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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Engineering field studying polymer materials</div> <p><b>Polymer engineering</b> is generally an <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> field that designs, analyses, and modifies <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> materials. Polymer engineering covers aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical_industry" title="Petrochemical industry">petrochemical industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a>, structure and characterization of polymers, properties of polymers, <a href="/wiki/Compounding" title="Compounding">compounding</a> and processing of polymers and description of major polymers, structure property relations and applications. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word “polymer” was introduced by the Swedish chemist J. J. Berzelius. He considered, for example, benzene (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>) to be a polymer of ethyne (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>). Later, this definition underwent a subtle modification.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The history of human use of polymers has been long since the mid-19th century, when it entered the chemical modification of natural polymers. In 1839, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Goodyear" title="Charles Goodyear">Charles Goodyear</a> found a critical advance in the research of rubber <a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">vulcanization</a>, which has turned natural rubber into a practical engineering material.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1870, J. W. Hyatt uses camphor to plasticize nitrocellulose to make nitrocellulose plastics industrial. 1907 L. Baekeland reported the synthesis of the first thermosetting phenolic resin, which was industrialized in the 1920s, the first synthetic plastic product.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1920, H. Standinger proposed that polymers are long-chain molecules that are connected by structural units through common covalent bonds.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This conclusion laid the foundation for the establishment of modern polymer science. Subsequently, Carothers divided the synthetic polymers into two broad categories, namely a polycondensate obtained by a polycondensation reaction and an addition polymer obtained by a polyaddition reaction. In the 1950s, K. Ziegler and G. Natta discovered a coordination polymerization catalyst and pioneered the era of synthesis of stereoregular polymers. In the decades after the establishment of the concept of macromolecules, the synthesis of high polymers has achieved rapid development, and many important polymers have been industrialized one after another. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The basic division of polymers into <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoplastics">thermoplastics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elastomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Elastomers">elastomers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermosets" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermosets">thermosets</a> helps define their areas of application. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermoplastics">Thermoplastics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Thermoplastics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">Thermoplastic</a> refers to a plastic that has heat softening and cooling hardening properties. Most of the plastics we use in our daily lives fall into this category. It becomes soft and even flows when heated, and the cooling becomes hard. This process is reversible and can be repeated. Thermoplastics have relatively low <a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">tensile moduli</a>, but also have lower densities and properties such as <a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and translucency">transparency</a> which make them ideal for <a href="/wiki/Consumer_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer product">consumer products</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medical products</a>. They include <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nylon" title="Nylon">nylon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acetal_resin" class="mw-redirect" title="Acetal resin">acetal resin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">polycarbonate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">PET</a>, all of which are widely used materials.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elastomers">Elastomers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Elastomers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Elastomer" title="Elastomer">elastomer</a> generally refers to a material that can be restored to its original state after removal of an external force, whereas a material having elasticity is not necessarily an elastomer. The elastomer is only deformed under weak stress, and the stress can be quickly restored to a polymer material close to the original state and size. Elastomers are polymers which have very low moduli and show reversible extension when strained, a valuable property for vibration absorption and damping. They may either be thermoplastic (in which case they are known as <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic_elastomer" title="Thermoplastic elastomer">Thermoplastic elastomers</a>) or crosslinked, as in most conventional rubber products such as <a href="/wiki/Tyres" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyres">tyres</a>. Typical rubbers used conventionally include <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">natural rubber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrile_rubber" title="Nitrile rubber">nitrile rubber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polychloroprene" class="mw-redirect" title="Polychloroprene">polychloroprene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polybutadiene" title="Polybutadiene">polybutadiene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Styrene-butadiene" title="Styrene-butadiene">styrene-butadiene</a> and fluorinated rubbers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermosets">Thermosets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Thermosets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Thermosetting_polymer" title="Thermosetting polymer">thermosetting</a> resin is used as a main component, and a plastic which forms a product is formed by a cross-linking curing process in combination with various necessary additives. It is liquid in the early stage of the manufacturing or molding process, and it is insoluble and infusible after curing, and it cannot be melted or softened again. Common thermosetting plastics are phenolic plastics, epoxy plastics, aminoplasts, unsaturated polyesters, alkyd plastics, and the like. Thermoset plastics and thermoplastics together constitute the two major components of synthetic plastics. Thermosetting plastics are divided into two types: formaldehyde cross-linking type and other cross-linking type. </p><p>Thermosets includes <a href="/wiki/Phenolic_resin" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenolic resin">phenolic resins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyester" title="Polyester">polyesters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epoxy_resin" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoxy resin">epoxy resins</a>, all of which are used widely in <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite materials</a> when reinforced with stiff fibers such as <a href="/wiki/Fibreglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibreglass">fiberglass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramid" title="Aramid">aramids</a>. Since <a href="/wiki/Cross-link" title="Cross-link">crosslinking</a> stabilises the <a href="/wiki/Thermoset_polymer_matrix" title="Thermoset polymer matrix">thermoset polymer matrix</a> of these materials, they have physical properties more similar to traditional engineering materials like <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>. However, their very much lower densities compared with metals makes them ideal for lightweight structures. In addition, they suffer less from <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">fatigue</a>, so are ideal for <a href="/wiki/Safety-critical" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety-critical">safety-critical</a> parts which are stressed regularly in service. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plastic">Plastic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Plastic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">Plastic</a> is a polymer compound which is polymerized by <a href="/wiki/Polyaddition" title="Polyaddition">polyaddition</a> polymerization and <a href="/wiki/Polycondensation" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycondensation">polycondensation</a>. It is free to change the composition and shape. It is made up of synthetic resins and fillers, plasticizers, stabilizers, lubricants, colorants and other additives.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main component of plastic is <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resin</a>. Resin means that the polymer compound has not been added with various additives. The term resin was originally named for the secretion of oil from plants and animals, such as <a href="/wiki/Rosin" title="Rosin">rosin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shellac" title="Shellac">shellac</a>. Resin accounts for approximately 40% - 100% of the total weight of the plastic. The basic properties of plastics are mainly determined by the nature of the resin, but additives also play an important role. Some plastics are basically made of synthetic resins, with or without additives such as <a href="/wiki/Plexiglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Plexiglass">plexiglass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiber">Fiber</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fiber"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fiber" title="Fiber">Fiber</a> refers to a continuous or discontinuous filament of one substance. Animals and plant fibers play an important role in maintaining tissue. Fibers are widely used and can be woven into good threads, thread ends and hemp ropes. They can also be woven into fibrous layers when making paper or feel. They are also commonly used to make other materials together with other materials to form composites. Therefore, whether it is natural or synthetic fiber filamentous material. In modern life, the application of fiber is ubiquitous, and there are many high-tech products.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rubber">Rubber</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rubber"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">Rubber</a> refers to highly elastic polymer materials and reversible shapes. It is elastic at room temperature and can be deformed with a small external force. After removing the external force, it can return to the original state. Rubber is a completely <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous</a> polymer with a low <a href="/wiki/Glass_transition_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass transition temperature">glass transition temperature</a> and a large molecular weight, often greater than several hundred thousand. Highly elastic polymer compounds can be classified into natural rubber and synthetic rubber. Natural rubber processing extracts gum rubber and grass rubber from plants; synthetic rubber is polymerized by various monomers. Rubber can be used as elastic, insulating, water-impermeable air-resistant materials. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USAF_B-2_Spirit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/USAF_B-2_Spirit.jpg/200px-USAF_B-2_Spirit.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/USAF_B-2_Spirit.jpg/300px-USAF_B-2_Spirit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/USAF_B-2_Spirit.jpg/400px-USAF_B-2_Spirit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="711" data-file-height="695" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/B-2_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="B-2 Spirit">B-2 Spirit</a> stealth bomber of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">U.S. Air Force</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polyethylene">Polyethylene</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Polyethylene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Commonly used <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylenes</a> can be classified into <a href="/wiki/Low-density_polyethylene" title="Low-density polyethylene">low density polyethylene</a> (LDPE), <a href="/wiki/High-density_polyethylene" title="High-density polyethylene">high density polyethylene</a> (HDPE), and <a href="/wiki/Linear_low-density_polyethylene" title="Linear low-density polyethylene">linear low density polyethylene</a> (LLDPE). Among them, HDPE has better thermal, electrical and mechanical properties, while LDPE and LLDPE have better flexibility, impact properties and film forming properties. LDPE and LLDPE are mainly used for plastic bags, plastic wraps, bottles, pipes and containers; HDPE is widely used in various fields such as film, pipelines and daily necessities because its resistance to many different solvents.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polypropylene">Polypropylene</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Polypropylene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">Polypropylene</a> is widely used in various applications due to its good chemical resistance and weldability. It has lowest density among commodity plastics. It is commonly used in packaging applications, consumer goods, automatic applications and medical applications. Polypropylene sheets are widely used in industrial sector to produce acid and chemical tanks, sheets, pipes, Returnable Transport Packaging (RTP), etc. because of its properties like high tensile strength, resistance to high temperatures and corrosion resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composites">Composites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Composites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyclist_itt_cyfac(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Cyclist_itt_cyfac%282%29.jpg/200px-Cyclist_itt_cyfac%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Cyclist_itt_cyfac%282%29.jpg/300px-Cyclist_itt_cyfac%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Cyclist_itt_cyfac%282%29.jpg/400px-Cyclist_itt_cyfac%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="322" /></a><figcaption>A time-trial <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fibre" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fibre">carbon fibre</a> composite bicycle with aerodynamic wheels and aero bars</figcaption></figure><p>Typical uses of <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composites</a> are <a href="/wiki/Monocoque" title="Monocoque">monocoque</a> structures for <a href="/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace">aerospace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a>, as well as more mundane products like <a href="/wiki/Fishing_rod" title="Fishing rod">fishing rods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bicycle" title="Bicycle">bicycles</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Stealth_bomber" class="mw-redirect" title="Stealth bomber">stealth bomber</a> was the first all-composite aircraft, but many passenger aircraft like the <a href="/wiki/Airbus" title="Airbus">Airbus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_787" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing 787">Boeing 787</a> use an increasing proportion of composites in their fuselages, such as hydrophobic <a href="/wiki/Melamine_foam" title="Melamine foam">melamine foam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quite different physical properties of composites gives designers much greater freedom in shaping parts, which is why composite products often look different from conventional products. On the other hand, some products such as <a href="/wiki/Drive_shaft" title="Drive shaft">drive shafts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopter</a> rotor blades, and <a href="/wiki/Propeller" title="Propeller">propellers</a> look identical to metal precursors owing to the basic functional needs of such components. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomedical_applications">Biomedical applications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Biomedical applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_polymer" title="Biodegradable polymer">Biodegradable polymers</a> are widely used materials for many biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. These polymers are considered very promising for controlled <a href="/wiki/Drug_delivery" title="Drug delivery">drug delivery</a> devices. Biodegradable polymers also offer great potential for wound management, <a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">orthopaedic</a> devices, dental applications and <a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">tissue engineering</a>. Not like non biodegradable polymers, they won't require a second step of a removal from body. Biodegradable polymers will break down and are absorbed by the body after they served their purpose. Since 1960, polymers prepared from <a href="/wiki/Glycolic_acid" title="Glycolic acid">glycolic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a> have found a multitude of uses in the medical industry. <a href="/wiki/Polylactide" class="mw-redirect" title="Polylactide">Polylactates (PLAs)</a> are popular for drug delivery system due to their fast and adjustable degradation rate.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Membrane_technologies">Membrane technologies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Membrane technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Membrane_technology" title="Membrane technology">Membrane techniques</a> are successfully used in the separation in the liquid and gas systems for years, and the <a href="/wiki/Polymeric_membranes" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymeric membranes">polymeric membranes</a> are used most commonly because they have lower cost to produce and are easy to modify their surface, which make them suitable in different separation processes. Polymers helps in many fields including the application for separation of biological active compounds, <a href="/wiki/Proton-exchange_membrane_fuel_cell" title="Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell">proton exchange</a> membranes for <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cells</a> and membrane <a href="/wiki/Contractors" class="mw-redirect" title="Contractors">contractors</a> for carbon dioxide capture process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_Major">Related Major</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Related Major"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Petroleum / Chemical / Mineral / Geology</li> <li>Raw materials and processing</li> <li>New energy</li> <li>Automobiles and spare parts</li> <li>Other industries</li> <li>Electronic Technology / Semiconductor / Integrated Circuit</li> <li>Machinery / Equipment / Heavy Industry</li> <li>Medical equipment / instruments</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymers">Polymers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_grade_silicone" title="Medical grade silicone">Medical grade silicone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Polymer_scientists_and_engineers" title="Category:Polymer scientists and engineers">Category:Polymer scientists and engineers</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSharma1991" class="citation journal cs1">Sharma, Rajiv (January 1991). 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><b>This section is empty.</b> You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2010</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polymer_engineering&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Lewis, Peter Rhys, and Gagg, C, <i>Forensic Polymer Engineering: Why polymer products fail in service</i>, Woodhead/CRC Press (2010).</li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="Microwave engineering">Microwaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">Radio-frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical/bioprocess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioresource_engineering" title="Bioresource engineering">Bioresource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Chemical reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_engineering" title="Electrochemical engineering">Electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_engineering" title="Paper engineering">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_engineering" title="Process engineering">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polymers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">Surfaces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Systems engineering (disambiguation)">Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_engineering" title="Artificial intelligence engineering">AI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersecurity_engineering" title="Cybersecurity engineering">Cybersecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_engineering" title="Data engineering">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network_engineering" title="Computer network engineering">Networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_engineering" title="Robotics engineering">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/50px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/75px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png/100px-Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">Graduate certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering" title="Regulation and licensure in engineering">Licensed engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">Engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">Glossaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A%E2%80%93L" title="Glossary of engineering: A–L">A–L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_M%E2%80%93Z" title="Glossary of engineering: M–Z">M–Z</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics 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