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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Production</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Production-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Production subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metalworking_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metalworking_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Metalworking processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metalworking_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heat_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Heat treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Plating</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shot_peening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shot_peening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Shot peening</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shot_peening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal_spraying" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_spraying"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Thermal spraying</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_spraying-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electroless_deposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electroless_deposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Electroless deposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electroless_deposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characterization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characterization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Characterization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characterization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Metallurgy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 117 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-117" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">117 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaalkunde" title="Metaalkunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Metaalkunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgie" title="Metallurgie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Metallurgie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="धातुविज्ञान – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="धातुविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علم الفلزات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الفلزات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurchia" title="Metalurchia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Metalurchia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մետաղագործութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մետաղագործութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurxa" title="Metalurxa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Metalurxa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="धातुविज्ञान – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="धातुविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuarepotikuaa" title="Kuarepotikuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Kuarepotikuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgiya" title="Metallurgiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Metallurgiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="متالوژی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="متالوژی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="ধাতুবিদ্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ধাতুবিদ্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%A1-kim" title="Iá-kim – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iá-kim" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Металлургия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Металлургия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Металургія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Металургія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Мэталюргія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мэталюргія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Металургия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Металургия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metoikunde" title="Metoikunde – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Metoikunde" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgija" title="Metalurgija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Metalurgija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalouriezh" title="Metalouriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Metalouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Металлурги – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Металлурги" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal%C2%B7l%C3%BArgia" title="Metal·lúrgia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Metal·lúrgia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgie" title="Metalurgie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Metalurgie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukowasimbi" title="Mukowasimbi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mukowasimbi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteleg" title="Meteleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Meteleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgi" title="Metallurgi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Metallurgi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgie" title="Metallurgie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Metallurgie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgia" title="Metallurgia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Metallurgia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Μεταλλουργία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεταλλουργία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgia" title="Metalurgia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Metalurgia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgio" title="Metalurgio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Metalurgio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgia" title="Metalurgia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Metalurgia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%98%DB%8C" title="متالورژی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="متالورژی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaatu_vigyan" title="Dhaatu vigyan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Dhaatu vigyan" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9tallurgie" title="Métallurgie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Métallurgie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miotal%C3%B3ireacht" title="Miotalóireacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Miotalóireacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurxia" title="Metalurxia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Metalurxia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E5%AD%B8" title="冶金學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="冶金學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%A7%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="ધાતુશાસ્ત્ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ધાતુશાસ્ત્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%88%EC%86%8D%EA%B3%B5%ED%95%99" title="금속공학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="금속공학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Մետալուրգիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մետալուրգիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="धातुकर्म – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="धातुकर्म" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgija" title="Metalurgija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Metalurgija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgio" title="Metalurgio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Metalurgio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurhia" title="Metalurhia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Metalurhia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgi" title="Metalurgi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Metalurgi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B3%D1%8A%C3%A6%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82" title="Згъæркуыст – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Згъæркуыст" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1lmfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Málmfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Málmfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgia" title="Metallurgia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Metallurgia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="מטלורגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מטלורגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%CC%84%C9%A9%C9%A3l%C9%A9m_t%CA%8Bm%C9%A9y%C9%9B_la%C9%A3s%C9%A9_(M%C3%A9tallurgie)" title="N̄ɩɣlɩm tʋmɩyɛ laɣsɩ (Métallurgie) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="N̄ɩɣlɩm tʋmɩyɛ laɣsɩ (Métallurgie)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಲೋಹಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಲೋಹಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მეტალურგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მეტალურგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Металлургия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Металлургия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkanieth" title="Alkanieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Alkanieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ufuaji_metali" title="Ufuaji metali – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ufuaji metali" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9talirji" title="Métalirji – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Métalirji" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Металлургия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Металлургия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgia" title="Metallurgia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Metallurgia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalur%C4%A3ija" title="Metalurģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Metalurģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgija" title="Metalurgija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Metalurgija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgie" title="Metallurgie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Metallurgie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makambo_mwa_bibend%C3%A9" title="Makambo mwa bibendé – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Makambo mwa bibendé" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koh%C3%A1szat" title="Kohászat – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kohászat" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Металургија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Металургија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ലോഹസംസ്കരണശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലോഹസംസ്കരണശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="धातुशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="धातुशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgi" title="Metalurgi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Metalurgi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgie" title="Metalurgie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Metalurgie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Металлург – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Металлург" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgie" title="Metallurgie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Metallurgie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="धातुशास्त्र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="धातुशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%87%91%E5%B1%9E%E5%B7%A5%E5%AD%A6" title="金属工学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="金属工学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgi" title="Metallurgi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Metallurgi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgi" title="Metallurgi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Metallurgi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgia" title="Metallurgia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Metallurgia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgiya" title="Metallurgiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Metallurgiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86" title="ਧਾਤ ਵਿੱਦਿਆ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਧਾਤ ਵਿੱਦਿਆ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="میٹلرجی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="میٹلرجی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%98%D9%8A" title="متالورژي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="متالورژي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaloerji" title="Metaloerji – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Metaloerji" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgia" title="Metalurgia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Metalurgia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgia" title="Metalurgia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Metalurgia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgie" title="Metalurgie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Metalurgie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%27illay_llamk%27ay" title="Q'illay llamk'ay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Q'illay llamk'ay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D2%91%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Металурґія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Металурґія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Металлургия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Металлургия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8_%D1%83%D2%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8B" title="Тимири уһаарыы – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Тимири уһаарыы" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Metallurgy" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgjia" title="Metalurgjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Metalurgjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitallurgia" title="Mitallurgia – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Mitallurgia" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Metallurgy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgia" title="Metalurgia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Metalurgia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgija" title="Metalurgija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Metalurgija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="کانزاناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کانزاناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Металургија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Металургија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgija" title="Metalurgija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Metalurgija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgia" title="Metallurgia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Metallurgia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgi" title="Metallurgi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Metallurgi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurhiya" title="Metalurhiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Metalurhiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="உலோகவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உலோகவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Металлургия – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Металлургия" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3" title="วิศวกรรมโลหการ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิศวกรรมโลหการ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurji" title="Metalurji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Metalurji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Металургія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Металургія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DA%BE%D8%A7%D8%AA_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="دھات کاری – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="دھات کاری" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgii" title="Metallurgii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Metallurgii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luy%E1%BB%87n_kim" title="Luyện kim – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Luyện kim" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgia" title="Metallurgia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Metallurgia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurdjeye" title="Metalurdjeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Metalurdjeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurhiya" title="Metalurhiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Metalurhiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E5%AD%A6" title="冶金学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="冶金学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="מעטאלורגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מעטאלורגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E5%AD%B8" title="冶金學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="冶金學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurciye" title="Metallurciye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Metallurciye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalorg%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Metalorgėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Metalorgėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%B6%E9%87%91%E5%AD%A6" title="冶金学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="冶金学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgic_Engineering&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallurgic Engineering">Metallurgic Engineering</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Field of science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:279px;max-width:279px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:277px;max-width:277px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Processing_gold.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Processing_gold.jpg/275px-Processing_gold.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Processing_gold.jpg/413px-Processing_gold.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Processing_gold.jpg/550px-Processing_gold.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Gold <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> workers in <a href="/wiki/Siuna" title="Siuna">Siuna</a>, Nicaragua in the late 20th century</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:277px;max-width:277px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pouring_gold.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pouring_gold.jpg/275px-Pouring_gold.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pouring_gold.jpg/413px-Pouring_gold.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Pouring_gold.jpg/550px-Pouring_gold.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Casting_(metalworking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Casting (metalworking)">Casting</a>, the process of pouring molten metal into a mold</div></div></div></div></div> <p><b>Metallurgy</b> is a domain of <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science and engineering</a> that studies the physical and chemical behavior of <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metallic</a> <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a>, their <a href="/wiki/Inter-metallic_alloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-metallic alloy">inter-metallic compounds</a>, and their mixtures, which are known as <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>. </p><p>Metallurgy encompasses both the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a> of metals, including the production of <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> and the engineering of metal components used in products for both consumers and manufacturers. Metallurgy is distinct from the <a href="/wiki/Craft" title="Craft">craft</a> of <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">metalworking</a>. Metalworking relies on metallurgy in a similar manner to how <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> relies on medical science for technical advancement. A specialist <a href="/wiki/Practitioner%E2%80%93scholar_model" title="Practitioner–scholar model">practitioner</a> of metallurgy is known as a metallurgist. </p><p>The science of metallurgy is further subdivided into two broad categories: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_metallurgy" title="Chemical metallurgy">chemical metallurgy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_metallurgy" title="Physical metallurgy">physical metallurgy</a>. Chemical metallurgy is chiefly concerned with the reduction and oxidation of metals, and the chemical performance of metals. Subjects of study in chemical metallurgy include <a href="/wiki/Mineral_processing" title="Mineral processing">mineral processing</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">extraction of metals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>, and chemical degradation (<a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Physical_metallurgy" title="Physical metallurgy">physical metallurgy</a> focuses on the mechanical properties of metals, the physical properties of metals, and the physical performance of metals. Topics studied in physical metallurgy include <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">material characterization</a>, mechanical metallurgy, <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transformations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_failure_analysis" title="Metallurgical failure analysis">failure mechanisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, metallurgy has predominately focused on the production of metals. Metal production begins with the processing of <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ores</a> to extract the metal, and includes the mixture of metals to make <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>. Metal alloys are often a blend of at least two different metallic elements. However, non-metallic elements are often added to alloys in order to achieve properties suitable for an application. The study of metal production is subdivided into <a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">ferrous metallurgy</a> (also known as <i>black metallurgy</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Non-ferrous_metallurgy" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-ferrous metallurgy">non-ferrous metallurgy</a>, also known as colored metallurgy. </p><p>Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on other metals. The production of ferrous metals accounts for 95% of world metal production.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern metallurgists work in both emerging and traditional areas as part of an interdisciplinary team alongside material scientists and other engineers. Some traditional areas include mineral processing, metal production, heat treatment, <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_failure_analysis" title="Metallurgical failure analysis">failure analysis</a>, and the joining of metals (including <a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazing" title="Brazing">brazing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soldering" title="Soldering">soldering</a>). Emerging areas for metallurgists include <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">biomedical materials</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic Materials">electronic materials</a> (semiconductors) and <a href="/wiki/Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">surface engineering</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_pronunciation">Etymology and pronunciation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and pronunciation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Metallurgy</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">μεταλλουργός</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">metallourgós</i></span>, "worker in metal", from <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">μέταλλον</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">métallon</i></span>, "mine, metal" + <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἔργον</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">érgon</i></span>, "work" The word was originally an <a href="/wiki/Alchemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemist">alchemist</a>'s term for the extraction of metals from minerals, the ending <i>-urgy</i> signifying a process, especially manufacturing: it was discussed in this sense in the 1797 <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 19th century, metallurgy's definition was extended to the more general scientific study of metals, alloys, and related processes. In <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, the <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> pronunciation is the more common one in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. The <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/əl/: 'le' in 'bottle'">əl</span><span title="/ɜːr/: 'ur' in 'fur'">ɜːr</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> pronunciation is the more common one in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> US and is the first-listed variant in various American dictionaries, including <i>Merriam-Webster Collegiate</i> and <i>American Heritage</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_ferrous_metallurgy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ferrous metallurgy">History of ferrous metallurgy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mining_and_metallurgy_in_medieval_Europe" title="Mining and metallurgy in medieval Europe">Mining and metallurgy in medieval Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America" title="Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America">Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica" title="Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica">Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Copper metallurgy in Africa">Copper metallurgy in Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Iron metallurgy in Africa">Iron metallurgy in Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Non-ferrous_extractive_metallurgy" title="Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy">Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grave_offerings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Grave_offerings.jpg/220px-Grave_offerings.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Grave_offerings.jpg/330px-Grave_offerings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Grave_offerings.jpg/440px-Grave_offerings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1562" /></a><figcaption>Artefacts from the <a href="/wiki/Varna_Necropolis" title="Varna Necropolis">Varna Necropolis</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/220px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/330px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/440px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1249" data-file-height="693" /></a><figcaption>The mining areas of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> with <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> (in brown), <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> (in red), <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> (in grey), iron (in reddish brown), gold (in yellow), silver (in white), <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> (in black), <a href="/wiki/Arsenic_bronze" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsenic bronze">arsenic bronze</a> (in yellow), and tin (in bronze)</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest metal employed by humans appears to be <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, which can be found "<a href="/wiki/Native_metal" title="Native metal">native</a>". Small amounts of natural gold, dating to the late <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> period, 40,000 BC, have been found in Spanish caves. <sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_iron" title="Meteoric iron">meteoric iron</a> can also be found in native form, allowing a limited amount of <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">metalworking</a> in early cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-ephotos_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ephotos-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early cold metallurgy, using <a href="/wiki/Native_copper" title="Native copper">native copper</a> not melted from mineral has been documented at sites in <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and at the site of <a href="/wiki/Tell_Maghzaliyah" title="Tell Maghzaliyah">Tell Maghzaliyah</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, dating from the 7th/6th millennia BC.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:22_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest archaeological support of <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> (hot metallurgy) in Eurasia is found in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains" title="Carpathian Mountains">Carpathian Mountains</a>, as evidenced by findings of objects made by metal casting and smelting dated to around 6000-5000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:22_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain metals, such as tin, lead, and copper can be recovered from their ores by simply heating the rocks in a fire or blast furnace in a process known as smelting. The first evidence of copper smelting, dating from the 6th millennium BC,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has been found at archaeological sites in <a href="/wiki/Majdanpek" title="Majdanpek">Majdanpek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jarmovac" class="mw-redirect" title="Jarmovac">Jarmovac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plo%C4%8Dnik_(archeological_site)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pločnik (archeological site)">Pločnik</a>, in present-day <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The site of Pločnik has produced a smelted copper axe dating from 5,500 BC, belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Vin%C4%8Da_culture" title="Vinča culture">Vinča culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Balkans and adjacent <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Basin" title="Pannonian Basin">Carpathian</a> region were the location of major <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic_Europe" title="Chalcolithic Europe">Chalcolithic</a> cultures including <a href="/wiki/Vin%C4%8Da_culture" title="Vinča culture">Vinča</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varna_culture" title="Varna culture">Varna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karanovo_culture" title="Karanovo culture">Karanovo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gumelni%C8%9Ba_culture" title="Gumelnița culture">Gumelnița</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hamangia_culture" title="Hamangia culture">Hamangia</a>, which are often grouped together under the name of '<a href="/wiki/Old_Europe_(archaeology)" title="Old Europe (archaeology)">Old Europe</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the Carpatho-Balkan region described as the 'earliest metallurgical province in Eurasia',<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> its scale and technical quality of metal production in the 6th–5th millennia BC totally overshadowed that of any other contemporary production centre.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest documented use of lead (possibly native or smelted) in the Near East dates from the 6th millennium BC, is from the late <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> settlements of <a href="/wiki/Yarim_Tepe" title="Yarim Tepe">Yarim Tepe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arpachiyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Arpachiyah">Arpachiyah</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. The artifacts suggest that lead smelting may have predated copper smelting.<sup id="cite_ref-Potts_2012_p._302_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Potts_2012_p._302-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metallurgy of lead has also been found in the Balkans during the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copper smelting is documented at sites in <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and at the site of Tal-i Iblis in southeastern <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Iran</a> from c. 5000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copper smelting is first documented in the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Delta</a> region of northern <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in c. 4000 BC, associated with the <a href="/wiki/Maadi_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Maadi culture">Maadi culture</a>. This represents the earliest evidence for smelting in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Varna_Necropolis" title="Varna Necropolis">Varna Necropolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, is a burial site located in the western industrial zone of <a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Varna</a>, approximately 4 km from the city centre, internationally considered one of the key archaeological sites in world prehistory. The oldest <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> treasure in the world, dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC, was discovered at the site.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gold piece dating from 4,500 BC, found in 2019 in <a href="/wiki/Durankulak" title="Durankulak">Durankulak</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Varna</a> is another important example.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other signs of early metals are found from the third millennium BC in <a href="/wiki/Palmela" title="Palmela">Palmela</a>, Portugal, <a href="/wiki/Los_Millares" title="Los Millares">Los Millares</a>, Spain, and <a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a>, United Kingdom. The precise beginnings, however, have not be clearly ascertained and new discoveries are both continuous and ongoing. </p><p>In approximately 1900 BC, ancient iron smelting sites existed in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Near East</a>, about 3,500 BC, it was discovered that by combining copper and tin, a superior metal could be made, an <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</a> called <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>. This represented a major technological shift known as the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>. </p><p>The extraction of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult than for copper or tin. The process appears to have been invented by the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> in about 1200 BC, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>. The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the <a href="/wiki/Philistines" title="Philistines">Philistines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-keller_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-keller-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>, ancient <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, ancient <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, ancient <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Ancient Nok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> of ancient <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, ancient and medieval <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, ancient and medieval <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, amongst others. </p><p>A 16th century book by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Agricola" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Agricola">Georg Agricola</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/De_re_metallica" title="De re metallica">De re metallica</a></i>, describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction, and metallurgy of the time. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extraction">Extraction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Extraction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">Extractive metallurgy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/220px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/330px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/440px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of a furnace bellows operated by <a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">waterwheels</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuan Dynasty">Yuan Dynasty</a> in China</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">Extractive metallurgy</a> is the practice of removing valuable metals from an <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer form. In order to convert a metal <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulphide</a> to a purer metal, the ore must be <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduced</a> physically, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemically</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytically</a>. Extractive <a href="/wiki/Metallurgist" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallurgist">metallurgists</a> are interested in three primary streams: feed, concentrate (metal oxide/sulphide) and <a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">tailings</a> (waste). </p><p>After mining, large pieces of the ore feed are broken through crushing or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough, where each particle is either mostly valuable or mostly waste. Concentrating the particles of value in a form supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products. </p><p>Mining may not be necessary, if the ore body and physical environment are conducive to <a href="/wiki/In-situ_leaching" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ leaching">leaching</a>. Leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched solution. The solution is collected and processed to extract valuable metals. Ore bodies often contain more than one valuable metal. </p><p>Tailings of a previous process may be used as a feed in another process to extract a secondary product from the original ore. Additionally, a concentrate may contain more than one valuable metal. That concentrate would then be processed to separate the valuable metals into individual constituents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metal_and_its_alloys">Metal and its alloys</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Metal and its alloys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">Metal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">Alloy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/220px-Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/330px-Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/440px-Iron_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5135" data-file-height="3197" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a>, the most common metal used in metallurgy, is shown in different forms, including cubes, chips, and nuggets</figcaption></figure> <p>Much effort has been placed on understanding <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>–carbon alloy system, which includes <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast irons</a>. <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">Plain carbon steels</a> (those that contain essentially only carbon as an alloying element) are used in low-cost, high-strength applications, where neither weight nor <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> are a major concern. Cast irons, including <a href="/wiki/Ductile_iron" title="Ductile iron">ductile iron</a>, are also part of the iron-carbon system. Iron-Manganese-Chromium alloys (Hadfield-type steels) are also used in non-magnetic applications such as directional drilling. </p><p>Other engineering <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> include <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>. These metals are most often used as alloys with the noted exception of silicon, which is not a metal. Other forms include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">Stainless steel</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Austenitic_stainless_steel" title="Austenitic stainless steel">Austenitic stainless steels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galvanized_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Galvanized steel">galvanized steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Nickel_alloys" title="Category:Nickel alloys">nickel alloys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Titanium_alloys" title="Titanium alloys">titanium alloys</a>, or occasionally <a href="/wiki/List_of_copper_alloys" title="List of copper alloys">copper alloys</a> are used, where resistance to corrosion is important.</li> <li>Aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys are commonly used, when a lightweight strong part is required such as in automotive and aerospace applications.</li> <li>Copper-nickel alloys (such as <a href="/wiki/Monel" title="Monel">Monel</a>) are used in highly corrosive environments and for non-magnetic applications.</li> <li>Nickel-based <a href="/wiki/Superalloy" title="Superalloy">superalloys</a> like <a href="/wiki/Inconel" title="Inconel">Inconel</a> are used in high-temperature applications such as <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turbocharger" title="Turbocharger">turbochargers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pressure_vessel" title="Pressure vessel">pressure vessels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">heat exchangers</a>.</li> <li>For extremely high temperatures, <a href="/wiki/Single_crystal" title="Single crystal">single crystal</a> alloys are used to minimize <a href="/wiki/Creep_(deformation)" title="Creep (deformation)">creep</a>. In modern electronics, high purity single crystal silicon is essential for <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">metal-oxide-silicon</a> transistors (MOS) and <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">production engineering</a>, metallurgy is concerned with the production of metallic components for use in consumer or <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> products. This involves production of alloys, shaping, heat treatment and surface treatment of product. The task of the metallurgist is to achieve balance between material properties, such as cost, <a href="/wiki/Weight" title="Weight">weight</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">strength</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toughness" title="Toughness">toughness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hardness_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hardness (materials science)">hardness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">fatigue</a> resistance and performance in <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> extremes. To achieve this goal, the operating environment must be carefully considered.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Determining the hardness of the metal using the Rockwell, Vickers, and Brinell hardness scales is a commonly used practice that helps better understand the metal's elasticity and plasticity for different applications and production processes.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a saltwater environment, most ferrous metals and some non-ferrous alloys corrode quickly. Metals exposed to cold or <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic">cryogenic</a> conditions may undergo a ductile to brittle transition and lose their toughness, becoming more brittle and prone to cracking. Metals under continual cyclic loading can suffer from <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">metal fatigue</a>. Metals under constant <a href="/wiki/Stress_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physics)">stress</a> at elevated temperatures can <a href="/wiki/Creep_(deformation)" title="Creep (deformation)">creep</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metalworking_processes">Metalworking processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Metalworking processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">Metalworking</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bochumer_Verein-08-50124.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Bochumer_Verein-08-50124.jpg/220px-Bochumer_Verein-08-50124.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Bochumer_Verein-08-50124.jpg/330px-Bochumer_Verein-08-50124.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Bochumer_Verein-08-50124.jpg/440px-Bochumer_Verein-08-50124.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>An open-die drop forging with two dies of an ingot, which is then further processed into a wheel</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casting_(metalworking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Casting (metalworking)">Casting</a> – molten metal is poured into a shaped <a href="/wiki/Molding_(process)" title="Molding (process)">mold</a>. Variants of casting include <a href="/wiki/Sand_casting" title="Sand casting">sand casting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Investment_casting" title="Investment casting">investment casting</a>, also called the lost wax process, <a href="/wiki/Die_casting" title="Die casting">die casting</a>, centrifugal casting, both vertical and horizontal, and continuous castings. Each of these forms has advantages for certain metals and applications considering factors like magnetism and corrosion.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">Forging</a> – a red-hot <a href="/wiki/Billet_(manufacturing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Billet (manufacturing)">billet</a> is hammered into shape.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)" title="Rolling (metalworking)">Rolling</a> – a billet is passed through successively narrower rollers to create a sheet.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrusion" title="Extrusion">Extrusion</a> – a hot and malleable metal is forced under pressure through a <a href="/wiki/Die_(manufacturing)" title="Die (manufacturing)">die</a>, which shapes it before it cools.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machining" title="Machining">Machining</a> – <a href="/wiki/Lathe_(tool)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lathe (tool)">lathes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milling_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Milling machine">milling machines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drill" title="Drill">drills</a> cut the cold metal to shape.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">Sintering</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Powder_metallurgy" title="Powder metallurgy">powdered metal</a> is heated in a non-oxidizing environment after being compressed into a die.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabrication_(metal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrication (metal)">Fabrication</a> – sheets of metal are cut with <a href="/wiki/Guillotine" title="Guillotine">guillotines</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gas_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas welding">gas cutters</a> and bent and welded into structural shape.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladding_(metalworking)" title="Cladding (metalworking)">Laser cladding</a> – metallic powder is blown through a movable laser beam (e.g. mounted on a NC 5-axis machine). The resulting melted metal reaches a substrate to form a melt pool. By moving the laser head, it is possible to stack the tracks and build up a three-dimensional piece.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a> – Sintering or melting amorphous powder metal in a 3D space to make any object to shape.</li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Cold_working" title="Cold working">Cold-working</a> processes, in which the product's shape is altered by rolling, fabrication or other processes, while the product is cold, can increase the strength of the product by a process called <a href="/wiki/Work_hardening" title="Work hardening">work hardening</a>. Work hardening creates <a href="/wiki/Dislocation" title="Dislocation">microscopic defects</a> in the metal, which resist further changes of shape. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat_treatment">Heat treatment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Heat treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg/220px-Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg/330px-Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg/440px-Heat-Treating-Furnace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>A heat treating furnace at 1,800 °F (980 °C)</figcaption></figure> <p>Metals can be <a href="/wiki/Heat_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat treatment">heat-treated</a> to alter the properties of strength, ductility, toughness, hardness and resistance to corrosion. Common heat treatment processes include annealing, <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_strengthening" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation strengthening">precipitation strengthening</a>, quenching, and tempering:<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Annealing</a> process softens the metal by heating it and then allowing it to cool very slowly, which gets rid of stresses in the metal and makes the grain structure large and soft-edged so that, when the metal is hit or stressed it dents or perhaps bends, rather than breaking; it is also easier to sand, grind, or cut annealed metal.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">Quenching</a> is the process of cooling metal very quickly after heating, thus "freezing" the metal's molecules in the very hard martensite form, which makes the metal harder.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering</a> relieves stresses in the metal that were caused by the hardening process; tempering makes the metal less hard while making it better able to sustain impacts without breaking.</li></ul> <p>Often, mechanical and thermal treatments are combined in what are known as thermo-mechanical treatments for better properties and more efficient processing of materials. These processes are common to high-alloy special steels, <a href="/wiki/Superalloy" title="Superalloy">superalloys</a> and titanium alloys. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plating">Plating</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Plating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plating" title="Plating">Plating</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copper_electroplating_principle_(multilingual).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Copper_electroplating_principle_%28multilingual%29.svg/220px-Copper_electroplating_principle_%28multilingual%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Copper_electroplating_principle_%28multilingual%29.svg/330px-Copper_electroplating_principle_%28multilingual%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Copper_electroplating_principle_%28multilingual%29.svg/440px-Copper_electroplating_principle_%28multilingual%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>A simplified diagram of electroplating copper on a metal</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">Electroplating</a> is a chemical surface-treatment technique. It involves bonding a thin layer of another metal such as <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> to the surface of the product. This is done by selecting the coating material electrolyte solution, which is the material that is going to coat the workpiece (gold, silver, zinc). There needs to be two electrodes of different materials: one the same material as the coating material and one that is receiving the coating material. Two electrodes are electrically charged and the coating material is stuck to the work piece. It is used to reduce corrosion as well as to improve the product's aesthetic appearance. It is also used to make inexpensive metals look like the more expensive ones (gold, silver).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shot_peening">Shot peening</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Shot peening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shot_peening" title="Shot peening">Shot peening</a></div> <p>Shot peening is a cold working process used to finish metal parts. In the process of shot peening, small round shot is blasted against the surface of the part to be finished. This process is used to prolong the product life of the part, prevent stress corrosion failures, and also prevent fatigue. The shot leaves small dimples on the surface like a peen hammer does, which cause compression stress under the dimple. As the shot media strikes the material over and over, it forms many overlapping dimples throughout the piece being treated. The compression stress in the surface of the material strengthens the part and makes it more resistant to fatigue failure, stress failures, corrosion failure, and cracking.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_spraying">Thermal spraying</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Thermal spraying"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thermal_spraying" title="Thermal spraying">Thermal spraying</a></div> <p>Thermal spraying techniques are another popular finishing option, and often have better high temperature properties than electroplated coatings. Thermal spraying, also known as a spray welding process,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an industrial coating process that consists of a heat source (flame or other) and a coating material that can be in a powder or wire form, which is melted then sprayed on the surface of the material being treated at a high velocity. The spray treating process is known by many different names such as HVOF (High Velocity Oxygen Fuel), plasma spray, flame spray, arc spray and metalizing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electroless_deposition">Electroless deposition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Electroless deposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electroless_deposition" title="Electroless deposition">Electroless deposition</a></div> <p>Electroless deposition (ED) or electroless plating is defined as the <a href="/wiki/Autocatalysis" title="Autocatalysis">autocatalytic process</a> through which metals and metal alloys are deposited onto nonconductive surfaces. These nonconductive surfaces include plastics, ceramics, and glass etc., which can then become decorative, anti-corrosive, and conductive depending on their final functions. Electroless deposition is a chemical processes that create <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> coatings on various materials by <a href="/wiki/Autocatalysis" title="Autocatalysis">autocatalytic</a> <a href="/wiki/Redox_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Redox reaction">chemical reduction</a> of metal <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a> in a liquid bath. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characterization">Characterization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Characterization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AlubronzeCuAl20v500.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AlubronzeCuAl20v500.png/220px-AlubronzeCuAl20v500.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AlubronzeCuAl20v500.png/330px-AlubronzeCuAl20v500.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AlubronzeCuAl20v500.png/440px-AlubronzeCuAl20v500.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Metallography allows the metallurgist to study the microstructure of metals.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Metallurgist" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallurgist">Metallurgists</a> study the microscopic and macroscopic structure of metals using <a href="/wiki/Metallography" title="Metallography">metallography</a>, a technique invented by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clifton_Sorby" title="Henry Clifton Sorby">Henry Clifton Sorby</a>. </p><p>In metallography, an alloy of interest is ground flat and polished to a mirror finish. The sample can then be etched to reveal the microstructure and macrostructure of the metal. The sample is then examined in an optical or <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a>, and the image contrast provides details on the composition, mechanical properties, and processing history. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a>, often using <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a> of <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-rays</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, is another valuable tool available to the modern metallurgist. Crystallography allows identification of unknown materials and reveals the crystal structure of the sample. Quantitative crystallography can be used to calculate the amount of phases present as well as the degree of strain to which a sample has been subjected. </p><p>Current advanced characterization techniques, which are used frequently in this field are: <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">Scanning Electron Microscopy</a> (SEM), <a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Transmission electron microscopy">Transmission Electron Microscopy</a> (TEM), <a href="/wiki/Electron_backscatter_diffraction" title="Electron backscatter diffraction">Electron Backscattered Diffraction</a> (EBSD) and <a href="/wiki/Atom_probe" title="Atom probe">Atom-Probe Tomography</a> (APT). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrien_Chenot" title="Adrien Chenot">Adrien Chenot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeometallurgy" title="Archaeometallurgy">Archaeometallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blacksmith" title="Blacksmith">Blacksmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CALPHAD_(method)" class="mw-redirect" title="CALPHAD (method)">CALPHAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonyl_metallurgy" title="Carbonyl metallurgy">Carbonyl metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupellation" title="Cupellation">Cupellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeometallurgy" title="Experimental archaeometallurgy">Experimental archaeometallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">Forging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldbeating" class="mw-redirect" title="Goldbeating">Goldbeating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_phosphine_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold phosphine complex">Gold phosphine complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_failure_analysis" title="Metallurgical failure analysis">Metallurgical failure analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">Metalworking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineral industry">Mineral industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrometallurgy" title="Pyrometallurgy">Pyrometallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metallurgy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMooreBoyce1990" class="citation book cs1">Moore, John Jeremy; Boyce, E. A. (1990). <i>Chemical Metallurgy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fc2013-0-00969-3">10.1016/c2013-0-00969-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0408053693" title="Special:BookSources/978-0408053693"><bdi>978-0408053693</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemical+Metallurgy&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fc2013-0-00969-3&rft.isbn=978-0408053693&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=John+Jeremy&rft.au=Boyce%2C+E.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaghavan2015" class="citation book cs1">Raghavan, V (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TNDKCgAAQBAJ"><i>Physical Metallurgy: Principles and Practice</i></a> (3rd ed.). PHI Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120351707" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120351707"><bdi>978-8120351707</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624195141/https://books.google.com/books?id=TNDKCgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Metallurgy%3A+Principles+and+Practice&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=PHI+Learning&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-8120351707&rft.aulast=Raghavan&rft.aufirst=V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTNDKCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/bse/108584/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F">"Металлургия"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150118031950/http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/bse/108584/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F">Archived</a> 18 January 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. in <i>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Soviet_Encyclopedia" title="Great Soviet Encyclopedia">Great Soviet Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1979.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/metallurgy">"metallurgy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Learner%27s_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Learner's Dictionary">Oxford Learner's Dictionary</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140801110336/http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/metallurgy">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=metallurgy&rft.btitle=Oxford+Learner%27s+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Fmetallurgy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYannopoulos1991" class="citation book cs1">Yannopoulos, J. C. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE7uBwAAQBAJ&dq=history+of+gold+begins+in+antiquity.+Bits+of+gold+were+found+in+Spanish+caves+that+were+used+by+Paleolithic+people+around+40,000+B.C.&pg=PP8"><i>The Extractive Metallurgy of Gold</i></a>. Boston, MA: Springer US. pp. ix. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4684-8425-0">10.1007/978-1-4684-8425-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4684-8427-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4684-8427-4"><bdi>978-1-4684-8427-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Extractive+Metallurgy+of+Gold&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Springer+US&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4684-8425-0&rft.isbn=978-1-4684-8427-4&rft.aulast=Yannopoulos&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhE7uBwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dhistory%2Bof%2Bgold%2Bbegins%2Bin%2Bantiquity.%2BBits%2Bof%2Bgold%2Bwere%2Bfound%2Bin%2BSpanish%2Bcaves%2Bthat%2Bwere%2Bused%2Bby%2BPaleolithic%2Bpeople%2Baround%2B40%2C000%2BB.C.%26pg%3DPP8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ephotos-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ephotos_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Photos,_E.2010" class="citation journal cs1">E. Photos, E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://img2.tapuz.co.il/forums/1_132972987.pdf">"The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>World Archaeology</i>. <b>20</b> (3): 403–421. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1989.9980081">10.1080/00438243.1989.9980081</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/124562">124562</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222133855/http://img2.tapuz.co.il/forums/1_132972987.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 22 December 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Question+of+Meteoritic+versus+Smelted+Nickel-Rich+Iron%3A+Archaeological+Evidence+and+Experimental+Results&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=403-421&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00438243.1989.9980081&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F124562%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=E.+Photos%2C+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimg2.tapuz.co.il%2Fforums%2F1_132972987.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotts2012" class="citation book cs1">Potts, Daniel T., ed. (15 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P5q7DDqMbF0C&pg=PA296">"Northern Mesopotamia"</a>. <i>A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East</i>. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons, 2012. p. 296. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-6077-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-6077-6"><bdi>978-1-4443-6077-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Northern+Mesopotamia&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Archaeology+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=296&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+2012&rft.date=2012-08-15&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-6077-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP5q7DDqMbF0C%26pg%3DPA296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadivojevićRoberts2021" class="citation journal cs1">Radivojević, Miljana; Roberts, Benjamin W. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10963-021-09155-7">"Early Balkan Metallurgy: Origins, Evolution and Society, 6200–3700 BC"</a>. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i>. <b>34</b> (2): 195–278. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10963-021-09155-7">10.1007/s10963-021-09155-7</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0892-7537">0892-7537</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+Prehistory&rft.atitle=Early+Balkan+Metallurgy%3A+Origins%2C+Evolution+and+Society%2C+6200%E2%80%933700+BC&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=195-278&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10963-021-09155-7&rft.issn=0892-7537&rft.aulast=Radivojevi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Miljana&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Benjamin+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10963-021-09155-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:22_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChernykh2014" class="citation journal cs1">Chernykh, Evgenij (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/isijinternational/54/5/54_1002/_html/-char/en">"Metallurgical Provinces of Eurasia in the Early Metal Age: Problems of Interrelation"</a>. <i>ISIJ International</i>. <b>54</b> (5): 1002–1009. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2355%2Fisijinternational.54.1002">10.2355/isijinternational.54.1002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ISIJ+International&rft.atitle=Metallurgical+Provinces+of+Eurasia+in+the+Early+Metal+Age%3A+Problems+of+Interrelation&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1002-1009&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2355%2Fisijinternational.54.1002&rft.aulast=Chernykh&rft.aufirst=Evgenij&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstage.jst.go.jp%2Farticle%2Fisijinternational%2F54%2F5%2F54_1002%2F_html%2F-char%2Fen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaarmann2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harald_Haarmann" title="Harald Haarmann">Haarmann, Harald</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PNduBAAAQBAJ&q=Technological+advancement+in+pottery"><i>Roots of Ancient Greek Civilization: The Influence of Old Europe</i></a>. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc. pp. 60–61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-7827-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-7827-9"><bdi>978-0-7864-7827-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roots+of+Ancient+Greek+Civilization%3A+The+Influence+of+Old+Europe&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pages=60-61&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Company%2C+Inc&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-7827-9&rft.aulast=Haarmann&rft.aufirst=Harald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPNduBAAAQBAJ%26q%3DTechnological%2Badvancement%2Bin%2Bpottery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:12_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadivojevićRoberts2021" class="citation journal cs1">Radivojević, Miljana; Roberts, Benjamin W. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10963-021-09155-7">"Early Balkan Metallurgy: Origins, Evolution and Society, 6200–3700 BC"</a>. <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i>. <b>34</b> (2): 195–278. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10963-021-09155-7">10.1007/s10963-021-09155-7</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0892-7537">0892-7537</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+Prehistory&rft.atitle=Early+Balkan+Metallurgy%3A+Origins%2C+Evolution+and+Society%2C+6200%E2%80%933700+BC&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=195-278&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10963-021-09155-7&rft.issn=0892-7537&rft.aulast=Radivojevi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Miljana&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Benjamin+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10963-021-09155-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crcpress.com/New-Developments-in-Mining-Engineering-2015-Theoretical-and-Practical-Solutions/Bondarenko-Kovalevska-Pivnyak/9781138028838">H.I. Haiko, V.S. Biletskyi. First metals discovery and development the sacral component phenomenon. // Theoretical and Practical Solutions of Mineral Resources Mining // A Balkema Book, London, 2015, р. 227-233.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151208154730/https://www.crcpress.com/New-Developments-in-Mining-Engineering-2015-Theoretical-and-Practical-Solutions/Bondarenko-Kovalevska-Pivnyak/9781138028838">Archived</a> 8 December 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadivojevićRehrenPernickaŠljivar2010" class="citation journal cs1">Radivojević, Miljana; Rehren, Thilo; Pernicka, Ernst; Šljivar, Dušan; Brauns, Michael; Borić, Dušan (2010). "On the origins of extractive metallurgy: New evidence from Europe". <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i>. <b>37</b> (11): 2775. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010JArSc..37.2775R">2010JArSc..37.2775R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2010.06.012">10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=On+the+origins+of+extractive+metallurgy%3A+New+evidence+from+Europe&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2775&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2010.06.012&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010JArSc..37.2775R&rft.aulast=Radivojevi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Miljana&rft.au=Rehren%2C+Thilo&rft.au=Pernicka%2C+Ernst&rft.au=%C5%A0ljivar%2C+Du%C5%A1an&rft.au=Brauns%2C+Michael&rft.au=Bori%C4%87%2C+Du%C5%A1an&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/002605.html">Neolithic Vinca was a metallurgical culture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170919043337/http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/002605.html">Archived</a> 19 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Stonepages from news sources November 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2010" class="citation book cs1">Anthony, David (2010). Anthony, David; Chi, Jennifer (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gFEARIQ6zYoC"><i>The Lost World of Old Europe: The Danube Valley, 5000-3500 BC</i></a>. New York University, Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691143880" title="Special:BookSources/9780691143880"><bdi>9780691143880</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lost+World+of+Old+Europe%3A+The+Danube+Valley%2C+5000-3500+BC&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=New+York+University%2C+Institute+for+the+Study+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780691143880&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgFEARIQ6zYoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChernykh2014" class="citation journal cs1">Chernykh, Evgenij (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/isijinternational/54/5/54_1002/_html/-char/en">"Metallurgical Provinces of Eurasia in the Early Metal Age: Problems of Interrelation"</a>. <i>ISIJ International</i>. <b>54</b> (5): 1002–1009. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2355%2Fisijinternational.54.1002">10.2355/isijinternational.54.1002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ISIJ+International&rft.atitle=Metallurgical+Provinces+of+Eurasia+in+the+Early+Metal+Age%3A+Problems+of+Interrelation&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1002-1009&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2355%2Fisijinternational.54.1002&rft.aulast=Chernykh&rft.aufirst=Evgenij&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstage.jst.go.jp%2Farticle%2Fisijinternational%2F54%2F5%2F54_1002%2F_html%2F-char%2Fen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe2015" class="citation book cs1">Cunliffe, Barry (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=osQ9CgAAQBAJ"><i>By Steppe, Desert and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199689170" title="Special:BookSources/9780199689170"><bdi>9780199689170</bdi></a>. <q>The scale and technical quality of the Carpathian-Balkan copper industry totally overshadows that of any other contemporary production centre. This, together with the late sixth-millennium date for its beginning, gives strong support to the suggestion that the art of copper smelting was first perfected in the Balkans. The region can also claim to be the first to produce gold, beginning in the mid-fifth millennium, five hundred years or more before the earliest gold objects appear in the Near East.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=By+Steppe%2C+Desert+and+Ocean%3A+The+Birth+of+Eurasia&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780199689170&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DosQ9CgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChernykh2014" class="citation journal cs1">Chernykh, Evgenij (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/isijinternational/54/5/54_1002/_html/-char/en">"Metallurgical Provinces of Eurasia in the Early Metal Age: Problems of Interrelation"</a>. <i>ISIJ International</i>. <b>54</b> (5): 1002–1009. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2355%2Fisijinternational.54.1002">10.2355/isijinternational.54.1002</a>. <q>The general area of the Carpatho-Balkan Metallurgical Province (CBMP) equaled approximately 1.5 million sq. km spread from the Danubian basin in the Western flank to the Mid and Lower Volga basin in the Eastern flank of this province. The most characteristic features of the CBMP are 1) casting and hammering of various heavy tools and weapons made from chemically pure copper; 2) a big number of gold decorations and ornaments. Metallurgical revolution and CBMP formation emerged independently from centers of the Proto-Metal area [in the Middle East] where in the 5th millennium BCE there continued a limited production of primitive handmade copper goods.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ISIJ+International&rft.atitle=Metallurgical+Provinces+of+Eurasia+in+the+Early+Metal+Age%3A+Problems+of+Interrelation&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1002-1009&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2355%2Fisijinternational.54.1002&rft.aulast=Chernykh&rft.aufirst=Evgenij&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstage.jst.go.jp%2Farticle%2Fisijinternational%2F54%2F5%2F54_1002%2F_html%2F-char%2Fen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenstock2016" class="citation book cs1">Rosenstock, Eva; et al. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294087347"><i>Ex oriente lux? – Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zur Stellung der frühen Kupfermetallurgie Südosteuropas</i></a>. Leidorf. pp. 59–122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86757-010-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-86757-010-7"><bdi>978-3-86757-010-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ex+oriente+lux%3F+%E2%80%93+Ein+Diskussionsbeitrag+zur+Stellung+der+fr%C3%BChen+Kupfermetallurgie+S%C3%BCdosteuropas&rft.pages=59-122&rft.pub=Leidorf&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-86757-010-7&rft.aulast=Rosenstock&rft.aufirst=Eva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F294087347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Potts_2012_p._302-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Potts_2012_p._302_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotts2012" class="citation book cs1">Potts, D.T. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P5q7DDqMbF0C&pg=PA302"><i>A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East</i></a>. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Wiley. pp. 302–303. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1444360776" title="Special:BookSources/978-1444360776"><bdi>978-1444360776</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200921233111/https://books.google.com/books?id=P5q7DDqMbF0C&pg=PA302">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Archaeology+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.series=Blackwell+Companions+to+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=302-303&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1444360776&rft.aulast=Potts&rft.aufirst=D.T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP5q7DDqMbF0C%26pg%3DPA302&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChirikure2015" class="citation book cs1">Chirikure, Shadreck (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303522764"><i>Metals in Past Societies</i></a>. SpringerBriefs in Archaeology. Springer. pp. 17–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-11641-9">10.1007/978-3-319-11641-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-11640-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-11640-2"><bdi>978-3-319-11640-2</bdi></a>. <q>Egypt and adjacent regions closely mimic the metallurgical trajectories of the nearby Middle East. Egyptian metallurgy started with the working of copper around 4000 BC. (p.17) The earliest evidence for metallurgy in Africa comes from the Nile Delta in Egypt and is associated with the Maadi culture dating between 4000 and 3200 BC. (p.19)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metals+in+Past+Societies&rft.series=SpringerBriefs+in+Archaeology&rft.pages=17-19&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-11641-9&rft.isbn=978-3-319-11640-2&rft.aulast=Chirikure&rft.aufirst=Shadreck&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F303522764&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RnE9Fa4pbn0C&dq=varna+necropolis+oldest&pg=PA290">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200212191629/https://books.google.com/books?id=RnE9Fa4pbn0C&pg=PA290&dq=varna+necropolis+oldest&hl=en#v=onepage&q=varna%20necropolis%20oldest&f=false">Archived</a> 12 February 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Gems and Gemstones: Timeless Natural Beauty of the Mineral World, By Lance Grande</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://europost.eu/en/a/view/world-s-oldest-gold-24581">"World's oldest gold"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190928002450/https://europost.eu/en/a/view/world-s-oldest-gold-24581">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World%27s+oldest+gold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feuropost.eu%2Fen%2Fa%2Fview%2Fworld-s-oldest-gold-24581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagazineDaley" class="citation web cs1">Magazine, Smithsonian; Daley, Jason. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-gold-object-unearthed-bulgaria-180960093/">"World's Oldest Gold Object May Have Just Been Unearthed in Bulgaria"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Magazine</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190928002452/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-gold-object-unearthed-bulgaria-180960093/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=World%27s+Oldest+Gold+Object+May+Have+Just+Been+Unearthed+in+Bulgaria&rft.aulast=Magazine&rft.aufirst=Smithsonian&rft.au=Daley%2C+Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmart-news%2Foldest-gold-object-unearthed-bulgaria-180960093%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/tamil-nadu-iron-usage-carbon-dating-cultural-significance-explained-7916375/">"Ancient Smelting in Tamil Nadu India"</a>. <i>www.indianexpress.com</i>. 14 May 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221004181810/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/tamil-nadu-iron-usage-carbon-dating-cultural-significance-explained-7916375/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.indianexpress.com&rft.atitle=Ancient+Smelting+in+Tamil+Nadu+India&rft.date=2022-05-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findianexpress.com%2Farticle%2Fexplained%2Ftamil-nadu-iron-usage-carbon-dating-cultural-significance-explained-7916375%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/121/02/0239.pdf">"Ancient high-carbon steel from southern Tamil Nadu India microstructural and elemental analysis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.currentscience.ac.in</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230620230643/https://currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/121/02/0239.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 20 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.currentscience.ac.in&rft.atitle=Ancient+high-carbon+steel+from+southern+Tamil+Nadu+India+microstructural+and+elemental+analysis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcurrentscience.ac.in%2FVolumes%2F121%2F02%2F0239.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-keller-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-keller_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Keller (1963) <i>The Bible as History</i>. p. 156. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/034000312X" title="Special:BookSources/034000312X">034000312X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B. W. Anderson (1975) <i>The Living World of the Old Testament</i>, p. 154, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0582485983" title="Special:BookSources/0582485983">0582485983</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl_Alfred_von_Zittel1901" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Alfred_von_Zittel" title="Karl Alfred von Zittel">Karl Alfred von Zittel</a> (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030840/http://www.geology.19thcenturyscience.org/books/1901-Zittel-HistGeol/htm/doc.html"><i>HISTORY of Geology and Palaeontology</i></a>. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5962%2Fbhl.title.33301">10.5962/bhl.title.33301</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geology.19thcenturyscience.org/books/1901-Zittel-HistGeol/htm/doc.html">the original</a> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialties<br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_engineering" title="Sanitary engineering">Sanitary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_engineering" title="Geological engineering">Geological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_or_urban_engineering" title="Municipal or urban engineering">Municipal/Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore engineering">Offshore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_engineering" title="River engineering">River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_engineering" title="Transportation engineering">Transportation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_engineering_(transportation)" title="Traffic engineering (transportation)">Traffic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanical_engineering" title="Biomechanical engineering">Biomechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_engineering" title="Marine engineering">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">Naval architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_engineering" title="Sports engineering">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_engineering" title="Thermal engineering">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computer_engineering" title="Outline of computer engineering">outline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">Electromechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_engineering" title="Microwave engineering">Microwaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">Radio frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical/Bioprocess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioresource_engineering" title="Bioresource engineering">Bioresource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Chemical reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_engineering" title="Electrochemical engineering">Electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_engineering" title="Paper engineering">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_engineering" title="Process engineering">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">Surfaces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_engineering" title="Artificial intelligence engineering">AI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersecurity_engineering" title="Cybersecurity engineering">Cybersecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_engineering" title="Data engineering">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network_engineering" title="Computer network engineering">Networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_engineering" title="Robotics engineering">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/50px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/75px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/100px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">Graduate certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering" title="Regulation and licensure in engineering">Licensed engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">Engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">Glossaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_engineering" title="Automation engineering">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_engineering" title="Clinical engineering">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_engineering" title="Pharmaceutical engineering">Pharmaceutical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_engineering" title="Rehabilitation engineering">Rehabilitation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical,_electrical,_and_plumbing" title="Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing">MEP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_engineer" title="Design engineer">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosives_engineering" title="Explosives engineering">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilities_engineering" title="Facilities engineering">Facilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_protection_engineering" title="Fire protection engineering">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomatics engineering">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Graphics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumentation engineering">Instrumentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation_and_control_engineering" title="Instrumentation and control engineering">and Control</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics_engineering" title="Logistics engineering">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_mathematics" title="Engineering mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_engineering" title="Packaging engineering">Packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_engineering" title="Privacy engineering">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey engineering">Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile engineering">Textile</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Engineering" title="Category:Engineering">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Engineering" class="extiw" title="commons:Engineering">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Engineering" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Engineering">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Engineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_materials_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_materials_science" title="Template:Branches of materials science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_materials_science" title="Template talk:Branches of materials science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_materials_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of materials science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_materials_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches of <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymer engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Material independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_materials_science" title="Computational materials science">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Fundamental_aspects_of_materials_science" title="Template:Fundamental aspects of materials science">Fundamental aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_informatics" title="Materials informatics">Informatics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Domains</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Condensed-matter_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensed-matter physics">Condensed-matter physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_physics" title="Polymer physics">Polymer physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_matter" title="Soft matter">Soft-matter physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Materials_science" title="Category:Materials science">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Materials_science" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Materials science">Common</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material" title="Material">Material</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prehistoric_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template talk:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prehistoric_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system#Stone_Age_subdivisions" title="Three-age system">Subdivisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">New Stone Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Tools" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Tools</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">Farming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founder_crops" title="Founder crops">Founder crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ard_(plough)" title="Ard (plough)">Ard / plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">Celt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging_stick" title="Digging stick">Digging stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goad" title="Goad">Goad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_products_revolution" title="Secondary products revolution">Secondary products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">Sickle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Food processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_oven" title="Earth oven">Earth oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">Granaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grinding_slab" title="Grinding slab">Grinding slab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_stone" title="Ground stone">Ground stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">Hearth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9F%C4%B1kl%C4%B1_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk#Hearths" title="Aşıklı Höyük">Aşıklı Höyük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qesem_cave#Fire" title="Qesem cave">Qesem cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_(stone)" title="Mano (stone)">Manos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">Mortar and pestle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_storage_pits" title="Prehistoric storage pits">Storage pits</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_stick" title="Throwing stick">throwing stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archery" title="History of archery">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Hunting" title="Gravettian">Nets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Spear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">spear-thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_fragment_(Palart_310)" title="Baton fragment (Palart 310)">baton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears" title="Schöningen spears">Schöningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">woomera</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile points</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">Arrowhead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_arrowhead" title="Transverse arrowhead">Transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_Island_projectile_point" title="Bare Island projectile point">Bare Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_point" title="Cascade point">Cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creswellian_culture" title="Creswellian culture">Cresswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_point" title="Cumberland point">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamoka_projectile_point" title="Lamoka projectile point">Lamoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manis_Mastodon_site" title="Manis Mastodon site">Manis Mastodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_point" title="Plano point">Plano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_drive_system" title="Game drive system">Game drive system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">Buffalo jump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Toolmaking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(archaeology)" title="Industry (archaeology)">Earliest toolmaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupstone" title="Cupstone">Cupstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hardening" title="Fire hardening">Fire hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafting" title="Hafting">Hafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">Hand axe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grooves_(archaeology)" title="Grooves (archaeology)">Grooves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">Lithic core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">Lithic reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debitage" title="Debitage">debitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">flake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Lithic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">Magdalenian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microblade_technology" title="Microblade technology">Microblade technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime%27s_Graves" title="Grime's Graves">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared-core_technique" title="Prepared-core technique">Prepared-core technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean" title="Solutrean">Solutrean industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Striking_platform" title="Striking platform">Striking platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_stone" title="Tool stone">Tool stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniface" title="Uniface">Uniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yubetsu_technique" title="Yubetsu technique">Yubetsu technique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Other tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">Adze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stitching_awl" title="Stitching awl">Awl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Use_of_animal_remains" title="Gravettian">bone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">Axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannerstone" title="Bannerstone">Bannerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)" title="Blade (archaeology)">Blade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prismatic_blade" title="Prismatic blade">prismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">Bone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">Bow drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burin_(lithic_flake)" title="Burin (lithic flake)">Burin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe#History" title="Canoe">Canoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">Chopper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chopping_tool" title="Chopping tool">tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaver_(Stone_Age_tool)" title="Cleaver (Stone Age tool)">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denticulate_tool" title="Denticulate tool">Denticulate tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_plough" title="Fire plough">Fire plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-saw" title="Fire-saw">Fire-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">Hammerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">Microlith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racloir" title="Racloir">Racloir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">Scraper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grattoir_de_c%C3%B4t%C3%A9" title="Grattoir de côté">side</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tally_stick#Paleolithic_tally_sticks" title="Tally stick">Tally stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons#Copper_Age" title="History of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronocice_pot" title="Bronocice pot">illustration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Architecture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Ceremonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Standing stones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_long_house" title="Neolithic long house">long house</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_megalith_architecture" title="British megalith architecture">British megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_megalith_architecture" title="Nordic megalith architecture">Nordic megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burdei" title="Burdei">Burdei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_dwelling" title="Cliff dwelling">Cliff dwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">Hut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quiggly_hole" title="Quiggly hole">Quiggly hole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacal" title="Jacal">Jacal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">Mudbrick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh#Lifestyle_and_technology" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit-house" title="Pit-house">Pit-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_pueblitos" title="Navajo pueblitos">Pueblitos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abri_de_la_Madeleine" title="Abri de la Madeleine">Abri de la Madeleine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">Roundhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">Stilt house</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_pile_dwellings_around_the_Alps" title="Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps">Alp pile dwellings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ness_of_Brodgar" title="Ness of Brodgar">Stone roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">Wattle and daub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Water management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet#History" title="Flush toilet">Flush toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Archaeological features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_mound" title="Burnt mound">Burnt mound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulacht_fiadh" title="Fulacht fiadh">fulacht fiadh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causewayed_enclosure" title="Causewayed enclosure">Causewayed enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tor_enclosure" title="Tor enclosure">Tor enclosure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_circular_enclosures_in_Central_Europe" title="Neolithic circular enclosures in Central Europe">Circular enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goseck_Circle" title="Goseck Circle">Goseck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus" title="Cursus">Cursus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henge" title="Henge">Henge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thornborough_Henges" title="Thornborough Henges">Thornborough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements" title="Megalithic architectural elements">Megalithic architectural elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_extant_buildings" title="List of oldest extant buildings">Oldest extant buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_circle" title="Timber circle">Timber circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_trackway" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber trackway">Timber trackway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Track" title="Sweet Track">Sweet Track</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arts_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Material goods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">Baskets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beadwork" title="Beadwork">Beadwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed#History" title="Bed">Beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">Clothing/textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cosmetics" title="History of cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Glue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hide_materials" title="History of hide materials">Hides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoe#History" title="Shoe">shoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96tzi#Clothes_and_shoes" title="Ötzi">Ötzi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery#History" title="Jewellery">Jewelry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amber#Use" title="Amber">amber use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror#History" title="Mirror">Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery#History" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cord-marked_pottery" title="Cord-marked pottery">Cord-marked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grooved_ware" title="Grooved ware">Grooved ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_pottery" title="Jōmon pottery">Jōmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstan_ware" title="Unstan ware">Unstan ware</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle#History" title="Sewing needle">Sewing needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">Wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areni-1_winery" title="Areni-1 winery">winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press#Early_history" title="History of the wine press">wine press</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Upper_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Upper Paleolithic">Art of the Upper Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Middle_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Middle Paleolithic">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave#Archaeological_remains_and_material_culture_from_the_Middle_Stone_Age_levels" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stone_Age_art" title="List of Stone Age art">List of Stone Age art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_stone" title="Bird stone">Bird stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairn" title="Cairn">Cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carved_stone_balls" title="Carved stone balls">Carved stone balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark" title="Cup and ring mark">Cup and ring mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hill_figure" title="Hill figure">Hill figure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_hat" title="Golden hat">Golden hats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_stones" title="Guardian stones">Guardian stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwion_Gwion_rock_paintings" title="Gwion Gwion rock paintings">Gwion Gwion rock paintings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Pre-history" title="History of painting">painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment#History" title="Pigment">pigment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_art" title="Megalithic art">Megalithic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroform" title="Petroform">Petroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosomatoglyph" title="Petrosomatoglyph">Petrosomatoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">Rock art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock_cupule" title="Rock cupule">Rock cupule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone carving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture#Prehistoric_periods" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_menhir" title="Statue menhir">Statue menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circle" title="Stone circle">Stone circle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stone_circles" title="List of stone circles">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circles_in_the_British_Isles_and_Brittany" title="Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany">British Isles and Brittany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_figurine" title="Venus figurine">Venus figurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Burial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Burial mounds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowl_barrow" title="Bowl barrow">Bowl barrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_barrow" title="Round barrow">Round barrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_mounds_in_the_United_States" title="List of burial mounds in the United States">U.S. sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">Chamber tomb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotswold-Severn_Group" title="Cotswold-Severn Group">Cotswold-Severn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cist" title="Cist">Cist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dartmoor_kistvaens" title="Dartmoor kistvaens">Dartmoor kistvaens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clava_cairn" title="Clava cairn">Clava cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_cairn" title="Court cairn">Court cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation#History" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_dolmen" title="Great dolmen">Great dolmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">Funeral pyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallery_grave" title="Gallery grave">Gallery grave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transepted_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Transepted gallery grave">transepted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge-shaped_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedge-shaped gallery grave">wedge-shaped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jar_burial" title="Jar burial">Jar burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_barrow" title="Long barrow">Long barrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_barrow" title="Unchambered long barrow">unchambered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B8nsalen" title="Grønsalen">Grønsalen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic tomb">Megalithic tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectangular_dolmen" title="Rectangular dolmen">Rectangular dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_cairn" title="Ring cairn">Ring cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_dolmen" title="Simple dolmen">Simple dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_box_grave" title="Stone box grave">Stone box grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tor_cairn" title="Tor cairn">Tor cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_cairn" title="Unchambered long cairn">Unchambered long cairn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeoastronomical_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeoastronomical sites by country">sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Evolutionary musicology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">music archaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogenic_drugs_and_the_archaeological_record" title="Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record">Spiritual drug use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" title="Prehistoric counting">Prehistoric counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">trepanning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_drum" title="Alligator drum">Alligator drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_flute" title="Paleolithic flute">flutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute" title="Divje Babe flute">Divje Babe flute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_(instrument)" title="Gudi (instrument)">gudi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort#Symbolism" title="Howiesons Poort">symbolism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_chemistry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template talk:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae" title="Glossary of chemical formulae">Glossary of chemical formulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biomolecules" title="List of biomolecules">List of biomolecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" title="List of inorganic compounds">List of inorganic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry" title="Instrumental chemistry">Instrumental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a 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style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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