 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="疟疾" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akum" title="Akum – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Akum" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fon mw-list-item"><a href="https://fon.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hwesiv%C9%94z%C9%94n" title="Hwesivɔzɔn – Fon" lang="fon" hreflang="fon" data-title="Hwesivɔzɔn" data-language-autonym="Fɔ̀ngbè" data-language-local-name="Fon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fɔ̀ngbè</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maljarij%C9%99" title="Maljarijə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Maljarijə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12156#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Mosquito-borne infectious disease</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Malaria</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Malaria_Parasite_Connecting_to_Human_Red_Blood_Cell_(34034143483).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Malaria_Parasite_Connecting_to_Human_Red_Blood_Cell_%2834034143483%29.jpg/220px-Malaria_Parasite_Connecting_to_Human_Red_Blood_Cell_%2834034143483%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Malaria_Parasite_Connecting_to_Human_Red_Blood_Cell_%2834034143483%29.jpg/330px-Malaria_Parasite_Connecting_to_Human_Red_Blood_Cell_%2834034143483%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Malaria_Parasite_Connecting_to_Human_Red_Blood_Cell_%2834034143483%29.jpg/440px-Malaria_Parasite_Connecting_to_Human_Red_Blood_Cell_%2834034143483%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1462" data-file-height="1150" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Malaria parasite</a> connecting to a <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cell</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/məˈlɛəriə/</a> </li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">Infectious disease</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Fever, vomiting, headache, <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">yellow skin</a><a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizure">seizures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Organ_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ failure">organ failure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_malaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral malaria">cerebral malaria</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Usual onset</th><td class="infobox-data">10–15 days post exposure<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a> transmitted to humans by <a href="/wiki/Anopheles" title="Anopheles">Anopheles</a> <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitoes</a><a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-US_CDC-2023-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic method</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Examination of the blood, <a href="/wiki/Malaria_antigen_detection_tests" title="Malaria antigen detection tests">antigen detection tests</a><a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prevention</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_net" title="Mosquito net">Mosquito nets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insect_repellent" title="Insect repellent">insect repellent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_control" title="Mosquito control">mosquito control</a>, medications<a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">Medication</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Antimalarial_medication" title="Antimalarial medication">Antimalarial medication</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">249 million (2022)<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2023-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">608,000 (2022)<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2023-5">[5]</a></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> Malaria is a <a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">mosquito-borne infectious disease</a> that affects vertebrates and Anopheles mosquitoes.<a href="#cite_note-www.who.int-2-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-3">[3]</a> Human malaria causes <a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">symptoms</a> that typically include <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">fatigue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headaches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In severe cases, it can cause <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">jaundice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epileptic_seizure" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptic seizure">seizures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Symptoms usually begin 10 to 15 days after being bitten by an infected <a href="/wiki/Anopheles" title="Anopheles">Anopheles</a> <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquito</a>.<a href="#cite_note-www.who.int-4-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-US_CDC-2023-4">[4]</a> If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-3">[3]</a> In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a> This partial <a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">resistance</a> disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria.<a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a> The mosquito vector is itself harmed by Plasmodium infections, causing reduced lifespan.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Human malaria is caused by <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">single-celled microorganisms</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a> group.<a href="#cite_note-www.who.int-4-10">[10]</a> It is spread exclusively through bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.<a href="#cite_note-www.who.int-4-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The mosquito bite introduces the <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a> from the mosquito's <a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">saliva</a> into a person's blood.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-3">[3]</a> The parasites travel to the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, where they mature and reproduce.<a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a> Five species of Plasmodium commonly infect humans.<a href="#cite_note-www.who.int-4-10">[10]</a> The three species associated with more severe cases are <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">P. falciparum</a> (which is responsible for the vast majority of malaria deaths), <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_vivax" title="Plasmodium vivax">P. vivax</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_knowlesi" title="Plasmodium knowlesi">P. knowlesi</a> (a simian malaria that spills over into thousands of people a year).<a href="#cite_note-WHO-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_ovale" title="Plasmodium ovale">P. ovale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_malariae" title="Plasmodium malariae">P. malariae</a> generally cause a milder form of malaria.<a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.who.int-4-10">[10]</a> Malaria is typically diagnosed by the <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">microscopic examination</a> of blood using <a href="/wiki/Blood_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood film">blood films</a>, or with <a href="/wiki/Malaria_antigen_detection_tests" title="Malaria antigen detection tests">antigen-based</a> <a href="/wiki/Rapid_diagnostic_test" title="Rapid diagnostic test">rapid diagnostic tests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a> Methods that use the <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> to detect the parasite's <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> have been developed, but they are not widely used in areas where malaria is common, due to their cost and complexity.<a href="#cite_note-Nadjm-2012-15">[15]</a> The risk of disease can be reduced by preventing mosquito bites through the use of <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_net" title="Mosquito net">mosquito nets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insect_repellent" title="Insect repellent">insect repellents</a> or with <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_control" title="Mosquito control">mosquito-control measures</a> such as spraying <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">insecticides</a> and draining <a href="/wiki/Standing_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing water">standing water</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a> Several medications are available to <a href="/wiki/Malaria_prophylaxis" title="Malaria prophylaxis">prevent malaria</a> for travellers in areas where the disease is common.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-3">[3]</a> Occasional doses of the combination medication <a href="/wiki/Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine" title="Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine">sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine</a> are recommended in infants and after the first trimester of pregnancy in areas with high rates of malaria.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-3">[3]</a> As of 2023, two <a href="/wiki/Malaria_vaccine" title="Malaria vaccine">malaria vaccines</a> have been endorsed by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_recommends_R21-2023-16">[16]</a> The recommended treatment for malaria is a <a href="/wiki/Antimalarial_medication#Artemisinin-based_combination_therapies_(ACTs)" title="Antimalarial medication">combination</a> of <a href="/wiki/Antimalarial_medication" title="Antimalarial medication">antimalarial medications</a> that includes <a href="/wiki/Artemisinin" title="Artemisinin">artemisinin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rawat-2021-17">[17]</a>&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO2022[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-3">[3]</a> The second medication may be either <a href="/wiki/Mefloquine" title="Mefloquine">mefloquine</a> (noting first its potential toxicity and the possibility of death), <a href="/wiki/Lumefantrine" title="Lumefantrine">lumefantrine</a>, or sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine.<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-2010-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">Quinine</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Doxycycline" title="Doxycycline">doxycycline</a>, may be used if artemisinin is not available.<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-2010-19">[19]</a> In areas where the disease is common, malaria should be confirmed if possible before treatment is started due to concerns of increasing <a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">drug resistance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-3">[3]</a> Resistance among the parasites has developed to several antimalarial medications; for example, <a href="/wiki/Chloroquine" title="Chloroquine">chloroquine</a>-resistant P. falciparum has spread to most malarial areas, and resistance to artemisinin has become a problem in some parts of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-3">[3]</a> The disease is widespread in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subtropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical">subtropical</a> regions that exist in a broad band around the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Caraballo-2014-1">[1]</a> This includes much of <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2014-3">[3]</a> In 2022, some 249 million cases of malaria worldwide resulted in an estimated 608,000 deaths, with 80 percent being five years old or less.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Around 95% of the cases and deaths occurred in sub-Saharan Africa. Rates of disease decreased from 2010 to 2014, but increased from 2015 to 2021.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO2022[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-18">[18]</a> According to UNICEF, nearly every minute, a child under five died of malaria in 2021,<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_DATA-2-22">[22]</a> and "many of these deaths are preventable and treatable".<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF-2023-23">[23]</a> Malaria is commonly associated with <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a> and has a significant negative effect on economic development.<a href="#cite_note-Gollin-2007-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Worrall-2005-25">[25]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, it is estimated to result in losses of <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>12 billion a year due to increased healthcare costs, lost ability to work, and adverse effects on <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood-2005-26">[26]</a> The malaria caseload in India was slashed by 69 per cent from 6.4 million (64 lakh) in 2017 to two million (20 lakh) in 2023. Similarly, the estimated malaria deaths decreased from 11,100 to 3,500 (a 68-per cent decrease) in the same period.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm/290px-seek%3D2-En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="290" height="163" data-durationhint="216" data-mwtitle="En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b5/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEn.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Malaria.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Video summary (<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:VideoWiki/Malaria" title="Wikipedia:VideoWiki/Malaria">script</a>)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="One_Health_Approach_and_Malaria">One Health Approach and Malaria</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: One Health Approach and Malaria">edit</a>]</div> Effective malaria control uses the One Health approach. It links human, animal, and environmental health together. It also combines medicine, mosquito control, and sanitation to fight the disease. Experts from different fields would come to work together to reduce malaria and prevent outbreaks. This One Health strategy is particularly beneficial in high-risk regions by enhancing health systems and reducing transmission. In Rwanda, community health workers, insecticide-treated nets, and indoor spraying have considerably lowered malaria incidence.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Nonetheless, issues such as resistance to insecticides persist. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The term malaria originates from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: mala aria 'bad air', a part of <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory" title="Miasma theory">miasma theory</a>; the disease was formerly called ague or marsh fever due to its association with swamps and marshland.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The term appeared in English at least as early as 1768.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Malaria was once common in most of Europe and North America,<a href="#cite_note-Lindemann-1999-31">[31]</a> where it is no longer endemic,<a href="#cite_note-Gratz-2006-32">[32]</a> though imported cases do occur.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebb2008[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-33">[33]</a> The scientific study of malaria is called malariology.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Symptoms_of_Malaria.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Symptoms_of_Malaria.png/250px-Symptoms_of_Malaria.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Symptoms_of_Malaria.png/500px-Symptoms_of_Malaria.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1683" data-file-height="1785" /></a><figcaption>Main symptoms of malaria<a href="#cite_note-Fairhurst-2015-35">[35]</a></figcaption></figure> Adults with malaria tend to experience chills and fever—classically in periodic <a href="/wiki/Paroxysmal_attack" title="Paroxysmal attack">intense bouts</a> lasting around six hours, followed by a period of sweating and fever relief—as well as headache, fatigue, abdominal discomfort, and <a href="/wiki/Myalgia" title="Myalgia">muscle pain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Despommier-2019-36">[36]</a> Children tend to have more general symptoms: fever, cough, vomiting, and diarrhea.<a href="#cite_note-Despommier-2019-36">[36]</a> Initial manifestations of the disease—common to all malaria species—are similar to <a href="/wiki/Flu" class="mw-redirect" title="Flu">flu-like symptoms</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni-2012-37">[37]</a> and can resemble other conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastroenteritis" title="Gastroenteritis">gastroenteritis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Viral_disease" title="Viral disease">viral diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nadjm-2012-15">[15]</a> The presentation may include <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shivering" title="Shivering">shivering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthralgia" title="Arthralgia">joint pain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemolytic_anemia" title="Hemolytic anemia">hemolytic anemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">jaundice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobinuria" title="Hemoglobinuria">hemoglobin in the urine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Retinopathy" title="Retinopathy">retinal damage</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Convulsion" title="Convulsion">convulsions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Beare-2006-38">[38]</a> The classic symptom of malaria is <a href="/wiki/Paroxysmal_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Paroxysmal attacks">paroxysm</a>—a cyclical occurrence of sudden coldness followed by shivering and then fever and sweating, occurring every two days (<a href="/wiki/Fever#Types" title="Fever">tertian fever</a>) in P. vivax and P. ovale infections, and every three days (<a href="/wiki/Fever#Types" title="Fever">quartan fever</a>) for P. malariae. P. falciparum infection can cause recurrent fever every 36–48 hours, or a less pronounced and almost continuous fever.<a href="#cite_note-Ferri-2009-39">[39]</a> Symptoms typically begin 10–15 days after the initial mosquito bite, but can occur as late as several months after infection with some P. vivax strains.<a href="#cite_note-Despommier-2019-36">[36]</a> Travellers taking preventative malaria medications may develop symptoms once they stop taking the drugs.<a href="#cite_note-Despommier-2019-36">[36]</a> Severe malaria is usually caused by P. falciparum (often referred to as falciparum malaria). Symptoms of falciparum malaria arise 9–30 days after infection.<a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni-2012-37">[37]</a> Individuals with cerebral malaria frequently exhibit <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">neurological</a> symptoms, including <a href="/wiki/Abnormal_posturing" title="Abnormal posturing">abnormal posturing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus">nystagmus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conjugate_gaze_palsy" title="Conjugate gaze palsy">conjugate gaze palsy</a> (failure of the eyes to turn together in the same direction), <a href="/wiki/Opisthotonus" title="Opisthotonus">opisthotonus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">seizures</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni-2012-37">[37]</a> Diagnosis based on skin odor profiles Humans emanate a large range of smells. Studies have been conducted on how to detect human malaria infections through volatile compounds from the skin - suggesting that volatile biomarkers may be a reliable source for the detection of infection, including those asymptomatic. Using skin body odor profiles can be efficient in diagnosing global populations, and the screening and monitoring of infection to officially eradicate malaria. Research findings have predominantly relied on chemical explanations to explain the differences in attractiveness among humans based on distinct odor profiles. The existence of volatile compounds, like fatty acids, and lactic acid is an essential reason on why some individuals are more appealing to mosquitos than others. Volatile compounds Kanika Khanna, a postdoctoral scholar at the University of California, Berkeley studying the structural basis of membrane manipulation and cell-cell fusion by bacterial pathogens, discusses studies that determine how odor profiles can be used to diagnose the disease. Within the study, samples of volatile compounds from around 400 children within schools in Western Kenya were collected - to identify asymptomatic infections. These biomarkers have been established as a non-invasive way to detect malarial infections. In addition, these volatile compounds were heavily detected by mosquito antennae as an attractant, making the children more vulnerable to the bite of the mosquitos.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Fatty acids Fatty acids have been identified as an attractive compound for mosquitoes, they are typically found in volatile emissions from the skin. These fatty acids that produce body odor profiles originate from the metabolism of glycerol, lactic acid, amino acids, and lipids - through the action of bacteria found within the skin. They create a "chemical signature" for the mosquitoes to locate a potential host, humans in particular.<a href="#cite_note-Dormont-2021-41">[41]</a> Lactic acid Lactic acid, a naturally produced levorotatory isomer, has been titled an attractant of mosquitoes for a long time. Lactic acid is predominantly produced by eccrine-sweat glands, creating a large amount of sweat on the surface of the skin. Due to the high levels of lactic acid released from the human body, it has been hypothesized to represent a specific human host-recognition cue for anthropophilic (attracted to humans) mosquitoes. Pungent foot odor Most studies use human odors as stimuli to attract host seeking mosquitoes and have reported a strong and significant attractive effect. The studies have found human odor samples very effective in attracting mosquitoes. Foot odors have been demonstrated to have the highest attractiveness to anthropophilic mosquitoes. Some of these studies have included traps that had been baited with nylon socks previously worn by human participants and were deemed efficient in catching adult mosquitos. Foot odors have high numbers of volatile compounds, which in turn elicit an olfactory response from mosquitoes.<a href="#cite_note-Dormont-2021-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complications">Complications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Complications">edit</a>]</div> Malaria has several serious <a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">complications</a>, including the development of <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_distress" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory distress">respiratory distress</a>, which occurs in up to 25% of adults and 40% of children with severe P. falciparum malaria. Possible causes include respiratory compensation of <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_acidosis" title="Metabolic acidosis">metabolic acidosis</a>, noncardiogenic <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_oedema" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary oedema">pulmonary oedema</a>, concomitant <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, and severe <a href="/wiki/Anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaemia">anaemia</a>. Although rare in young children with severe malaria, <a href="/wiki/Acute_respiratory_distress_syndrome" title="Acute respiratory distress syndrome">acute respiratory distress syndrome</a> occurs in 5–25% of adults and up to 29% of pregnant women.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor-2012-42">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Coinfection" title="Coinfection">Coinfection</a> of <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> with malaria increases mortality.<a href="#cite_note-Korenromp-2005-43">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">Kidney failure</a> is a feature of <a href="/wiki/Blackwater_fever" title="Blackwater fever">blackwater fever</a>, where haemoglobin from <a href="/wiki/Lysis" title="Lysis">lysed</a> red blood cells leaks into the urine.<a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni-2012-37">[37]</a> Infection with P. falciparum may result in cerebral malaria, a form of severe malaria that involves <a href="/wiki/Encephalopathy" title="Encephalopathy">encephalopathy</a>. It is associated with retinal whitening, which may be a useful clinical sign in distinguishing malaria from other causes of fever.<a href="#cite_note-Beare-2011-44">[44]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Splenomegaly" title="Splenomegaly">enlarged spleen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hepatomegaly" title="Hepatomegaly">enlarged liver</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hepatosplenomegaly" title="Hepatosplenomegaly">both of these</a>, severe headache, <a href="/wiki/Hypoglycemia" title="Hypoglycemia">low blood sugar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobinuria" title="Hemoglobinuria">haemoglobin in the urine</a> with <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a> may occur.<a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni-2012-37">[37]</a> Complications may include spontaneous bleeding, <a href="/wiki/Coagulopathy" title="Coagulopathy">coagulopathy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Circulatory shock">shock</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Cerebral malaria can bring about death within forty-eight hours of the first symptoms of the infection being evident. <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy-associated_malaria" title="Pregnancy-associated malaria">Malaria during pregnancy</a> can cause <a href="/wiki/Stillbirth" title="Stillbirth">stillbirths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">infant mortality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">miscarriage</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Low_birth_weight" title="Low birth weight">low birth weight</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hartman-2010-46">[46]</a> particularly in P. falciparum infection, but also with P. vivax.<a href="#cite_note-Rijken-2012-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cause">Cause</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cause">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Life_Cycle_of_the_Malaria_Parasite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Life_Cycle_of_the_Malaria_Parasite.jpg/350px-Life_Cycle_of_the_Malaria_Parasite.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Life_Cycle_of_the_Malaria_Parasite.jpg/525px-Life_Cycle_of_the_Malaria_Parasite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Life_Cycle_of_the_Malaria_Parasite.jpg/700px-Life_Cycle_of_the_Malaria_Parasite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1282" /></a><figcaption>The life cycle of malaria parasites: Sporozoites are introduced by a mosquito bite. When they reach the liver, they multiply into thousands of merozoites. The merozoites infect red blood cells and replicate, infecting more and more red blood cells. Some parasites form gametocytes, which are taken up by a mosquito, continuing the life cycle.</figcaption></figure> Malaria is caused by infection with <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a> in the genus <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-US_CDC-2022-48">[48]</a> In humans, malaria is caused by six Plasmodium species: <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">P. falciparum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_malariae" title="Plasmodium malariae">P. malariae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_ovale_curtisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasmodium ovale curtisi">P. ovale curtisi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_ovale_wallikeri" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasmodium ovale wallikeri">P. ovale wallikeri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_vivax" title="Plasmodium vivax">P. vivax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_knowlesi" title="Plasmodium knowlesi">P. knowlesi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ashley-2018-49">[49]</a> Among those infected, P. falciparum is the most common species identified (~75%) followed by P. vivax (~20%).<a href="#cite_note-Nadjm-2012-15">[15]</a> Although P. falciparum traditionally accounts for the majority of deaths,<a href="#cite_note-Sarkar-2009-50">[50]</a> recent evidence suggests that P. vivax malaria is associated with potentially life-threatening conditions about as often as with a diagnosis of P. falciparum infection.<a href="#cite_note-Baird-2013-51">[51]</a> P. vivax proportionally is more common outside Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Arnott-2012-52">[52]</a> Some cases have been documented of human infections with several species of Plasmodium from <a href="/wiki/Simian" title="Simian">higher apes</a>, but except for P. knowlesi—a <a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">zoonotic</a> species that causes malaria in <a href="/wiki/Macaques" class="mw-redirect" title="Macaques">macaques</a><a href="#cite_note-Collins-2012-53">[53]</a>—these are mostly of limited public health importance.<a href="#cite_note-Collins-2009-54">[54]</a> The Anopheles mosquitos initially get infected by Plasmodium by taking a blood meal from a previously Plasmodium infected person or animal.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Parasites are then typically introduced by the bite of an infected <a href="/wiki/Anopheles" title="Anopheles">Anopheles</a> mosquito. Some of these inoculated parasites, called "<a href="/wiki/Sporozoite" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporozoite">sporozoites</a>", probably remain in the skin,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> but others travel in the bloodstream to the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, where they invade <a href="/wiki/Hepatocyte" title="Hepatocyte">hepatocytes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cowman-2016-58">[58]</a> They grow and divide in the liver for 2–10 days, with each infected hepatocyte eventually harboring up to 40,000 parasites.<a href="#cite_note-Cowman-2016-58">[58]</a> The infected hepatocytes break down, releasing these invasive Plasmodium cells, called "<a href="/wiki/Merozoite" class="mw-redirect" title="Merozoite">merozoites</a>", into the bloodstream. In the blood, the merozoites rapidly invade individual <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a>, replicating over 24–72 hours to form 16–32 new merozoites.<a href="#cite_note-Cowman-2016-58">[58]</a> The infected red blood cell lyses, and the new merozoites infect new red blood cells, resulting in a cycle that continuously amplifies the number of parasites in an infected person.<a href="#cite_note-Cowman-2016-58">[58]</a> Over rounds of this infection cycle, a small portion of parasites do not replicate, but instead develop into early sexual stage parasites called male and female "<a href="/wiki/Gametocyte" title="Gametocyte">gametocytes</a>". These gametocytes develop in the <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a> for 11 days, then return to the blood circulation to await uptake by the bite of another mosquito.<a href="#cite_note-Cowman-2016-58">[58]</a> Once inside a mosquito, the gametocytes undergo sexual reproduction, and eventually form daughter sporozoites that migrate to the mosquito's <a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">salivary glands</a> to be injected into a new host when the mosquito bites.<a href="#cite_note-Cowman-2016-58">[58]</a> The liver infection causes no symptoms; all symptoms of malaria result from the infection of red blood cells.<a href="#cite_note-Ashley-2018-49">[49]</a> Symptoms develop once there are more than around 100,000 parasites per <a href="/wiki/Milliliter" class="mw-redirect" title="Milliliter">milliliter</a> of blood.<a href="#cite_note-Ashley-2018-49">[49]</a> Many of the symptoms associated with severe malaria are caused by the tendency of P. falciparum to bind to <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessel</a> walls, resulting in damage to the affected vessels and surrounding tissue. Parasites sequestered in the blood vessels of the lung contribute to <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_failure" title="Respiratory failure">respiratory failure</a>. In the brain, they contribute to <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a>. In the placenta they contribute to low birthweight and preterm labor, and increase the risk of abortion and stillbirth.<a href="#cite_note-Ashley-2018-49">[49]</a> The destruction of red blood cells during infection often results in anemia, exacerbated by reduced production of new red blood cells during infection.<a href="#cite_note-Ashley-2018-49">[49]</a> Only female mosquitoes feed on blood; male mosquitoes feed on plant nectar and do not transmit the disease. Females of the mosquito genus Anopheles prefer to feed at night. They usually start searching for a meal at dusk, and continue through the night until they succeed.<a href="#cite_note-Arrow-2004-59">[59]</a> However, in Africa, due to the extensive use of bed nets, they began to bite earlier, before bed-net time.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Malaria parasites can also be transmitted by <a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">blood transfusions</a>, although this is rare.<a href="#cite_note-Owusu-Ofori-2010-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recurrent_malaria">Recurrent malaria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Recurrent malaria">edit</a>]</div> Symptoms of malaria can recur after varying symptom-free periods. Depending upon the cause, recurrence can be classified as either <a href="/wiki/Recrudescence" title="Recrudescence">recrudescence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relapse" title="Relapse">relapse</a>, or reinfection. Recrudescence is when symptoms return after a symptom-free period due to failure to remove blood-stage parasites by adequate treatment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO20154-62">[62]</a> Relapse is when symptoms reappear after the parasites have been eliminated from the blood but have persisted as dormant <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium#Life_cycle" title="Plasmodium">hypnozoites</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> in liver cells. Relapse commonly occurs between 8 and 24 weeks after the initial symptoms and is often seen in P. vivax and P. ovale infections.<a href="#cite_note-Nadjm-2012-15">[15]</a> P. vivax malaria cases in <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> areas often involve <a href="/wiki/Overwintering" title="Overwintering">overwintering</a> by hypnozoites, with relapses beginning the year after the mosquito bite.<a href="#cite_note-White-2011-64">[64]</a> Reinfection means that parasites were eliminated from the entire body but new parasites were then introduced. Reinfection cannot readily be distinguished from relapse and recrudescence, although recurrence of infection within two weeks of treatment ending is typically attributed to treatment failure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO201541-65">[65]</a> People may develop some <a href="/wiki/Premunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Premunity">immunity</a> when exposed to frequent infections.<a href="#cite_note-Tran-2012-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pathophysiology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum#Pathogenesis" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum § Pathogenesis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maternal_malaria_placenta_-_cropped_-_very_high_mag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Maternal_malaria_placenta_-_cropped_-_very_high_mag.jpg/250px-Maternal_malaria_placenta_-_cropped_-_very_high_mag.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Maternal_malaria_placenta_-_cropped_-_very_high_mag.jpg/330px-Maternal_malaria_placenta_-_cropped_-_very_high_mag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Maternal_malaria_placenta_-_cropped_-_very_high_mag.jpg/500px-Maternal_malaria_placenta_-_cropped_-_very_high_mag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2136" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Micrograph" title="Micrograph">Micrograph</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placenta</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Stillbirth" title="Stillbirth">stillbirth</a> due to maternal malaria. <a href="/wiki/H%26E_stain" title="H&E stain">H&E stain</a>. Red blood cells are anuclear; blue/black staining in bright red structures (red blood cells) indicate foreign nuclei from the parasites.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_blood_cells_infected_with_malaria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Red_blood_cells_infected_with_malaria.jpg/220px-Red_blood_cells_infected_with_malaria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Red_blood_cells_infected_with_malaria.jpg/330px-Red_blood_cells_infected_with_malaria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Red_blood_cells_infected_with_malaria.jpg/440px-Red_blood_cells_infected_with_malaria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1551" data-file-height="1229" /></a><figcaption>Electron micrograph of a Plasmodium falciparum-infected red blood cell (center), illustrating adhesion protein "knobs"</figcaption></figure> Malaria infection develops via two phases: one that involves the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> (exoerythrocytic phase), and one that involves red blood cells, or <a href="/wiki/Erythrocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Erythrocyte">erythrocytes</a> (erythrocytic phase). When an infected mosquito pierces a person's skin to take a blood meal, sporozoites in the mosquito's saliva enter the bloodstream and migrate to the liver where they infect hepatocytes, multiplying asexually and asymptomatically for a period of 8–30 days.<a href="#cite_note-Bledsoe-2005-67">[67]</a> After a potential dormant period in the liver, these organisms <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiate</a> to yield thousands of merozoites, which, following rupture of their host cells, escape into the blood and infect red blood cells to begin the erythrocytic stage of the life cycle.<a href="#cite_note-Bledsoe-2005-67">[67]</a> The parasite escapes from the liver undetected by wrapping itself in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a> of the infected host liver cell.<a href="#cite_note-Vaughan-2008-68">[68]</a> The parasites multiply asexually within red blood cells, periodically breaking out to infect new ones. This repeated cycle results in synchronized waves of merozoites escaping and invading red blood cells, which cause the characteristic fever patterns.<a href="#cite_note-Bledsoe-2005-67">[67]</a> Some P. vivax sporozoites do not immediately develop into exoerythrocytic-phase merozoites, but instead, produce hypnozoites that remain dormant for periods ranging from several months (7–10 months is typical) to several years.<a href="#cite_note-White-2011-64">[64]</a> After a period of dormancy, they reactivate and produce merozoites. Hypnozoites are responsible for long incubation and late relapses in P. vivax infections,<a href="#cite_note-White-2011-64">[64]</a> although their existence in P. ovale is uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-Richter-2010-69">[69]</a> The parasite is relatively protected from attack by the body's <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> because for most of its human life cycle it resides within the liver and blood cells and is relatively invisible to immune surveillance. However, circulating infected blood cells are destroyed in the <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a>. To avoid this fate, the P. falciparum parasite displays adhesive <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> on the surface of the infected blood cells, causing the blood cells to stick to the walls of small blood vessels, thereby sequestering the parasite from passage through the general circulation and the spleen.<a href="#cite_note-Tilley-2011-70">[70]</a> The blockage of the microvasculature causes symptoms such as those in placental malaria.<a href="#cite_note-Mens-2010-71">[71]</a> Sequestered red blood cells can breach the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a> and cause cerebral malaria.<a href="#cite_note-Rénia-2012-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_resistance">Genetic resistance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Genetic resistance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_resistance_to_malaria" title="Human genetic resistance to malaria">Human genetic resistance to malaria</a></div> Due to the high levels of <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">mortality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">morbidity</a> caused by malaria—especially the P. falciparum species—it has placed the greatest <a href="/wiki/Selection_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection (biology)">selective pressure</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> in recent history. Several genetic factors provide some resistance to it including <a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_trait" title="Sickle cell trait">sickle cell trait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thalassaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Thalassaemia">thalassaemia</a> traits, <a href="/wiki/Glucose-6-phosphate_dehydrogenase_deficiency" title="Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency">glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency</a>, and the absence of <a href="/wiki/Duffy_antigen" class="mw-redirect" title="Duffy antigen">Duffy antigens</a> on red blood cells.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kwiatkowski-2005-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hedrick-2011-75">[75]</a> The effect of sickle cell trait on malaria immunity illustrates some evolutionary trade-offs that have occurred because of endemic malaria. Sickle cell trait causes a change in the haemoglobin molecule in the blood. Normally, red blood cells have a very flexible, biconcave shape that allows them to move through narrow <a href="/wiki/Capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillaries">capillaries</a>; however, when the modified <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin_S" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemoglobin S">haemoglobin S</a> molecules are exposed to low amounts of oxygen, or crowd together due to dehydration, they can stick together forming strands that cause the cell to distort into a curved sickle shape. In these strands, the molecule is not as effective in taking or releasing oxygen, and the cell is not flexible enough to circulate freely. In the early stages of malaria, the parasite can cause infected red cells to sickle, and so they are removed from circulation sooner. This reduces the frequency with which malaria parasites complete their life cycle in the cell. Individuals who are <a href="/wiki/Homozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homozygous">homozygous</a> (with two copies of the abnormal haemoglobin beta <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">allele</a>) have <a href="/wiki/Sickle-cell_anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sickle-cell anaemia">sickle-cell anaemia</a>, while those who are heterozygous (with one abnormal allele and one normal allele) experience resistance to malaria without severe anaemia. Although the shorter life expectancy for those with the homozygous condition would tend to disfavour the trait's survival, the trait is preserved in malaria-prone regions because of the <a href="/wiki/Heterozygote_advantage" title="Heterozygote advantage">benefits</a> provided by the heterozygous form.<a href="#cite_note-Hedrick-2011-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weatherall-2008-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liver_dysfunction">Liver dysfunction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Liver dysfunction">edit</a>]</div> Liver dysfunction as a result of malaria is uncommon and usually only occurs in those with another liver condition such as <a href="/wiki/Viral_hepatitis" title="Viral hepatitis">viral hepatitis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chronic_liver_disease" title="Chronic liver disease">chronic liver disease</a>. The syndrome is sometimes called malarial hepatitis.<a href="#cite_note-Bhalla-2006-77">[77]</a> While it has been considered a rare occurrence, malarial hepatopathy has seen an increase, particularly in Southeast Asia and India. Liver compromise in people with malaria correlates with a greater likelihood of complications and death.<a href="#cite_note-Bhalla-2006-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_vaccine_response">Effects on vaccine response</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Effects on vaccine response">edit</a>]</div> Malaria infection affects the immune responses following <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a> for various diseases. For example, malaria suppresses immune responses to polysaccharide vaccines. A potential solution is to give curative treatment before vaccination in areas where malaria is present.<a href="#cite_note-Cunnington-2010-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_malaria" title="Diagnosis of malaria">Diagnosis of malaria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:5901_lores.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/5901_lores.jpg/220px-5901_lores.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/5901_lores.jpg/330px-5901_lores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/5901_lores.jpg/440px-5901_lores.jpg 2x" data-file-width="615" data-file-height="357" /></a><figcaption>The blood film is the <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard_(test)" title="Gold standard (test)">gold standard</a> for malaria diagnosis.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plasmodium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg/220px-Plasmodium.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg/330px-Plasmodium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption>Ring-forms and <a href="/wiki/Gametocyte" title="Gametocyte">gametocytes</a> of Plasmodium falciparum in human blood</figcaption></figure> Due to the non-specific nature of malaria symptoms, diagnosis is typically suspected based on symptoms and travel history, then confirmed with a laboratory test to detect the presence of the parasite in the blood (parasitological test). In areas where malaria is common, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) recommends clinicians suspect malaria in any person who reports having fevers, or who has a current temperature above 37.5 °C without any other obvious cause.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> Malaria should be suspected in children with signs of <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a>: <a href="/wiki/Palmar_pallor" class="mw-redirect" title="Palmar pallor">pale palms</a> or a laboratory test showing <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a> levels below 8 <a href="/wiki/Gram" title="Gram">grams</a> per <a href="/wiki/Deciliter" class="mw-redirect" title="Deciliter">deciliter</a> of blood.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> In areas of the world with little to no malaria, the WHO recommends only testing people with possible exposure to malaria (typically travel to a malaria-endemic area) and unexplained fever.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> In sub-Saharan Africa, testing is low, with only about one in four (28%) of children with a fever receiving medical advice or a rapid diagnostic test in 2021. There was a 10-percentage point gap in testing between the richest and the poorest children (33% vs 23%). Additionally, a greater proportion of children in Eastern and Southern Africa (36%) were tested than in West and Central Africa (21%).<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_DATA-2-22">[22]</a> According to UNICEF, 61% of children with a fever were taken for advice or treatment from a health facility or provider in 2021. Disparities are also observed by wealth, with an 18 percentage point difference in care-seeking behaviour between children in the richest (71%) and the poorest (53%) households.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_DATA-2-22">[22]</a> Malaria is usually confirmed by the microscopic examination of <a href="/wiki/Blood_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood film">blood films</a> or by <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Malaria_antigen_detection_tests" title="Malaria antigen detection tests">rapid diagnostic tests</a> (RDT). Microscopy—i.e. examining <a href="/wiki/Giemsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Giemsa">Giemsa</a>-stained blood with a <a href="/wiki/Light_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Light microscope">light microscope</a>—is the <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard_(test)" title="Gold standard (test)">gold standard</a> for malaria diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-Ashley-2018-49">[49]</a> Microscopists typically examine both a "thick film" of blood, allowing them to scan many blood cells in a short time, and a "thin film" of blood, allowing them to clearly see individual parasites and identify the infecting Plasmodium species.<a href="#cite_note-Ashley-2018-49">[49]</a> Under typical field laboratory conditions, a microscopist can detect parasites when there are at least 100 parasites per <a href="/wiki/Microliter" class="mw-redirect" title="Microliter">microliter</a> of blood, which is around the lower range of symptomatic infection.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> Microscopic diagnosis is relatively resource intensive, requiring trained personnel, specific equipment and a consistent supply of <a href="/wiki/Microscope_slide" title="Microscope slide">microscopy slides</a> and stains.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> In places where microscopy is unavailable, malaria is diagnosed with RDTs, <a href="/wiki/Rapid_antigen_test" title="Rapid antigen test">rapid antigen tests</a> that detect parasite proteins in a <a href="/wiki/Fingerstick" title="Fingerstick">fingerstick</a> blood sample.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> A variety of RDTs are commercially available, targeting the parasite proteins histidine rich protein 2 (HRP2, detects P. falciparum only), <a href="/wiki/Lactate_dehydrogenase" title="Lactate dehydrogenase">lactate dehydrogenase</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Aldolase" class="mw-redirect" title="Aldolase">aldolase</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> The HRP2 test is widely used in Africa, where P. falciparum predominates.<a href="#cite_note-Ashley-2018-49">[49]</a> However, since HRP2 persists in the blood for up to five weeks after an infection is treated, an HRP2 test sometimes cannot distinguish whether someone currently has malaria or previously had it.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> Additionally, some P. falciparum parasites in the Amazon region lack the HRP2 gene, complicating detection.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> RDTs are fast and easily deployed to places without full diagnostic laboratories.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> However they give considerably less information than microscopy, and sometimes vary in quality from producer to producer and lot to lot.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> <a href="/wiki/Serological_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Serological test">Serological tests</a> to detect antibodies against Plasmodium from the blood have been developed, but are not used for malaria diagnosis due to their relatively poor sensitivity and specificity. Highly sensitive <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_amplification_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleic acid amplification test">nucleic acid amplification tests</a> have been developed, but are not used clinically due to their relatively high cost, and poor specificity for active infections.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021a-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> Malaria is classified into either "severe" or "uncomplicated" by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO).<a href="#cite_note-Nadjm-2012-15">[15]</a> It is deemed severe when any of the following criteria are present, otherwise it is considered uncomplicated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO201573-80">[80]</a> <ul><li>Decreased consciousness</li> <li>Significant weakness such that the person is unable to walk</li> <li>Inability to feed</li> <li>Two or more <a href="/wiki/Convulsions" class="mw-redirect" title="Convulsions">convulsions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_blood_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Low blood pressure">Low blood pressure</a> (less than 70 <a href="/wiki/MmHg" class="mw-redirect" title="MmHg">mmHg</a> in adults and 50 mmHg in children)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_distress" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory distress">Breathing problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Circulatory shock">Circulatory shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">Kidney failure</a> or <a href="/wiki/Haemoglobin" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemoglobin">hemoglobin</a> in the urine</li> <li>Bleeding problems, or hemoglobin less than 50 g/L (5 g/dL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_oedema" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary oedema">Pulmonary oedema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_glucose" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood glucose">Blood glucose</a> less than 2.2 mmol/L (40 mg/dL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acidosis" title="Acidosis">Acidosis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactate</a> levels of greater than 5 mmol/L</li> <li>A parasite level in the blood of greater than 100,000 per <a href="/wiki/Microlitre" class="mw-redirect" title="Microlitre">microlitre</a> (μL) in low-intensity transmission areas, or 250,000 per μL in high-intensity transmission areas</li></ul> Cerebral malaria is defined as a severe P. falciparum-malaria presenting with neurological symptoms, including coma (with a <a href="/wiki/Glasgow_coma_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Glasgow coma scale">Glasgow coma scale</a> less than 11, or a <a href="/wiki/Blantyre_coma_scale" title="Blantyre coma scale">Blantyre coma scale</a> less than 3), or with a coma that lasts longer than 30 minutes after a seizure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO20153-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg/220px-Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg/330px-Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg/440px-Anopheles_stephensi.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2008" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Anopheles_stephensi" title="Anopheles stephensi">Anopheles stephensi</a> mosquito shortly after obtaining blood from a human (the droplet of blood is expelled as a surplus). This mosquito is a vector of malaria, and mosquito control is an effective way of reducing its incidence.</figcaption></figure> Methods used to prevent malaria include medications, mosquito elimination and the prevention of bites. As of 2023, there are two <a href="/wiki/Malaria_vaccine" title="Malaria vaccine">malaria vaccines</a>, approved for use in children by the WHO: <a href="/wiki/RTS,S" title="RTS,S">RTS,S</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaria_vaccine#R21/Matrix-M" title="Malaria vaccine">R21</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_recommends_R21-2023-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.who.int-3-82">[82]</a> The presence of malaria in an area requires a combination of high human population density, high <a href="/wiki/Anopheles" title="Anopheles">Anopheles</a> mosquito population density and high rates of transmission from humans to mosquitoes and from mosquitoes to humans. If any of these is lowered sufficiently, the parasite eventually disappears from that area, as happened in North America, Europe, and parts of the Middle East. However, unless the parasite is eliminated from the whole world, it could re-establish if conditions revert to a combination that favors the parasite's reproduction. Furthermore, the cost per person of eliminating anopheles mosquitoes rises with decreasing population density, making it economically unfeasible in some areas.<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-1958-83">[83]</a> Prevention of malaria may be more cost-effective than treatment of the disease in the long run, but the <a href="/wiki/Capital_cost" title="Capital cost">initial costs</a> required are out of reach of many of the world's poorest people. There is a wide difference in the costs of control (i.e. maintenance of low endemicity) and elimination programs between countries. For example, in China—whose government in 2010 announced a strategy to pursue malaria elimination in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese province">Chinese provinces</a>—the required investment is a small proportion of public expenditure on health. In contrast, a similar programme in Tanzania would cost an estimated one-fifth of the public health budget.<a href="#cite_note-Sabot-2010-84">[84]</a> In 2021, the World Health Organization confirmed that China has eliminated malaria.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In 2023, the World Health Organization confirmed that <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a> have eliminated malaria.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> In areas where malaria is common, children under five years old often have <a href="/wiki/Anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaemia">anaemia</a>, which is sometimes due to malaria. Giving children with anaemia in these areas preventive antimalarial medication improves red blood cell levels slightly but does not affect the risk of death or need for hospitalisation.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mosquito_control">Mosquito control</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mosquito control">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_control" title="Mosquito control">Mosquito control</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mansprayingkeroseneoil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Mansprayingkeroseneoil.jpg/250px-Mansprayingkeroseneoil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Mansprayingkeroseneoil.jpg/330px-Mansprayingkeroseneoil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Mansprayingkeroseneoil.jpg/500px-Mansprayingkeroseneoil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="507" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>Man spraying kerosene oil in standing water, <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone" title="Panama Canal Zone">Panama Canal Zone</a>, 1912</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a> refers to methods used to decrease malaria by reducing the levels of transmission by mosquitoes. For individual protection, the most effective <a href="/wiki/Insect_repellent" title="Insect repellent">insect repellents</a> are based on <a href="/wiki/DEET" title="DEET">DEET</a> or <a href="/wiki/Picaridin" class="mw-redirect" title="Picaridin">picaridin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kajfasz-2009-88">[88]</a> However, there is insufficient evidence that mosquito repellents can prevent malaria infection.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Insecticide-treated_net" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecticide-treated net">Insecticide-treated nets</a> (ITNs) and <a href="/wiki/Indoor_residual_spraying" title="Indoor residual spraying">indoor residual spraying</a> (IRS) are effective, have been commonly used to prevent malaria, and their use has contributed significantly to the decrease in malaria in the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-Fox-2022-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pluess-2010-92">[92]</a> ITNs and IRS may not be sufficient to eliminate the disease, as these interventions depend on how many people use nets, how many gaps in insecticide there are (low coverage areas), if people are not protected when outside of the home, and an increase in mosquitoes that are resistant to insecticides.<a href="#cite_note-Fox-2022-90">[90]</a> Modifications to people's houses to prevent mosquito exposure may be an important long term prevention measure.<a href="#cite_note-Fox-2022-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Insecticide-treated_nets">Insecticide-treated nets</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Insecticide-treated nets">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosquitonet149.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Mosquitonet149.jpg/250px-Mosquitonet149.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Mosquitonet149.jpg/330px-Mosquitonet149.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Mosquitonet149.jpg/500px-Mosquitonet149.jpg 2x" data-file-width="739" data-file-height="909" /></a><figcaption>A mosquito net in use</figcaption></figure> Mosquito nets help keep mosquitoes away from people and reduce infection rates and transmission of malaria. Nets are not a perfect barrier and are often treated with an insecticide designed to kill the mosquito before it has time to find a way past the net. Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) are estimated to be twice as effective as untreated nets and offer greater than 70% protection compared with no net.<a href="#cite_note-Raghavendra-2011-93">[93]</a> Between 2000 and 2008, the use of ITNs saved the lives of an estimated 250,000 infants in Sub-Saharan Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Howitt-2012-94">[94]</a> According to UNICEF, only 36% of households had sufficient ITNs for all household members in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_DATA-95">[95]</a> In 2000, 1.7 million (1.8%) African children living in areas of the world where malaria is common were protected by an ITN. That number increased to 20.3 million (18.5%) African children using ITNs in 2007, leaving 89.6 million children unprotected<a href="#cite_note-Noor-2009-96">[96]</a> and to 68% African children using mosquito nets in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF-2015-97">[97]</a> The percentage of children sleeping under ITNs in sub-Saharan Africa increased from less than 40% in 2011 to over 50% in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_DATA-2-22">[22]</a> Most nets are impregnated with <a href="/wiki/Pyrethroid" title="Pyrethroid">pyrethroids</a>, a class of insecticides with low <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a>. They are most effective when used from dusk to dawn.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> It is recommended to hang a large "bed net" above the center of a bed and either tuck the edges under the mattress or make sure it is large enough such that it touches the ground.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> ITNs are beneficial towards pregnancy outcomes in malaria-endemic regions in Africa but more data is needed in Asia and Latin America.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In areas of high malaria resistance, piperonyl butoxide (PBO) combined with pyrethroids in mosquito netting is effective in reducing malaria infection rates.<a href="#cite_note-Gleave-2021-101">[101]</a> Questions remain concerning the durability of PBO on nets as the effect on mosquito mortality was not sustained after twenty washes in experimental trials.<a href="#cite_note-Gleave-2021-101">[101]</a> UNICEF notes that the use of insecticide-treated nets has been increased since 2000 through accelerated production, procurement and delivery, stating that "over 2.5 billion ITNs have been distributed globally since 2004, with 87% (2.2 billion) distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2021, manufacturers delivered about 220 million ITNs to malaria endemic countries, a decrease of 9 million ITNs compared with 2020 and 33 million less than were delivered in 2019".<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF-2023-23">[23]</a> As of 2021, 66% of households in sub-Saharan Africa had ITNs, with figures "ranging from 31 per cent in Angola in 2016 to approximately 97 per cent in Guinea-Bissau in 2019".<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF-2023-23">[23]</a> Slightly more than half of the households with an ITN had enough of them to protect all members of the household, however.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF-2023-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indoor_residual_spraying">Indoor residual spraying</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Indoor residual spraying">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosquitoes-Killedy-By-DDT-Lake-Victoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mosquitoes-Killedy-By-DDT-Lake-Victoria.JPG/250px-Mosquitoes-Killedy-By-DDT-Lake-Victoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mosquitoes-Killedy-By-DDT-Lake-Victoria.JPG/330px-Mosquitoes-Killedy-By-DDT-Lake-Victoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Mosquitoes-Killedy-By-DDT-Lake-Victoria.JPG/500px-Mosquitoes-Killedy-By-DDT-Lake-Victoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3933" data-file-height="2937" /></a><figcaption>Walls where indoor residual spraying of DDT has been applied. The dead mosquitoes remain on the wall, eventually falling to the floor.</figcaption></figure> Indoor residual spraying is the spraying of insecticides on the walls inside a home. After feeding, many mosquitoes rest on a nearby surface while digesting the bloodmeal, so if the walls of houses have been coated with insecticides, the resting mosquitoes can be killed before they can bite another person and transfer the malaria parasite.<a href="#cite_note-Enayati-2010-102">[102]</a> As of 2006, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> recommends 12 insecticides in IRS operations, including <a href="/wiki/DDT#Use_against_malaria" title="DDT">DDT</a> and the pyrethroids <a href="/wiki/Cyfluthrin" title="Cyfluthrin">cyfluthrin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deltamethrin" title="Deltamethrin">deltamethrin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2006-103">[103]</a> This public health use of small amounts of DDT is permitted under the <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockholm Convention">Stockholm Convention</a>, which prohibits its agricultural use.<a href="#cite_note-van_den_Berg-2009-104">[104]</a> One problem with all forms of IRS is <a href="/wiki/Insecticide_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecticide resistance">insecticide resistance</a>. Mosquitoes affected by IRS tend to rest and live indoors, and due to the irritation caused by spraying, their descendants tend to rest and live outdoors, meaning that they are less affected by the IRS.<a href="#cite_note-Pates-2005-105">[105]</a> Communities using insecticide treated nets, in addition to indoor residual spraying with 'non-pyrethroid-like' insecticides found associated reductions in malaria.<a href="#cite_note-Pryce-2022-106">[106]</a> Additionally, the use of 'pyrethroid-like' insecticides in addition to indoor residual spraying did not result in a detectable additional benefit in communities using insecticide treated nets.<a href="#cite_note-Pryce-2022-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Housing_modifications">Housing modifications</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Housing modifications">edit</a>]</div> Housing is a risk factor for malaria and modifying the house as a prevention measure may be a sustainable strategy that does not rely on the effectiveness of insecticides such as pyrethroids.<a href="#cite_note-Fox-2022-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> The physical environment inside and outside the home that may improve the density of mosquitoes are considerations. Examples of potential modifications include how close the home is to mosquito breeding sites, drainage and water supply near the home, availability of mosquito resting sites (vegetation around the home), the proximity to live stock and domestic animals, and physical improvements or modifications to the design of the home to prevent mosquitoes from entering,<a href="#cite_note-Fox-2022-90">[90]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Window_screen" title="Window screen">window screens</a>. In addition to installing window screens, house screening measures include screening ceilings, doors, and eaves. In 2021, the World Health Organization's (WHO) Guideline Development Group conditionally recommended screening houses in this manner to reduce malaria transmission.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Guidelines_for_Malaria-2023-108">[108]</a> However, the WHO does point out that there are local considerations that need to be addressed when incorporating these techniques. These considerations include the delivery method, maintenance, house design, feasibility, resource needs, and scalability.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_Guidelines_for_Malaria-2023-108">[108]</a> Several studies have suggested that screening houses can have a significant effect on malaria transmission. Beyond the protective barrier screening provides, it also does not call for daily behavioral changes in the household.<a href="#cite_note-Nalinya-2022-109">[109]</a> Screening eaves can also have a community-level protective effect, ultimately reducing mosquito-biting densities in neighboring houses that do not have this intervention in place.<a href="#cite_note-Nalinya-2022-109">[109]</a> In some cases, studies have used insecticide-treated (e.g., transfluthrin) or untreated netting to deter mosquito entry.<a href="#cite_note-Nalinya-2022-109">[109]</a> One widely used intervention is the In2Care BV EaveTube. In 2021, In2Care BV received funding from the United States Agency for International Development to develop a ventilation tube that would be installed in housing walls.<a href="#cite_note-USAID_DIV_Impacts-2024-110">[110]</a> When mosquitoes approach households, the goal is for them to encounter these EaveTubes instead. Inside these EaveTubes is insecticide-treated netting that is lethal to insecticide-resistant mosquitoes.<a href="#cite_note-USAID_DIV_Impacts-2024-110">[110]</a> This approach to mosquito control is called the Lethal House Lure method. The WHO is currently evaluating the efficacy of this product for widespread use.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mass_drug_administration">Mass drug administration</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mass drug administration">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Mass_drug_administration" title="Mass drug administration">Mass drug administration</a> (MDA) involves the administration of drugs to the entire population of an area regardless of disease status.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> A 2021 Cochrane review on the use of community administration of <a href="/wiki/Ivermectin" title="Ivermectin">ivermectin</a> found that, to date, low quality evidence shows no significant effect on reducing incidence of malaria transmission from the community administration of ivermectin.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mosquito-targeted_drug_delivery">Mosquito-targeted drug delivery</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Mosquito-targeted drug delivery">edit</a>]</div> One potential way to reduce the burden of malaria is to target the infection in mosquitoes, before it enters the mammalian host (during sporogeny).<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Drugs may be used for this purpose which have unacceptable toxicity profiles in humans. For example, aminoquinoline derivates show toxicity in humans,<a href="#cite_note-WHO-13">[13]</a> but this has not been shown in mosquitoes. Primaquine is particularly effective against Plasmodium gametocytes. Likewise, pyrroloquinazolinediamines show unacceptable toxicity in mammals,<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> but it is unknown whether this is the case in mosquitoes. Pyronaridine, thiostrepton, and pyrimethamine have been shown to dramatically reduce ookinete formation in P. berghei, while artefenomel, NPC-1161B, and tert-butyl isoquine reduce exflagellation in P. Falciparum.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_mosquito_control_methods">Other mosquito control methods</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Other mosquito control methods">edit</a>]</div> People have tried a number of other methods to reduce mosquito bites and slow the spread of malaria. Efforts to decrease mosquito larvae by decreasing the availability of open water where they develop, or by adding substances to decrease their development, are effective in some locations.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Electronic mosquito repellent devices, which make very high-frequency sounds that are supposed to keep female mosquitoes away, have no supporting evidence of effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-Enayati-2007-118">[118]</a> There is a low certainty evidence that <a href="/wiki/Fogging_(insect_control)" title="Fogging (insect control)">fogging</a> may have an effect on malaria transmission.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Larviciding by hand delivery of chemical or microbial insecticides into water bodies containing low larval distribution may reduce malarial transmission.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> There is insufficient evidence to determine whether larvivorous fish can decrease mosquito density and transmission in the area.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medications">Medications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Medications">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Malaria_prophylaxis" title="Malaria prophylaxis">Malaria prophylaxis</a></div> There are a number of medications that can help prevent or interrupt malaria in travellers to places where infection is common. Many of these medications are also used in treatment. In places where Plasmodium is resistant to one or more medications, three medications—<a href="/wiki/Mefloquine" title="Mefloquine">mefloquine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doxycycline" title="Doxycycline">doxycycline</a>, or the combination of <a href="/wiki/Atovaquone/proguanil" title="Atovaquone/proguanil">atovaquone/proguanil</a> (Malarone)—are frequently used for prevention.<a href="#cite_note-Tickell-Painter-2017-122">[122]</a> Doxycycline and the atovaquone/proguanil are better tolerated while mefloquine is taken once a week.<a href="#cite_note-Tickell-Painter-2017-122">[122]</a> Areas of the world with <a href="/wiki/Chloroquine" title="Chloroquine">chloroquine</a>-sensitive malaria are uncommon.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Antimalarial mass drug administration to an entire population at the same time may reduce the risk of contracting malaria in the population, however the effectiveness of mass drug administration may vary depending on the prevalence of malaria in the area.<a href="#cite_note-Shah-2021-124">[124]</a> Other factors such as drug administration plus other protective measures such as mosquito control, the proportion of people treated in the area, and the risk of reinfection with malaria may play a role in the effectiveness of mass drug treatment approaches.<a href="#cite_note-Shah-2021-124">[124]</a> The protective effect does not begin immediately, and people visiting areas where malaria exists usually start taking the drugs one to two weeks before they arrive, and continue taking them for four weeks after leaving (except for atovaquone/proguanil, which only needs to be started two days before and continued for seven days afterward).<a href="#cite_note-Freedman-2008-125">[125]</a> The use of preventive drugs is often not practical for those who live in areas where malaria exists, and their use is usually given only to pregnant women and short-term visitors. This is due to the cost of the drugs, <a href="/wiki/Adverse_effect_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverse effect (medicine)">side effects</a> from long-term use, and the difficulty in obtaining antimalarial drugs outside of wealthy nations.<a href="#cite_note-Fernando-2011-126">[126]</a> During pregnancy, medication to prevent malaria has been found to improve the weight of the baby at birth and decrease the risk of <a href="/wiki/Anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaemia">anaemia</a> in the mother.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The use of preventive drugs where malaria-bearing mosquitoes are present may encourage the development of partial resistance.<a href="#cite_note-Turschner-2009-128">[128]</a> Giving antimalarial drugs to infants through intermittent preventive therapy can reduce the risk of having malaria infection, hospital admission, and anaemia.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Mefloquine is more effective than sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine in preventing malaria for HIV-negative pregnant women. Cotrimoxazole is effective in preventing malaria infection and reduce the risk of getting anaemia in HIV-positive women.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Giving Dihydroartemisinin/piperaquine and mefloquine in addition to the daily cotrimoxazole to HIV-positive pregnant women seem to be more efficient in preventing malaria infection than cotrimoxazole alone.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Prompt treatment of confirmed cases with artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) may also reduce transmission.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_on_malaria_vaccines">Research on malaria vaccines</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Research on malaria vaccines">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Malaria_vaccine" title="Malaria vaccine">Malaria vaccine</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Malaria_vaccine" title="Malaria vaccine">Malaria vaccines</a> have been another goal of research. The first promising studies demonstrating the potential for a malaria vaccine were performed in 1967 by immunising mice with live, radiation-<a href="/wiki/Attenuator_(genetics)" title="Attenuator (genetics)">attenuated</a> sporozoites, which provided significant protection to the mice upon subsequent injection with normal, viable sporozoites. Since the 1970s, there has been considerable progress in developing similar vaccination strategies for humans.<a href="#cite_note-Vanderberg-2009-133">[133]</a> In 2013, WHO and the malaria vaccine funders group set a goal to develop vaccines designed to interrupt malaria transmission with malaria eradication's long-term goal.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> The first vaccine, called <a href="/wiki/RTS,S" title="RTS,S">RTS,S</a>, was approved by European regulators in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-Walsh-2015-135">[135]</a> As of 2023, two <a href="/wiki/Malaria_vaccine" title="Malaria vaccine">malaria vaccines</a> have been licensed for use.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_recommends_R21-2023-16">[16]</a> Other approaches to combat malaria may require investing more in research and greater primary health care.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO2020[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-136">[136]</a> Continuing surveillance will also be important to prevent the return of malaria in countries where the disease has been eliminated.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> As of 2019 it is undergoing pilot trials in 3 sub-Saharan African countries—Ghana, Kenya and Malawi—as part of the WHO's Malaria Vaccine Implementation Programme (MVIP).<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Immunity (or, more accurately, <a href="/wiki/Immune_tolerance" title="Immune tolerance">tolerance</a>) to P. falciparum malaria does occur naturally, but only in response to years of repeated infection.<a href="#cite_note-Tran-2012-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> An individual can be protected from a P. falciparum infection if they receive about a thousand bites from mosquitoes that carry a version of the parasite rendered non-infective by a dose of <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> <a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">irradiation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hill-2011-140">[140]</a> The highly <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">polymorphic</a> nature of many P. falciparum proteins results in significant challenges to vaccine design. Vaccine candidates that target antigens on gametes, zygotes, or ookinetes in the mosquito midgut aim to block the transmission of malaria. These transmission-blocking vaccines induce <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a> in the human blood; when a mosquito takes a blood meal from a protected individual, these antibodies prevent the parasite from completing its development in the mosquito.<a href="#cite_note-Crompton-2010-141">[141]</a> Other vaccine candidates, targeting the blood-stage of the parasite's life cycle, have been inadequate on their own.<a href="#cite_note-Graves-2006b-142">[142]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Elkin_Patarroyo" title="Manuel Elkin Patarroyo">SPf66</a> was tested extensively in areas where the disease was common in the 1990s, but trials showed it to be insufficiently effective.<a href="#cite_note-Graves-2006a-143">[143]</a> As of 2020, the RTS,S vaccine has been shown to reduce the risk of malaria by about 40% in children in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-www.who.int-3-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO_PP-2016-144">[144]</a> A preprint study of the R21 vaccine has shown 77% vaccine efficacy.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>]<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> In 2021, researchers from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> reported findings from a <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase IIb trial</a> of a candidate malaria vaccine, R21/Matrix-M, which demonstrated efficacy of 77% over 12-months of follow-up. This vaccine is the first to meet the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>'s Malaria Vaccine Technology Roadmap goal of a vaccine with at least 75% efficacy.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Germany-based BioNTECH SE is developing an mRNA-based malaria vaccine BN165<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> which has recently initiated a Phase 1 study [clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT05581641] in December 2022. The vaccine, based on the circumsporozite protein (CSP) is being tested in adults aged 18–55 yrs at 3 dose levels to select a safe and tolerable dose of a three-dose schedule. Unlike GSK's RTS,S (AS01) and Serum Institute of India's R21/MatrixM, BNT-165 is being studied in adult age groups meaning it could be developed for Western travelers as well as those living in endemic countries. For the travelers profile, a recent commercial assessment forecast potential gross revenues of BNT-165 at $479m (2030) 5-yrs post launch, POS-adjusted revenues.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Others">edit</a>]</div> Community participation and <a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">health education</a> strategies promoting awareness of malaria and the importance of control measures have been successfully used to reduce the incidence of malaria in some areas of the developing world.<a href="#cite_note-Lalloo-2006-149">[149]</a> Recognising the disease in the early stages can prevent it from becoming fatal. Education can also inform people to cover over areas of stagnant, still water, such as water tanks that are ideal breeding grounds for the parasite and mosquito, thus cutting down the risk of the transmission between people. This is generally used in urban areas where there are large centers of population in a confined space and transmission would be most likely in these areas.<a href="#cite_note-Mehlhorn-2016-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Intermittent_preventive_therapy" title="Intermittent preventive therapy">Intermittent preventive therapy</a> is another intervention that has been used successfully to control malaria in pregnant women and infants,<a href="#cite_note-Bardají-2012-151">[151]</a> and in preschool children where transmission is seasonal.<a href="#cite_note-Meremikwu-2012a-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="One_Health_Approach_to_Malaria_Prevention">One Health Approach to Malaria Prevention</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: One Health Approach to Malaria Prevention">edit</a>]</div> One Health approach is crucial in preventing diseases like malaria. In Henan province, China, malaria has been a significant health problem for many years. Over time, the use of One Health has helped lower malaria rates by addressing the connections between people, animals, and their surroundings. Therefore, this led to the creation of the Henan Malaria Elimination Action Plan.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> By controlling mosquitoes in both human and animal habitats, improving water management, and promoting better sanitation, the One Health approach helps in fighting against malaria. Cooperation across different sectors is also important to eliminate malaria in similar regions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22British_India%22,_six_stages_of_malaria._Wellcome_L0022443.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Advertisement entitled "The Mosquito Danger". Includes 6 panel cartoon:#1 breadwinner has malaria, family starving; #2 wife selling ornaments; #3 doctor administers quinine; #4 patient recovers; #5 doctor indicating that quinine can be obtained from post office if needed again; #6 man who refused quinine, dead on stretcher." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/%22British_India%22%2C_six_stages_of_malaria._Wellcome_L0022443.jpg/250px-%22British_India%22%2C_six_stages_of_malaria._Wellcome_L0022443.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/%22British_India%22%2C_six_stages_of_malaria._Wellcome_L0022443.jpg/330px-%22British_India%22%2C_six_stages_of_malaria._Wellcome_L0022443.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/%22British_India%22%2C_six_stages_of_malaria._Wellcome_L0022443.jpg/500px-%22British_India%22%2C_six_stages_of_malaria._Wellcome_L0022443.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1142" data-file-height="1648" /></a><figcaption>An advertisement for <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">quinine</a> as a malaria treatment from 1927.</figcaption></figure> Malaria is treated with <a href="/wiki/Antimalarial_medication" title="Antimalarial medication">antimalarial medications</a>; the ones used depend on the type and severity of the disease.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Antipyretics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipyretics">medications against fever</a> are commonly used, their effects on outcomes are not clear.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-Meremikwu-2012b-156">[156]</a> Providing free antimalarial drugs to households may reduce childhood deaths when used appropriately. Programmes which presumptively treat all causes of fever with antimalarial drugs may lead to overuse of antimalarials and undertreat other causes of fever. Nevertheless, the use of malaria rapid-diagnostic kits can help to reduce over-usage of antimalarials.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cotrifazid" title="Cotrifazid">Cotrifazid</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uncomplicated_malaria">Uncomplicated malaria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Uncomplicated malaria">edit</a>]</div> Simple or uncomplicated malaria may be treated with oral medications. Artemisinin drugs are effective and safe in treating uncomplicated malaria.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Artemisinin in combination with other antimalarials (known as <a href="/wiki/Artemisinin-combination_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Artemisinin-combination therapy">artemisinin-combination therapy</a>, or ACT) is about 90% effective when used to treat uncomplicated malaria.<a href="#cite_note-Howitt-2012-94">[94]</a> The most effective treatment for P. falciparum infection is the use of ACT, which decreases resistance to any single drug component.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kokwaro-2009-161">[161]</a> Artemether-lumefantrine (six-dose regimen) is more effective than the artemether-lumefantrine (four-dose regimen) or other regimens not containing artemisinin derivatives in treating falciparum malaria.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Another recommended combination is <a href="/wiki/Dihydroartemisinin" title="Dihydroartemisinin">dihydroartemisinin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piperaquine" title="Piperaquine">piperaquine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO20159-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-Keating-2012-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Artemisinin-naphthoquine combination therapy showed promising results in treating falciparum malaria but more research is needed to establish its efficacy as a reliable treatment.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Artesunate plus mefloquine performs better than mefloquine alone in treating uncomplicated falciparum malaria in low transmission settings.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Atovaquone-proguanil is effective against uncomplicated falciparum with a possible failure rate of 5% to 10%; the addition of artesunate may reduce failure rate.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Azithromycin monotherapy or combination therapy has not shown effectiveness in treating Plasmodium falciparum or Plasmodium vivax malaria.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Amodiaquine plus sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine may achieve less treatment failures when compared to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine alone in uncomplicated falciparum malaria.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> There is insufficient data on chlorproguanil-dapsone in treating uncomplicated falciparum malaria.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> The addition of primaquine with artemisinin-based combination therapy for falciparum malaria reduces its transmission at day 3-4 and day 8 of infection.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine plus artesunate is better than sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine plus amodiaquine in controlling treatment failure at day 28. However, the latter is better than the former in reducing gametocytes in blood at day 7.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Infection with P. vivax, P. ovale or P. malariae usually does not require hospitalisation. Treatment of P. vivax malaria requires both elimination of the parasite in the blood with chloroquine or with artemisinin-based combination therapy and clearance of parasites from the liver with an <a href="/wiki/8-aminoquinoline" class="mw-redirect" title="8-aminoquinoline">8-aminoquinoline</a> agent such as <a href="/wiki/Primaquine" title="Primaquine">primaquine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tafenoquine" title="Tafenoquine">tafenoquine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Waters-2011-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> These two drugs act against blood stages as well, the extent to which they do so still being under investigation.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> To treat malaria during pregnancy, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> recommends the use of quinine plus <a href="/wiki/Clindamycin" title="Clindamycin">clindamycin</a> early in the pregnancy (1st trimester), and ACT in later stages (2nd and 3rd trimesters).<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-Manyando-2012-180">[180]</a> There is limited safety data on the antimalarial drugs in pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Severe_and_complicated_malaria">Severe and complicated malaria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Severe and complicated malaria">edit</a>]</div> Cases of severe and complicated malaria are almost always caused by infection with P. falciparum. The other species usually cause only febrile disease.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> Severe and complicated malaria cases are medical emergencies since mortality rates are high (10% to 50%).<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> Recommended treatment for severe malaria is the <a href="/wiki/Parenteral_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Parenteral administration">intravenous</a> use of antimalarial drugs. For severe malaria, <a href="/wiki/Parenteral" class="mw-redirect" title="Parenteral">parenteral</a> artesunate was superior to quinine in both children and adults.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sinclair-2012-185">[185]</a> In another systematic review, artemisinin derivatives (artemether and arteether) were as efficacious as quinine in the treatment of cerebral malaria in children.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Treatment of severe malaria involves supportive measures that are best done in a <a href="/wiki/Critical_care_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical care unit">critical care unit</a>. This includes the management of <a href="/wiki/Hyperpyrexia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperpyrexia">high fevers</a> and the seizures that may result from it. It also includes monitoring for <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory depression">poor breathing effort</a>, low blood sugar, and <a href="/wiki/Hypokalemia" title="Hypokalemia">low blood potassium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sarkar-2009-50">[50]</a> Artemisinin derivatives have the same or better efficacy than quinolones in preventing deaths in severe or complicated malaria.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Quinine <a href="/wiki/Loading_dose" title="Loading dose">loading dose</a> helps to shorten the duration of fever and increases parasite clearance from the body.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> There is no difference in effectiveness when using intrarectal quinine compared to intravenous or intramuscular quinine in treating uncomplicated/complicated falciparum malaria.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> There is insufficient evidence for intramuscular arteether to treat severe malaria.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> The provision of rectal artesunate before transfer to hospital may reduce the rate of death for children with severe malaria.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> In children with malaria and concomitant hypoglycaemia, sublingual administration of glucose appears to result in better increases in blood sugar after 20 minutes when compared to oral administration, based on very limited data.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Cerebral malaria is the form of severe and complicated malaria with the worst neurological symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> There is insufficient data on whether osmotic agents such as mannitol or urea are effective in treating cerebral malaria.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Routine phenobarbitone in cerebral malaria is associated with fewer <a href="/wiki/Convulsion" title="Convulsion">convulsions</a> but possibly more deaths.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> There is no evidence that steroids would bring treatment benefits for cerebral malaria.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Managing cerebral malaria Cerebral malaria usually makes a patient comatose. If the cause of the coma is in doubt, testing for other locally prevalent causes of encephalopathy (bacterial, viral or fungal infection) should be carried out. In areas where there is a high prevalence of malaria infection (e.g. tropical region) treatment can start without testing first.<a href="#cite_note-US_CDC-2022-48">[48]</a> To manage the cerebral malaria when confirmed the following can be done: <ul><li>People who are in coma should be given meticulous nursing care ( monitor vital signs, turn patient every 2 hours, avoid lying the patient in a wet bed etc.)</li> <li>A sterile urethral catheter should be inserted to help with urinating</li> <li>To aspirate stomach content, a sterile nasogastric tube should be inserted.</li> <li>In the occasion of convulsions, a slow intravenous injection of benzodiazepine is administered.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a></li></ul> There is insufficient evidence to show that blood transfusion is useful in either reducing deaths for children with severe anaemia or in improving their <a href="/wiki/Haematocrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Haematocrit">haematocrit</a> in one month.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> There is insufficient evidence that iron chelating agents such as deferoxamine and deferiprone improve outcomes of those with malaria falciparum infection.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monoclonal_antibodies">Monoclonal antibodies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Monoclonal antibodies">edit</a>]</div> A 2022 clinical trial shows that a monoclonal antibody <a href="/w/index.php?title=MAb_L9LS&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MAb L9LS (page does not exist)">mAb L9LS</a> offers protection against malaria. It binds the Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein (CSP-1), essential to disease, and makes it ineffective.<a href="#cite_note-Nature_Biotech-2022-200">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resistance">Resistance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Resistance">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">Drug resistance</a> poses a growing problem in 21st-century malaria treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Sinha-2014-201">[201]</a> In the 2000s (decade), malaria with partial resistance to artemisins emerged in Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-O'Brien-2011-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fairhurst-2012-203">[203]</a> Resistance is now common against all classes of antimalarial drugs apart from <a href="/wiki/Artemisinin" title="Artemisinin">artemisinins</a>. Treatment of resistant strains became increasingly dependent on this class of drugs. The cost of artemisinins limits their use in the developing world.<a href="#cite_note-White-2008-204">[204]</a> Malaria strains found on the Cambodia–Thailand border are resistant to combination therapies that include artemisinins, and may, therefore, be untreatable.<a href="#cite_note-Wongsrichanalai-2008-205">[205]</a> Exposure of the parasite population to artemisinin monotherapies in subtherapeutic doses for over 30 years and the availability of substandard artemisinins likely drove the selection of the resistant phenotype.<a href="#cite_note-Dondorp-2010-206">[206]</a> Resistance to artemisinin has been detected in Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam,<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> and there has been emerging resistance in Laos.<a href="#cite_note-Briggs-2014-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ashley-2014-209">[209]</a> Resistance to the combination of artemisinin and piperaquine was first detected in 2013 in Cambodia, and by 2019 had spread across Cambodia and into <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> (with up to 80 percent of malaria parasites resistant in some regions).<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> There is insufficient evidence in unit packaged antimalarial drugs in preventing treatment failures of malaria infection. However, if supported by training of healthcare providers and patient information, there is improvement in compliance of those receiving treatment.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prognosis">Prognosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Prognosis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malaria_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Malaria_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/330px-Malaria_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Malaria_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/500px-Malaria_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Malaria_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/580px-Malaria_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">Disability-adjusted life year</a> for malaria per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 10em;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">   no data</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">   <10</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">   10–100</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">   100–500</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">   500–1000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  1000–1500</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  1500–2000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  2000–2500</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  2500–2750</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  2750–3000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  3000–3250</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  3250–3500</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">   ≥3500</div> </div></figcaption></figure> When properly treated, people with malaria can usually expect a complete recovery.<a href="#cite_note-US_CDC-2010b-212">[212]</a> However, severe malaria can progress extremely rapidly and cause death within hours or days.<a href="#cite_note-Trampuz-2003-213">[213]</a> In the most severe cases of the disease, <a href="/wiki/Fatality_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatality rate">fatality rates</a> can reach 20%, even with intensive care and treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Nadjm-2012-15">[15]</a> Over the longer term, developmental impairments have been documented in children who have had episodes of severe malaria.<a href="#cite_note-Fernando-2010-214">[214]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chronic_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic (medicine)">Chronic</a> infection without severe disease can occur in an immune-deficiency syndrome associated with a decreased responsiveness to <a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a> bacteria and the <a href="/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus" title="Epstein–Barr virus">Epstein–Barr virus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Riley-2013-215">[215]</a> During childhood, malaria causes anaemia during a period of rapid brain development, and also direct brain damage resulting from cerebral malaria.<a href="#cite_note-Fernando-2010-214">[214]</a> Some survivors of cerebral malaria have an increased risk of neurological and cognitive deficits, <a href="/wiki/Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Emotional and behavioral disorders">behavioural disorders</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Idro-2010-216">[216]</a> Malaria prophylaxis was shown to improve cognitive function and school performance in <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a> when compared to <a href="/wiki/Placebo" title="Placebo">placebo</a> groups.<a href="#cite_note-Fernando-2010-214">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/290px-Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/435px-Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/580px-Malaria_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Deaths due to malaria per million persons in 2012 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 10em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  0–0</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  1–2</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  3–54</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  55–325</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  326–679</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  680–949</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  950–1,358</div></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png/290px-World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png/435px-World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png/580px-World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="617" /></a><figcaption>Past and current malaria prevalence in 2009</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relative_incidence_of_Plasmodium_(malaria)_species_by_country_of_origin_for_imported_cases_to_non-endemic_countries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Relative_incidence_of_Plasmodium_%28malaria%29_species_by_country_of_origin_for_imported_cases_to_non-endemic_countries.png/290px-Relative_incidence_of_Plasmodium_%28malaria%29_species_by_country_of_origin_for_imported_cases_to_non-endemic_countries.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Relative_incidence_of_Plasmodium_%28malaria%29_species_by_country_of_origin_for_imported_cases_to_non-endemic_countries.png/435px-Relative_incidence_of_Plasmodium_%28malaria%29_species_by_country_of_origin_for_imported_cases_to_non-endemic_countries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Relative_incidence_of_Plasmodium_%28malaria%29_species_by_country_of_origin_for_imported_cases_to_non-endemic_countries.png/580px-Relative_incidence_of_Plasmodium_%28malaria%29_species_by_country_of_origin_for_imported_cases_to_non-endemic_countries.png 2x" data-file-width="1308" data-file-height="601" /></a><figcaption>Relative incidence of Plasmodium species by country of origin for imported cases to non-endemic countries<a href="#cite_note-Tatem-2017-217">[217]</a></figcaption></figure> The WHO estimates that in 2021 there were 247 million total cases of malaria resulting in 619,000 deaths.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO2022[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-18">[18]</a> Children under five years old are the most affected, accounting for 67% of malaria deaths worldwide in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2021-218">[218]</a> About 125 million pregnant women are at risk of infection each year; in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>, maternal malaria is associated with up to 200,000 estimated infant deaths yearly.<a href="#cite_note-Hartman-2010-46">[46]</a> Since 2015, the WHO European Region has been free of malaria. The last country to report an indigenous malaria case was Tajikistan in 2014.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO2022[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-18">[18]</a> There are about 1300–1500 malaria cases per year in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor-2012-42">[42]</a> The United States eradicated malaria as a major public health concern in 1951,<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> though small outbreaks persist.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> Locally acquired mosquito-borne malaria occurred in the United States in 2003, when eight cases of locally acquired P. vivax malaria were identified in Florida, and again in May 2023, in four cases, as well as one case in Texas,<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> and in August in one case in Maryland.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> About 900 people died from the disease in Europe between 1993 and 2003.<a href="#cite_note-Kajfasz-2009-88">[88]</a> Both the global incidence of disease and resulting mortality have declined in recent years. According to the WHO and UNICEF, deaths attributable to malaria in 2015 were reduced by 60%<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF-2015-97">[97]</a> from a 2000 estimate of 985,000, largely due to the widespread use of insecticide-treated nets and artemisinin-based combination therapies.<a href="#cite_note-Howitt-2012-94">[94]</a> Between 2000 and 2019, malaria mortality rates among all ages halved from about 30 to 13 per 100,000 population at risk. During this period, malaria deaths among children under five also declined by nearly half (47%) from 781,000 in 2000 to 416,000 in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_DATA-95">[95]</a> Malaria is presently endemic in a broad band around the equator, in areas of the Americas, many parts of Asia, and much of Africa; in Sub-Saharan Africa, 85–90% of malaria fatalities occur.<a href="#cite_note-Layne-2006-223">[223]</a> An estimate for 2009 reported that countries with the highest death rate per 100,000 of population were <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a> (86.15), <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> (56.93) and <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> (50.66).<a href="#cite_note-Provost-2011-224">[224]</a> A 2010 estimate indicated the deadliest countries per population were Burkina Faso, <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Murray-2012-225">[225]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Malaria_Atlas_Project" title="Malaria Atlas Project">Malaria Atlas Project</a> aims to map global <a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">levels of malaria</a>, providing a way to determine the global spatial limits of the disease and to assess <a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">disease burden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guerra-2007-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hay-2010-227">[227]</a> This effort led to the publication of a map of P. falciparum endemicity in 2010 and an update in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-Gething-2011-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> As of 2021, 84 countries have endemic malaria.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO2022[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-18">[18]</a> The geographic distribution of malaria within large regions is complex, and malaria-afflicted and malaria-free areas are often found close to each other.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood-2002-231">[231]</a> Malaria is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions because of rainfall, consistent high temperatures and high humidity, along with stagnant waters where mosquito larvae readily mature, providing them with the environment they need for continuous breeding.<a href="#cite_note-Jamieson-2006-232">[232]</a> In drier areas, outbreaks of malaria have been predicted with reasonable accuracy by mapping rainfall.<a href="#cite_note-Abeku-2007-233">[233]</a> Malaria is more common in rural areas than in cities. For example, several cities in the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Mekong_Subregion" title="Greater Mekong Subregion">Greater Mekong Subregion</a> of Southeast Asia are essentially malaria-free, but the disease is prevalent in many rural regions, including along international borders and forest fringes.<a href="#cite_note-Cui-2012-234">[234]</a> In contrast, malaria in Africa is present in both rural and urban areas, though the risk is lower in the larger cities.<a href="#cite_note-Machault-2011-235">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Climate change">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases#Malaria" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Climate change and infectious diseases § Malaria</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> is likely to affect malaria transmission, but the degree of effect and the areas affected is uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-Climate_Change_and_Human_Health—Risk_and_Responses-236">[236]</a> Greater rainfall in certain areas of India, and following an <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> event is associated with increased mosquito numbers.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Since 1900 there has been substantial change in temperature and rainfall over Africa.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> However, factors that contribute to how rainfall results in water for mosquito breeding are complex, incorporating the extent to which it is absorbed into soil and vegetation for example, or rates of runoff and evaporation.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-2020-239">[239]</a> Recent research has provided a more in-depth picture of conditions across Africa, combining a malaria climatic suitability model with a continental-scale model representing real-world hydrological processes.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-2020-239">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_climate_change">Effects of climate change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Effects of climate change">edit</a>]</div> Climate change is increasingly recognized as a key driver of malaria transmission, affecting its geographic distribution, seasonality, vector behavior, and resistance to control measures. Changes in temperature, precipitation, and humidity directly affect the life cycle of Plasmodium parasites and the Anopheles mosquito vectors that transmit malaria. Changes in Geographic Distribution Climate change has led to shifts in malaria-endemic regions, with the disease expanding into higher altitudes and previously malaria-free areas.<a href="#cite_note-Caminade14-240">[240]</a> Rising temperatures allow mosquitoes to survive in regions that were once too cold for them, including highland areas in Africa, South America, and parts of Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Caminade14-240">[240]</a> A study analyzing malaria cases in Ethiopian and Colombian highlands found a strong correlation between increased temperatures and malaria incidence, demonstrating that climate change has made previously inhospitable areas suitable for transmission.<a href="#cite_note-Siraj14-241">[241]</a> Increased Transmission Season Malaria transmission is highly sensitive to temperature and rainfall patterns.<a href="#cite_note-Siraj14-241">[241]</a> Climate change has led to longer transmission seasons in tropical regions, where mosquitoes can breed year-round due to prolonged periods of high humidity and warm temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-Sewe21-242">[242]</a> Research suggests that in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, the malaria transmission season has lengthened by several months, particularly in regions where warming has pushed temperatures into the optimal range for Plasmodium falciparum development.<a href="#cite_note-Sewe21-242">[242]</a> In regions such as West Africa and parts of India, increasing temperatures and prolonged rainy seasons have contributed to a rise in malaria cases.<a href="#cite_note-Sewe21-242">[242]</a> Some studies predict that by 2050, many malaria-endemic areas will experience a 20–30% increase in transmission duration due to warming trends.<a href="#cite_note-Caminade14-240">[240]</a> Effects of extreme weather events Extreme weather events, such as heavy rainfall, flooding, and droughts, are increasing in frequency and intensity due to climate change, creating favorable conditions for malaria outbreaks.<a href="#cite_note-Bouma96-243">[243]</a> Flooding provides ideal breeding grounds for mosquitoes by forming stagnant water pools, while droughts can also exacerbate malaria by forcing human populations to store water in open containers, which serve as mosquito habitats.<a href="#cite_note-Bouma96-243">[243]</a> This effect has been observed in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where prolonged drought periods were followed by spikes in malaria cases.<a href="#cite_note-Bouma96-243">[243]</a> A review of malaria outbreaks linked to climate variability found that El Niño events, which increase rainfall and temperatures in malaria-endemic regions, have been associated with significant surges in cases.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> Resistance and Adaptation of Vectors Higher temperatures accelerate the development of Plasmodium parasites within mosquitoes, potentially leading to increased transmission efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-Shapiro17-245">[245]</a> Additionally, rising temperatures and changing environmental conditions have been linked to the spread of insecticide resistance in mosquito populations, complicating malaria control efforts.<a href="#cite_note-Shapiro17-245">[245]</a> A global survey found that Anopheles mosquitoes in Africa, Asia, and South America have developed increased resistance to commonly used insecticides such as pyrethroids.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> Economic and Social Consequences The expansion of malaria into new areas, coupled with increased transmission in endemic regions, poses a significant economic and social burden. • Healthcare costs: Malaria treatment and prevention efforts require substantial resources, including medications, insecticides, and hospital care. Countries with high malaria burdens, such as Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo, allocate a large percentage of their healthcare budgets to combat the disease.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_WMR21-247">[247]</a> • Effects on workforce and education: Malaria outbreaks disrupt daily life, reducing productivity and school attendance. In malaria-prone regions, children miss an average of 10 school days per year due to illness, negatively impacting long-term educational outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_WMR21-247">[247]</a> • Agricultural and economic productivity: In regions where subsistence farming is common, malaria significantly reduces agricultural output. Studies have shown that seasonal malaria outbreaks lead to a decline in workforce participation, affecting food security and economic stability.<a href="#cite_note-Caminade14-240">[240]</a> Mitigation and adaptation strategies Addressing malaria in the context of climate change requires a combination of public health interventions and climate adaptation measures.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_WMR21-247">[247]</a> The World Health Organization (WHO) has emphasized the need for integrating climate considerations into malaria control programs, including improved disease surveillance, enhanced vector control, and investment in climate-resilient healthcare infrastructure.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_WMR21-247">[247]</a> Innovative approaches, such as the use of genetically modified mosquitoes to curb transmission and climate-informed early warning systems, are being explored to counteract the effects of climate change on malaria dynamics.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urbanization_and_malaria_trends">Urbanization and malaria trends</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Urbanization and malaria trends">edit</a>]</div> Urbanization has a great effect on malaria. There are better healthcare and infrastructure in the cities which then reduce malaria. Whereas poorer areas with bad sanitation allow mosquitoes to thrive which then increase malaria.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> Some African cities have more malaria cases compared to the suburban areas. In Bangkok, it has shown that malaria has dropped due to better control.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drug_and_Insecticide_Resistance">Drug and Insecticide Resistance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Drug and Insecticide Resistance">edit</a>]</div> Some malaria strains resist treatment, especially in Southeast Asia. In addition, mosquitoes are resistant to insecticides.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> These challenges make it harder to control malaria and push the need for new treatments. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elimination_Efforts">Elimination Efforts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Elimination Efforts">edit</a>]</div> Some countries have eliminated malaria. China and El Salvador were considered malaria-free in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> Other countries have made good progress, but malaria can return from imported cases. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_COVID-19">Effects of COVID-19</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Effects of COVID-19">edit</a>]</div> Studies show that COVID-19 has worsened malaria in some areas. Lockdown and healthcare disruptions delayed treatments leading to more malaria deaths in 2020.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_malaria" title="History of malaria">History of malaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory" title="Mosquito-malaria theory">Mosquito-malaria theory</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malaria_pathogens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Malaria_pathogens.jpg/170px-Malaria_pathogens.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Malaria_pathogens.jpg/255px-Malaria_pathogens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Malaria_pathogens.jpg/340px-Malaria_pathogens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="986" data-file-height="1273" /></a><figcaption>Ancient malaria oocysts preserved in <a href="/wiki/Dominican_amber" title="Dominican amber">Dominican amber</a></figcaption></figure> Although the parasite responsible for P. falciparum malaria has been in existence for 50,000–100,000 years, the population size of the parasite did not increase until about 10,000 years ago, concurrently with advances in agriculture<a href="#cite_note-Harper-2010-254">[254]</a> and the development of human settlements. Close relatives of the human malaria parasites remain common in chimpanzees. Some evidence suggests that the P. falciparum malaria may have originated in gorillas.<a href="#cite_note-Prugnolle-2011-255">[255]</a> References to the unique periodic fevers of malaria are found throughout history.<a href="#cite_note-Cox-2002-256">[256]</a> Ancient Indian physician <a href="/wiki/Sushruta" title="Sushruta">Sushruta</a> believed that the disease was caused due to biting insects,<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> long before the Roman <a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a> associated the disease with insects from swamps.<a href="#cite_note-Strong-1944-258">[258]</a> Hippocrates described periodic fevers, labelling them tertian, quartan, subtertian and quotidian.<a href="#cite_note-Strong-1944-258">[258]</a> Malaria may have contributed to the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-BBC_News-2001-259">[259]</a> and was so pervasive in Rome that it was known as the "<a href="/wiki/Roman_Fever_(disease)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Fever (disease)">Roman fever</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Sallares-2002-260">[260]</a> Several regions in ancient Rome were considered at-risk for the disease because of the favourable conditions present for malaria vectors. This included areas such as southern Italy, the island of <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pontine_Marshes" title="Pontine Marshes">Pontine Marshes</a>, the lower regions of coastal <a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a> and the city of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a>. The presence of stagnant water in these places was preferred by mosquitoes for breeding grounds. Irrigated gardens, swamp-like grounds, run-off from agriculture, and drainage problems from road construction led to the increase of standing water.<a href="#cite_note-Hays-2005-261">[261]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ronald_Ross.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ronald_Ross.jpg/250px-Ronald_Ross.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ronald_Ross.jpg/330px-Ronald_Ross.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Ronald_Ross.jpg/500px-Ronald_Ross.jpg 2x" data-file-width="837" data-file-height="1189" /></a><figcaption>British doctor <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a> received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physiology_or_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1902 for his work on malaria.</figcaption></figure> Malaria is not referenced in the medical books of the <a href="/wiki/Mayans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayans">Mayans</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a>. Despite this, antibodies against malaria have been detected in some South American mummies, indicating that some malaria strains in the Americas might have a pre-Columbian origin.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> European settlers and the West Africans they <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">enslaved</a> likely brought malaria to the Americas starting in the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> Scientific studies on malaria made their first significant advance in 1880, when <a href="/wiki/Charles_Louis_Alphonse_Laveran" title="Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran">Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran</a>—a French army doctor working in the military hospital of <a href="/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>—observed parasites inside the red blood cells of infected people for the first time.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> He, therefore, proposed that malaria is caused by this organism, the first time a <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protist</a> was identified as causing disease.<a href="#cite_note-The_Nobel_Foundation-266">[266]</a> For this and later discoveries, he was awarded the 1907 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physiology_or_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine</a>. A year later, <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Finlay" title="Carlos Finlay">Carlos Finlay</a>, a Cuban doctor treating people with <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> in <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a>, provided strong evidence that mosquitoes were transmitting disease to and from humans.<a href="#cite_note-Tan-2008-267">[267]</a> This work followed earlier suggestions by <a href="/wiki/Josiah_C._Nott" title="Josiah C. Nott">Josiah C. Nott</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Chernin-1983-268">[268]</a> and work by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Patrick_Manson" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Patrick Manson">Sir Patrick Manson</a>, the "father of tropical medicine", on the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Filariasis" title="Filariasis">filariasis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chernin-1977-269">[269]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tu_Youyou_5012-1-2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tu_Youyou_5012-1-2015.jpg/250px-Tu_Youyou_5012-1-2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tu_Youyou_5012-1-2015.jpg/330px-Tu_Youyou_5012-1-2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tu_Youyou_5012-1-2015.jpg/500px-Tu_Youyou_5012-1-2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2833" data-file-height="2833" /></a><figcaption>Chinese medical researcher <a href="/wiki/Tu_Youyou" title="Tu Youyou">Tu Youyou</a> received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physiology_or_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine</a> in 2015 for her work on the antimalarial drug <a href="/wiki/Artemisinin" title="Artemisinin">artemisinin</a>.</figcaption></figure> In April 1894, a Scottish physician, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Sir Ronald Ross</a>, visited Sir Patrick Manson at his house on Queen Anne Street, London. This visit was the start of four years of collaboration and fervent research that culminated in 1897 when Ross, who was working in the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_General_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidency General Hospital">Presidency General Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Calcutta</a>, proved the complete life-cycle of the malaria parasite in mosquitoes.<a href="#cite_note-Cox-2010-270">[270]</a> He thus proved that the mosquito was the vector for malaria in humans by showing that certain mosquito species transmit malaria to birds. He isolated malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds.<a href="#cite_note-Cox-2010-270">[270]</a> For this work, Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine. After resigning from the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Medical_Service" title="Indian Medical Service">Indian Medical Service</a>, Ross worked at the newly established <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_School_of_Tropical_Medicine" title="Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine">Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine</a> and directed malaria-control efforts in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CDC_Malaria_website-271">[271]</a> The findings of Finlay and Ross were later confirmed by a medical board headed by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a> in 1900. Its recommendations were implemented by <a href="/wiki/William_C._Gorgas" title="William C. Gorgas">William C. Gorgas</a> in <a href="/wiki/Health_measures_during_the_construction_of_the_Panama_Canal" title="Health measures during the construction of the Panama Canal">the health measures undertaken</a> during construction of the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a>. This public-health work saved the lives of thousands of workers and helped develop the methods used in future public-health campaigns against the disease.<a href="#cite_note-Simmons-1979-272">[272]</a> In 1896, <a href="/wiki/Amico_Bignami" title="Amico Bignami">Amico Bignami</a> discussed the role of mosquitoes in malaria.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> In 1898, Bignami, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Grassi" title="Giovanni Battista Grassi">Giovanni Battista Grassi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Bastianelli" title="Giuseppe Bastianelli">Giuseppe Bastianelli</a> succeeded in showing experimentally the transmission of malaria in humans, using infected mosquitoes to contract malaria themselves which they presented in November 1898 to the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei" title="Accademia dei Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cox-2010-270">[270]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artemisia_annua_West_Virginia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Artemisia_annua_West_Virginia.jpg/220px-Artemisia_annua_West_Virginia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Artemisia_annua_West_Virginia.jpg/330px-Artemisia_annua_West_Virginia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Artemisia_annua_West_Virginia.jpg/440px-Artemisia_annua_West_Virginia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1110" data-file-height="668" /></a><figcaption>Artemisia annua, source of the antimalarial drug <a href="/wiki/Artemisinin" title="Artemisinin">artemisinin</a></figcaption></figure> The first effective treatment for malaria came from the bark of <a href="/wiki/Cinchona" title="Cinchona">cinchona tree</a>, which contains <a href="/wiki/Quinine" title="Quinine">quinine</a>. This tree grows on the slopes of the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>, mainly in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Peru" title="Indigenous peoples of Peru">indigenous peoples of Peru</a> made a <a href="/wiki/Tincture" title="Tincture">tincture</a> of cinchona to control fever. Its effectiveness against malaria was found and the <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuits</a> introduced the treatment to Europe around 1640; by 1677, it was included in the <a href="/wiki/London_Pharmacopoeia" class="mw-redirect" title="London Pharmacopoeia">London Pharmacopoeia</a> as an antimalarial treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Kaufman-2005-274">[274]</a> It was not until 1820 that the active ingredient, quinine, was extracted from the bark, isolated and named by the French chemists <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Joseph_Pelletier" title="Pierre Joseph Pelletier">Pierre Joseph Pelletier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bienaim%C3%A9_Caventou" title="Joseph Bienaimé Caventou">Joseph Bienaimé Caventou</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pelletier-1820-275">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kyle-1974-276">[276]</a> Quinine was the predominant malarial medication until the 1920s when other medications began to appear. In the 1940s, chloroquine replaced quinine as the treatment of both uncomplicated and severe malaria until resistance supervened, first in Southeast Asia and South America in the 1950s and then globally in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Achan-2011-277">[277]</a> The medicinal value of <a href="/wiki/Artemisia_annua" title="Artemisia annua">Artemisia annua</a> has been used by Chinese herbalists in <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicines" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional Chinese medicines">traditional Chinese medicines</a> for 2,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> In 1596, Li Shizhen recommended tea made from qinghao specifically to treat malaria symptoms in his "<a href="/wiki/Compendium_of_Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="Compendium of Materia Medica">Compendium of Materia Medica</a>", however the efficacy of tea, made with A. annua, for the treatment of malaria is dubious, and is discouraged by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO).<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> Artemisinins, discovered by Chinese scientist <a href="/wiki/Tu_Youyou" title="Tu Youyou">Tu Youyou</a> and colleagues in the 1970s from the plant Artemisia annua, became the recommended treatment for P. falciparum malaria, administered in severe cases in combination with other antimalarials.<a href="#cite_note-Hsu-2006-282">[282]</a> Tu says she was influenced by a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_herbology" title="Chinese herbology">traditional Chinese herbal medicine</a> source, The Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments, written in 340 by <a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> For her work on malaria, <a href="/wiki/Tu_Youyou" title="Tu Youyou">Tu Youyou</a> received the 2015 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NobelPrize.org-284">[284]</a> Plasmodium vivax was used between 1917 and the 1940s for <a href="/wiki/Malariotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Malariotherapy">malariotherapy</a>—deliberate injection of malaria parasites to induce a fever to combat certain diseases such as tertiary <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>. In 1927, the inventor of this technique, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg" title="Julius Wagner-Jauregg">Julius Wagner-Jauregg</a>, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries. The technique was dangerous, killing about 15% of patients, so it is no longer in use.<a href="#cite_note-Vogel-2013-285">[285]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GuadMarinesMalaria.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/GuadMarinesMalaria.gif/220px-GuadMarinesMalaria.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/GuadMarinesMalaria.gif/330px-GuadMarinesMalaria.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/GuadMarinesMalaria.gif/440px-GuadMarinesMalaria.gif 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="379" /></a><figcaption>U.S. Marines with malaria in a field hospital on <a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal" title="Guadalcanal">Guadalcanal</a>, October 1942</figcaption></figure> The first pesticide used for indoor residual spraying was <a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a>.<a href="#cite_note-US_CDC-2010a-286">[286]</a> Although it was initially used exclusively to combat malaria, its use quickly spread to <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. In time, pest control, rather than disease control, came to dominate DDT use, and this large-scale agricultural use led to the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Pesticide_resistance" title="Pesticide resistance">pesticide-resistant</a> mosquitoes in many regions. The DDT resistance shown by Anopheles mosquitoes can be compared to <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a> shown by bacteria. During the 1960s, awareness of the negative consequences of its indiscriminate use increased, ultimately leading to bans on agricultural applications of DDT in many countries in the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-van_den_Berg-2009-104">[104]</a> Before DDT, malaria was successfully eliminated or controlled in tropical areas like Brazil and Egypt by removing or poisoning the breeding grounds of the mosquitoes or the aquatic habitats of the larval stages, for example by applying the highly toxic arsenic compound <a href="/wiki/Paris_Green" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Green">Paris Green</a> to places with standing water.<a href="#cite_note-Killeen-2002-287">[287]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Names">Names</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Names">edit</a>]</div> Various types of malaria have been called by the names below:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <table class="wikitable sortable" border="1"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name</th> <th>Pathogen</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>algid malaria<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a></td> <td>severe malaria affecting the <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular system">cardiovascular system</a> and causing <a href="/wiki/Chills" title="Chills">chills</a> and <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Circulatory shock">circulatory shock</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>bilious malaria</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a></td> <td>severe malaria affecting the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> and causing <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">jaundice</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cerebral malaria</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a></td> <td>severe malaria affecting the <a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>congenital malaria</td> <td>various <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">plasmodia</a></td> <td>Plasmodium <a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">introduced from the mother</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Fetal_circulation" title="Fetal circulation">fetal circulation</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>pernicious malaria</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a></td> <td>severe malaria leading to grave illness </td></tr> <tr> <td>malignant malaria</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a></td> <td>severe malaria leading to death </td></tr> <tr> <td>falciparum malaria, Plasmodium falciparum malaria,</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ovale malaria, Plasmodium ovale malaria</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_ovale" title="Plasmodium ovale">Plasmodium ovale</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>quartan malaria, malariae malaria, Plasmodium malariae malaria</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_malariae" title="Plasmodium malariae">Plasmodium malariae</a></td> <td>paroxysms every fourth day (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quartan#Adjective" class="extiw" title="wikt:quartan">quartan</a>), counting the day of occurrence as the first day </td></tr> <tr> <td>quotidian malaria</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_vivax" title="Plasmodium vivax">Plasmodium vivax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_knowlesi" title="Plasmodium knowlesi">Plasmodium knowlesi</a></td> <td>paroxysms daily (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotidian#Adjective" class="extiw" title="wikt:quotidian">quotidian</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>tertian malaria</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_ovale" title="Plasmodium ovale">Plasmodium ovale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_vivax" title="Plasmodium vivax">Plasmodium vivax</a></td> <td>paroxysms every third day (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tertian#Adjective" class="extiw" title="wikt:tertian">tertian</a>), counting the day of occurrence as the first </td></tr> <tr> <td>transfusion malaria</td> <td>various <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">plasmodia</a></td> <td>Plasmodium introduced by <a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">blood transfusion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Needle_sharing" title="Needle sharing">needle sharing</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Needlestick_injury" title="Needlestick injury">needlestick injury</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>vivax malaria, Plasmodium vivax malaria</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_vivax" title="Plasmodium vivax">Plasmodium vivax</a></td> <td> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eradication_efforts">Eradication efforts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Eradication efforts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Members_of_the_Malaria_Commission_on_the_Danube_delta,_1929_Wellcome_L0011626.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Members_of_the_Malaria_Commission_on_the_Danube_delta%2C_1929_Wellcome_L0011626.jpg/250px-Members_of_the_Malaria_Commission_on_the_Danube_delta%2C_1929_Wellcome_L0011626.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Members_of_the_Malaria_Commission_on_the_Danube_delta%2C_1929_Wellcome_L0011626.jpg/330px-Members_of_the_Malaria_Commission_on_the_Danube_delta%2C_1929_Wellcome_L0011626.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Members_of_the_Malaria_Commission_on_the_Danube_delta%2C_1929_Wellcome_L0011626.jpg/500px-Members_of_the_Malaria_Commission_on_the_Danube_delta%2C_1929_Wellcome_L0011626.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1622" data-file-height="1212" /></a><figcaption>Members of the Malaria Commission of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> collecting larvae on the <a href="/wiki/Danube_delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Danube delta">Danube delta</a>, 1929</figcaption></figure> Malaria has been successfully eliminated or significantly reduced in certain areas, but not globally. Malaria was once common in the United States, but the US eliminated malaria from most parts of the country in the early 20th century using vector control programs, which combined the monitoring and treatment of infected humans, draining of <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a> breeding grounds for agriculture and other changes in <a href="/wiki/Water_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Water management">water management</a> practices, and advances in sanitation, including greater use of glass windows and screens in dwellings.<a href="#cite_note-Meade-2010-289">[289]</a> The use of the <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticide</a> DDT and other means eliminated malaria from the remaining pockets in southern states of the US in the 1950s, as part of the <a href="/wiki/National_Malaria_Eradication_Program" title="National Malaria Eradication Program">National Malaria Eradication Program</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Williams-1963-290">[290]</a> Most of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a> have also eliminated malaria.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> The WHO defines "elimination" (or "malaria-free") as having no domestic transmission (indigenous cases) for the past three years. They also define "pre-elimination" and "elimination" stages when a country has fewer than 5 or 1, respectively, cases per 1000 people at risk per year. In 2021, the total of international and national funding for malaria control and elimination was $3.5 billion—only half of what is estimated to be needed.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_DATA-2-22">[22]</a> According to UNICEF, to achieve the goal of a malaria-free world, annual funding would need to more than double to reach the US$6.8 billion target.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_DATA-2-22">[22]</a> In parts of the world with rising living standards, the elimination of malaria was often a collateral benefit of the introduction of window screens and improved sanitation.<a href="#cite_note-Gladwell-2001-292">[292]</a> A variety of usually simultaneous interventions represents best practice. These include <a href="/wiki/Antimalarial_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimalarial drugs">antimalarial drugs</a> to prevent or treat infection; improvements in public health infrastructure to diagnose, sequester and treat infected individuals; <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_net" title="Mosquito net">bednets</a> and other methods intended to keep mosquitoes from biting humans; and <a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">vector control</a> strategies<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-2009-293">[293]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Larvacide" class="mw-redirect" title="Larvacide">larvaciding</a> with insecticides, ecological controls such as draining mosquito breeding grounds or introducing fish to eat larvae and <a href="/wiki/Indoor_residual_spraying" title="Indoor residual spraying">indoor residual spraying</a> (IRS) with insecticides. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_WHO_program_(1955–1969)">Initial WHO program (1955–1969)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Initial WHO program (1955–1969)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L0074987_Malaria_eradication_-_the_world_united_against_malaria_(20675407876).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/L0074987_Malaria_eradication_-_the_world_united_against_malaria_%2820675407876%29.jpg/250px-L0074987_Malaria_eradication_-_the_world_united_against_malaria_%2820675407876%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/L0074987_Malaria_eradication_-_the_world_united_against_malaria_%2820675407876%29.jpg/330px-L0074987_Malaria_eradication_-_the_world_united_against_malaria_%2820675407876%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/L0074987_Malaria_eradication_-_the_world_united_against_malaria_%2820675407876%29.jpg/500px-L0074987_Malaria_eradication_-_the_world_united_against_malaria_%2820675407876%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="523" /></a><figcaption>1962 Pakistani postage stamp promoting malaria eradication program</figcaption></figure> In 1955 the WHO launched the Global Malaria Eradication Program (GMEP).<a href="#cite_note-Duintjer-2009-294">[294]</a> The program relied largely on DDT for mosquito control and rapid diagnosis and treatment to break the transmission cycle.<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> The program eliminated the disease in "North America, Europe, the former <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>",<a href="#cite_note-Sadasivaiah-2007-296">[296]</a> and in "<a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, much of the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, parts of northern Africa, the northern region of Australia, and a large swath of the South Pacific"<a href="#cite_note-Gladwell-2001-292">[292]</a> and dramatically reduced mortality in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and India.<a href="#cite_note-Harrison-1978-297">[297]</a> However, failure to sustain the program, increasing mosquito tolerance to DDT, and increasing parasite tolerance led to a resurgence. In many areas early successes partially or completely reversed, and in some cases rates of transmission increased.<a href="#cite_note-Chapin-1981-298">[298]</a> Experts tie malarial resurgence to multiple factors, including poor leadership, management and funding of malaria control programs; poverty; civil unrest; and increased <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>. The evolution of resistance to first-generation drugs (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Chloroquine" title="Chloroquine">chloroquine</a>) and to insecticides exacerbated the situation.<a href="#cite_note-van_den_Berg-2008-299">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-Feachem-2007-300">[300]</a> The program succeeded in eliminating malaria only in areas with "high socio-economic status, well-organized healthcare systems, and relatively less intensive or seasonal malaria transmission".<a href="#cite_note-Sadasivaiah-2007-296">[296]</a> For example, in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, the program reduced cases from about one million per year before spraying to just 18 in 1963<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> and 29 in 1964. Thereafter the program was halted to save money and malaria rebounded to 600,000 cases in 1968 and the first quarter of 1969. The country resumed DDT vector control but the mosquitoes had evolved resistance in the interim, presumably because of continued agricultural use. The program switched to <a href="/wiki/Malathion" title="Malathion">malathion</a>, but despite initial successes, malaria continued its resurgence into the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Harrison-1978-297">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> Due to vector and parasite resistance and other factors, the <a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious diseases">feasibility of eradicating malaria</a> with the strategy used at the time and resources available led to waning support for the program.<a href="#cite_note-Nájera-2011-304">[304]</a> WHO suspended the program in 1969<a href="#cite_note-Duintjer-2009-294">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nájera-2011-304">[304]</a> and attention instead focused on controlling and treating the disease. Spraying programs (especially using DDT) were curtailed due to concerns over safety and environmental effects, as well as problems in administrative, managerial and financial implementation.<a href="#cite_note-Chapin-1981-298">[298]</a> Efforts shifted from spraying to the use of <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_net" title="Mosquito net">bednets</a> impregnated with insecticides and other interventions.<a href="#cite_note-Sadasivaiah-2007-296">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rogan-2005-305">[305]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_1969">After 1969</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: After 1969">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png/290px-World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png/435px-World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png/580px-World-map-of-past-and-current-malaria-prevalence-world-development-report-2009.png 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="617" /></a><figcaption>Regions where malaria has been eliminated as of 2009<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit">[update]</a></figcaption></figure> Target 6C of the <a href="/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" title="Millennium Development Goals">Millennium Development Goals</a> included reversal of the global increase in malaria incidence by 2015, with specific targets for children under five years old.<a href="#cite_note-Sato-2021-306">[306]</a> Since 2000, support for malaria eradication increased, although some actors in the global health community (including voices within the WHO) view malaria eradication as a premature goal and suggest that the establishment of strict deadlines for malaria eradication may be counterproductive as they are likely to be missed.<a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a> One of the targets of <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_3" title="Sustainable Development Goal 3">Goal 3</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">UN</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> is to end the malaria epidemic in all countries by 2030. In 2006, the organization <a href="/wiki/Malaria_No_More" title="Malaria No More">Malaria No More</a> set a public goal of eliminating malaria from Africa by 2015, and the organization claimed they planned to dissolve if that goal was accomplished. In 2007, <a href="/wiki/World_Malaria_Day" title="World Malaria Day">World Malaria Day</a> was established by the 60th session of <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Assembly" title="World Health Assembly">the World Health Assembly</a>. As of 2018, they are still functioning.<a href="#cite_note-Strom-2011-308">[308]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm/220px--Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="122" data-durationhint="3724" data-mwtitle="Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm/Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="356" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm/Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="356" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="356" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm/Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="142" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/12/Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm/Malaria_Eradication-_Back_to_the_Future.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="236" /></video><figcaption>Video recording of a set of presentations given in 2010 about humanity's efforts towards malaria eradication</figcaption></figure> As of 2012<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit">[update]</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Global_Fund_to_Fight_AIDS,_Tuberculosis_and_Malaria" title="The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria">The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria</a> has distributed 230 million insecticide-treated nets intended to stop mosquito-borne transmission of malaria.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Fund-309">[309]</a> The U.S.-based <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Foundation" title="Clinton Foundation">Clinton Foundation</a> has worked to manage demand and stabilize prices in the artemisinin market.<a href="#cite_note-Schoofs-2008-310">[310]</a> Other efforts, such as the Malaria Atlas Project, focus on analysing climate and weather information required to accurately predict malaria spread based on the availability of habitat of malaria-carrying parasites.<a href="#cite_note-Guerra-2007-226">[226]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Malaria_Policy_Advisory_Committee" title="Malaria Policy Advisory Committee">Malaria Policy Advisory Committee</a> (MPAC) of the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) was formed in 2012, "to provide strategic advice and technical input to WHO on all aspects of malaria control and elimination".<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> In 2015 the WHO targeted a 90% reduction in malaria deaths by 2030,<a href="#cite_note-Fletcher-2019-312">[312]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a> said in 2016 that he thought global eradication would be possible by 2040.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> According to the WHO's World Malaria Report 2015, the global mortality rate for malaria fell by 60% between 2000 and 2015. The WHO targeted a further 90% reduction between 2015 and 2030,<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> with a 40% reduction and eradication in 10 countries by 2020.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWHO2020[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(July_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-136">[136]</a> However, the 2020 goal was missed with a slight increase in cases compared to 2015.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2020-315">[315]</a> Additionally, UNICEF reported that the number of malaria deaths for all ages increased by 10% between 2019 and 2020, in part due to service disruptions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, before experiencing a minor decline in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF_DATA-2-22">[22]</a> Before 2016, the Global Fund against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria had provided 659 million ITN (insecticide treated bed nets), organise support and education to prevents malaria. The challenges are high due to the lack of funds, the fragile health structure and the remote indigenous population that could be hard to reach and educate. Most of indigenous population rely on self-diagnosis, self-treatment, healer, and traditional medicine. The WHO applied for fund to the Gates Foundation which favour the action of malaria eradication in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> Six countries, the United Arab Emirates, Morocco, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Sri Lanka managed to have no endemic cases of malaria for three consecutive years and certified malaria-free by the WHO despite the stagnation of the funding in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-Sato-2021-306">[306]</a> The funding is essential to finance the cost of medication and hospitalisation cannot be supported by the poor countries where the disease is widely spread. The goal of eradication has not been met; nevertheless, the decrease rate of the disease is considerable. While 31 out of 92 endemic countries were estimated to be on track with the WHO goals for 2020, 15 countries reported an increase of 40% or more between 2015 and 2020.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2020-315">[315]</a> Between 2000 and 30 June 2021, twelve countries were certified by the WHO as being malaria-free. Argentina and Algeria were declared free of malaria in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2020-315">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> El Salvador and China were declared malaria-free in the first half of 2021.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-2021b-319">[319]</a> Regional disparities were evident: <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> was on track to meet WHO's 2020 goals, while Africa, Americas, Eastern Mediterranean and West Pacific regions were off-track.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2020-315">[315]</a> The six <a href="/wiki/Greater_Mekong_Subregion" title="Greater Mekong Subregion">Greater Mekong Subregion</a> countries aim for elimination of <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">P. falciparum</a> transmitted malaria by 2025 and elimination of all malaria by 2030, having achieved a 97% and 90% reduction of cases respectively since 2000.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2020-315">[315]</a> Ahead of <a href="/wiki/World_Malaria_Day" title="World Malaria Day">World Malaria Day</a>, 25 April 2021, WHO named 25 countries in which it is working to eliminate malaria by 2025 as part of its E-2025 initiative.<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a> A major challenge to malaria elimination is the persistence of malaria in border regions, making international cooperation crucial.<a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a> In 2018, WHO announced that Paraguay was free of malaria, after a national malaria eradication effort that began in 1950.<a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a> In March 2023, the WHO certified Azerbaijan and Tajikistan as malaria-free,<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2023a-323">[323]</a> and Belize in June 2023.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2023b-324">[324]</a> Cabo Verde, the latest country to eradicate Malaria, was certified in January 2024, bringing the total number of countries and territories certified malaria-free to 44.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2024-325">[325]</a> In October 2024, the WHO certified Egypt to be malaria-free.<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_eradication_of_malaria_by_year_2050">Potential eradication of malaria by year 2050</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Potential eradication of malaria by year 2050">edit</a>]</div> Experts say that malaria could be eliminated as wild disease of humans by the year 2050. World class experts (41 of them) in fields such as malariology, biomedicine, economics and health policy advocated more funding, a central data repository for dealing with local outbreaks of malaria, and training the workers needed to carry out the plan. Details are published in The Lancet. The report refers to current knowledge, recent research and financial matters to describe a respectable plan.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> The number of countries in which malaria was endemic was reduced from 200 to 86 in the years from 1900 to 2017. A further reduction by another 20 countries occurred by 2020. In light of the indication of possible practical accomplishment, countries and regions are planning further progress. Through the use of optimal diagnostic techniques, effective treatment and vector reduction the world should be nearly free of malaria by 2050. This will require technical improvements in organizational efficiency and more money.<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/World_Malaria_Day" title="World Malaria Day">World Malaria Day</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_consequences">Economic consequences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Economic consequences">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saving_Lives_with_SMS_for_Life.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Saving_Lives_with_SMS_for_Life.jpg/220px-Saving_Lives_with_SMS_for_Life.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Saving_Lives_with_SMS_for_Life.jpg/330px-Saving_Lives_with_SMS_for_Life.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Saving_Lives_with_SMS_for_Life.jpg/440px-Saving_Lives_with_SMS_for_Life.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="2025" /></a><figcaption>Malaria clinic in Tanzania</figcaption></figure> Malaria is not just a disease commonly associated with <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>; some evidence suggests that it is also a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gollin-2007-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Worrall-2005-25">[25]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropical regions</a> are most affected, malaria's furthest influence reaches into some temperate zones that have extreme seasonal changes. The disease has been associated with major negative economic effects on regions where it is widespread. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was a major factor in the slow economic development of the American southern states.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys-2001-329">[329]</a> A comparison of average per capita <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a> in 1995, adjusted for <a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">parity of purchasing power</a>, between countries with malaria and countries without malaria gives a fivefold difference (US$1,526 versus US$8,268). In the period 1965 to 1990, countries where malaria was common had an average per capita GDP that increased only 0.4% per year, compared to 2.4% per year in other countries.<a href="#cite_note-Sachs-2002-330">[330]</a> Poverty can increase the risk of malaria since those in poverty do not have the financial capacities to prevent or treat the disease. In its entirety, the economic consequences of malaria has been estimated to cost Africa US$12 billion every year. This includes costs of health care, working days lost due to sickness, days lost in education, decreased productivity due to brain damage from cerebral malaria, and loss of investment and tourism.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood-2005-26">[26]</a> The disease has a heavy burden in some countries, where it may be responsible for 30–50% of hospital admissions, up to 50% of <a href="/wiki/Outpatient" class="mw-redirect" title="Outpatient">outpatient</a> visits, and up to 40% of public health spending.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-2003-331">[331]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malaria_Patient,_Nyangaton,_Ethiopia_(15151075077).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Malaria_Patient%2C_Nyangaton%2C_Ethiopia_%2815151075077%29.jpg/220px-Malaria_Patient%2C_Nyangaton%2C_Ethiopia_%2815151075077%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Malaria_Patient%2C_Nyangaton%2C_Ethiopia_%2815151075077%29.jpg/330px-Malaria_Patient%2C_Nyangaton%2C_Ethiopia_%2815151075077%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Malaria_Patient%2C_Nyangaton%2C_Ethiopia_%2815151075077%29.jpg/440px-Malaria_Patient%2C_Nyangaton%2C_Ethiopia_%2815151075077%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption>Child with malaria in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></figcaption></figure> Cerebral malaria is one of the leading causes of neurological disabilities in African children.<a href="#cite_note-Idro-2010-216">[216]</a> Studies comparing cognitive functions before and after treatment for severe malarial illness continued to show significantly impaired school performance and cognitive abilities even after recovery.<a href="#cite_note-Fernando-2010-214">[214]</a> Consequently, severe and cerebral malaria have far-reaching <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomic">socioeconomic</a> consequences that extend beyond the immediate effects of the disease.<a href="#cite_note-Ricci-2012-332">[332]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Counterfeit_and_substandard_drugs">Counterfeit and substandard drugs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Counterfeit and substandard drugs">edit</a>]</div> Sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Counterfeit_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfeit drugs">counterfeits</a> have been found in several Asian countries such as <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lon-2006-333">[333]</a> <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Newton-2008-334">[334]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, and are a major cause of avoidable death in those countries.<a href="#cite_note-Newton-2006-335">[335]</a> The WHO said that studies indicate that up to 40% of artesunate-based malaria medications are counterfeit, especially in the Greater <a href="/wiki/Mekong" title="Mekong">Mekong</a> region. They have established a rapid alert system to rapidly report information about counterfeit drugs to relevant authorities in participating countries.<a href="#cite_note-Parry-2005-336">[336]</a> There is no reliable way for doctors or lay people to detect counterfeit drugs without help from a laboratory. Companies are attempting to combat the persistence of counterfeit drugs by using new technology to provide security from source to distribution.<a href="#cite_note-Gautam-2009-337">[337]</a> Another clinical and public health concern is the proliferation of substandard antimalarial medicines resulting from inappropriate concentration of ingredients, contamination with other drugs or toxic impurities, poor quality ingredients, poor stability and inadequate packaging.<a href="#cite_note-Caudron-2008-338">[338]</a> A 2012 study demonstrated that roughly one-third of antimalarial medications in Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa failed chemical analysis, packaging analysis, or were falsified.<a href="#cite_note-Nayyar-2012-339">[339]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War">War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: War">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Don%27t_go_to_Bed_with_Malaria_Mosquito%22_-_NARA_-_514146.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%22Don%27t_go_to_Bed_with_Malaria_Mosquito%22_-_NARA_-_514146.jpg/220px-%22Don%27t_go_to_Bed_with_Malaria_Mosquito%22_-_NARA_-_514146.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%22Don%27t_go_to_Bed_with_Malaria_Mosquito%22_-_NARA_-_514146.jpg/330px-%22Don%27t_go_to_Bed_with_Malaria_Mosquito%22_-_NARA_-_514146.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%22Don%27t_go_to_Bed_with_Malaria_Mosquito%22_-_NARA_-_514146.jpg/440px-%22Don%27t_go_to_Bed_with_Malaria_Mosquito%22_-_NARA_-_514146.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2466" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>World War II poster</figcaption></figure> Throughout history, the contraction of malaria has played a prominent role in the fates of government rulers, nation-states, military personnel, and military actions.<a href="#cite_note-Russell-2009-340">[340]</a> In 1910, <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in Medicine">Nobel Prize in Medicine</a>-winner Sir <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a> (himself a malaria survivor), published a book titled The Prevention of Malaria that included a chapter titled "The Prevention of Malaria in War". The chapter's author, Colonel C. H. Melville, Professor of Hygiene at <a href="/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_College" title="Royal Army Medical College">Royal Army Medical College</a> in London, addressed the prominent role that malaria has historically played during wars: "The history of malaria in war might almost be taken to be the history of war itself, certainly the history of war in the Christian era. ... It is probably the case that many of the so-called camp fevers, and probably also a considerable proportion of the camp dysentery, of the wars of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were malarial in origin."<a href="#cite_note-Melville-1910-341">[341]</a> In British-occupied India the cocktail <a href="/wiki/Gin_and_tonic#History" title="Gin and tonic">gin and tonic</a> may have come about as a way of taking quinine, known for its antimalarial properties.<a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> The Scottish attempt to build a canal near what is now the Panamanian one was largely defeated by malaria. Starting with the establishment of "New Caledonia", The Darièn Gap Project drained the kingdom — not yet part of the United Kingdom — of most of its wealth. The cost of the bail-out from London was the independence of Scotland. Malaria was the most significant health hazard encountered by U.S. troops in the South Pacific during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, where about 500,000 men were infected.<a href="#cite_note-Bray-2004-343">[343]</a> According to Joseph Patrick Byrne, "Sixty thousand American soldiers died of malaria during the African and South Pacific campaigns."<a href="#cite_note-Byrne-2008-344">[344]</a> Significant financial investments have been made to procure existing and create new antimalarial agents. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and World War II, inconsistent supplies of the natural antimalaria drugs <a href="/wiki/Cinchona_bark" class="mw-redirect" title="Cinchona bark">cinchona bark</a> and quinine prompted substantial funding into <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> of other drugs and vaccines. American military organisations conducting such research initiatives include the Navy Medical Research Center, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed_Army_Institute_of_Research" title="Walter Reed Army Institute of Research">Walter Reed Army Institute of Research</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Medical_Research_Institute_of_Infectious_Diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases">U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases</a> of the US Armed Forces.<a href="#cite_note-Kakkilaya-2006-345">[345]</a> Additionally, initiatives have been founded such as Malaria Control in War Areas (MCWA), established in 1942, and its successor, the Communicable Disease Center (now known as the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>, or CDC) established in 1946. According to the CDC, MCWA "was established to control malaria around military training bases in the southern United States and its territories, where malaria was still problematic".<a href="#cite_note-US_CDC-2010c-346">[346]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> The Malaria Eradication Research Agenda (malERA) initiative was a consultative process to identify which areas of research and development (R&D) must be addressed for worldwide eradication of malaria.<a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medications_2">Medications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Medications">edit</a>]</div> Malaria parasites contain <a href="/wiki/Apicoplast" title="Apicoplast">apicoplasts</a>, organelles related to the <a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">plastids</a> found in plants, complete with their own <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a>. These apicoplasts are thought to have originated through the <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiosis</a> of algae and play a crucial role in various aspects of parasite <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_biosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatty acid biosynthesis">fatty acid biosynthesis</a>. Over 400 proteins have been found to be produced by apicoplasts and these are now being investigated as possible targets for novel antimalarial drugs.<a href="#cite_note-Kalanon-2010-349">[349]</a> With the onset of drug-resistant Plasmodium parasites, new strategies are being developed to combat the widespread disease. One such approach lies in the introduction of synthetic <a href="/wiki/Pyridoxal" title="Pyridoxal">pyridoxal</a>-amino acid <a href="/wiki/Adduct" title="Adduct">adducts</a>, which are taken up by the parasite and ultimately interfere with its ability to create several essential <a href="/wiki/B_vitamin" class="mw-redirect" title="B vitamin">B vitamins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Müller-2010-350">[350]</a><a href="#cite_note-Du-2011-351">[351]</a> Antimalarial drugs using <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">synthetic metal-based</a> <a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">complexes</a> are attracting research interest.<a href="#cite_note-Biot-2012-352">[352]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roux-2012-353">[353]</a> <ul><li>(+)-SJ733: Part of a wider class of experimental drugs called <a href="/wiki/Spiroindolone" title="Spiroindolone">spiroindolone</a>. It inhibits the ATP4 protein of infected red blood cells that cause the cells to shrink and become rigid like the aging cells. This triggers the immune system to eliminate the infected cells from the system as demonstrated in a mouse model. As of 2014, a <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_1" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase 1 clinical trial</a> to assess the safety profile in human is planned by the <a href="/wiki/Howard_Hughes_Medical_Institute" title="Howard Hughes Medical Institute">Howard Hughes Medical Institute</a>.<a href="#cite_note-John-2014-354">[354]</a></li> <li>NITD246 and <a href="/wiki/NITD609" class="mw-redirect" title="NITD609">NITD609</a>: Also belonged to the class of spiroindolone and target the ATP4 protein.<a href="#cite_note-John-2014-354">[354]</a></li></ul> On the basis of molecular docking outcomes, compounds 3j, 4b, 4h, 4m were exhibited selectivity towards PfLDH. The post docking analysis displayed stable dynamic behavior of all the selected compounds compared to Chloroquine. The end state thermodynamics analysis stated 3j compound as a selective and potent PfLDH inhibitor.<a href="#cite_note-Singh-2021-355">[355]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_targets">New targets</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: New targets">edit</a>]</div> Targeting Plasmodium liver-stage parasites selectively is emerging as an alternative strategy in the face of resistance to the latest frontline combination therapies against blood stages of the parasite.<a href="#cite_note-Stanway-2019-356">[356]</a> In research conducted in 2019, using experimental analysis with knockout (KO) mutants of Plasmodium berghei, the authors were able to identify genes that are potentially essential in the liver stage. Moreover, they generated a computational model to analyse pre–erytrocytic development and liver–stage metabolism. Combining both methods they identified seven metabolic subsystems that become essential compared to the blood stage. Some of these metabolic pathways are fatty acid synthesis and elongation, tricarboxylic acid, amino acid and heme metabolism among others.<a href="#cite_note-Stanway-2019-356">[356]</a> Specifically, they studied three subsystems: fatty acid synthesis and elongation, and amino sugar biosynthesis. For the first two pathways they demonstrated a clear dependence of the liver stage on its own fatty acid metabolism.<a href="#cite_note-Stanway-2019-356">[356]</a> They proved for the first time the critical role of amino sugar biosynthesis in the liver stage of P. berghei. The uptake of N–acetyl–glucosamine appears to be limited in the liver stage, being its synthesis needed for the parasite development.<a href="#cite_note-Stanway-2019-356">[356]</a> These findings and the computational model provide a basis for the design of antimalarial therapies targeting metabolic proteins.<a href="#cite_note-Stanway-2019-356">[356]</a><a href="#cite_note-357">[357]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genomic_research">Genomic research</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Genomic research">edit</a>]</div> The genome of Plasmodium falciparum was sequenced and published in the year 2002.<a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a> A species of malaria plasmodium tends to have rather polymorphic antigens which can serve as immune system targets. Some searches of P. falciparum genes for hotspots of encoded variations found sections of genes that when tested proved to encode for antigens. When such antigens are used for vaccine targets a strain of plasmodium with a different allele for the antigen can sometimes escape the immune response stimulated by the vaccine.<a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a> Two related viruses, MaRNAV-1 and MaRNAV-2 in Plasmodium vivax and in avian Leucocytozoon respectively, were found through RNA-Sequencing of blood. The finding of a virus infecting a human malaria plasmodium is a first discovery of its kind. It should lead to better understanding of malaria biology.<a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> A non-chemical vector control strategy involves genetic manipulation of malaria mosquitoes. Advances in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a> technologies make it possible to introduce foreign DNA into the mosquito genome and either decrease the lifespan of the mosquito, or make it more resistant to the malaria parasite. <a href="/wiki/Sterile_insect_technique" title="Sterile insect technique">Sterile insect technique</a> is a genetic control method whereby large numbers of sterile male mosquitoes are reared and released. Mating with wild females reduces the wild population in the subsequent generation; repeated releases eventually eliminate the target population.<a href="#cite_note-Raghavendra-2011-93">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a> is central to malaria research. With the <a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">sequencing</a> of P. falciparum, one of its vectors Anopheles gambiae, and the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a>, the genetics of all three organisms in the malaria life cycle can be studied.<a href="#cite_note-Aultman-2002-361">[361]</a> Another new application of genetic technology is the ability to produce <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">genetically modified</a> mosquitoes that do not transmit malaria, potentially allowing <a href="/wiki/Biological_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological control">biological control</a> of malaria transmission.<a href="#cite_note-Ito-2002-362">[362]</a> In one study, a genetically modified strain of <a href="/wiki/Anopheles_stephensi" title="Anopheles stephensi">Anopheles stephensi</a> was created that no longer supported malaria transmission, and this resistance was passed down to mosquito offspring.<a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gene_drive" title="Gene drive">Gene drive</a> is a technique for changing wild populations, for instance to combat or eliminate insects so they cannot transmit diseases (in particular mosquitoes in the cases of malaria,<a href="#cite_note-Imperial_College-2021-364">[364]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zika_virus" title="Zika virus">zika</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Flam-2016-365">[365]</a> dengue and yellow fever).<a href="#cite_note-Fletcher-2019-312">[312]</a> In a study conducted in 2015, researchers observed a specific interaction between malaria and co-infection with the <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a> Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, a pulmonary migrating <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_worm" title="Parasitic worm">helminth</a>, in mice.<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths-2015-366">[366]</a> The co-infection was found to reduce the <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a> of the Plasmodium parasite, the causative agent of malaria. This reduction was attributed to the nematode infection causing increased destruction of <a href="/wiki/Erythrocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Erythrocytes">erythrocytes</a>, or red blood cells. Given that Plasmodium has a predilection for older host erythrocytes, the increased erythrocyte destruction and ensuing <a href="/wiki/Erythropoiesis" title="Erythropoiesis">erythropoiesis</a> result in a predominantly younger erythrocyte population, which in turn leads to a decrease in Plasmodium population.<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths-2015-366">[366]</a> Notably, this effect appears to be largely independent of the host's immune control of Plasmodium. Finally, a review article published in December 2020 noted a correlation between malaria-endemic regions and <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> case fatality rates.<a href="#cite_note-Arshad-2020-367">[367]</a> The study found that, on average, regions where malaria is endemic reported lower COVID-19 case fatality rates compared to regions without endemic malaria. In 2017, a bacterial strain of the genus <a href="/wiki/Serratia" title="Serratia">Serratia</a> was genetically modified to prevent malaria in mosquitos<a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a><a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a> and in 2023, it has been reported that the bacterium <a href="/wiki/Delftia_tsuruhatensis" title="Delftia tsuruhatensis">Delftia tsuruhatensis</a> naturally prevents the development of malaria by secreting a molecule called <a href="/wiki/Harmane" title="Harmane">Harmane</a>.<a href="#cite_note-370">[370]</a><a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a><a href="#cite_note-372">[372]</a> Other avenue that can contribute to understanding of malaria transmission, is the source of meal for the vector when they have the parasites. Its known that plant sugars are the primary source of nutrients for survival of adult mosquitoes,<a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a> therefore utilising this link for management of the vector will contribute in mitigating malaria transmission.<a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a><a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Other animals">edit</a>]</div> While none of the main four species of malaria parasite that cause human infections are known to have <a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">animal reservoirs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_knowlesi" title="Plasmodium knowlesi">P. knowlesi</a> is known to infect both humans and non-human primates.<a href="#cite_note-Collins-2012-53">[53]</a> Other non-human primate malarias (particularly P. cynomolgi and P. simium) have also been found to have spilled over into humans.<a href="#cite_note-377">[377]</a> Nearly 200 Plasmodium species have been identified that infect <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_species_infecting_birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasmodium species infecting birds">birds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_species_infecting_reptiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasmodium species infecting reptiles">reptiles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_species_infecting_mammals_other_than_primates" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasmodium species infecting mammals other than primates">other mammals</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Rich-2006-378">[378]</a> and about 30 of them naturally infect non-human primates.<a href="#cite_note-Baird-2009-379">[379]</a> Some malaria parasites of non-human primates (NHP) serve as <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organisms</a> for human malarial parasites, such as <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_coatneyi" title="Plasmodium coatneyi">P. coatneyi</a> (a model for P. falciparum) and <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_cynomolgi" title="Plasmodium cynomolgi">P. cynomolgi</a> (a model for P. vivax). Diagnostic techniques used to detect parasites in NHP are similar to those employed for humans.<a href="#cite_note-Ameri-2010-380">[380]</a> Malaria parasites that infect rodents are widely used as models in research, such as <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_berghei" title="Plasmodium berghei">P. berghei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mlambo-2008-381">[381]</a> <a href="/wiki/Avian_malaria" title="Avian malaria">Avian malaria</a> primarily affects species of the order <a href="/wiki/Passeriformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Passeriformes">Passeriformes</a>, and poses a substantial threat to birds of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Galapagos" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos">Galapagos</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">archipelagoes</a>. The parasite <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_relictum" title="Plasmodium relictum">P. relictum</a> is known to play a role in limiting the distribution and abundance of <a href="/wiki/Endemic_birds_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic birds of Hawaii">endemic Hawaiian birds</a>. <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">Global warming</a> is expected to increase the prevalence and global distribution of <a href="/wiki/Avian_malaria" title="Avian malaria">avian malaria</a>, as elevated temperatures provide optimal conditions for parasite reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-Lapointe-2012-382">[382]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1249 (1): 211–226. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012NYASA1249..211L">2012NYASA1249..211L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2011.06431.x">10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06431.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22320256">22320256</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Ecology+and+conservation+biology+of+avian+malaria&rft.volume=1249&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E211-%3C%2Fspan%3E226&rft.date=2012-02&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22320256&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2011.06431.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012NYASA1249..211L&rft.aulast=Lapointe&rft.aufirst=DA&rft.au=Atkinson%2C+CT&rft.au=Samuel%2C+MD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchlagenhauf-Lawlor2008" class="citation book cs1">Schlagenhauf-Lawlor P (2008). Travelers' Malaria. PMPH-USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55009-336-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55009-336-0"><bdi>978-1-55009-336-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travelers%27+Malaria&rft.pub=PMPH-USA&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-55009-336-0&rft.aulast=Schlagenhauf-Lawlor&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWebb2008" class="citation book cs1">Webb JL (2008). Humanity's Burden. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511808401">10.1017/CBO9780511808401</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-67012-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-67012-8"><bdi>978-0-521-67012-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Humanity%27s+Burden&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511808401&rft.isbn=978-0-521-67012-8&rft.aulast=Webb&rft.aufirst=JL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWHO2015" class="citation book cs1">Guidelines for the treatment of malaria. World Health Organization. 2015. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10665%2F162441">10665/162441</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-4-154912-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-4-154912-7"><bdi>978-92-4-154912-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guidelines+for+the+treatment+of+malaria&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10665%2F162441&rft.isbn=978-92-4-154912-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWHO2020" class="citation book cs1">Malaria Eradication: Benefits, Future Scenarios and Feasibility: A Report of the Strategic Advisory Group on Malaria Eradication. World Health Organization. 2020. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10665%2F331795">10665/331795</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-4-000367-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-4-000367-5"><bdi>978-92-4-000367-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malaria+Eradication%3A+Benefits%2C+Future+Scenarios+and+Feasibility%3A+A+Report+of+the+Strategic+Advisory+Group+on+Malaria+Eradication&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10665%2F331795&rft.isbn=978-92-4-000367-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWHO2022" class="citation book cs1">World Malaria Report 2022. World Health Organization. 2022. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10665%2F365169">10665/365169</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-4-006489-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-4-006489-8"><bdi>978-92-4-006489-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Malaria+Report+2022&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10665%2F365169&rft.isbn=978-92-4-006489-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarber1929" class="citation journal cs1">Barber MA (1929). "The history of malaria in the United States". Public Health Reports. 44 (43): 2575–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4579430">10.2307/4579430</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4579430">4579430</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Health+Reports&rft.atitle=The+history+of+malaria+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=43&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2575-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.date=1929&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4579430&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4579430%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Barber&rft.aufirst=Marshall+Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBynumOvery1998" class="citation book cs1">Bynum W, Overy C, eds. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=af_0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR1">The Beast in the Mosquito: The Correspondence of Ronald Ross and Patrick Manson</a>. Rodopi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-0721-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-0721-5"><bdi>978-90-420-0721-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beast+in+the+Mosquito%3A+The+Correspondence+of+Ronald+Ross+and+Patrick+Manson&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-90-420-0721-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Daf_0DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarrison1978" class="citation book cs1">Harrison G (1978). Malaria: Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man. A History of the Hostilities since 1880. Dutton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-525-16025-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-525-16025-6"><bdi>0-525-16025-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3169237">3169237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malaria%3A+Mosquitoes%2C+Malaria+and+Man.+A+History+of+the+Hostilities+since+1880&rft.pub=Dutton&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3169237&rft.isbn=0-525-16025-6&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"> a major worldwide scholarly survey <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mosquitoesmalari00harr/page/n4/mode/1up">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJarvis2019" class="citation magazine cs1">Jarvis B (29 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/08/05/how-mosquitoes-changed-everything">"How Mosquitoes Changed Everything"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190807195030/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/08/05/how-mosquitoes-changed-everything">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2019. Retrieved 8 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=How+Mosquitoes+Changed+Everything&rft.date=2019-07-29&rft.aulast=Jarvis&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2019%2F08%2F05%2Fhow-mosquitoes-changed-everything&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMalpede2023" class="citation journal cs1">Malpede M (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/a/wly/ajagec/v105y2023i5p1516-1542.html">"Malaria and economic activity: Evidence from US agriculture"</a>. American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 105 (5): 1516–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fajae.12363">10.1111/ajae.12363</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Agricultural+Economics&rft.atitle=Malaria+and+economic+activity%3A+Evidence+from+US+agriculture&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1516-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fajae.12363&rft.aulast=Malpede&rft.aufirst=Maurizio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fideas.repec.org%2Fa%2Fwly%2Fajagec%2Fv105y2023i5p1516-1542.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPoserBruyn1999" class="citation book cs1">Poser CM, Bruyn GW (1999). An Illustrated History of Malaria. Parthenon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85070-068-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85070-068-0"><bdi>1-85070-068-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/537843745">537843745</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Illustrated+History+of+Malaria&rft.pub=Parthenon&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F537843745&rft.isbn=1-85070-068-0&rft.aulast=Poser&rft.aufirst=Charles+M.&rft.au=Bruyn%2C+George+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/4623/summary">online review of this book</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWatts1999" class="citation book cs1">Watts SJ (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AVX7NInQraoC&pg=PA213">"6. Yellow Fever, Malaria and Development: Atlantic Africa and the New World, 1647 to 1928"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AVX7NInQraoC&pg=PR5">Epidemics and history: disease, power, and imperialism</a>. Yale University Press. pp. 213–268. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-08087-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-08087-5"><bdi>0-300-08087-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq8qw">j.ctt1nq8qw</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55142577">55142577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6.+Yellow+Fever%2C+Malaria+and+Development%3A+Atlantic+Africa+and+the+New+World%2C+1647+to+1928&rft.btitle=Epidemics+and+history%3A+disease%2C+power%2C+and+imperialism&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E213-%3C%2Fspan%3E268&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55142577&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1nq8qw%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=0-300-08087-5&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Sheldon+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAVX7NInQraoC%26pg%3DPA213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1963" class="citation journal cs1">Williams LL (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1253858">"Malaria Eradication in the United States"</a>. American Journal of Public Health and the Nation's Health. 53 (1): 17–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.53.1.17">10.2105/AJPH.53.1.17</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1253858">1253858</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14000898">14000898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Public+Health+and+the+Nation%27s+Health&rft.atitle=Malaria+Eradication+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1253858%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14000898&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2105%2FAJPH.53.1.17&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Louis+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1253858&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41592-019-0390-2">"Tightening the handle on malaria"</a>. Nature Methods (Editorial). 16 (4): 271. April 2019. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41592-019-0390-2">10.1038/s41592-019-0390-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30923375">30923375</a>. <q>A day dedicated to raising awareness of the disease is a good opportunity to ask how far malaria research has come and which methods are needed for further breakthroughs.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Methods&rft.atitle=Tightening+the+handle+on+malaria&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=271&rft.date=2019-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41592-019-0390-2&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30923375&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fs41592-019-0390-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWHO2010" class="citation report cs1">WHO (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100311024041/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241547925_eng.pdf">Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria</a> (PDF) (Report) (2nd ed.). World Health Organization. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-4-154792-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-4-154792-5"><bdi>978-92-4-154792-5</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241547925_eng.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 11, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Guidelines+for+the+Treatment+of+Malaria&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-92-4-154792-5&rft.au=WHO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhqlibdoc.who.int%2Fpublications%2F2010%2F9789241547925_eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOrganization2023" class="citation book cs1">Organization WH (2023). WHO Guidelines for Malaria. World Health Organization. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10665%2F373339">10665/373339</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=WHO+Guidelines+for+Malaria&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10665%2F373339&rft.aulast=Organization&rft.aufirst=WH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMalaria" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Malaria&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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#aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Malaria at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/malaria" class="extiw" title="wikt:malaria">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Malaria" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Malaria">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Malaria" class="extiw" title="n:Malaria">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Malaria" class="extiw" title="q:Malaria">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Malaria" class="extiw" title="s:Malaria">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Malaria" class="extiw" title="b:Malaria">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Malaria" class="extiw" title="v:Malaria">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Malaria" class="extiw" title="voy:Malaria">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li></ul></div></div> </div> <div class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 0.8em 0.8em; width: 18.55em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 87%; clear: right; line-height:1.3em; background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;float:right;"><div style="float:left;"><a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wiki_Project_Med/App" title="meta:Wiki Project Med/App"><img alt="The offline app allows you to download all of Wikipedia's medical articles in an app to access them when you have no Internet." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tango_Phone_medapp.svg/42px-Tango_Phone_medapp.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tango_Phone_medapp.svg/63px-Tango_Phone_medapp.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tango_Phone_medapp.svg/84px-Tango_Phone_medapp.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="42" data-file-height="47" /></a></div><div style="float:left;width:6px;padding:1px;height:47px;"></div>Wikipedia's health care articles can be viewed offline with the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wiki_Project_Med/App" class="extiw" title="meta:Wiki Project Med/App">Medical Wikipedia app</a>.</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria">WHO site on malaria</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200502021814/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria">Archived</a> 2020-05-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/malaria/index.html">CDC site on malaria</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211128151730/https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/malaria/index.html">Archived</a> 2021-11-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.paho.org/en/topics/malaria">PAHO site on malaria</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211128172601/https://www.paho.org/en/topics/malaria">Archived</a> 2021-11-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li></ul> 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dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox32" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12156" class="extiw" title="d:Q12156">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">11</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#579583286">1F40</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#633896543">1F45</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/B50">B50</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/B54">B54</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=084">084</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Online_Mendelian_Inheritance_in_Man" title="Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man">OMIM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omim.org/entry/248310">248310</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008288">D008288</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb7728.htm">7728</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000621.htm">000621</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/med/1385-overview">med/1385</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic305.htm#">emerg/305</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic1357.htm#">ped/1357</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_UK" title="Patient UK">Patient UK</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patient.info/doctor/malaria-pro">Malaria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Orphanet" title="Orphanet">Orphanet</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.orpha.net/consor/cgi-bin/OC_Exp.php?lng=en&Expert=673">673</a></li><li>Scholia: <a class="external text" href="https://tools.wmflabs.org/scholia/topic/Q12156">Q12156</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Malaria203" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Malaria" title="Template:Malaria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Malaria" title="Template talk:Malaria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Malaria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Malaria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Malaria203" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malaria</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malaria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cerebral_malaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral malaria">Cerebral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartan_fever" title="Quartan fever">Quartan fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackwater_fever" title="Blackwater fever">Blackwater fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy-associated_malaria" title="Pregnancy-associated malaria">Pregnancy-associated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_(life_cycle)" title="Plasmodium (life cycle)">life cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_vivax" title="Plasmodium vivax">vivax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">falciparum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_ovale" title="Plasmodium ovale">ovale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_malariae" title="Plasmodium malariae">malariae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_knowlesi" title="Plasmodium knowlesi">knowlesi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anopheles" title="Anopheles">Anopheles mosquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apicomplexan_life_cycle" title="Apicomplexan life cycle">Schizont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merozoite" class="mw-redirect" title="Merozoite">Merozoite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypnozoite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypnozoite">Hypnozoite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametocyte" title="Gametocyte">Gametocyte</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Control and prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_net" title="Mosquito net">Mosquito net</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_prophylaxis" title="Malaria prophylaxis">Malaria prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_control" title="Mosquito control">Mosquito control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterile_insect_technique" title="Sterile insect technique">Sterile insect technique</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_resistance_to_malaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic resistance to malaria">Genetic resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duffy_antigen" class="mw-redirect" title="Duffy antigen">Duffy antigen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle-cell_anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sickle-cell anaemia">Sickle-cell anaemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassemia" title="Thalassemia">Thalassemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G6PDH_deficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="G6PDH deficiency">G6PDH deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_vaccine" title="Malaria vaccine">Malaria vaccine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RTS,S" title="RTS,S">RTS,S</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diagnosis and treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_malaria" title="Diagnosis of malaria">Diagnosis of malaria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_culture" title="Malaria culture">Malaria culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood film">Blood film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_antigen_detection_tests" title="Malaria antigen detection tests">Malaria antigen detection tests</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimalarial_medication" title="Antimalarial medication">Antimalarials</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artemisinin" title="Artemisinin">Artemisinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mefloquine" title="Mefloquine">Mefloquine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proguanil" title="Proguanil">Proguanil</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and malaria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" title="Millennium Development Goals">Millennium Development Goals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_malaria" title="History of malaria">History of malaria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Fever_(disease)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Fever (disease)">Roman fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Malaria_Eradication_Program" title="National Malaria Eradication Program">National Malaria Eradication Program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Malaria_Day" title="World Malaria Day">World Malaria Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_in_the_Caribbean" title="Malaria in the Caribbean">Malaria in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="Malaria in Mandatory Palestine">Malaria in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_Atlas_Project" title="Malaria Atlas Project">Malaria Atlas Project</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_Consortium" title="Malaria Consortium">Malaria Consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Against_Malaria_Foundation" title="Against Malaria Foundation">Against Malaria Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_%26_Melinda_Gates_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation">Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagine_No_Malaria" title="Imagine No Malaria">Imagine No Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_No_More" title="Malaria No More">Malaria No More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Fighting_Malaria" title="Africa Fighting Malaria">Africa Fighting Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Malaria_Network_Trust" title="African Malaria Network Trust">African Malaria Network Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Malaria_Initiative" title="South African Malaria Initiative">South African Malaria Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Leaders_Malaria_Alliance" title="African Leaders Malaria Alliance">African Leaders Malaria Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Malaria_Initiative" title="Amazon Malaria Initiative">Amazon Malaria Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Global_Fund_to_Fight_AIDS,_Tuberculosis_and_Malaria" title="The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria">The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicines_for_Malaria_Venture" title="Medicines for Malaria Venture">Medicines for Malaria Venture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_and_Developing_Countries_Clinical_Trials_Partnership" title="European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership">European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Malaria" title="Category:Malaria">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Protozoan_infection:_SAR_and_Archaeplastida110" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:SAR_and_Archaeplastida_diseases" title="Template:SAR and Archaeplastida diseases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:SAR_and_Archaeplastida_diseases" title="Template talk:SAR and Archaeplastida diseases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:SAR_and_Archaeplastida_diseases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:SAR and Archaeplastida diseases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Protozoan_infection:_SAR_and_Archaeplastida110" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Protozoan_infection" title="Protozoan infection">Protozoan infection</a>: <a href="/wiki/SAR_supergroup" title="SAR supergroup">SAR</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/SAR_supergroup" title="SAR supergroup">SAR</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alveolate" title="Alveolate">Alveolate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conoidasida" title="Conoidasida">Conoidasida</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Coccidia" title="Coccidia">Coccidia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coccidia" title="Coccidia">Coccidia</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidium_hominis" title="Cryptosporidium hominis">Cryptosporidium hominis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidium_parvum" title="Cryptosporidium parvum">Cryptosporidium parvum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidiosis" title="Cryptosporidiosis">Cryptosporidiosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cystoisospora_belli" title="Cystoisospora belli">Cystoisospora belli</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isosporiasis" title="Isosporiasis">Isosporiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclospora_cayetanensis" title="Cyclospora cayetanensis">Cyclospora cayetanensis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclosporiasis" title="Cyclosporiasis">Cyclosporiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis">Toxoplasmosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aconoidasida" title="Aconoidasida">Aconoidasida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a>/<a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_vivax" title="Plasmodium vivax">vivax</a>/<a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_ovale" title="Plasmodium ovale">ovale</a>/<a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_malariae" title="Plasmodium malariae">malariae</a>/<a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_knowlesi" title="Plasmodium knowlesi">knowlesi</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackwater_fever" title="Blackwater fever">Blackwater fever</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babesia" title="Babesia">Babesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babesiosis" title="Babesiosis">Babesiosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balantidium_coli" title="Balantidium coli">Balantidium coli</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balantidiasis" title="Balantidiasis">Balantidiasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopile</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blastocystis" title="Blastocystis">Blastocystis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blastocystosis" title="Blastocystosis">Blastocystosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythium_insidiosum" title="Pythium insidiosum">Pythium insidiosum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pythiosis" title="Pythiosis">Pythiosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algaemia" title="Algaemia">Algaemia</a>: <a href="/wiki/Prototheca_wickerhamii" title="Prototheca wickerhamii">Prototheca wickerhamii</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protothecosis" title="Protothecosis">Protothecosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorella" title="Chlorella">Chlorella</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorellosis" title="Chlorellosis">Chlorellosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Diseases_of_poverty109" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Diseases_of_poverty" title="Template:Diseases of poverty"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Diseases_of_poverty" title="Template talk:Diseases of poverty"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Diseases_of_poverty" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Diseases of poverty"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Diseases_of_poverty109" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">AIDS</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">Measles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">Pneumonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrheal diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">Plague</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">Neglected diseases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">Cholera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">Chagas disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">African sleeping sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">Schistosomiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">Dracunculiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">River blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visceral_leishmaniasis" title="Visceral leishmaniasis">Leishmaniasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">Trachoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_review" title="Priority review">Priority review voucher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Eradication_of_infectious_diseases149" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eradication_of_infectious_disease" title="Template:Eradication of infectious disease"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eradication_of_infectious_disease" title="Template talk:Eradication of infectious disease"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eradication_of_infectious_disease" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eradication of infectious disease"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Eradication_of_infectious_diseases149" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious diseases">Eradication of infectious diseases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eradication of human diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Successful</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">Smallpox</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_smallpox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eradication of smallpox">Eradication of smallpox</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Underway (global)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">Dracunculiasis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_dracunculiasis" title="Eradication of dracunculiasis">Eradication of dracunculiasis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">Polio</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polio_eradication" title="Polio eradication">Polio eradication</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malaria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_malaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Eradication of malaria">Eradication of malaria</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaws" title="Yaws">Yaws</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_yaws" class="mw-redirect" title="Eradication of yaws">Eradication of yaws</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Underway (regional)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hookworm_infection#Eradication_programmes" title="Hookworm infection">Hookworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasis#Epidemiology" title="Lymphatic filariasis">Lymphatic filariasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">Measles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Measles_vaccine" title="Measles vaccine">vaccine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_measles" title="Epidemiology of measles">epidemiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubella#Epidemiology" title="Rubella">Rubella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachoma#Epidemiology" title="Trachoma">Trachoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis#Epidemiology" title="Onchocerciasis">Onchocerciasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_syphilis" title="Epidemiology of syphilis">Syphilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevalence_of_rabies" title="Prevalence of rabies">Rabies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">Leprosy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eradication of agricultural diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Successful</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rinderpest" title="Rinderpest">Rinderpest</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_rinderpest" class="mw-redirect" title="Eradication of rinderpest">Eradication of rinderpest</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Underway</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovine_rinderpest" title="Ovine rinderpest">Ovine rinderpest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy#Epidemiology" title="Bovine spongiform encephalopathy">Bovine spongiform encephalopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eradication programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Global</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/London_Declaration_on_Neglected_Tropical_Diseases" title="London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases">London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Polio_Eradication_Initiative" title="Global Polio Eradication Initiative">Global Polio Eradication Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Certification_Commission" title="Global Certification Commission">Global Certification Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_Eradication_Scientific_Alliance" title="Malaria Eradication Scientific Alliance">Malaria Eradication Scientific Alliance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diseases_eliminated_from_the_United_States" title="List of diseases eliminated from the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boll_Weevil_Eradication_Program" title="Boll Weevil Eradication Program">Boll Weevil Eradication Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Malaria_Eradication_Program" title="National Malaria Eradication Program">National Malaria Eradication Program</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/India_National_PolioPlus" title="India National PolioPlus">India National PolioPlus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_Polio" title="Pulse Polio">Pulse Polio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polio_in_Pakistan" title="Polio in Pakistan">Polio in Pakistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Every_Last_Child" title="Every Last Child">Every Last Child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Final_Inch" title="The Final Inch">The Final Inch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modelling of infectious disease">Mathematical modelling of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Transmission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)#horizontal" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">horizontal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">vertical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis_elimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuberculosis elimination">Tuberculosis elimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">Zoonosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Effective_altruism81" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Effective_altruism" title="Template:Effective altruism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Effective_altruism" title="Template talk:Effective altruism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Effective_altruism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Effective altruism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Effective_altruism81" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effective_altruism" title="Effective altruism">Effective altruism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_effectiveness" title="Aid effectiveness">Aid effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_assessment" title="Charity assessment">Charity assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demandingness_objection" title="Demandingness objection">Demandingness objection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">Disability-adjusted life year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">Disease burden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributional_cost-effectiveness_analysis" title="Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis">Distributional cost-effectiveness analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earning_to_give" title="Earning to give">Earning to give</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_consideration_of_interests" title="Equal consideration of interests">Equal consideration of interests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longtermism" title="Longtermism">Longtermism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_utility" title="Marginal utility">Marginal utility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_circle_expansion" title="Moral circle expansion">Moral circle expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_barriers_to_effective_altruism" title="Psychological barriers to effective altruism">Psychological barriers to effective altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life_year" title="Quality-adjusted life year">Quality-adjusted life year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_philanthropy" title="Venture philanthropy">Venture philanthropy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Bankman-Fried" title="Sam Bankman-Fried">Sam Bankman-Fried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liv_Boeree" title="Liv Boeree">Liv Boeree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Bostrom" title="Nick Bostrom">Nick Bostrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Greaves" title="Hilary Greaves">Hilary Greaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holden_Karnofsky" title="Holden Karnofsky">Holden Karnofsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_MacAskill" title="William MacAskill">William MacAskill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dustin_Moskovitz" title="Dustin Moskovitz">Dustin Moskovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yew-Kwang_Ng" title="Yew-Kwang Ng">Yew-Kwang Ng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toby_Ord" title="Toby Ord">Toby Ord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cari_Tuna" title="Cari Tuna">Cari Tuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Yudkowsky" title="Eliezer Yudkowsky">Eliezer Yudkowsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/80,000_Hours" title="80,000 Hours">80,000 Hours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Against_Malaria_Foundation" title="Against Malaria Foundation">Against Malaria Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Charity_Evaluators" title="Animal Charity Evaluators">Animal Charity Evaluators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_(organization)" title="Animal Ethics (organization)">Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Effective_Altruism" title="Centre for Effective Altruism">Centre for Effective Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Enabling_EA_Learning_%26_Research" title="Centre for Enabling EA Learning & Research">Centre for Enabling EA Learning & Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_High_Impact_Philanthropy" title="Center for High Impact Philanthropy">Center for High Impact Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_Media_International" title="Development Media International">Development Media International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_Action" title="Evidence Action">Evidence Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunalytics" title="Faunalytics">Faunalytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fistula_Foundation" title="Fistula Foundation">Fistula Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Pledge" title="Founders Pledge">Founders Pledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GiveDirectly" title="GiveDirectly">GiveDirectly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GiveWell" title="GiveWell">GiveWell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giving_Multiplier" title="Giving Multiplier">Giving Multiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giving_What_We_Can" title="Giving What We Can">Giving What We Can</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Food_Fund" title="Good Food Fund">Good Food Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Good_Food_Institute" title="The Good Food Institute">The Good Food Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Ventures" title="Good Ventures">Good Ventures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Humane_League" title="The Humane League">The Humane League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy_for_Animals" title="Mercy for Animals">Mercy for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Intelligence_Research_Institute" title="Machine Intelligence Research Institute">Machine Intelligence Research Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_Consortium" title="Malaria Consortium">Malaria Consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Philanthropy_(organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Philanthropy (organization)">Open Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raising_for_Effective_Giving" title="Raising for Effective Giving">Raising for Effective Giving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentience_Institute" title="Sentience Institute">Sentience Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimit_Health" title="Unlimit Health">Unlimit Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Animal_Initiative" title="Wild Animal Initiative">Wild Animal Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Focus areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_stability" title="Economic stability">Economic stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial general intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="Global poverty">Global poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">Intensive animal farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_extension" title="Life extension">Life extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_prevention" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaria prevention">Malaria prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_deworming" title="Mass deworming">Mass deworming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">Neglected tropical diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_of_astronomical_suffering" title="Risk of astronomical suffering">Risk of astronomical suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doing_Good_Better" title="Doing Good Better">Doing Good Better</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Animal_Farming" title="The End of Animal Farming">The End of Animal Farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famine,_Affluence,_and_Morality" title="Famine, Affluence, and Morality">Famine, Affluence, and Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Life_You_Can_Save" title="The Life You Can Save">The Life You Can Save</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_High_and_Letting_Die" title="Living High and Letting Die">Living High and Letting Die</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Most_Good_You_Can_Do" title="The Most Good You Can Do">The Most Good You Can Do</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Precipice:_Existential_Risk_and_the_Future_of_Humanity" title="The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity">The Precipice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superintelligence:_Paths,_Dangers,_Strategies" title="Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies">Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/What_We_Owe_the_Future" title="What We Owe the Future">What We Owe the Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_Altruism_Global" title="Effective Altruism Global">Effective Altruism 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class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.eqiad.main-58c4b96c94-m4gld","wgBackendResponseTime":462,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.051","walltime":"4.484","ppvisitednodes":{"value":28029,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1091984,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":20454,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":24,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1606543,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":5,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3864.571 1 -total"," 56.76% 2193.477 1 Template:Reflist"," 31.94% 1234.427 243 Template:Cite_journal"," 9.40% 363.162 13 Template:Sfn"," 6.81% 263.102 64 Template:Cite_web"," 5.94% 229.442 12 Template:Navbox"," 4.89% 189.055 47 Template:Cite_book"," 4.36% 168.620 1 Template:Medical_condition_classification_and_resources"," 3.90% 150.623 13 Template:Fix"," 3.66% 141.277 9 Template:Page_needed"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.627","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":29996188,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbeku2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbugaJones-WarnerHafalla2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAchanTalisunaErhartYeka2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAfolabiOkoromah2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmeri2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmukoyeWinstanleyWatkinsSnow1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnottBarryReeder2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArrowPanosianGelband2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArshadBashirIjazLoh2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAshleyDhordaFairhurstAmaratunga2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAshleyPyae_PhyoWoodrow2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAthumanKabanywanyiRohwer2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAultmanGottliebGiovanniFauci2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaidenMalmBinka2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaird2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaird2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarber1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBardajíBassatAlonsoMenéndez2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBartoloniZammarchi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBasuSahi2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBattleLucasNguyenHowes2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeareLewallenTaylorMolyneux2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeareTaylorHardingLewallen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhallaSuriSingh2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiotCastroBottéNavarro2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlanshardHine2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBledsoe2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoumavan_der_Kaay1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrasilZalisde_Pina-CostaSiqueira2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBray2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBriggs2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryantKnights2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBukirwaCritchley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBukirwaGarnerCritchley2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBukirwaOrton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBynumOvery1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByrne2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaminadeKovatsRocklovTompkins2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaraballoKing2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaudronFordHenkensMacé2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandlerBeisel2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapinWasserstrom1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharonGriggEdenPiera2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChernin1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChernin1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChoiMajambereWilson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollinsBarnwell2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColón-GonzálezSeweTompkinsSjödin2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowmanHealerMarapanaMarsh2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCox2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCox2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCromptonPierceMiller2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCuiYanSattabongkotCao2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCunningtonRiley2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDahalanChurcherWindbichlerLawniczak2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDatooNatamaSoméTraoré2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawesChurcherZhuangSinden2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_BuckBorraCarlsonZideman2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_CastroSinger2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelvesPlouffeScheurerMeister2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDespommierGriffinGwadzHotez2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDondorpYeungWhiteNguon2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDormontMulatierCarrascoCohuet2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuWangXie2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuintjer_TebbensThompson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDziedzic2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEisenhutOmari2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEkiertŚwiątkowskaKlinRzepiela2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnayatiHemingway2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnayatiHemingwayGarner2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnserink2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsuOringanjeMeremikwu2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFairhurstNayyarBremanHallett2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFairhurstWellems2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeachemSabot2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernandoRodrigoRajapakse2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernandoRodrigoRajapakse2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerri2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlam2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFletcher2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoster1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoxFurnival-AdamsChaplinNapier2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreedman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGallagher2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGambleEkwaruter_Kuile2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGantzJasinskieneTatarenkovaFazekas2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardnerHallFungWhite2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarrett1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGautamUtrejaSingal2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGethingPatilSmithGuerra2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGladwell2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGleaveLissendenChaplinChoi2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGollinZimmermann2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGonzálezPons-DuranPiquerasAponte2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGratz2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGravesChoiGelbandGarner2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGravesGelband2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGreenwood2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenwoodBojangWhittyTargett2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenwoodMutabingwa2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffithsFairlie-ClarkeAllenMetcalf2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuMüllerSchleinNovak2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuerraHayLucioparedesGikandi2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallFauci2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanboonkunupakarnWhite2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHancockNorthLeachWinskill2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHao2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarperArmelagos2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison1978\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHartmanRogersonFischer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayOkiroGethingPatil2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayShanksSternSnow2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHays2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealth_Alert_Network_(HAN)2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHedrick2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHienDabiréRocheDiabaté2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowittDarziYangAshrafian2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsu2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuangRodriguesBilgoTormo2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHulmeDohertyNgaraNew2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumphreys2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIdroMarshJohnNewton2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIsbaZaniGathuSinclair2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFItoGhoshMoreiraWimmer2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJamiesonTooveyMaurel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarvis2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKajfasz2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKakkilaya2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalanonMcFadden2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamiya2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarunaweeraGalappaththyWirth2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaufmanRúveda2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeating2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhanna2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKilleenFillingerKicheGouagna2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKocharSaxenaSinghKochar2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKokwaro2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorenrompWilliamsde_VlasGouws2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKwiatkowski2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKyleShampe1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKyuFernández2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLacerdaMourãoSantosAlecrim2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLallooOlukoyaOlliaro2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapointeAtkinsonSamuel2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLayne\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLesiMeremikwu2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiKozarShearerXie2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindemann1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLonTsuyuokaPhanouvongNivanna2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMachaultVignollesBorchiVounatsou2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaiaKlinerRichardsonLengeler2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalpede2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManyandoKayentaoD\u0026#039;AlessandroOkafor2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkus2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkus2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartelloYogeswaranReithingerLeonardi-Bee2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcIntoshJones2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcIntoshOlliaro1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcIntoshOlliaro1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeil_Jr2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeadeEmch2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMehlhorn2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelville1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMendis2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMendisRietveldWarsameBosman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMensBojtorSchallig2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeremikwuDoneganSinclairEsu2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeremikwuMarson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeremikwuOdigweAkudo_NwagbaraUdoh2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeremikwuSmith1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMlamboKumar2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurrayRosenfeldLimAndrews2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMénardTavaresCockburnMarkus2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMüllerHydeWrenger2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNadjmBehrens2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNalinyaMusokeDeane2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNayyarBremanNewtonHerrington2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewtonFernándezPlançonMildenhall2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewtonGreenFernándezDay2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoorMutheuTatemHay2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNájeraGonzález-SilvaAlonso2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;BrienHenrichPassiFidock2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOfford2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOkebeEisenhut2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOkoromahAfolabiWall2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOkwunduNagpalMusekiwaSinclair2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOmariGambleGarner2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOmariGambleGarner2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrganization2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrtonBarnish2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrtonOmari2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwusu-OforiParryBates2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParry2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPasvol2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatesCurtis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPelletierCaventou1820\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierronHeiskeRazafindrazakaPereda-Loth2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPluessTanserLengelerSharp2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPons-DuranWassenaarYovoMarín-Carballo2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoserBruyn1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPousibet-PuertoSalas-CoronasSánchez-CrespoMolina-Arrebola2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrasadGarner1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProvost2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrugnolleDurandOllomoDuval2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPryceChoiRichardsonMalone2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPryceMedleyChoi2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPryceRichardsonLengeler2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadeva-PetrovaKayentaoter_KuileSinclair2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadwick2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaghavendraBarikReddySharma2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawatRoyJyotiKaushik2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReiter1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRicci2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichAyala2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichterFrankenMehlhornLabisch2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRijkenMcGreadyBoelPoespoprodjo2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRileyStewart2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRo2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodrigoRajapakseFernando2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodriguesValdiviade_OliveiraAlves2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoganChen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoll_Back_Malaria_WHO_partnership2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRouxBiot2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoyRawatKaushikJyoti2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRéniaHowlandClaserCharlotte_Gruner2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabotCohenHsiangKahn2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSachsMalaney2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSadasivaiahTozanBreman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSallares2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSallaresGomzi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarkarAhluwaliaVijayanTalwar2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSato2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlagenhauf-Lawlor2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoofs2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFServick2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahHwangChoiLindblade2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapiroWhiteheadThomas2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharpe1768\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimmons1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinclairDoneganIsbaLalloo2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinclairZaniDoneganOlliaro2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinghBhardwajPurohit2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinhaMedhiSehgal2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSirajSantos-VegaBoumaYadeta2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithMeremikwu2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithWillisAlfieriJames2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanwayBushellChiappino-PepeRoques2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrom2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrong1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuhElanga-NdilleTchouakuiSandeu2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanSung2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarning2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTatemJiaOrdanovichFalkner2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorHansonTurnerWhite2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTickell-PainterMaayanSaundersPace2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTilleyDixonKirk2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimóteoWesselsRigheschiGoris2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrampuzJerebMuzlovicPrabhu2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTranSamalKirknessCrompton2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurschnerEfferth2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTustingIppolitoWilleyKleinschmidt2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUNICEF2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVanderberg2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaughanAlyKappe2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVogel2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWHO2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWHO2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWHO2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWHO2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWHO2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWHO2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalsh2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalsheGarnerAdeelPyke2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalterJohn2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangDos-SantosHuangLiu2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatersEdstein2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatts1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeatherall2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebb2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebsterMolyneuxHotezFenwick2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeissLucasNguyenNandi2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1963\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWongsrichanalaiMeshnick2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorrallBasuHanson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYalcindagElgueroArnathauDurand2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_SouzaThomasBradleyLeyrat2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_EijkTerlouw2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_den_Berg2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_den_Berg2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_der_KooySullivan2013\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Chromalveolate diseases\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite Q\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 47,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 243,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 64,\n [\"Cs1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 2,\n [\"Diseases of Poverty\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 2,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 2,\n [\"EMedicine2\"] = 2,\n [\"Effective altruism\"] = 1,\n [\"Eradication of infectious disease\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"GBurl\"] = 3,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"ICD10\"] = 2,\n [\"ICD11\"] = 2,\n [\"ICD9\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox medical condition (new)\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 20,\n [\"Main\"] = 5,\n [\"Malaria\"] = 1,\n [\"Medical condition classification and resources\"] = 1,\n [\"Offline\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 9,\n [\"Pipe\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 13,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC level\"] = 1,\n [\"Update inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 4,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","560","20.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","340","12.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","180","6.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","180","6.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","160","5.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","140","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","120","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","120","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","80","2.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","80","2.9"],["[others]","840","30.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.eqiad.main-856b4fbb5-2mgzh","timestamp":"20250321112926","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script 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