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id="toc-Sequencing_and_mapping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sequencing_and_mapping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sequencing and mapping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sequencing_and_mapping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viral_genomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viral_genomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Viral genomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viral_genomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prokaryotic_genomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prokaryotic_genomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Prokaryotic genomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prokaryotic_genomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eukaryotic_genomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eukaryotic_genomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Eukaryotic genomes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Eukaryotic_genomes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Eukaryotic genomes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Eukaryotic_genomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-DNA_sequencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_sequencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>DNA sequencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_sequencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coding_sequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coding_sequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Coding sequences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coding_sequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noncoding_sequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noncoding_sequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Noncoding sequences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noncoding_sequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tandem_repeats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tandem_repeats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.1</span> <span>Tandem repeats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tandem_repeats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transposable_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transposable_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2</span> <span>Transposable elements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transposable_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Retrotransposons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Retrotransposons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2.1</span> <span>Retrotransposons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Retrotransposons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA_transposons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_transposons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2.2</span> <span>DNA transposons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_transposons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genome_size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genome_size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Genome size</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genome_size-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genome size subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genome_size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genome_size_differences_due_to_transposable_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genome_size_differences_due_to_transposable_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Genome size differences due to transposable elements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genome_size_differences_due_to_transposable_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genomic_alterations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genomic_alterations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Genomic alterations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genomic_alterations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genomic alterations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genomic_alterations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genome-wide_reprogramming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genome-wide_reprogramming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Genome-wide reprogramming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genome-wide_reprogramming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genome_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genome_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Genome evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genome_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>In fiction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Genome</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 85 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-85" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">85 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoom" title="Genoom – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Genoom" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B9_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AB%D9%8A" title="مجموع مورثي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مجموع مورثي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenoma" title="Xenoma – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xenoma" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="বংশাণুসমগ্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বংশাণুসমগ্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Bi-tho%C3%A2n-th%C3%A9" title="Ûi-thoân-thé – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ûi-thoân-thé" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Геном – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Геном" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Геном – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Геном" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Genoma" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Геном – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Геном" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungamabari" title="Ungamabari – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ungamabari" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvemasse" title="Arvemasse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Arvemasse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoom" title="Genoom – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Genoom" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Γονιδίωμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γονιδίωμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Genoma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genaro" title="Genaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Genaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Genoma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85" title="ژنوم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژنوم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9nome" title="Génome – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Génome" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9an%C3%B3m" title="Géanóm – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Géanóm" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenoma" title="Xenoma – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xenoma" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Геном – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Геном" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%EC%B2%B4_(%EC%83%9D%EB%AA%85%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99)" title="유전체 (생명과학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유전체 (생명과학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%B4" title="Գենոմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գենոմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE" title="जीनोम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जीनोम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomo" title="Genomo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Genomo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Genoma" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erf%C3%B0amengi" title="Erfðamengi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Erfðamengi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Genoma" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9D" title="גנום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גנום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ಜಿನೊಮ್‌ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜಿನೊಮ್‌" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="გენომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გენომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Геном – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Геном" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93e%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Гeном – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гeном" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Genoma" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoms" title="Genoms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Genoms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomas" title="Genomas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Genomas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenom" title="Jenom – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Jenom" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Геном – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Геном" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%82_(%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82)" title="ജീനോം (ജീവശാസ്ത്രം) – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജീനോം (ജീവശാസ്ത്രം)" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE" title="जीनोम – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जीनोम" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoom" title="Genoom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Genoom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE" title="जीनोम – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जीनोम" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B2%E3%83%8E%E3%83%A0" title="ゲノム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ゲノム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%B2ma" title="Genòma – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Genòma" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiinoomii" title="Jiinoomii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Jiinoomii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%90%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85" title="جېنوم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جېنوم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoma" title="Genoma – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Genoma" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Геном – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геном" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Genome" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Genome" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%B3m" title="Genóm – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Genóm" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dednina" title="Dednina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Dednina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%86%D9%85" title="جینۆم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جینۆم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Геном – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Геном" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomi" title="Genomi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Genomi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Genome" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88" title="மரபணுத்தொகை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மரபணுத்தொகை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A1" title="จีโนม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จีโนม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Геном – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Геном" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Genom" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Геном – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Геном" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB%DB%81" title="موراثہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="موراثہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E1%BB%99_gen" title="Bộ gen – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bộ gen" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henoma" title="Henoma – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Henoma" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%BB%84" title="基因组 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="基因组" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84" title="基因組 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="基因組" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84" title="基因組 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="基因組" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7020#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:17em;border:2px solid light-dark(#90db90,#024c02)"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/150px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/300px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="111" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li>Genome</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul></div></div> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History and topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a> (<span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/12px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/18px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/24px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Template:Genomics" title="Template:Genomics">template</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics#Branches_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Branches of genetics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Fields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Personalized medicine</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UCSC_human_chromosome_colours.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/UCSC_human_chromosome_colours.png/250px-UCSC_human_chromosome_colours.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/UCSC_human_chromosome_colours.png/330px-UCSC_human_chromosome_colours.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/UCSC_human_chromosome_colours.png/500px-UCSC_human_chromosome_colours.png 2x" data-file-width="3084" data-file-height="2417" /></a><figcaption>An image of the 46 chromosomes making up the diploid genome of a human male (the mitochondrial chromosomes are not shown).</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>genome</b> is all the genetic information of an organism.<sup id="cite_ref-Roth_p._1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roth_p.-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It consists of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotide</a> sequences of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> (or <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> in <a href="/wiki/RNA_virus" title="RNA virus">RNA viruses</a>). The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding genes, other functional regions of the genome such as regulatory sequences (see <a href="/wiki/Non-coding_DNA" title="Non-coding DNA">non-coding DNA</a>), and often a substantial fraction of <a href="/wiki/Junk_DNA" title="Junk DNA">junk DNA</a> with no evident function.<sup id="cite_ref-Graur_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graur-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost all <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> have <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondria</a> and a small <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_genome" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondrial genome">mitochondrial genome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Graur_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graur-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algae and plants also contain <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast_DNA" title="Chloroplast DNA">chloroplasts</a> with a chloroplast genome. </p><p>The study of the genome is called <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a>. The genomes of many organisms have been <a href="/wiki/Whole-genome_sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Whole-genome sequencing">sequenced</a> and various regions have been annotated. The first genome to be sequenced was that of the virus φX174 in 1977;<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the first genome sequence of a prokaryote (<i>Haemophilus influenzae</i>) was published in 1995;<sup id="cite_ref-Fleischmann_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleischmann-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the yeast (<i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>) genome was the first eukaryotic genome to be sequenced in 1996.<sup id="cite_ref-Reference44_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reference44-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> was started in October 1990, and the first draft sequences of the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> were reported in February 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_the_term">Origin of the term</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin of the term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>genome</i> was created in 1920 by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Winkler" title="Hans Winkler">Hans Winkler</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> professor of <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hamburg" title="University of Hamburg">University of Hamburg</a>, Germany. The website <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionaries_(website)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Dictionaries (website)">Oxford Dictionaries</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a> suggest the name is a blend of the words <i><a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, see <a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">omics</a> for a more thorough discussion. A few related <i>-ome</i> words already existed, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">rhizome</a></i>, forming a vocabulary into which <i>genome</i> fits systematically.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="definition"></span> </p><p>The term "genome" usually refers to the DNA (or sometimes RNA) molecules that carry the genetic information in an organism, but sometimes it is uncertain which molecules to include; for example, bacteria usually have one or two large DNA molecules (<a href="/wiki/Chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomes">chromosomes</a>) that contain all of the essential genetic material but they also contain smaller extrachromosomal <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> molecules that carry important genetic information. In the scientific literature, the term 'genome' usually refers to the large chromosomal DNA molecules in bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_genome">Nuclear genome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nuclear genome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eukaryotic genomes are even more difficult to define because almost all eukaryotic species contain nuclear chromosomes plus extra DNA molecules in the <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a>. In addition, algae and plants have <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplast</a> DNA. Most textbooks make a distinction between the nuclear genome and the organelle (mitochondria and chloroplast) genomes so when they speak of, say, the human genome, they are only referring to the genetic material in the nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-Graur_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graur-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the most common use of 'genome' in the scientific literature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ploidy">Ploidy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ploidy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most eukaryotes are <a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">diploid</a>, meaning that there are two of each chromosome in the nucleus but the 'genome' refers to only one copy of each chromosome. Some eukaryotes have distinctive sex chromosomes, such as the X and Y chromosomes of mammals, so the technical definition of the genome must include both copies of the sex chromosomes. For example, the standard reference genome of humans consists of one copy of each of the 22 autosomes plus one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sequencing_and_mapping">Sequencing and mapping</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sequencing and mapping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">Whole genome sequencing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genome_project" title="Genome project">Genome project</a></div><p> A <b>genome sequence</b> is the complete list of the <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> (A, C, G, and T for DNA genomes) that make up all the <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> of an individual or a species. Within a species, the vast majority of nucleotides are identical between individuals, but sequencing multiple individuals is necessary to understand the genetic diversity. </p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Part_of_DNA_sequence_prototypification_of_complete_genome_of_virus_5418_nucleotides.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Part_of_DNA_sequence_prototypification_of_complete_genome_of_virus_5418_nucleotides.gif/350px-Part_of_DNA_sequence_prototypification_of_complete_genome_of_virus_5418_nucleotides.gif" decoding="async" width="350" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Part_of_DNA_sequence_prototypification_of_complete_genome_of_virus_5418_nucleotides.gif/525px-Part_of_DNA_sequence_prototypification_of_complete_genome_of_virus_5418_nucleotides.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Part_of_DNA_sequence_prototypification_of_complete_genome_of_virus_5418_nucleotides.gif 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Part of DNA sequence – prototypification of complete genome of virus</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1976, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Fiers" title="Walter Fiers">Walter Fiers</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Ghent" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Ghent">University of Ghent</a> (Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral RNA-genome (<a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage_MS2" title="Bacteriophage MS2">Bacteriophage MS2</a>). The next year, <a href="/wiki/Fred_Sanger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fred Sanger">Fred Sanger</a> completed the first DNA-genome sequence: <a href="/wiki/Phi-X174_phage" class="mw-redirect" title="Phi-X174 phage">Phage X174</a>, of 5386 base pairs.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first bacterial genome to be sequenced was that of <a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a>, completed by a team at <a href="/wiki/The_Institute_for_Genomic_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="The Institute for Genomic Research">The Institute for Genomic Research</a> in 1995. A few months later, the first eukaryotic genome was completed, with sequences of the 16 chromosomes of budding yeast <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i> published as the result of a European-led effort begun in the mid-1980s. The first genome sequence for an <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaeon</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Methanococcus_jannaschii" class="mw-redirect" title="Methanococcus jannaschii">Methanococcus jannaschii</a></i>, was completed in 1996, again by The Institute for Genomic Research.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The development of new technologies has made genome sequencing dramatically cheaper and easier, and the number of complete genome sequences is growing rapidly. The <a href="/wiki/US_National_Institutes_of_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="US National Institutes of Health">US National Institutes of Health</a> maintains one of several comprehensive databases of genomic information.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the thousands of completed genome sequencing projects include those for <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Mus_musculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mus musculus">mouse</a>, the plant <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Puffer_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Puffer fish">puffer fish</a>, and the bacteria <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a>. In December 2013, scientists first sequenced the entire <i>genome</i> of a <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a>, an extinct species of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic humans">humans</a>. The genome was extracted from the <a href="/wiki/Toe_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Toe bone">toe bone</a> of a 130,000-year-old Neanderthal found in a <a href="/wiki/Denisova_Cave" title="Denisova Cave">Siberian cave</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20131218_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20131218-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20131218_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20131218-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Viral_genomes">Viral genomes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Viral genomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Virus#Genome" title="Virus">Viral genomes</a> can be composed of either RNA or DNA. The genomes of <a href="/wiki/RNA_virus" title="RNA virus">RNA viruses</a> can be either <a href="/wiki/Single-stranded_RNA_virus" title="Single-stranded RNA virus">single-stranded RNA</a> or <a href="/wiki/Double-stranded_RNA_viruses" title="Double-stranded RNA viruses">double-stranded RNA</a>, and may contain one or more separate RNA molecules (segments: monopartit or multipartit genome). DNA viruses can have either single-stranded or double-stranded genomes. Most DNA virus genomes are composed of a single, linear molecule of DNA, but some are made up of a circular DNA molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prokaryotic_genomes">Prokaryotic genomes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Prokaryotic genomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prokaryotes and eukaryotes have DNA genomes. Archaea and most bacteria have a single <a href="/wiki/Circular_chromosome" title="Circular chromosome">circular chromosome</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, some bacterial species have linear or multiple chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the DNA is replicated faster than the bacterial cells divide, multiple copies of the chromosome can be present in a single cell, and if the cells divide faster than the DNA can be replicated, multiple replication of the chromosome is initiated before the division occurs, allowing daughter cells to inherit complete genomes and already partially replicated chromosomes. Most prokaryotes have very little repetitive DNA in their genomes.<sup id="cite_ref-constraints_and_plasticity_in_genome_and_molecular_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-constraints_and_plasticity_in_genome_and_molecular-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_bacteria" title="Symbiotic bacteria">symbiotic bacteria</a> (e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/Serratia_symbiotica" title="Serratia symbiotica">Serratia symbiotica</a></i>) have reduced genomes and a high fraction of pseudogenes: only ~40% of their DNA encodes proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some bacteria have auxiliary genetic material, also part of their genome, which is carried in <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmids</a>. For this, the word <i>genome</i> should not be used as a synonym of <i>chromosome</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eukaryotic_genomes">Eukaryotic genomes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Eukaryotic genomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic_chromosome_fine_structure" title="Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure">Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/220px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/330px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/440px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 2x" data-file-width="9684" data-file-height="16008" /></a><figcaption>In a typical human cell, the genome is contained in 22 pairs of <a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">autosomes</a>, two <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex chromosomes">sex chromosomes</a> (the female and male variants shown at bottom right), as well as the <a href="/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics" title="Human mitochondrial genetics">mitochondrial genome</a> (shown to scale as "MT" at bottom left). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Eukaryotic genomes are composed of one or more linear DNA chromosomes. The number of chromosomes varies widely from <a href="/wiki/Jack_jumper_ant" title="Jack jumper ant">Jack jumper ants</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Diploscapter_pachys" title="Diploscapter pachys">asexual nemotode</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which each have only one pair, to a <a href="/wiki/Ophioglossum" title="Ophioglossum">fern species</a> that has 720 pairs.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is surprising the amount of DNA that eukaryotic genomes contain compared to other genomes. The amount is even more than what is necessary for DNA protein-coding and noncoding genes because eukaryotic genomes show as much as 64,000-fold variation in their sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this special characteristic is caused by the presence of repetitive DNA, and transposable elements (TEs). </p><p>A typical human cell has two copies of each of 22 <a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">autosomes</a>, one inherited from each parent, plus two <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosomes</a>, making it diploid. <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">Gametes</a>, such as ova, sperm, spores, and pollen, are haploid, meaning they carry only one copy of each chromosome. In addition to the chromosomes in the nucleus, organelles such as the <a href="/wiki/Chloroplasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloroplasts">chloroplasts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> have their own DNA. Mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome often referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_genome" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondrial genome">mitochondrial genome</a>". The DNA found within the chloroplast may be referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Plastome" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastome">plastome</a>". Like the bacteria they originated from, mitochondria and chloroplasts have a circular chromosome. </p><p>Unlike prokaryotes where exon-intron organization of protein coding genes exists but is rather exceptional, eukaryotes generally have these features in their genes and their genomes contain variable amounts of repetitive DNA. In mammals and plants, the majority of the genome is composed of repetitive DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewin_2004_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewin_2004-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNA_sequencing">DNA sequencing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: DNA sequencing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>High-throughput technology makes sequencing to assemble new genomes accessible to everyone. Sequence polymorphisms are typically discovered by comparing resequenced isolates to a reference, whereas analyses of coverage depth and mapping topology can provide details regarding structural variations such as chromosomal translocations and segmental duplications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coding_sequences">Coding sequences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Coding sequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>DNA sequences that carry the instructions to make proteins are referred to as coding sequences. The proportion of the genome occupied by coding sequences varies widely. A larger genome does not necessarily contain more genes, and the proportion of non-repetitive DNA decreases along with increasing genome size in complex eukaryotes.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewin_2004_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewin_2004-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noncoding_sequences">Noncoding sequences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Noncoding sequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-coding_DNA" title="Non-coding DNA">Non-coding DNA</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Intergenic_region" title="Intergenic region">Intergenic region</a></div> <p>Noncoding sequences include <a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">introns</a>, sequences for non-coding RNAs, regulatory regions, and repetitive DNA. Noncoding sequences make up 98% of the human genome. There are two categories of repetitive DNA in the genome: <a href="/wiki/Tandem_repeats" class="mw-redirect" title="Tandem repeats">tandem repeats</a> and interspersed repeats.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tandem_repeats">Tandem repeats</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Tandem repeats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Short, non-coding sequences that are repeated head-to-tail are called <a href="/wiki/Tandem_repeats" class="mw-redirect" title="Tandem repeats">tandem repeats</a>. Microsatellites consisting of 2–5 basepair repeats, while minisatellite repeats are 30–35 bp. Tandem repeats make up about 4% of the human genome and 9% of the fruit fly genome.<sup id="cite_ref-Padeken_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Padeken-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tandem repeats can be functional. For example, <a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">telomeres</a> are composed of the tandem repeat TTAGGG in mammals, and they play an important role in protecting the ends of the chromosome. </p><p>In other cases, expansions in the number of tandem repeats in exons or introns can cause <a href="/wiki/Trinucleotide_repeat_disorder" title="Trinucleotide repeat disorder">disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Usdin_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Usdin-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the human gene huntingtin (Htt) typically contains 6–29 tandem repeats of the nucleotides CAG (encoding a polyglutamine tract). An expansion to over 36 repeats results in <a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a>, a neurodegenerative disease. Twenty human disorders are known to result from similar tandem repeat expansions in various genes. The mechanism by which proteins with expanded polygulatamine tracts cause death of neurons is not fully understood. One possibility is that the proteins fail to fold properly and avoid degradation, instead accumulating in aggregates that also sequester important transcription factors, thereby altering gene expression.<sup id="cite_ref-Usdin_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Usdin-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tandem repeats are usually caused by slippage during replication, unequal crossing-over and gene conversion.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transposable_elements">Transposable elements</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Transposable elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Transposable elements (TEs) are sequences of DNA with a defined structure that are able to change their location in the genome.<sup id="cite_ref-Padeken_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Padeken-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-constraints_and_plasticity_in_genome_and_molecular_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-constraints_and_plasticity_in_genome_and_molecular-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wessler_17600–17601_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wessler_17600–17601-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> TEs are categorized as either as a mechanism that replicates by copy-and-paste or as a mechanism that can be excised from the genome and inserted at a new location. In the human genome, there are three important classes of TEs that make up more than 45% of the human DNA; these classes are The long interspersed nuclear elements (LINEs), The interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs), and endogenous retroviruses. These elements have a big potential to modify the genetic control in a host organism.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The movement of TEs is a driving force of genome evolution in eukaryotes because their insertion can disrupt gene functions, homologous recombination between TEs can produce duplications, and TE can shuffle exons and regulatory sequences to new locations.<sup id="cite_ref-Kazazian_1626–1632_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kazazian_1626–1632-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Retrotransposons">Retrotransposons</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Retrotransposons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Retrotransposon" title="Retrotransposon">Retrotransposons</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are found mostly in eukaryotes but not found in prokaryotes. Retrotransposons form a large portion of the genomes of many eukaryotes. A retrotransposon is a transposable element that transposes through an <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> intermediate. Retrotransposons<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are composed of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, but are transcribed into RNA for transposition, then the RNA transcript is copied back to DNA formation with the help of a specific enzyme called reverse transcriptase. A retrotransposon that carries reverse transcriptase in its sequence can trigger its own transposition but retrotransposons that lack a reverse transcriptase must use reverse transcriptase synthesized by another retrotransposon. <a href="/wiki/Retrotransposon" title="Retrotransposon">Retrotransposons</a> can be transcribed into RNA, which are then duplicated at another site into the genome.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Retrotransposons can be divided into <a href="/wiki/Long_terminal_repeat" title="Long terminal repeat">long terminal repeats</a> (LTRs) and non-long terminal repeats (Non-LTRs).<sup id="cite_ref-Kazazian_1626–1632_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kazazian_1626–1632-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Long terminal repeats (LTRs)</b> are derived from ancient retroviral infections, so they encode proteins related to retroviral proteins including gag (structural proteins of the virus), pol (reverse transcriptase and integrase), pro (protease), and in some cases env (envelope) genes.<sup id="cite_ref-Wessler_17600–17601_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wessler_17600–17601-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These genes are flanked by long repeats at both 5' and 3' ends. It has been reported that LTRs consist of the largest fraction in most plant genome and might account for the huge variation in genome size.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Non-long terminal repeats (Non-LTRs)</b> are classified as <a href="/wiki/Long_interspersed_nuclear_element" title="Long interspersed nuclear element">long interspersed nuclear elements</a> (LINEs), <a href="/wiki/Short_interspersed_nuclear_element" title="Short interspersed nuclear element">short interspersed nuclear elements</a> (SINEs), and Penelope-like elements (PLEs). In <i>Dictyostelium discoideum</i>, there is another DIRS-like elements belong to Non-LTRs. Non-LTRs are widely spread in eukaryotic genomes.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Long interspersed elements (LINEs) encode genes for reverse transcriptase and endonuclease, making them autonomous transposable elements. The human genome has around 500,000 LINEs, taking around 17% of the genome.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Short interspersed elements (SINEs) are usually less than 500 base pairs and are non-autonomous, so they rely on the proteins encoded by LINEs for transposition.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Alu_element" title="Alu element">Alu element</a> is the most common SINE found in primates. It is about 350 base pairs and occupies about 11% of the human genome with around 1,500,000 copies.<sup id="cite_ref-Kazazian_1626–1632_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kazazian_1626–1632-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="DNA_transposons">DNA transposons</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: DNA transposons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/DNA_transposon" title="DNA transposon">DNA transposons</a> encode a transposase enzyme between inverted terminal repeats. When expressed, the transposase recognizes the terminal inverted repeats that flank the transposon and catalyzes its excision and reinsertion in a new site.<sup id="cite_ref-Padeken_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Padeken-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This cut-and-paste mechanism typically reinserts transposons near their original location (within 100 kb).<sup id="cite_ref-Kazazian_1626–1632_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kazazian_1626–1632-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DNA transposons are found in bacteria and make up 3% of the human genome and 12% of the genome of the roundworm <a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans"><i>C. elegans</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kazazian_1626–1632_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kazazian_1626–1632-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genome_size">Genome size</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Genome size"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genome_size_vs_protein_count.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Genome_size_vs_protein_count.svg/220px-Genome_size_vs_protein_count.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Genome_size_vs_protein_count.svg/330px-Genome_size_vs_protein_count.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Genome_size_vs_protein_count.svg/440px-Genome_size_vs_protein_count.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Log%E2%80%93log_plot" title="Log–log plot">Log–log plot</a> of the total number of annotated proteins in genomes submitted to <a href="/wiki/GenBank" title="GenBank">GenBank</a> as a function of genome size</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Genome_size" title="Genome size">Genome size</a> is the total number of the DNA base pairs in one copy of a <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> genome. Genome size varies widely across species. Invertebrates have small genomes, this is also correlated to a small number of transposable elements. Fish and Amphibians have intermediate-size genomes, and birds have relatively small genomes but it has been suggested that birds lost a substantial portion of their genomes during the phase of transition to flight.  Before this loss, DNA methylation allows the adequate expansion of the genome.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In humans, the nuclear genome comprises approximately 3.1 billion nucleotides of DNA, divided into 24 linear molecules, the shortest 45 000 000 nucleotides in length and the longest 248 000 000 nucleotides, each contained in a different chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-human-T2T_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-human-T2T-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no clear and consistent correlation between morphological complexity and genome size in either <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_genome_size" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial genome size">prokaryotes</a> or lower <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotes">eukaryotes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewin_2004_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewin_2004-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genome size is largely a function of the expansion and contraction of repetitive DNA elements. </p><p>Since genomes are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multi-cellular organisms (see <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental biology</a>). The work is both <i><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genome_size_differences_due_to_transposable_elements">Genome size differences due to transposable elements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Genome size differences due to transposable elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genome_sizes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Genome_sizes.png/220px-Genome_sizes.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Genome_sizes.png/330px-Genome_sizes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Genome_sizes.png/440px-Genome_sizes.png 2x" data-file-width="2062" data-file-height="2338" /></a><figcaption>Comparison among genome sizes</figcaption></figure> <p>There are many enormous differences in size in genomes, specially mentioned before in the multicellular eukaryotic genomes. Much of this is due to the differing abundances of transposable elements, which evolve by creating new copies of themselves in the chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eukaryote genomes often contain many thousands of copies of these elements, most of which have acquired mutations that make them defective. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genomic_alterations">Genomic alterations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Genomic alterations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All the cells of an organism originate from a single cell, so they are expected to have identical genomes; however, in some cases, differences arise. Both the process of copying DNA during cell division and exposure to environmental mutagens can result in mutations in somatic cells. In some cases, such mutations lead to cancer because they cause cells to divide more quickly and invade surrounding tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In certain lymphocytes in the human immune system, <a href="/wiki/V(D)J_recombination" title="V(D)J recombination">V(D)J recombination</a> generates different genomic sequences such that each cell produces a unique antibody or T cell receptors. </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, diploid cells divide twice to produce haploid germ cells. During this process, recombination results in a reshuffling of the genetic material from homologous chromosomes so each gamete has a unique genome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genome-wide_reprogramming">Genome-wide reprogramming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Genome-wide reprogramming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Genome-wide reprogramming in mouse <a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">primordial germ cells</a> involves <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">epigenetic</a> imprint erasure leading to <a href="/wiki/Cell_potency" title="Cell potency">totipotency</a>. Reprogramming is facilitated by active <a href="/wiki/DNA_demethylation" title="DNA demethylation">DNA demethylation</a>, a process that entails the DNA <a href="/wiki/Base_excision_repair" title="Base excision repair">base excision repair</a> pathway.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20595612_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20595612-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This pathway is employed in the erasure of <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">CpG methylation</a> (5mC) in primordial germ cells. The erasure of 5mC occurs via its conversion to <a href="/wiki/5-hydroxymethylcytosine" class="mw-redirect" title="5-hydroxymethylcytosine">5-hydroxymethylcytosine</a> (5hmC) driven by high levels of the ten-eleven dioxygenase enzymes <a href="/wiki/Tet_methylcytosine_dioxygenase_1" title="Tet methylcytosine dioxygenase 1">TET1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tet_methylcytosine_dioxygenase_2" title="Tet methylcytosine dioxygenase 2">TET2</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23223451_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23223451-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genome_evolution">Genome evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Genome evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> and have traits that may be <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measured</a> and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products. Researchers compare traits such as <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotype</a> (chromosome number), <a href="/wiki/Genome_size" title="Genome size">genome size</a>, gene order, <a href="/wiki/Codon_usage_bias" title="Codon usage bias">codon usage bias</a>, and <a href="/wiki/GC-content" title="GC-content">GC-content</a> to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown 2002; Saccone and Pesole 2003; Benfey and Protopapas 2004; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory 2005). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">Duplications</a> play a major role in shaping the genome. Duplication may range from extension of <a href="/wiki/Short_tandem_repeats" class="mw-redirect" title="Short tandem repeats">short tandem repeats</a>, to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplication of entire chromosomes or even <a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">entire genomes</a>. Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a> is invoked to explain how there is often an extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related. Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbes</a>. Also, <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic cells</a> seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondrial</a> genomes to their nuclear chromosomes. Recent empirical data suggest an important role of viruses and sub-viral RNA-networks to represent a main driving role to generate genetic novelty and natural genome editing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_fiction">In fiction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: In fiction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Works of science fiction illustrate concerns about the availability of genome sequences. </p><p>Michael Crichton's 1990 novel <a href="/wiki/Jurassic_Park_(novel)" title="Jurassic Park (novel)"><i>Jurassic Park</i></a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Jurassic_Park_(film)" title="Jurassic Park (film)">film</a> tell the story of a billionaire who creates a theme park of cloned dinosaurs on a remote island, with disastrous outcomes. A geneticist extracts dinosaur DNA from the blood of ancient mosquitoes and fills in the gaps with DNA from modern species to create several species of dinosaurs. A chaos theorist is asked to give his expert opinion on the safety of engineering an ecosystem with the dinosaurs, and he repeatedly warns that the outcomes of the project will be unpredictable and ultimately uncontrollable. These warnings about the perils of using genomic information are a major theme of the book. </p><p>The 1997 film <i><a href="/wiki/Gattaca" title="Gattaca">Gattaca</a></i> is set in a futurist society where genomes of children are engineered to contain the most ideal combination of their parents' traits, and metrics such as risk of heart disease and predicted life expectancy are documented for each person based on their genome. People conceived outside of the eugenics program, known as "In-Valids" suffer discrimination and are relegated to menial occupations. The protagonist of the film is an In-Valid who works to defy the supposed genetic odds and achieve his dream of working as a space navigator. The film warns against a future where genomic information fuels prejudice and extreme class differences between those who can and cannot afford genetically engineered children.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_genome_size" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial genome size">Bacterial genome size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryoconservation_of_animal_genetic_resources" title="Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources">Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">DNA methylation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UCSC_Genome_Browser" title="UCSC Genome Browser">Genome Browser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_Compiler" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome Compiler">Genome Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_topology" title="Circuit topology">Genome topology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome-wide_association_study" title="Genome-wide association study">Genome-wide association study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes" title="List of sequenced animal genomes">List of sequenced animal genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_archaeal_genomes" title="List of sequenced archaeal genomes">List of sequenced archaeal genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_bacterial_genomes" title="List of sequenced bacterial genomes">List of sequenced bacterial genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_eukaryotic_genomes" title="List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes">List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_fungi_genomes" title="List of sequenced fungi genomes">List of sequenced fungi genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_plant_genomes" title="List of sequenced plant genomes">List of sequenced plant genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_plastomes" title="List of sequenced plastomes">List of sequenced plastomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_protist_genomes" title="List of sequenced protist genomes">List of sequenced protist genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metagenomics" title="Metagenomics">Metagenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_epidemiology" title="Molecular epidemiology">Molecular epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathological_epidemiology" title="Molecular pathological epidemiology">Molecular pathological epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathology" title="Molecular pathology">Molecular pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_sequence" title="Nucleic acid sequence">Nucleic acid sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-genome" title="Pan-genome">Pan-genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Precision medicine">Precision medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulator_gene" title="Regulator gene">Regulator gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">Whole genome sequencing</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Roth_p.-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roth_p._1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRoth2019" class="citation journal cs1">Roth, Stephanie Clare (1 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6579593">"What is genomic medicine?"</a>. <i>Journal of the Medical Library Association</i>. <b>107</b> (3). University Library System, University of Pittsburgh: <span class="nowrap">442–</span>448. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5195%2Fjmla.2019.604">10.5195/jmla.2019.604</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1558-9439">1558-9439</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6579593">6579593</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31258451">31258451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Medical+Library+Association&rft.atitle=What+is+genomic+medicine%3F&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E442-%3C%2Fspan%3E448&rft.date=2019-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6579593%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1558-9439&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31258451&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5195%2Fjmla.2019.604&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=Stephanie+Clare&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6579593&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graur-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Graur_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Graur_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Graur_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGraurSaterCooper2016" class="citation book cs1">Graur, Dan; Sater, Amy K.; Cooper, Tim F. 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class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid23223451-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid23223451_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHackettSenguptaZyliczMurakami2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hackett JA, Sengupta R, Zylicz JJ, Murakami K, Lee C, Down TA, Surani MA (January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3847602">"Germline DNA demethylation dynamics and imprint erasure through 5-hydroxymethylcytosine"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>339</b> (6118): <span class="nowrap">448–</span>52. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Sci...339..448H">2013Sci...339..448H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1229277">10.1126/science.1229277</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3847602">3847602</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23223451">23223451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Germline+DNA+demethylation+dynamics+and+imprint+erasure+through+5-hydroxymethylcytosine&rft.volume=339&rft.issue=6118&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E448-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.date=2013-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3847602%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23223451&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1229277&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013Sci...339..448H&rft.aulast=Hackett&rft.aufirst=JA&rft.au=Sengupta%2C+R&rft.au=Zylicz%2C+JJ&rft.au=Murakami%2C+K&rft.au=Lee%2C+C&rft.au=Down%2C+TA&rft.au=Surani%2C+MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3847602&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/gattaca/">"Gattaca (movie)"</a>. <i>Rotten Tomatoes</i>. 24 October 1997.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rotten+Tomatoes&rft.atitle=Gattaca+%28movie%29&rft.date=1997-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rottentomatoes.com%2Fm%2Fgattaca%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBenfeyProtopapas2004" class="citation book cs1">Benfey P, Protopapas AD (2004). <i>Essentials of Genomics</i>. Prentice Hall.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Genomics&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Benfey&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Protopapas%2C+AD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrown2002" class="citation book cs1">Brown TA (2002). <i>Genomes 2</i>. Oxford: Bios Scientific Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85996-029-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85996-029-5"><bdi>978-1-85996-029-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genomes+2&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Bios+Scientific+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85996-029-5&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Terence+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGibsonMuse2004" class="citation book cs1">Gibson G, Muse SV (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/primerofgenomesc00greg"><i>A Primer of Genome Science</i></a></span> (Second ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Assoc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-234-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-234-4"><bdi>978-0-87893-234-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Primer+of+Genome+Science&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Mass&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Sinauer+Assoc&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-234-4&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Greg&rft.au=Muse%2C+Spencer+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprimerofgenomesc00greg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGregory2005" class="citation book cs1">Gregory TR (2005). <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Evolution_of_the_Genome&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Evolution of the Genome (page does not exist)"><i>The Evolution of the Genome</i></a>. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-301463-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-301463-4"><bdi>978-0-12-301463-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+the+Genome&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-12-301463-4&rft.aulast=Gregory&rft.aufirst=T.+Ryan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReece2004" class="citation book cs1">Reece RJ (2004). <i>Analysis of Genes and Genomes</i>. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84379-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84379-6"><bdi>978-0-470-84379-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Analysis+of+Genes+and+Genomes&rft.place=Chichester&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-470-84379-6&rft.aulast=Reece&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSacconePesole2003" class="citation book cs1">Saccone C, Pesole G (2003). <i>Handbook of Comparative Genomics</i>. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39128-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39128-9"><bdi>978-0-471-39128-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Comparative+Genomics&rft.place=Chichester&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-471-39128-9&rft.aulast=Saccone&rft.aufirst=Cecilia&rft.au=Pesole%2C+Graziano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenome" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWerner2003" class="citation journal cs1">Werner E (December 2003). "In silico multicellular systems biology and minimal genomes". <i>Drug Discovery Today</i>. <b>8</b> (24): <span class="nowrap">1121–</span>27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1359-6446%2803%2902918-0">10.1016/S1359-6446(03)02918-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14678738">14678738</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Drug+Discovery+Today&rft.atitle=In+silico+multicellular+systems+biology+and+minimal+genomes&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1121-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=2003-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1359-6446%2803%2902918-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14678738&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenome" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genome&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/genome" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/genome">genome</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Genome" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Genome">Genome</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://genome.ucsc.edu">UCSC Genome Browser</a> – view the genome and annotations for more than 80 organisms.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130809102814/http://www.genomecenter.howard.edu/">genomecenter.howard.edu</a> (archived 9 August 2013)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100609223959/http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/dna/builddna/">Build a DNA Molecule</a> (archived 9 June 2010)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/02_01/Sizing_genomes.shtml">Some comparative genome sizes</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dnai.org/">DNA Interactive: The History of DNA Science</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dnaftb.org/">DNA From The Beginning</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genome.gov/10001772">All About The Human Genome Project</a>—from Genome.gov</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genomesize.com/">Animal genome size database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050901105257/http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/cval/homepage.html">Plant genome size database</a> (archived 1 September 2005)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genomesonline.org/">GOLD:Genomes OnLine Database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/">The Genome News Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=genomeprj">NCBI Entrez Genome Project database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/genetics_genome.html">NCBI Genome Primer</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genecards.org/">GeneCards</a>—an integrated database of human genes</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4994088.stm">BBC News – Final genome 'chapter' published</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://img.jgi.doe.gov/">IMG</a> (The Integrated Microbial Genomes system)—for genome analysis by the DOE-JGI</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120303111440/http://www.geknome.com/">GeKnome Technologies Next-Gen Sequencing Data Analysis</a>—next-generation sequencing data analysis for <a href="/wiki/Illumina_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Illumina (company)">Illumina</a> and <a href="/wiki/454_Life_Sciences" title="454 Life Sciences">454</a> Service from GeKnome Technologies (archived 3 March 2012)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output 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class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics" title="Template:Genetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics" title="Template talk:Genetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genetics421" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics" title="Timeline of the history of genetics">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of genetics">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a 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title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">the British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_editing" title="Genome editing">Genome editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Genetic diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_monitoring" title="Genetic monitoring">Genetic monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Jiankui_genome_editing_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="He Jiankui genome editing incident">He Jiankui genome editing incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetics" title="Plant genetics">Plant genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_genetics" title="Reverse genetics">Reverse genetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetic_codes" title="List of genetic codes">List of genetic codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetics_research_organizations" title="List of genetics research organizations">List of genetics research organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genomics334" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genomics" title="Template:Genomics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genomics" title="Template talk:Genomics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genomics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genomics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genomics334" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_genomics" title="Cognitive genomics">Cognitive genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_genomics" title="Computational genomics">Computational genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">Comparative genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_genomics" title="Functional genomics">Functional genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_project" title="Genome project">Genome project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metagenomics" title="Metagenomics">Metagenomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Microbiome_Project" title="Human Microbiome Project">Human Microbiome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncogenomics" title="Oncogenomics">Oncogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangenomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangenomics">Pangenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_genomics" title="Personal genomics">Personal genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociogenomics" title="Sociogenomics"><i>Socio</i>genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_genomics" title="Structural genomics">Structural genomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochip" title="Biochip">Biochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheminformatics" title="Cheminformatics">Cheminformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemogenomics" title="Chemogenomics">Chemogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Connectome_Project" title="Human Connectome Project">Human Connectome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenomics" title="Epigenomics">Epigenomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Epigenome_Project" title="Human Epigenome Project">Human Epigenome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycomics" title="Glycomics">Glycomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunomics" title="Immunomics">Immunomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidomics" title="Lipidomics">Lipidomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolomics" title="Metabolomics">Metabolomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrigenomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrigenomics">Nutrigenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopolyploidy" title="Paleopolyploidy">Paleopolyploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacogenetics">Pharmacogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicogenomics" title="Toxicogenomics">Toxicogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcriptomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcriptomics">Transcriptomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_proteome_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Human proteome project">Human proteome project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call-map_proteomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Call-map proteomics">Call-map proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure-based_drug_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Structure-based drug design">Structure-based drug design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expression_proteomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression proteomics">Expression proteomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-D_electrophoresis" class="mw-redirect" title="2-D electrophoresis">2-D electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">Mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrospray_ionization" title="Electrospray ionization">Electrospray ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption_ionization" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization">Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption_ionization-time_of_flight_mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer">Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfluidic-based_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfluidic-based tools">Microfluidic-based tools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_affinity_tags" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotope affinity tags">Isotope affinity tags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_conformation_capture" title="Chromosome conformation capture">Chromosome conformation capture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_Data_Bank_of_Japan" title="DNA Data Bank of Japan">DNA Data Bank of Japan</a> (JP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Molecular_Biology_Laboratory" title="European Molecular Biology Laboratory">European Molecular Biology Laboratory</a> (EU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> (USA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Sanger_Institute" title="Wellcome Sanger Institute">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_omics_topics_in_biology" title="List of omics topics in biology">List</a> </b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Omics" title="Category:Omics">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Self-replicating_organic_structures216" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Self-replicating_organic_structures" title="Template:Self-replicating organic structures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Self-replicating_organic_structures" title="Template talk:Self-replicating organic structures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Self-replicating_organic_structures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Self-replicating organic structures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Self-replicating_organic_structures216" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replicating</a> organic structures</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Cellular life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protista</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_dark_matter" title="Biological dark matter">Biological dark matter</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:#CEDAF2;"><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_virus#Group_I:_dsDNA_viruses" title="DNA virus">dsDNA virus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giant_virus" title="Giant virus">Giant virus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_virus#Group_II:_ssDNA_viruses" title="DNA virus">ssDNA virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-stranded_RNA_viruses" title="Double-stranded RNA viruses">dsRNA virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_virus#Group_IV—positive-sense_ssRNA_viruses" title="RNA virus">(+)ssRNA virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_virus#Group_V—negative-sense_ssRNA_viruses" title="RNA virus">(−)ssRNA virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrovirus" title="Retrovirus">ssRNA-RT virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DsDNA-RT_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="DsDNA-RT virus">dsDNA-RT virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:#CEDAF2;"><a href="/wiki/Subviral_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Subviral agents">Subviral<br />agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;"><a href="/wiki/Viroid" title="Viroid">Viroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pospiviroidae" title="Pospiviroidae">Pospiviroidae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Avsunviroidae" title="Avsunviroidae">Avsunviroidae</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;"><a href="/wiki/Helper_virus" title="Helper virus">Helper-virus<br />dependent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;"><a href="/wiki/Satellite_(biology)" title="Satellite (biology)">Satellite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>ssRNA satellite virus</li> <li>dsDNA satellite virus (<a href="/wiki/Virophage" title="Virophage">Virophage</a>)</li> <li>ssDNA satellite virus</li> <li>ssDNA satellite</li> <li>dsRNA satellite</li> <li>ssRNA satellite (<a href="/wiki/Virusoid" title="Virusoid">Virusoid</a>)</li> <li>Satellite-like nucleic acids <ul><li>RNA</li> <li>DNA</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;background:#CEDAF2;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defective_interfering_particle" title="Defective interfering particle">Defective interfering particle</a> <ul><li>RNA</li> <li>DNA</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Prion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Mammalian prion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_prion" title="Fungal prion">Fungal prion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acid</a><br />self-replication</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Mobile_genetic_elements" title="Mobile genetic elements">Mobile genetic<br />elements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobilome" title="Mobilome">Mobilome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomic_island" title="Genomic island">Genomic island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transposable_element" title="Transposable element">Transposable element</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrotransposon" title="Retrotransposon">Class I or retrotransposon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_transposon" title="DNA transposon">Class II or DNA transposon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_factor_(bacteria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertility factor (bacteria)">Fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-factor" class="mw-redirect" title="R-factor">Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colicin" title="Colicin">Col</a></li> <li>Degradative</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">Virulence</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ti_plasmid" title="Ti plasmid">Ti</a></li> <li>Cryptic</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmid" title="Cosmid">Cosmid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fosmid" title="Fosmid">Fosmid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phagemid" title="Phagemid">Phagemid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_I_catalytic_intron" title="Group I catalytic intron">Group I intron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_II_intron" title="Group II intron">Group II intron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrozyme" title="Retrozyme">Retrozyme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: center;">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase" title="RNA-dependent RNA polymerase">RNA replication</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_chromosome" title="Linear chromosome">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_chromosome" title="Circular chromosome">Circular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrachromosomal_DNA" title="Extrachromosomal DNA">Extrachromosomal DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_chromosome" title="Secondary chromosome">Secondary chromosome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">Gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">Gene duplication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-coding_DNA" title="Non-coding DNA">Non-coding DNA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_replication" title="Origin of replication">Origin of replication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Replicon_(genetics)" title="Replicon (genetics)">Replicon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_viral_element" title="Endogenous viral element">Endogenous viral element</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provirus" title="Provirus">Provirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophage" title="Prophage">Prophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_retrovirus" title="Endogenous retrovirus">Endogenous retrovirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpoviron" title="Transpoviron">Transpoviron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeated_sequence_(DNA)" title="Repeated sequence (DNA)">Repeated sequences in DNA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tandem_repeat" title="Tandem repeat">Tandem repeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspersed_repeat" title="Interspersed repeat">Interspersed repeat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">Endosymbiosis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">Mitochondrion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitosome" title="Mitosome">Mitosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogenosome" title="Hydrogenosome">Hydrogenosome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">Chloroplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromoplast" title="Chromoplast">Chromoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontoplast" title="Gerontoplast">Gerontoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucoplast" title="Leucoplast">Leucoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apicoplast" title="Apicoplast">Apicoplast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappa_organism" title="Kappa organism">Kappa organism</a></li> <li>Organs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriome" title="Bacteriome">Bacteriome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophosome" title="Trophosome">Trophosome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitroplast" title="Nitroplast">Nitroplast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li>?<a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">Ribozyme</a></li></ul></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coacervate" title="Coacervate">Coacervate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteinoid" title="Proteinoid">Proteinoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulphobes" title="Sulphobes">Sulphobe</a></li> <li>Research <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_lipid_bilayer" title="Model lipid bilayer">Model lipid bilayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeewanu" title="Jeewanu">Jeewanu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">Cell division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_cell" title="Artificial cell">Artificial cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cellular_life" title="Non-cellular life">Non-cellular life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_virology" title="Synthetic virology">Synthetic virus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_vector" title="Viral vector">Viral vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helper_dependent_virus" title="Helper dependent virus">Helper dependent virus</a></li></ul></li> <li>?<a href="/wiki/Nanobacterium" title="Nanobacterium">Nanobacterium</a></li> <li>?<a href="/wiki/Nanobe" title="Nanobe">Nanobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_cell" title="Cancer cell">Cancer cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HeLa" title="HeLa">HeLa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonally_transmissible_cancer" title="Clonally transmissible cancer">Clonally transmissible cancer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virome" title="Virome">Virome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link 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