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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shanghai_massacre_and_Northern_Expedition_(1927)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shanghai_massacre_and_Northern_Expedition_(1927)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Shanghai massacre and Northern Expedition (1927)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shanghai_massacre_and_Northern_Expedition_(1927)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communist_insurgency_(1927–1937)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communist_insurgency_(1927–1937)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Communist insurgency (1927–1937)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communist_insurgency_(1927–1937)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Sino-Japanese_War_(1937–1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Sino-Japanese_War_(1937–1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Sino-Japanese_War_(1937–1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immediate_post-war_clashes_(1945–1946)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immediate_post-war_clashes_(1945–1946)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Immediate post-war clashes (1945–1946)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immediate_post-war_clashes_(1945–1946)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resumed_fighting_(1946–1949)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resumed_fighting_(1946–1949)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Resumed fighting (1946–1949)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Resumed_fighting_(1946–1949)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Resumed fighting (1946–1949) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Resumed_fighting_(1946–1949)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background_and_disposition_of_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background_and_disposition_of_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Background and disposition of forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background_and_disposition_of_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outbreak_of_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outbreak_of_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Outbreak of war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outbreak_of_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pushing_south" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pushing_south"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Pushing south</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pushing_south-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Taiwan_Strait_tensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan_Strait_tensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Taiwan Strait tensions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan_Strait_tensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_fallout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_fallout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Political fallout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_fallout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Analysis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Analysis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poor_governance_by_Nationalists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poor_governance_by_Nationalists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Poor governance by Nationalists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poor_governance_by_Nationalists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popular_support_for_Communists_and_cohesion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popular_support_for_Communists_and_cohesion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Popular support for Communists and cohesion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popular_support_for_Communists_and_cohesion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>International factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atrocities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atrocities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Atrocities</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Atrocities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Atrocities subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Atrocities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nationalist_atrocities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nationalist_atrocities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Nationalist atrocities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nationalist_atrocities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communist_atrocities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communist_atrocities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Communist atrocities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communist_atrocities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese Civil War</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 81 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-81" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">81 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Burgeroorlog" title="Chinese Burgeroorlog – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Chinese Burgeroorlog" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="चीनी गृहयुद्ध – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="चीनी गृहयुद्ध" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحرب الأهلية الصينية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحرب الأهلية الصينية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civil_china" title="Guerra civil china – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerra civil china" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ind%C9%99_v%C9%99t%C9%99nda%C5%9F_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99si" title="Çində vətəndaş müharibəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çində vətəndaş müharibəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%86_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="چین ایچ ساواشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چین ایچ ساواشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7" title="চীনের গৃহযুদ্ধ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চীনের গৃহযুদ্ধ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kok-Ki%C5%8Dng_L%C4%81i-chi%C3%A0n" title="Kok-Kiōng Lāi-chiàn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kok-Kiōng Lāi-chiàn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%9E_%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%96" title="Грамадзянская вайна ў Кітаі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Грамадзянская вайна ў Кітаі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Китайска гражданска война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Китайска гражданска война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezel_diabarzh_Sina" title="Brezel diabarzh Sina – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Brezel diabarzh Sina" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Civil_xinesa" title="Guerra Civil xinesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra Civil xinesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8C%C3%ADnsk%C3%A1_ob%C4%8Dansk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" title="Čínská občanská válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čínská občanská válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiske_borgerkrig" title="Kinesiske borgerkrig – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kinesiske borgerkrig" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinesischer_B%C3%BCrgerkrieg" title="Chinesischer Bürgerkrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chinesischer Bürgerkrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiina_kodus%C3%B5da" title="Hiina kodusõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hiina kodusõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AD%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%95%CE%BC%CF%86%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Κινέζικος Εμφύλιος Πόλεμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κινέζικος Εμφύλιος Πόλεμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civil_china" title="Guerra civil china – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra civil china" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%88ina_enlanda_milito" title="Ĉina enlanda milito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĉina enlanda milito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Txinako_Gerra_Zibila" title="Txinako Gerra Zibila – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Txinako Gerra Zibila" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="جنگ داخلی چین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ داخلی چین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_civile_chinoise" title="Guerre civile chinoise – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre civile chinoise" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civil_chinesa" title="Guerra civil chinesa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerra civil chinesa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%B1%E5%85%A7%E6%88%B0" title="國共內戰 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="國共內戰" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koet-khiung_Nui-chan" title="Koet-khiung Nui-chan – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Koet-khiung Nui-chan" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AD%EA%B3%B5_%EB%82%B4%EC%A0%84" title="국공 내전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="국공 내전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="चीनी गृहयुद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चीनी गृहयुद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kineski_gra%C4%91anski_rat" title="Kineski građanski rat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kineski građanski rat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Saudara_Tiongkok" title="Perang Saudara Tiongkok – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Saudara Tiongkok" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADnverska_borgarastyrj%C3%B6ldin" title="Kínverska borgarastyrjöldin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kínverska borgarastyrjöldin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_civile_cinese" title="Guerra civile cinese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra civile cinese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מלחמת האזרחים הסינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת האזרחים הסינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF_%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%83%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%B9" title="ಚೀನಿ ಅಂತಃಕಲಹ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಚೀನಿ ಅಂತಃಕಲಹ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ჩინეთის სამოქალაქო ომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩინეთის სამოქალაქო ომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eer%C3%AA_navxwey%C3%AE_y%C3%AA_%C3%87%C3%AEn%C3%AA" title="Şerê navxweyî yê Çînê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Şerê navxweyî yê Çînê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B6%C4%ABnas_pilso%C5%86u_kar%C5%A1" title="Ķīnas pilsoņu karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ķīnas pilsoņu karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinijos_pilietinis_karas" title="Kinijos pilietinis karas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kinijos pilietinis karas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gera_Interna_Xines" title="Gera Interna Xines – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Gera Interna Xines" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADnai_polg%C3%A1rh%C3%A1bor%C3%BA" title="Kínai polgárháború – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kínai polgárháború" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%82" title="ചൈനീസ് ആഭ്യന്തരയുദ്ധം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചൈനീസ് ആഭ്യന്തരയുദ്ധം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Saudara_China" title="Perang Saudara China – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Saudara China" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%B3k-g%C3%AA%CC%A4%E1%B9%B3ng_N%C3%B4%CC%A4i-ci%C3%A9ng" title="Guók-gê̤ṳng Nô̤i-ciéng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Guók-gê̤ṳng Nô̤i-ciéng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Cebil_Chinesa" title="Guerra Cebil Chinesa – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Guerra Cebil Chinesa" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Хятадын иргэний дайн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хятадын иргэний дайн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%BD%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2" title="တရုတ် ပြည်တွင်းစစ်ပွဲ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တရုတ် ပြည်တွင်းစစ်ပွဲ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Burgeroorlog" title="Chinese Burgeroorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chinese Burgeroorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="चिनियाँ गृहयुद्ध – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="चिनियाँ गृहयुद्ध" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E5%86%85%E6%88%A6" title="国共内戦 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="国共内戦" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_kinesiske_borgerkrig" title="Den kinesiske borgerkrig – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den kinesiske borgerkrig" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_kinesiske_borgarkrigen" title="Den kinesiske borgarkrigen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den kinesiske borgarkrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa" title="Guèrra Civila Chinesa – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrra Civila Chinesa" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%98%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A7" title="ਚੀਨੀ ਘਰੇਲੂ ਯੁੱਧ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਚੀਨੀ ਘਰੇਲੂ ਯੁੱਧ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%81_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="چینی خانہ جنگی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چینی خانہ جنگی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8D_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87" title="د چین کورنۍ جګړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د چین کورنۍ جګړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%95%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%83%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%93" title="សង្គ្រាមផ្ទៃក្នុងចិន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សង្គ្រាមផ្ទៃក្នុងចិន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%C5%84ska_wojna_domowa" title="Chińska wojna domowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chińska wojna domowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Civil_Chinesa" title="Guerra Civil Chinesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra Civil Chinesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboiul_Civil_Chinez" title="Războiul Civil Chinez – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Războiul Civil Chinez" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B5" title="Гражданская война в Китае – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гражданская война в Китае" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheenese_Ceevil_War" title="Cheenese Ceevil War – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Cheenese Ceevil War" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufta_Civile_Kineze" title="Lufta Civile Kineze – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lufta Civile Kineze" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chinese Civil War" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8C%C3%ADnske_ob%C4%8Dianske_a_revolu%C4%8Dn%C3%A9_vojny" title="Čínske občianske a revolučné vojny – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Čínske občianske a revolučné vojny" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a 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hreflang="vro" data-title="Hiina kodosõda" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E5%86%85%E6%88%98" title="国共内战 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="国共内战" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%B1%E5%85%A7%E6%88%B0" title="國共內戰 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="國共內戰" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E5%86%85%E6%88%98" title="国共内战 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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.hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Chinese Civil War (disambiguation)">Chinese Civil War (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Chinese Civil War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px;border:none"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:173px;max-width:173px"><div style="height:84px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Siping03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Battle_of_Siping03.jpg/171px-Battle_of_Siping03.jpg" decoding="async" width="171" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Battle_of_Siping03.jpg/257px-Battle_of_Siping03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Battle_of_Siping03.jpg/342px-Battle_of_Siping03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="572" data-file-height="284" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:115px;max-width:115px"><div style="height:84px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shangtang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Shangtang.jpg/113px-Shangtang.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Shangtang.jpg/170px-Shangtang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Shangtang.jpg/226px-Shangtang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div style="height:101px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Su_Yu_at_MengLiangGu_Battle_1947.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Su_Yu_at_MengLiangGu_Battle_1947.jpg/120px-Su_Yu_at_MengLiangGu_Battle_1947.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Su_Yu_at_MengLiangGu_Battle_1947.jpg/180px-Su_Yu_at_MengLiangGu_Battle_1947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Su_Yu_at_MengLiangGu_Battle_1947.jpg/240px-Su_Yu_at_MengLiangGu_Battle_1947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="338" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:166px;max-width:166px"><div style="height:101px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1945_Chiang_Kai-shek_inspected_Chinese_soldiers_with_shoes_made_of_straw.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/1945_Chiang_Kai-shek_inspected_Chinese_soldiers_with_shoes_made_of_straw.jpg/164px-1945_Chiang_Kai-shek_inspected_Chinese_soldiers_with_shoes_made_of_straw.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/1945_Chiang_Kai-shek_inspected_Chinese_soldiers_with_shoes_made_of_straw.jpg/246px-1945_Chiang_Kai-shek_inspected_Chinese_soldiers_with_shoes_made_of_straw.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/1945_Chiang_Kai-shek_inspected_Chinese_soldiers_with_shoes_made_of_straw.jpg/328px-1945_Chiang_Kai-shek_inspected_Chinese_soldiers_with_shoes_made_of_straw.jpg 2x" data-file-width="495" data-file-height="304" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:137px;max-width:137px"><div style="height:97px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1930s_Mao_Zedong_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/1930s_Mao_Zedong_%28cropped%29.jpg/135px-1930s_Mao_Zedong_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/1930s_Mao_Zedong_%28cropped%29.jpg/203px-1930s_Mao_Zedong_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/1930s_Mao_Zedong_%28cropped%29.jpg/270px-1930s_Mao_Zedong_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="218" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:151px;max-width:151px"><div style="height:97px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Members_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army_board_a_ship_bound_for_Taiwan_in_1949.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Members_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army_board_a_ship_bound_for_Taiwan_in_1949.jpg/149px-Members_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army_board_a_ship_bound_for_Taiwan_in_1949.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Members_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army_board_a_ship_bound_for_Taiwan_in_1949.jpg/224px-Members_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army_board_a_ship_bound_for_Taiwan_in_1949.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Members_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army_board_a_ship_bound_for_Taiwan_in_1949.jpg/298px-Members_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army_board_a_ship_bound_for_Taiwan_in_1949.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="315" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div> Clockwise from top left:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Communist troops at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Siping" title="Battle of Siping">Battle of Siping</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> troops during the <a href="/wiki/Shangdang_Campaign" title="Shangdang Campaign">Shangdang Campaign</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> inspecting soldiers</li><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Army" title="Republic of China Army">ROCA</a> members boarding a ship during <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Retreat of the government of Republic of China to Taiwan">the retreat to Taiwan</a> in 1949</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> in the 1930s</li><li>CCP general <a href="/wiki/Su_Yu" title="Su Yu">Su Yu</a> inspecting troops shortly before the <a href="/wiki/Menglianggu_campaign" title="Menglianggu campaign">Menglianggu campaign</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li>1 August 1927 – 26 December 1936 <span class="nowrap">(first phase)</span><sup id="cite_ref-Nanchang_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanchang-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>10 August 1945 – 7 December 1949 <span class="nowrap">(second phase)</span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">Mainland China</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Communist victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> <ul><li>Communist control of mainland China</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <dl><dt>1927–1936</dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><img alt="Republic of China (1912–1949)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Republic of China</a><div><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a></li></ul></div></dd></dl></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <dt>1927–1936</dt> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/21px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/32px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/42px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a> <span class="nowrap">(from 1931)</span></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Chinese_soviet_flag.svg/23px-Chinese_soviet_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Chinese_soviet_flag.svg/35px-Chinese_soviet_flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Chinese_soviet_flag.svg/45px-Chinese_soviet_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi_Soviet" title="Jiangxi Soviet">Jiangxi Soviet</a> <span class="nowrap">(1931–1934)</span><div><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Second_War_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/21px-Second_War_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Second_War_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/32px-Second_War_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Second_War_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/42px-Second_War_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="648" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Chinese Red Army</a></li></ul></div></dd></td></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <dt>1945–1949</dt> <dd></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><img alt="Republic of China (1912–1949)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Republic of China</a><div><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/ROC_Ministry_of_National_Defense_Flag.svg/23px-ROC_Ministry_of_National_Defense_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/ROC_Ministry_of_National_Defense_Flag.svg/35px-ROC_Ministry_of_National_Defense_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/ROC_Ministry_of_National_Defense_Flag.svg/45px-ROC_Ministry_of_National_Defense_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1125" data-file-height="750" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces" title="Republic of China Armed Forces">Republic of China Armed Forces</a></li></ul></div></dd></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <dt>1945–1949</dt> <dd></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/21px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/32px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/42px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Soviet" title="Yan'an Soviet">Yan'an Soviet</a></dd> <dd><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> (1949)<div><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/19px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/29px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/38px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a></li></ul></div></dd></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><img alt="Republic of China (1912–1949)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><img alt="Republic of China (1912–1949)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Bai_Chongxi" title="Bai Chongxi">Bai Chongxi</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><img alt="Republic of China (1912–1949)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Li_Zongren" title="Li Zongren">Li Zongren</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><img alt="Republic of China (1912–1949)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><img alt="Republic of China (1912–1949)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><img alt="Republic of China (1912–1949)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Naval_Jack_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a> <span class="nowrap">(until 1930)</span></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Su_Yu" title="Su Yu">Su Yu</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party_%28Pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Guotao" title="Zhang Guotao">Zhang Guotao</a> <span class="nowrap">(until 1936)</span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li>2 million regular troops</li><li>2.3 million militia <span class="nowrap">(August 1948)</span><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hsiung_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hsiung-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sarker_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarker-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li>1.2 million regular troops</li><li>2.6 million militia <span class="nowrap">(July 1945)</span><sup id="cite_ref-Hsiung_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hsiung-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li>370,000 killed<sup id="cite_ref-Ho_253_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ho_253-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>1.5–1.7 million total <span class="nowrap">(second phase)</span><sup id="cite_ref-Lynch_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lynch-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sarker_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarker-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ho_253_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ho_253-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li>263,800 killed</li><li>190,000 missing</li><li>over 2.8 million total <span class="nowrap">(second phase)</span></li><li>850,000 wounded <span class="nowrap">(second phase)</span><sup id="cite_ref-Chinese_People's_Liberation_Army_1983_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chinese_People's_Liberation_Army_1983-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lynch_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lynch-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li><abbr title="estimation">est.</abbr> 7 million <span class="nowrap">(first phase)</span><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><abbr title="estimation">est.</abbr> 2.5 million <span class="nowrap">(second phase)</span> <sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>up to 6 million total <span class="nowrap">(second phase)</span><sup id="cite_ref-Lynch_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lynch-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Campaigns_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Campaigns of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="wrap">Chinese Civil War</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Outline of the Chinese Civil War">Outline of the Chinese Civil War</a></b></li></ul> <dl><dt>First Phase (1927–1937)</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autumn_Harvest_Uprising" title="Autumn Harvest Uprising">Autumn Harvest Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encirclement_campaigns" class="mw-redirect" title="Encirclement campaigns">Encirclement campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Resumption of hostilities (1945–1949)</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Bandits_in_Northeast_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Northeast China">Northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liaoshen_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Liaoshen Campaign">Liaoshen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huaihai_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Huaihai Campaign">Huaihai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingjin_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Pingjin Campaign">Pingjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Crossing_campaign" title="Yangtze River Crossing campaign">Yangtze River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Campaign" title="Shanghai Campaign">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hainan_Island" title="Battle of Hainan Island">Hainan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guningtou" title="Battle of Guningtou">Guningtou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanshan_Archipelago_Campaign" title="Wanshan Archipelago Campaign">Wanshan</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Aftermath</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_Xinjiang_into_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China">Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang_Islamic_insurgency" title="Kuomintang Islamic insurgency">Kuomintang Islamic insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960%E2%80%9361_campaign_at_the_China%E2%80%93Burma_border" class="mw-redirect" title="1960–61 campaign at the China–Burma border">China–Burma border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-Strait relations">Cross-strait conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Chinese Civil War</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:國共">國共</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%A7%E6%88%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:內戰">內戰</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:国共">国共</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%86%85%E6%88%98" class="extiw" title="wikt:内战">内战</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Kuomintang–Communist civil war</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Guó-Gòng Nèizhàn</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span lang="zh-Bopo">ㄍㄨㄛˊ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄍㄨㄥˋ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄋㄟˋ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄓㄢˋ</span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Kuo<sup>2</sup>-Kung<sup>4</sup> Nei<sup>4</sup>-chan<sup>4</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Guó-Gòng Nèi-jhàn</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[kwǒ.kʊ̂ŋ nêɪ.ʈʂân]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Wu Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="wuu-Latn">Koh-gon-ne-tsoe</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Gwok3 gung6 noi6 zin3</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[kʷɔk̚˧ kʊŋ˨ nɔj˨ tsin˧]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist" style="width:21em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Category:Chinese Communist Revolution">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #DD0000;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution"><span style="color:#FFFFFF;">Chinese Communist<br />Revolution</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China"><img alt="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG/150px-Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG/225px-Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG/300px-Mao_Proclaiming_New_China.JPG 2x" data-file-width="771" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</figcaption></figure><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> and leading revolutionaries proclaim the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> on October 1, 1949.</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Outline of the Chinese Civil War">Outline of the Chinese Civil War</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution#Origins" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Origins</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Context</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_Humiliation" class="mw-redirect" title="Century of Humiliation">Century of Humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism#Development_of_national_consciousness" title="Chinese nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Marxist_philosophy#Development_of_the_concept" title="Chinese Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Movements</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Culture_Movement" title="New Culture Movement">New Culture Movement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diligent_Work-Frugal_Study_Movement" title="Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement">Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1st_National_Congress_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="1st National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party">Founding of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_Eastern_Bureau_of_the_Communist_International" title="Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist International">Far Eastern Bureau of the Communist International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun%E2%80%93Joffe_Manifesto" title="Sun–Joffe Manifesto">Sun–Joffe Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_ideology_of_the_Kuomintang" title="Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang">Left Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_Movement_Training_Institute" title="Peasant Movement Training Institute">Peasant Movement Training Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Canton Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/28_Bolsheviks" title="28 Bolsheviks">28 Bolsheviks</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Labor organizing</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/1922_seamen%27s_strike" title="1922 seamen's strike">1922 seamen's strike</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/May_Thirtieth_Movement" title="May Thirtieth Movement">May Thirtieth Movement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Canton%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_strike" title="Canton–Hong Kong strike">Canton–Hong Kong strike</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_Nationalist_government" title="Wuhan Nationalist government">Wuhan Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_on_an_Investigation_of_the_Peasant_Movement_in_Hunan" title="Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan">Hunan Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hankou_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Hankou incident">Hankou incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanjing Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Break with the KMT</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Civil War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Aftermath of purge</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang Uprising">Nanchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Long_March" title="Little Long March">Little Long March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autumn_Harvest_Uprising" title="Autumn Harvest Uprising">Autumn Harvest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_Uprising" title="Guangzhou Uprising">Guangzhou</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Internal Purges</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bolshevik_League_incident" title="Anti-Bolshevik League incident">AB League Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futian_incident" title="Futian incident">Futian incident</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jiangxi_Soviet" title="Jiangxi Soviet">Jiangxi Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Chinese Red Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zunyi_Conference" title="Zunyi Conference">Zunyi Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Anti-Japanese resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">Eighth Route Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_River_Column" title="East River Column">East River Column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="New Fourth Army Incident">New Fourth Army Incident</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Communist base areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaan-Gan-Ning_Border_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region">Yan'an Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin-Cha-Ji_Border_Region" title="Jin-Cha-Ji Border Region">Jin-Cha-Ji Border Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Rectification_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Yan'an Rectification Campaign">Yan'an Rectification Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Forum" title="Yan'an Forum">Yan'an Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-China_Women%27s_Federation#History" title="All-China Women's Federation">Women's movement</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Resumed Civil War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Military conflict</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Millet_plus_rifles" title="Millet plus rifles">Millet plus rifles</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="History of the People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liaoshen_campaign" title="Liaoshen campaign">Liaoshen campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huaihai_campaign" title="Huaihai campaign">Huaihai campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingjin_campaign" title="Pingjin campaign">Pingjin campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Retreat of the ROC to Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Urban support for Communists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Democratic_League#History" title="China Democratic League">China Democratic League</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Chong_case" title="Shen Chong case">Shen Chong case</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jiaochangkou_incident" title="Jiaochangkou incident">Jiaochangkou incident</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Zisan_Incident" title="Yu Zisan Incident">Yu Zisan Incident</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Kuomintang#History" title="Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang">Revolutionary Committee of the KMT</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Forming the People's Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Government</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_People%27s_Government_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931954)" title="Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China (1949–1954)">Central People's Government</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference#History" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Writing the Constitution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1954_Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="1954 Constitution of the People's Republic of China">1954 Constitution</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Reforms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_Reform_Movement_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Land Reform Movement (China)">Land Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Marriage_Law" title="New Marriage Law">New Marriage Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_China#First_Plan_(1953–1957)" title="Five-year plans of China">First five-year plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-anti_and_Five-anti_Campaigns" title="Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns">Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Counterrevolutionaries" title="Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries">Suppression of counterrevolutionaries</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Foreign relations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship,_Alliance_and_Mutual_Assistance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance">Sino-Soviet Cooperation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Annexation of Tibet</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Volunteer_Army" title="People's Volunteer Army">Intervention in Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/China_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="China in the Vietnam War">Intervention in Vietnam</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution#Aftermath_and_legacy" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Legacy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong_Thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Mao Zedong Thought">Mao Zedong Thought</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism">Marxism–Leninism–Maoism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/National_Day_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="National Day of the People's Republic of China">National Day</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/100th_Anniversary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="100th Anniversary of the Chinese Communist Party">100th Anniversary of the CCP</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <p><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></span> </p> <span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/16px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/24px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/32px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Communism" title="Portal:Communism">Communism portal</a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_Communist_Revolution_sidebar" title="Template:Chinese Communist Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_Communist_Revolution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Chinese Communist Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_Communist_Revolution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese Communist Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Chinese Civil War</b> was fought between the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">government</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> and the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP), with armed conflict continuing intermittently from 1 August 1927 until Communist victory resulted in their total control over <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a> on 7 December 1949. </p><p>The war is generally divided into two phases with an interlude: from August 1927 to 1937, the <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a> alliance of the KMT and CCP collapsed during the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a>, and the Nationalists controlled most of China. From 1937 to 1945, hostilities were mostly put on hold as the <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a> fought the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese invasion of China</a> with eventual help from the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies of World War II</a>, although armed clashes between the groups remained common. Exacerbating the divisions within China further was the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a>, a Japan-sponsored puppet government ostensibly led by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei" title="Wang Jingwei">Wang Jingwei</a>, which was established to nominally govern the regions of China that came under Japanese occupation. </p><p>The civil war resumed as soon as it became apparent that <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japanese defeat</a> was imminent, with the communists gaining the upper hand in the second phase of the war from 1945 to 1949, generally referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a>. The Communists gained control of mainland China and <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">proclaimed the People's Republic of China</a> in 1949, forcing the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> to <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_retreat_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China retreat to Taiwan">retreat to the island of Taiwan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in the 1950s, a lasting political and military stand-off between the two sides of the <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Strait" title="Taiwan Strait">Taiwan Strait</a> has ensued, with the ROC in Taiwan and the PRC on the mainland <a href="/wiki/One-China_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One-China policy">both claiming</a> to be the legitimate government of all China. After the <a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a>, both tacitly ceased to engage in open conflict in 1979; however, no <a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">armistice</a> or <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">peace treaty</a> has ever been signed.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">History of the<br />Republic of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="National emblem of the Republic of China"><img alt="National emblem of the Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/150px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/225px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/300px-National_Emblem_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;font-weight:bold;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Taiwan" title="Economy of Taiwan">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Education</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of the Republic of China">Politics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)"><span style="font-size:105%;">1912–1949</span><br />Mainland rule</a></div></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)">Provisional Gov't</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiyang Government">Beiyang Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Government_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist Government (China)">Nationalist Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Constitutional government</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan_(1945%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Taiwan (1945–present)"><span style="font-size:105%;">1945–present</span><br />Taiwan</a></div></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_of_Taiwan" title="Retrocession of Taiwan">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_28_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="February 28 Incident">February 28 Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Taiwan)" title="White Terror (Taiwan)">White Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Exodus to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Republic of China in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Noes" title="Three Noes">Three Noes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Lily_student_movement" title="Wild Lily student movement">Wild Lily student movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Third Taiwan Strait Crisis">Third Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Secession_Law" title="Anti-Secession Law">Anti-Secession Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/100th_Anniversary_of_the_Xinhai_Revolution_and_Republic_of_China" title="100th Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution and Republic of China">100th anniversary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunflower_Student_Movement" title="Sunflower Student Movement">Sunflower Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Ma%E2%80%93Xi_meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="2015 Ma–Xi meeting">2015 Ma–Xi meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Summer_Universiade" title="2017 Summer Universiade">2017 Summer Universiade</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding-top:0.2em;background:white;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">History of</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">the PRC</a><br />(1949–present)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">Taiwan</a><br />(geographical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taipei" title="History of Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kaohsiung" title="History of Kaohsiung">Kaohsiung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Beijing" title="History of Beijing">Beijing</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kuomintang" title="History of the Kuomintang">the Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">the Taiwan issue</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Taiwan portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template talk:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Republic of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Following the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> assumed the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="President of the Republic of China">presidency</a> of the newly formed Republic of China, and was shortly thereafter succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-so_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-so-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Yuan was frustrated in a <a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">short-lived attempt</a> to <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">restore monarchy in China</a>, and China fell into <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">power struggle</a> after his death in 1916. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (KMT), led by Sun Yat-sen, created a new government in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> to rival the warlords who ruled over large swathes of China and prevented the formation of a solid central government.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Sun's efforts to obtain aid from Western countries were ignored, he turned to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. In 1923, Sun and Soviet representative <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Joffe" title="Adolph Joffe">Adolph Joffe</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> pledged Soviet assistance to China's unification in the <a href="/wiki/Sun%E2%80%93Joffe_Manifesto" title="Sun–Joffe Manifesto">Sun–Joffe Manifesto</a>, a declaration of cooperation among the <a href="/wiki/Comintern" class="mw-redirect" title="Comintern">Comintern</a>, KMT, and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP).<sup id="cite_ref-March_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-March-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comintern agent <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Borodin" title="Mikhail Borodin">Mikhail Borodin</a> arrived in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of both the CCP and the KMT along the lines of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>. The CCP, which was initially a study group, and the KMT jointly formed the <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-March_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-March-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1923, Sun sent <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, one of his lieutenants, for several months of military and political study in Moscow.<sup id="cite_ref-ChangH_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChangH-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chiang then became the head of the <a href="/wiki/Whampoa_Military_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Whampoa Military Academy">Whampoa Military Academy</a> that trained the next generation of military leaders. The Soviets provided the academy with teaching material, organization, and equipment, including munitions.<sup id="cite_ref-ChangH_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChangH-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also provided education in many of the techniques for mass mobilization. With this aid, Sun raised a dedicated "army of the party", with which he hoped to defeat the warlords militarily. CCP members were also present in the academy, and many of them became instructors, including <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a>, who was made a political instructor.<sup id="cite_ref-HoA_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HoA-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Communist members were allowed to join the KMT on an individual basis.<sup id="cite_ref-March_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-March-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CCP itself was still small at the time, having a membership of 300 in 1922 and only 1,500 by 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-Fairbank_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairbank-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 1923, the KMT had 50,000 members.<sup id="cite_ref-Fairbank_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairbank-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, after Sun died in 1925, the KMT split into left- and right-wing movements. KMT members worried that the Soviets were trying to destroy the KMT from inside using the CCP. The CCP then began movements in opposition of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a>, passing a resolution against it at a party meeting. </p><p>Then, in March 1927, the KMT held its second party meeting where the Soviets helped pass resolutions against the Expedition and curbing Chiang's power. Soon, the KMT would be clearly divided. </p><p>Throughout this time, the Soviet Union sent money and spies to support the CCP. Without their support, the CCP likely would have failed. This is evidenced by documents showing other communist parties in China at the time, one with as many as 10,000 members, which all failed without support from the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shanghai_massacre_and_Northern_Expedition_(1927)"><span id="Shanghai_massacre_and_Northern_Expedition_.281927.29"></span>Shanghai massacre and Northern Expedition (1927)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Shanghai massacre and Northern Expedition (1927)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In early 1927, the KMT–CCP rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks. The CCP and the left wing of the KMT decided to move the seat of the KMT government from Guangzhou to <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a>, where communist influence was strong.<sup id="cite_ref-Fairbank_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairbank-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Chiang and <a href="/wiki/Li_Zongren" title="Li Zongren">Li Zongren</a>, whose armies defeated the warlord <a href="/wiki/Sun_Chuanfang" title="Sun Chuanfang">Sun Chuanfang</a>, moved eastward toward <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>. The leftists rejected Chiang's demand to eliminate Communist influence within KMT, and Chiang denounced them for betraying Sun Yat-sen's <a href="/wiki/Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Three Principles of the People">Three Principles of the People</a> by taking orders from the Soviet Union. According to <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, Chiang's tolerance of the CCP in the KMT camp decreased as his power increased.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 7 April, Chiang and several other KMT leaders held a meeting, during which they proposed that Communist activities were socially and economically disruptive and had to be undone for the Nationalist revolution to proceed. On 12 April, many communists within the KMT were purged in Shanghai<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through hundreds of arrests and executions<sup id="cite_ref-Brune_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brune-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the orders of General <a href="/wiki/Bai_Chongxi" title="Bai Chongxi">Bai Chongxi</a>. The CCP referred to this as the <i>12 April Incident</i>, the White Terror, or the <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre_of_1927" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanghai massacre of 1927">Shanghai massacre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhaos_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhaos-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This incident widened the rift between Chiang and <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei" title="Wang Jingwei">Wang Jingwei</a>, the leader of the left wing faction of the KMT. The left wing of the KMT also expelled CCP members from the <a href="/wiki/Wuhan_Nationalist_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan Nationalist Government">Wuhan Government</a>, which in turn was toppled by Chiang Kai-shek. The KMT resumed its campaign against warlords and captured Beijing in June 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-Guo_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guo-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon, most of <a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">eastern China</a> was under the control of the Nanjing central government, which received prompt international recognition as the sole legitimate government of China. The KMT government announced, in conformity with Sun Yat-sen, the formula for the three stages of revolution: military unification, political tutelage, and constitutional democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Communist_insurgency_(1927–1937)"><span id="Communist_insurgency_.281927.E2.80.931937.29"></span>Communist insurgency (1927–1937)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Communist insurgency (1927–1937)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Encirclement_Campaigns" class="mw-redirect" title="Encirclement Campaigns">Encirclement Campaigns</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Communist insurgency (1927–1937)</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:第">第</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8C" class="extiw" title="wikt:二">二</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AC%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:次">次</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:內">內</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9D%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:革">革</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%91%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:命">命</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:戰">戰</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%88%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:爭">爭</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:第">第</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8C" class="extiw" title="wikt:二">二</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AC%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:次">次</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:国">国</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%86%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:内">内</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9D%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:革">革</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%91%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:命">命</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%98" class="extiw" title="wikt:战">战</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:争">争</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Second National Revolutionary War</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Dìèrcì guónèi gémìng zhànzhēng</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>On 1 August 1927, the CCP launched an <a href="/wiki/Nanchang_uprising" title="Nanchang uprising">uprising</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nanchang" title="Nanchang">Nanchang</a> against the Nationalist government in Wuhan. This conflict led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Workers%27_and_Peasants%27_Red_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army">Red Army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nanchang_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanchang-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lee_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 4 August, the main forces of the Red Army left Nanchang and headed southwards for an assault on Guangdong. Nationalist forces quickly reoccupied Nanchang while the remaining members of the CCP in Nanchang went into hiding.<sup id="cite_ref-Nanchang_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nanchang-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A CCP meeting on 7 August confirmed the objective of the party was to seize the political power by force, but the CCP was quickly suppressed the next day by the Nationalist government in Wuhan, led by Wang Jingwei. On 14 August, Chiang Kai-shek announced his temporary retirement, as the Wuhan faction and Nanjing faction of the Kuomintang were allied once again with common goal of suppressing the CCP after the earlier split. Wang Jingwei took the leadership of KMT after Chiang.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Attempts were later made by the CCP to take the cities of <a href="/wiki/Changsha" title="Changsha">Changsha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shantou" title="Shantou">Shantou</a> and Guangzhou. The Red Army consisting of mutinous former National Revolutionary Army (NRA) soldiers as well as armed <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> established control over several areas in <a href="/wiki/Southern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern China">southern China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> KMT forces continued to attempt to suppress the rebellions.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then, in September, Wang Jingwei was forced out of Wuhan. September also saw an unsuccessful armed rural insurrection, known as the <a href="/wiki/Autumn_Harvest_Uprising" title="Autumn Harvest Uprising">Autumn Harvest Uprising</a>, led by Mao Zedong.<sup id="cite_ref-Blasko_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blasko-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Borodin then returned to the Soviet Union in October via Mongolia. In November, Chiang Kai-shek went to Shanghai and invited Wang to join him. On 11 December, the CCP started the <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_Uprising" title="Guangzhou Uprising">Guangzhou Uprising</a>, establishing a soviet there the next day, but lost the city by 13 December to a counter-attack under the orders of General <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Fakui" title="Zhang Fakui">Zhang Fakui</a>. On 16 December, Wang Jingwei fled to France. There were now three capitals in China: the internationally recognized republic capital in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, the CCP and <a href="/wiki/Left-wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing">left-wing</a> KMT at Wuhan and the right-wing KMT regime at <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>, which would remain the KMT capital for the next decade.<sup id="cite_ref-Esherick_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Esherick-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Clark_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This marked the beginning of a ten-year armed struggle, known in mainland China as the "Ten-Year Civil War" (十年内战) which ended with the <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a>, when Chiang Kai-shek was forced to form the <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second United Front (China)">Second United Front</a> against invading forces from the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>. In 1930, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a> broke out as an internal conflict of the KMT; launched by <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a>, and Wang Jingwei. The attention was turned to root out remaining pockets of CCP activity in a series of five <a href="/wiki/Encirclement_Campaigns" class="mw-redirect" title="Encirclement Campaigns">encirclement campaigns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/First_encirclement_campaign_against_the_Jiangxi_Soviet" title="First encirclement campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet">first</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_encirclement_campaign_against_the_Jiangxi_Soviet" title="Second encirclement campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet">second</a> campaigns failed, and the <a href="/wiki/Third_encirclement_campaign_against_the_Jiangxi_Soviet" title="Third encirclement campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet">third</a> was aborted due to the <a href="/wiki/Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden Incident</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Fourth_encirclement_campaign_against_the_Jiangxi_Soviet" title="Fourth encirclement campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet">fourth campaign</a> (1932–1933) achieved some early successes, but Chiang's armies were badly mauled when they tried to penetrate into the heart of Mao's <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Chinese_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Chinese Republic">Soviet Chinese Republic</a>. During these campaigns, KMT columns struck swiftly into CCP areas, but were easily engulfed by the vast countryside and were not able to consolidate their foothold. </p><p>Finally, in late 1934, Chiang launched a <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Encirclement_Campaign_against_Hubei-Henan-Anhui_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Encirclement Campaign against Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet">fifth campaign</a> that involved the systematic encirclement of the <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi%E2%80%93Fujian_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet">Jiangxi Soviet</a> region with fortified <a href="/wiki/Blockhouse" title="Blockhouse">blockhouses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Manwaring_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manwaring-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The blockhouse strategy was devised and implemented in part by newly hired <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> advisors.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike previous campaigns in which they penetrated deeply in a single strike, this time the KMT troops patiently built blockhouses, each separated by about eight kilometres (five miles), to surround the Communist areas and cut off their supplies and food sources.<sup id="cite_ref-Manwaring_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manwaring-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 1934, the CCP took advantage of gaps in the ring of blockhouses (manned by the forces of a warlord ally of Chiang Kai-shek's, rather than regular KMT troops) and broke out of the encirclement. The warlord armies were reluctant to challenge Communist forces for fear of losing their own men and did not pursue the CCP with much fervor. In addition, the main KMT forces were preoccupied with annihilating <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Guotao" title="Zhang Guotao">Zhang Guotao</a>'s army, which was much larger than Mao's. The massive military retreat of Communist forces lasted a year and covered what Mao estimated as 12,500 km (25,000 <a href="/wiki/Li_(unit)" title="Li (unit)">Li</a>); it became known as the <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This military retreat was undertaken by the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong, to evade the pursuit or attack of the Kuomintang army. It consisted of a series of marches, during which numerous Communist armies in the south escaped to the north and west. Over the course of the march from Jiangxi the First Front Army, led by an inexperienced military commission, was on the brink of annihilation by Chiang Kai-Shek's troops as their stronghold was in Jiangxi. The Communists, under the command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, "escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north, which reportedly traversed over 9,000 kilometers over 370 days." The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west, and then northwards towards Shaanxi. "In November 1935, shortly after settling in northern Shaanxi, Mao officially took over Zhou Enlai's leading position in the Red Army. Following a major reshuffling of official roles, Mao became the chairman of the Military Commission, with Zhou and Deng Xiaoping as vice-chairmen." This marked Mao's position as the pre-eminent leader of the CCP, with Zhou in second position to him.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The march ended when the CCP reached the interior of <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>. <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Guotao" title="Zhang Guotao">Zhang Guotao</a>'s army (Red 4th Front Army), which took a different route through northwest China, was largely destroyed by the forces of Chiang Kai-shek and his <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Chinese Muslim</a> allies, the <a href="/wiki/Ma_clique" title="Ma clique">Ma clique</a>. Along the way, the Communist army confiscated property and weapons from local warlords and landlords, while recruiting peasants and the poor, solidifying its appeal to the masses. Of the 90,000–100,000 people who began the Long March from the Soviet Chinese Republic, only around 7,000–8,000 made it to Shaanxi.<sup id="cite_ref-Bianco_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bianco-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remnants of Zhang's forces eventually joined Mao in Shaanxi, but with his army destroyed, Zhang, even as a founding member of the CCP, was never able to challenge Mao's authority. Essentially, the great retreat made Mao the undisputed leader of the Chinese Communist Party. </p><p>The Kuomintang used <a href="/wiki/Kham" title="Kham">Khampa</a> troops—who were former bandits—to battle the Communist Red Army as it advanced and to undermine local warlords who often refused to fight Communist forces to conserve their own strength. The KMT enlisted 300 "Khampa bandits" into its Consolatory Commission military in Sichuan, where they were part of the effort of the central government to penetrate and destabilize local Han warlords such as <a href="/wiki/Liu_Wenhui" title="Liu Wenhui">Liu Wenhui</a>. The government was seeking to exert full control over frontier areas against the warlords. Liu had refused to battle the Communists in order to conserve his army. The Consolatory Commission forces were used to battle the Red Army, but they were defeated when their religious leader was captured by the Communists.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1936, Zhou Enlai and <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a> grew closer, with Zhou even suggesting that he join the CCP. However, this was turned down by the Comintern in the USSR. Later on, Zhou persuaded Zhang and <a href="/wiki/Yang_Hucheng" title="Yang Hucheng">Yang Hucheng</a>, another warlord, to instigate the Xi'an Incident. Chiang was placed under house arrest and forced to stop his attacks on the Red Army, instead focusing on the Japanese threat. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 275px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 270px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="The situation in China in 1929: After the Northern Expedition, the KMT had direct control over east and central China, while the rest of China proper as well as Manchuria was under the control of warlords loyal to the Nationalist government."><img alt="The situation in China in 1929: After the Northern Expedition, the KMT had direct control over east and central China, while the rest of China proper as well as Manchuria was under the control of warlords loyal to the Nationalist government." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG/232px-Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG" decoding="async" width="232" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG/349px-Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG/465px-Nationalist_China_1929_-_1937.PNG 2x" data-file-width="888" data-file-height="688" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The situation in China in 1929: After the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a>, the KMT had direct control over east and central China, while the rest of China proper as well as Manchuria was under the control of warlords loyal to the Nationalist government.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 275px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 270px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Soviet_Zones.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map showing the communist-controlled Soviet Zones of China during and after the encirclement campaigns"><img alt="Map showing the communist-controlled Soviet Zones of China during and after the encirclement campaigns" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/China_Soviet_Zones.png/240px-China_Soviet_Zones.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/China_Soviet_Zones.png/360px-China_Soviet_Zones.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/China_Soviet_Zones.png/480px-China_Soviet_Zones.png 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="899" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map showing the communist-controlled Soviet Zones of China during and after the encirclement campaigns</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 275px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 270px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Long_March_1934_-_1935.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Route(s) taken by Communist forces during the Long March"><img alt="Route(s) taken by Communist forces during the Long March" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/The_Long_March_1934_-_1935.PNG/233px-The_Long_March_1934_-_1935.PNG" decoding="async" width="233" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/The_Long_March_1934_-_1935.PNG/349px-The_Long_March_1934_-_1935.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/The_Long_March_1934_-_1935.PNG/465px-The_Long_March_1934_-_1935.PNG 2x" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="688" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Route(s) taken by Communist forces during the Long March</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 275px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 270px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Long-march.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Communist leader addressing survivors of the Long March"><img alt="A Communist leader addressing survivors of the Long March" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Long-march.jpg/240px-Long-march.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Long-march.jpg/360px-Long-march.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Long-march.jpg/480px-Long-march.jpg 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="310" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A Communist leader addressing survivors of the Long March</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 275px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 270px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chiang1926.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Commander-in-Chief of the National Revolutionary Army, emerged from the Northern Expedition as the leader of the Republic of China"><img alt="Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Commander-in-Chief of the National Revolutionary Army, emerged from the Northern Expedition as the leader of the Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Chiang1926.jpg/144px-Chiang1926.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Chiang1926.jpg/216px-Chiang1926.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Chiang1926.jpg/288px-Chiang1926.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Generalissimo" title="Generalissimo">Generalissimo</a> <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, Commander-in-Chief of the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a>, emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> as the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 275px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 270px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Revolutionary_Army_troops.png" class="mw-file-description" title="NRA soldiers marching"><img alt="NRA soldiers marching" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/National_Revolutionary_Army_troops.png/240px-National_Revolutionary_Army_troops.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/National_Revolutionary_Army_troops.png/360px-National_Revolutionary_Army_troops.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/National_Revolutionary_Army_troops.png/480px-National_Revolutionary_Army_troops.png 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">NRA soldiers marching</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 275px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 270px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Revolutionary_Army_artillery.png" class="mw-file-description" title="NRA troops firing artillery at Communist forces"><img alt="NRA troops firing artillery at Communist forces" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/National_Revolutionary_Army_artillery.png/240px-National_Revolutionary_Army_artillery.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/National_Revolutionary_Army_artillery.png/360px-National_Revolutionary_Army_artillery.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/National_Revolutionary_Army_artillery.png/480px-National_Revolutionary_Army_artillery.png 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="464" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">NRA troops firing artillery at Communist forces</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_Sino-Japanese_War_(1937–1945)"><span id="Second_Sino-Japanese_War_.281937.E2.80.931945.29"></span>Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></div> <p>During Japan's invasion and <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">occupation of Manchuria</a>, Chiang Kai-shek saw the CCP as the greater threat. Chiang refused to ally with the CCP, preferring to unite China by eliminating the warlord and CCP forces first. He believed his forces were too weak to face the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Imperial_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Imperial Army">Japanese Imperial Army</a>; only after unification could the KMT mobilize against Japan. He ignored the Chinese people's discontent and anger at the KMT policy of compromise with the Japanese, instead ordering KMT generals Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng to suppress the CCP. However, their provincial forces suffered significant casualties in battles against the Red Army.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 12 December 1936, the disgruntled Zhang and Yang conspired to kidnap Chiang and force him into a truce with the CCP. The incident became known as the Xi'an Incident.<sup id="cite_ref-Ye_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ye-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both parties suspended fighting to form a Second United Front to focus their energies and fight the Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-Ye_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ye-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1937, Japan launched its full-scale invasion of China and its well-equipped troops overran KMT defenders in northern and coastal China. </p><p>The alliance of CCP and KMT was in name only.<sup id="cite_ref-Buss_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buss-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the KMT forces, CCP troops shunned <a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">conventional warfare</a> and instead waged <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a> against the Japanese. The level of actual cooperation and coordination between the CCP and KMT during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> was minimal.<sup id="cite_ref-Buss_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buss-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the midst of the Second United Front, the CCP and the KMT were still vying for territorial advantage in "<a href="/wiki/Free_China_(Second_Sino-Japanese_War)" title="Free China (Second Sino-Japanese War)">Free China</a>" (i.e., areas not occupied by the Japanese or ruled by Japanese <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet governments</a> such as Manchukuo and the <a href="/wiki/Reorganized_National_Government_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Reorganized National Government of China">Reorganized National Government of China</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Buss_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buss-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The situation came to a head in late 1940 and early 1941 when clashes between Communist and KMT forces intensified. Chiang demanded in December 1940 that the CCP's <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a> evacuate <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> Provinces, due to its provocation and harassment of KMT forces in this area. Under intense pressure, the New Fourth Army commanders complied. The following year they were <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_incident" title="New Fourth Army incident">ambushed</a> by KMT forces during their evacuation, which led to several thousand deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-schok_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schok-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also ended the Second United Front, formed earlier to fight the Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-schok_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schok-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As clashes between the CCP and KMT intensified, countries such as the United States and the Soviet Union attempted to prevent a disastrous civil war. After the New Fourth Army incident, US President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> sent <a href="/wiki/Special_envoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Special envoy">special envoy</a> <a href="/wiki/Lauchlin_Currie" title="Lauchlin Currie">Lauchlin Currie</a> to talk with Chiang Kai-shek and KMT party leaders to express their concern regarding the hostility between the two parties, with Currie stating that the only ones to benefit from a civil war would be the Japanese. The Soviet Union, allied more closely with the CCP, sent an imperative telegram to Mao in 1941, warning that civil war would also make the situation easier for the Japanese military. Due to the international community's efforts, there was a temporary and superficial peace. Chiang criticized the CCP in 1943 with the propaganda piece <i>China's Destiny</i>, which questioned the CCP's power after the war, while the CCP strongly opposed Chiang's leadership and referred to his regime as fascist in an attempt to generate a negative public image. Both leaders knew that a deadly battle had begun between themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In general, developments in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> were to the advantage of the CCP, as its guerrilla war tactics had won them popular support within the Japanese-occupied areas. However, the KMT had to defend the country against the main Japanese campaigns, since it was the legal Chinese government, a factor which proved costly to Chiang Kai-shek and his troops. Japan launched its last major offensive against the KMT, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Operation Ichi-Go</a>, in 1944, which resulted in the severe weakening of Chiang's forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Lary_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lary-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CCP also suffered fewer losses through its guerrilla tactics.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the war, the Red Army had grown to more than 1.3 million members, with a separate militia of over 2.6 million. About one hundred million people lived in CCP-controlled zones. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 275px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 270px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Situation_at_the_End_of_World_War_Two.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Japanese occupation (red) of eastern China near the end of the war, and Communist bases (striped)"><img alt="Japanese occupation (red) of eastern China near the end of the war, and Communist bases (striped)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Situation_at_the_End_of_World_War_Two.PNG/233px-Situation_at_the_End_of_World_War_Two.PNG" decoding="async" width="233" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Situation_at_the_End_of_World_War_Two.PNG/349px-Situation_at_the_End_of_World_War_Two.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Situation_at_the_End_of_World_War_Two.PNG/465px-Situation_at_the_End_of_World_War_Two.PNG 2x" data-file-width="888" data-file-height="687" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Japanese occupation (red) of eastern China near the end of the war, and Communist bases (striped)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Immediate_post-war_clashes_(1945–1946)"><span id="Immediate_post-war_clashes_.281945.E2.80.931946.29"></span>Immediate post-war clashes (1945–1946)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Immediate post-war clashes (1945–1946)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg/220px-%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg/330px-%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg/440px-%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong met in Chongqing in 1945.</figcaption></figure> <p>Under the terms of the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Unconditional_surrender" title="Unconditional surrender">unconditional surrender</a> dictated by the Allies, Japanese troops were to surrender to KMT troops but not to the CCP, which was present in some of the occupied areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Zarrow_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zarrow-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, however, where the KMT had no forces, the Japanese surrendered to the Soviet Union. Chiang Kai-shek reminded Japanese troops to remain at their posts to receive the KMT, but Communist forces soon began taking surrenders from the Japanese and fighting those who resisted.<sup id="cite_ref-Zarrow_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zarrow-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Coady_Wedemeyer" title="Albert Coady Wedemeyer">General Wedemeyer</a> of the United States Army became alarmed at these developments and wanted seven American divisions to be sent to China, but <a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">General Marshall</a> replied that it should not be given priority over Japan and Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first post-war peace negotiation, attended by both Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong, was in <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a> from 28 August to 10 October 1945. Chiang entered the meeting at an advantage because he had recently signed a <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Alliance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance">friendly treaty</a> with the Soviet Union while the Communists were still forcing the Japanese to surrender in some places. Mao was accompanied by American ambassador <a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hurley" title="Patrick J. Hurley">Patrick J. Hurley</a>, who was devoted to Chiang but also wanted to ensure Mao's safety in light of the past history between the two Chinese leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It concluded with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Double_Tenth_Agreement" title="Double Tenth Agreement">Double Tenth Agreement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Xu_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xu-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both sides stressed the importance of a peaceful reconstruction, but the conference did not produce any concrete results.<sup id="cite_ref-Xu_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xu-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Battles between the two sides continued even as peace negotiations were in progress, until the agreement was reached in January 1946. However, large campaigns and full-scale confrontations between the CCP and Chiang's troops were temporarily avoided. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shangtang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Shangtang.jpg/220px-Shangtang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Shangtang.jpg/330px-Shangtang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Shangtang.jpg/440px-Shangtang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shangdang_Campaign" title="Shangdang Campaign">Shangdang Campaign</a>, September – October 1945</figcaption></figure> <p>In the last month of World War II in East Asia, Soviet forces launched the huge <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation</a> against the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a> in Manchuria and along the Chinese-Mongolian border.<sup id="cite_ref-Bright_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bright-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This operation destroyed the Kwantung Army in just three weeks and left the USSR occupying all of Manchuria by the end of the war in a total power vacuum of local Chinese forces. Consequently, the 700,000 Japanese troops stationed in the region surrendered. Later in the year Chiang Kai-shek realized that he lacked the resources to prevent a CCP takeover of Manchuria following the scheduled Soviet departure.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He therefore made a deal with the Soviets to delay their withdrawal until he had moved enough of his best-trained men and modern <a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">materiel</a> into the region. However, the Soviets refused permission for the Nationalist troops to traverse its territory and spent the extra time systematically dismantling the extensive Manchurian industrial base (worth up to $2 billion) and shipping it back to their war-ravaged country.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> KMT troops were then airlifted by the US to occupy key cities in North China, while the countryside was already dominated by the CCP. On 15 November 1945, the KMT began a campaign to prevent the CCP from strengthening its already strong base.<sup id="cite_ref-Jessup_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jessup-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, however, the return of the KMT also brought widespread graft and corruption, with an <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services" title="Office of Strategic Services">OSS</a> officer remarking that the only winners were the Communists.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the winter of 1945–1946, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> commanded Marshal <a href="/wiki/Rodion_Malinovsky" title="Rodion Malinovsky">Rodion Malinovsky</a> to give Mao Zedong most <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> weapons that were captured.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chiang Kai-shek's forces pushed as far as <a href="/wiki/Jinzhou" title="Jinzhou">Chinchow (Jinzhou)</a> by 26 November 1945, meeting with little resistance. This was followed by a Communist offensive on the <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Peninsula" title="Shandong Peninsula">Shandong Peninsula</a> that was largely successful, as all of the peninsula, except what was controlled by the US, fell to the Communists.<sup id="cite_ref-Jessup_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jessup-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The truce fell apart in June 1946 when full-scale war between CCP and KMT forces broke out on 26 June 1946. China then entered a state of civil war that lasted more than three years.<sup id="cite_ref-Hu_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 275px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 270px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Manchuria_Operation_map-es.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Soviet Red Army invaded Manchuria in August 1945."><img alt="The Soviet Red Army invaded Manchuria in August 1945." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Manchuria_Operation_map-es.svg/175px-Manchuria_Operation_map-es.svg.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Manchuria_Operation_map-es.svg/263px-Manchuria_Operation_map-es.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Manchuria_Operation_map-es.svg/350px-Manchuria_Operation_map-es.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1947" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet">Soviet</a> <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">invaded Manchuria</a> in August 1945.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 275px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 270px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Communist_troops_marched_north(1945)_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese Communist soldiers march north to occupy rural Manchuria, 1945."><img alt="Chinese Communist soldiers march north to occupy rural Manchuria, 1945." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Chinese_Communist_troops_marched_north%281945%29_03.jpg/240px-Chinese_Communist_troops_marched_north%281945%29_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Chinese_Communist_troops_marched_north%281945%29_03.jpg/360px-Chinese_Communist_troops_marched_north%281945%29_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Chinese_Communist_troops_marched_north%281945%29_03.jpg/480px-Chinese_Communist_troops_marched_north%281945%29_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chinese Communist soldiers march north to occupy rural <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, 1945.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resumed_fighting_(1946–1949)"><span id="Resumed_fighting_.281946.E2.80.931949.29"></span><span class="anchor" id="Second_phase"></span> Resumed fighting (1946–1949)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Resumed fighting (1946–1949)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background_and_disposition_of_forces">Background and disposition of forces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Background and disposition of forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Resumed fighting (1946–1949)</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Name in mainland China</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:第">第</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:三">三</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AC%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:次">次</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:內">內</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9D%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:革">革</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%91%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:命">命</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:戰">戰</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%88%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:爭">爭</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:第">第</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:三">三</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%AC%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:次">次</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:国">国</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%86%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:内">内</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%9D%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:革">革</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%91%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:命">命</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%98" class="extiw" title="wikt:战">战</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:争">争</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Third National Revolutionary War</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Dìsāncì guónèi gémìng zhànzhēng</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Second name in mainland China</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A7%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:解">解</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:放">放</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:戰">戰</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%88%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:爭">爭</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A7%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:解">解</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:放">放</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%98" class="extiw" title="wikt:战">战</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:争">争</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">War of Liberation</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Wu Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="wuu-Latn">Chia-fhon-tsan-zen</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Gaai2 fong3 zin3 zang1</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Kái-hòng chiàn-cheng</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Name in Taiwan</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:反">反</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:共">共</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:戡">戡</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:亂">亂</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:戰">戰</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%88%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:爭">爭</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:反">反</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:共">共</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:戡">戡</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%B1" class="extiw" title="wikt:乱">乱</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%98" class="extiw" title="wikt:战">战</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:争">争</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Fǎngòng kānluàn zhànzhēng</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Third name in mainland China</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:中">中</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:人">人</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B0%91" class="extiw" title="wikt:民">民</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A7%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:解">解</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:放">放</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:戰">戰</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%88%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:爭">爭</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:中">中</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:国">国</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:人">人</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B0%91" class="extiw" title="wikt:民">民</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A7%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:解">解</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:放">放</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%98" class="extiw" title="wikt:战">战</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:争">争</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">Chinese People's Liberation War</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Zhōngguó rénmín jiěfàng zhànzhēng</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>By the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the power of the Chinese Communist Party grew considerably. Their main force grew to 1.2 million troops, backed with additional militia of 2 million, totalling 3.2 million troops. Their "Liberated Zone" in 1945 contained 19 base areas, including one-quarter of the country's territory and one-third of its population; this included many important towns and cities. Moreover, the Soviet Union turned over all of its captured Japanese weapons and a substantial amount of their own supplies to the Communists, who received Northeastern China from the Soviets as well.<sup id="cite_ref-nat_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 1946, despite repeated requests from Chiang, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Red_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Red Army">Soviet Red Army</a> under the command of Marshal Rodion Malinovsky continued to delay pulling out of Manchuria, while Malinovsky secretly told the CCP forces to move in behind them, which led to full-scale war for the control of the Northeast. These favorable conditions also facilitated many changes inside the Communist leadership: the more radical hard-line faction who wanted a complete military take-over of China finally gained the upper hand and defeated the careful opportunists.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before giving control to Communist leaders, on 27 March, Soviet diplomats requested a joint venture of industrial development with the Nationalist Party in Manchuria.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although <a href="/wiki/George_Marshall" class="mw-redirect" title="George Marshall">General Marshall</a> stated that he knew of no evidence that the CCP was being supplied by the Soviet Union, the CCP was able to utilize a large number of weapons abandoned by the Japanese, including some tanks. When large numbers of well-trained KMT troops began to defect to the Communist forces, the CCP was finally able to achieve material superiority.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CCP's most effective political reform was its land reform policy. This drew the massive number of landless and starving peasants in the countryside into the Communist cause.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This strategy enabled the CCP to access an almost unlimited supply of manpower for both combat and logistical purposes; despite suffering heavy casualties throughout many of the war's campaigns, manpower continued to grow. For example, during the <a href="/wiki/Huaihai_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Huaihai Campaign">Huaihai Campaign</a> alone the CCP was able to mobilize 5,430,000 peasants to fight against the KMT forces.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Revolutionary_Army_planes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/National_Revolutionary_Army_planes.png/220px-National_Revolutionary_Army_planes.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/National_Revolutionary_Army_planes.png/330px-National_Revolutionary_Army_planes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/National_Revolutionary_Army_planes.png/440px-National_Revolutionary_Army_planes.png 2x" data-file-width="633" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption>Nationalist warplanes being prepared for an air raid on Communist bases</figcaption></figure> <p>After the war with the Japanese ended, Chiang Kai-shek quickly moved KMT troops to newly liberated areas to prevent Communist forces from receiving the Japanese surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-nat_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US airlifted many KMT troops from central China to the <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a> (Manchuria). President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> was very clear about what he described as "using the Japanese to hold off the Communists". In his memoirs he writes: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It was perfectly clear to us that if we told the Japanese to lay down their arms immediately and march to the seaboard, the entire country would be taken over by the Communists. We therefore had to take the unusual step of using the enemy as a garrison until we could airlift Chinese National troops to South China and send <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marines</a> to guard the seaports. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>President Truman<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Using the pretext of "receiving the Japanese surrender", business interests within the KMT government occupied most of the banks, factories and commercial properties, which had previously been seized by the Imperial Japanese Army.<sup id="cite_ref-nat_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also conscripted troops at an accelerated pace from the civilian population and hoarded supplies, preparing for a resumption of war with the Communists. These hasty and harsh preparations caused great hardship for the residents of cities such as Shanghai, where the unemployment rate rose dramatically to 37.5%.<sup id="cite_ref-nat_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">Hyperinflation</a> meant those employed in the Kuomintang forces lost the purchasing power of their pay.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 204">: 204 </span></sup> This resulted in corruption and the embezzlement of supplies which disappeared into the barter economy.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 204">: 204 </span></sup> Ordinary Kuomintang soldiers were often malnourished and desertion was common.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 204">: 204 </span></sup> </p><p>The US strongly supported the Kuomintang forces. About 50,000 US soldiers were sent to guard strategic sites in Hebei and Shandong in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a>. The US equipped and trained KMT troops, and transported Japanese and Koreans back to help KMT forces to occupy liberated zones as well as to contain Communist-controlled areas.<sup id="cite_ref-nat_53-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/William_Blum" title="William Blum">William Blum</a>, American aid included substantial amounts of mostly surplus military supplies, and loans were made to the KMT.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within less than two years after the Sino-Japanese War, the KMT had received $4.43 billion from the US—most of which was military aid.<sup id="cite_ref-nat_53-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Highlighting the aid provided by the US to the KMT, the Communists' position was that the US was stirring domestic warfare and characterized the civil war as both a national revolution against the KMT and a revolution against US colonization and aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-:Li_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Li-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 14">: 14 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outbreak_of_war">Outbreak of war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Outbreak of war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaing_Kai-shek%27s_Strategy_1947.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Situation in 1947"><img alt="Situation in 1947" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Chaing_Kai-shek%27s_Strategy_1947.PNG/200px-Chaing_Kai-shek%27s_Strategy_1947.PNG" decoding="async" width="200" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Chaing_Kai-shek%27s_Strategy_1947.PNG/300px-Chaing_Kai-shek%27s_Strategy_1947.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Chaing_Kai-shek%27s_Strategy_1947.PNG/400px-Chaing_Kai-shek%27s_Strategy_1947.PNG 2x" data-file-width="888" data-file-height="686" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Situation in 1947</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Communist_Offensives_September_through_November_1948.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Situation in the fall of 1948"><img alt="Situation in the fall of 1948" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Communist_Offensives_September_through_November_1948.PNG/200px-Communist_Offensives_September_through_November_1948.PNG" decoding="async" width="200" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Communist_Offensives_September_through_November_1948.PNG/300px-Communist_Offensives_September_through_November_1948.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Communist_Offensives_September_through_November_1948.PNG/400px-Communist_Offensives_September_through_November_1948.PNG 2x" data-file-width="888" data-file-height="687" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Situation in the fall of 1948</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Communist_Offensives_November_1948_-_January_1949.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Situation in the winter of 1948 and 1949"><img alt="Situation in the winter of 1948 and 1949" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Communist_Offensives_November_1948_-_January_1949.PNG/200px-Communist_Offensives_November_1948_-_January_1949.PNG" decoding="async" width="200" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Communist_Offensives_November_1948_-_January_1949.PNG/300px-Communist_Offensives_November_1948_-_January_1949.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Communist_Offensives_November_1948_-_January_1949.PNG/400px-Communist_Offensives_November_1948_-_January_1949.PNG 2x" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="686" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Situation in the winter of 1948 and 1949</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Communist_Offensives_April_-_October_1949.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Situation in April to October 1949"><img alt="Situation in April to October 1949" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Communist_Offensives_April_-_October_1949.PNG/200px-Communist_Offensives_April_-_October_1949.PNG" decoding="async" width="200" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Communist_Offensives_April_-_October_1949.PNG/300px-Communist_Offensives_April_-_October_1949.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Communist_Offensives_April_-_October_1949.PNG/400px-Communist_Offensives_April_-_October_1949.PNG 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="688" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Situation in April to October 1949</div> </li> </ul> <p>As postwar negotiations between the Nationalist government and the CCP failed, the civil war between these two parties resumed. This stage of war is referred to in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a> and Communist historiography as the "War of Liberation" (Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hans">解放战争</span>; pinyin: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Jiěfàng Zhànzhēng</span></i>). On 20 July 1946, Chiang Kai-shek launched a large-scale assault on Communist territory in <a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North China</a> with 113 brigades (a total of 1.6 million troops).<sup id="cite_ref-nat_53-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Knowing their disadvantages in manpower and equipment, the CCP executed a "passive defense" strategy. It avoided the strong points of the KMT army and was prepared to abandon territory in order to preserve its forces. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. The CCP also attempted to wear out the KMT forces as much as possible. This tactic seemed to be successful; after a year, the power balance became more favorable to the CCP. They wiped out 1.12 million KMT troops, while their strength grew to about two million men.<sup id="cite_ref-nat_53-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:North_China_Areas_of_Politico-military_Control,_15_August_1947_-_DPLA_-_1e624ff873a62c9c3c18bc0f50c38da0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/North_China_Areas_of_Politico-military_Control%2C_15_August_1947_-_DPLA_-_1e624ff873a62c9c3c18bc0f50c38da0.jpg/220px-North_China_Areas_of_Politico-military_Control%2C_15_August_1947_-_DPLA_-_1e624ff873a62c9c3c18bc0f50c38da0.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/North_China_Areas_of_Politico-military_Control%2C_15_August_1947_-_DPLA_-_1e624ff873a62c9c3c18bc0f50c38da0.jpg/330px-North_China_Areas_of_Politico-military_Control%2C_15_August_1947_-_DPLA_-_1e624ff873a62c9c3c18bc0f50c38da0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/North_China_Areas_of_Politico-military_Control%2C_15_August_1947_-_DPLA_-_1e624ff873a62c9c3c18bc0f50c38da0.jpg/440px-North_China_Areas_of_Politico-military_Control%2C_15_August_1947_-_DPLA_-_1e624ff873a62c9c3c18bc0f50c38da0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6060" data-file-height="6616" /></a><figcaption>North China areas of politico-military control in August 1947.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg/220px-PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg/330px-PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg/440px-PLA_Enters_Peking.jpg 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="613" /></a><figcaption>The PLA enters Beiping (today's Beijing) in the <a href="/wiki/Pingjin_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Pingjin Campaign">Pingjin Campaign</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lost_Horizon%3F_(1948).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Lost_Horizon%3F_%281948%29.jpg/220px-Lost_Horizon%3F_%281948%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Lost_Horizon%3F_%281948%29.jpg/330px-Lost_Horizon%3F_%281948%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Lost_Horizon%3F_%281948%29.jpg/440px-Lost_Horizon%3F_%281948%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Far East from the Time magazine showing the situation of the Chinese Civil War in late 1948</figcaption></figure> <p>In March 1947, the KMT achieved a symbolic victory by seizing Yan'an, the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Soviet" title="Yan'an Soviet">Yan'an Soviet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Communists counterattacked soon afterwards; on 30 June 1947, CCP troops crossed the Yellow River and moved to the <a href="/wiki/Dabie_Mountains" title="Dabie Mountains">Dabie Mountains</a> area, restored and developed the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plain_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Plain (China)">Central Plain</a>. At the same time, Communist forces also began to counterattack in Northeastern China, North China and East China.<sup id="cite_ref-nat_53-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By late 1948, the CCP captured the northern cities of <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Shenyang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Changchun" title="Changchun">Changchun</a> and seized control of the Northeast after suffering numerous setbacks while trying to take the cities, with the decisive <a href="/wiki/Liaoshen_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Liaoshen Campaign">Liaoshen Campaign</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Westad_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Westad-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/New_1st_Army" title="New 1st Army">New 1st Army</a>, regarded as the best KMT army, was forced to surrender after the CCP conducted a brutal six-month <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Changchun" title="Siege of Changchun">siege of Changchun</a> that resulted in more than 150,000 civilian deaths from starvation.<sup id="cite_ref-AP_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Renault_FT_in_ROC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Renault_FT_in_ROC.jpg/220px-Renault_FT_in_ROC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Renault_FT_in_ROC.jpg/330px-Renault_FT_in_ROC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Renault_FT_in_ROC.jpg/440px-Renault_FT_in_ROC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1616" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> FT tanks</figcaption></figure> <p>The capture of large KMT units provided the CCP with the tanks, heavy artillery and other combined-arms assets needed to execute offensive operations south of the Great Wall. By April 1948, the city of Luoyang fell, cutting the KMT army off from Xi'an.<sup id="cite_ref-Elleman_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elleman-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following a fierce battle, the CCP captured <a href="/wiki/Jinan" title="Jinan">Jinan</a> and Shandong province on 24 September 1948. The <a href="/wiki/Huaihai_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Huaihai Campaign">Huaihai Campaign</a> of late 1948 and early 1949 secured east-central China for the CCP.<sup id="cite_ref-Westad_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Westad-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large number of KMT troops deserted and changed sides in these conflicts.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 204">: 204 </span></sup> The outcome of these encounters were decisive for the military outcome of the civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-Westad_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Westad-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Pingjin_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Pingjin Campaign">Pingjin Campaign</a> resulted in the Communist conquest of northern China. It lasted 64 days, from 21 November 1948 to 31 January 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-Finkld_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finkld-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The PLA suffered heavy casualties while securing <a href="/wiki/Zhangjiakou" title="Zhangjiakou">Zhangjiakou</a>, Tianjin along with its port and garrison at <a href="/wiki/Taku_Forts" title="Taku Forts">Dagu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beiping</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Finkld_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finkld-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CCP brought 890,000 troops from the northeast to oppose some 600,000 KMT troops.<sup id="cite_ref-Elleman_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elleman-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were 40,000 CCP casualties at Zhangjiakou alone. They in turn killed, wounded or captured some 520,000 KMT during the campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-Finkld_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finkld-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg/220px-ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg/330px-ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg/440px-ROC_Retreat_to_Taiwan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="453" /></a><figcaption>The Nationalists' retreat to Taipei: after the Nationalists lost <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> they next moved to <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, then to <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a> and finally, <a href="/wiki/Xichang" title="Xichang">Xichang</a> before arriving <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a> in 1949.</figcaption></figure> <p>After achieving decisive victory at Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin campaigns, the CCP destroyed 144 regular and 29 irregular KMT divisions, including 1.54 million <a href="/wiki/Veteran" title="Veteran">veteran</a> KMT troops, which significantly reduced the strength of Nationalist forces.<sup id="cite_ref-nat_53-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stalin initially favored a <a href="/wiki/Coalition_government" title="Coalition government">coalition government</a> in postwar China, and tried to persuade Mao to stop the CCP from crossing the Yangtze and attacking the KMT positions south of the river.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mao rejected Stalin's position and on 21 April, began the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Crossing_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River Crossing Campaign">Yangtze River Crossing Campaign</a>. On 23 April, they captured the KMT's capital, Nanjing.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhang_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The KMT government retreated to Canton (Guangzhou) until 15 October, <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a> until 25 November, and then Chengdu before <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Nationalist_Party_retreat_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan">retreating to Taiwan</a> on 7 December. By late 1949, the People's Liberation Army was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China, and only <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> was left. A Chinese Muslim <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a> cavalry regiment, the 14th <a href="/wiki/Dungan_people" title="Dungan people">Tungan</a> Cavalry, was sent by the Kuomintang to attack Mongol and Soviet positions along the border during the <a href="/wiki/Pei-ta-shan_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Pei-ta-shan Incident">Pei-ta-shan Incident</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Kuomintang made several last-ditch attempts to use <a href="/wiki/Kham" title="Kham">Khampa</a> troops against the Communists in southwest China. The Kuomintang formulated a plan in which three Khampa divisions would be assisted by the <a href="/wiki/Choekyi_Gyaltsen,_10th_Panchen_Lama" title="Choekyi Gyaltsen, 10th Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a> to oppose the Communists.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kuomintang intelligence reported that some Tibetan tusi chiefs and the Khampa Su Yonghe controlled 80,000 troops in Sichuan, Qinghai and Tibet. They hoped to use them against the Communist army.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pushing_south">Pushing south</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pushing south"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a></div> <p>On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">officially proclaimed the People's Republic of China</a> with its capital at Beiping, which was returned to the former name Beijing. Chiang Kai-shek and approximately two million Nationalist soldiers <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Nationalist_Party_retreat_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Nationalist Party retreat to Taiwan">retreated from mainland China</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">island of Taiwan</a> in December after the PLA advanced into Sichuan province. Isolated Nationalist pockets of resistance remained in the area, but the majority of the resistance collapsed after the <a href="/wiki/Chengdu_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Chengdu Campaign">fall of Chengdu</a> on 10 December 1949, with some resistance continuing in the far south.<sup id="cite_ref-Cookc_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cookc-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hainan_Island_Campaign.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Hainan_Island_Campaign.png/220px-Hainan_Island_Campaign.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Hainan_Island_Campaign.png/330px-Hainan_Island_Campaign.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Hainan_Island_Campaign.png/440px-Hainan_Island_Campaign.png 2x" data-file-width="1124" data-file-height="791" /></a><figcaption>Communist <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hainan_Island" title="Battle of Hainan Island">conquest of Hainan Island</a> in mid 1950</figcaption></figure> <p>A PRC attempt to take the ROC-controlled island of <a href="/wiki/Kinmen" title="Kinmen">Quemoy</a> was thwarted in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guningtou" title="Battle of Guningtou">Battle of Kuningtou</a>, halting the PLA advance towards Taiwan.<sup id="cite_ref-QiB_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QiB-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei the <a href="/wiki/Temporary_capital" title="Temporary capital">temporary capital</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China</a> and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China. </p><p>The Communists' other amphibious operations of 1950 were more successful: they led to the <a href="/wiki/Landing_Operation_on_Hainan_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing Operation on Hainan Island">Communist conquest of Hainan Island</a> in April 1950, the <a href="/wiki/Wanshan_Archipelago_Campaign" title="Wanshan Archipelago Campaign">Wanshan Islands</a> off the Guangdong coast (May–August 1950), and <a href="/wiki/Zhoushan_Island" title="Zhoushan Island">Zhoushan Island</a> off Zhejiang (May 1950).<sup id="cite_ref-MacF_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacF-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_relations" title="Cross-strait relations">Cross-strait relations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">Political status of Taiwan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Two_Chinas" title="Two Chinas">Two Chinas</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_(1946-1950).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png/240px-Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png/360px-Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png/480px-Gu%C3%A8rra_Civila_Chinesa_%281946-1950%29.png 2x" data-file-width="503" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Chinese Civil War (1946–1949, and 1950)</figcaption></figure> <p>Most observers expected Chiang's government to eventually fall to the imminent invasion of Taiwan by the People's Liberation Army, and the US was initially reluctant in offering full support for Chiang in their final stand. US President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> announced on 5 January 1950 that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait, and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Truman, seeking to exploit the possibility of a Titoist-style <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a>, announced in his United States Policy toward Formosa that the US would obey the <a href="/wiki/1943_Cairo_Declaration" title="1943 Cairo Declaration">Cairo Declaration's</a> designation of Taiwan as Chinese territory and would not assist the Nationalists. However, the Communist leadership was not aware of this change of policy, instead becoming increasingly hostile to the US.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The situation quickly changed after the sudden onset of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> in June 1950. This led to changing political climate in the US, and President Truman ordered the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Seventh_Fleet" title="United States Seventh Fleet">United States Seventh Fleet</a> to sail to the <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Strait" title="Taiwan Strait">Taiwan Strait</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">containment</a> policy against potential Communist advance.<sup id="cite_ref-BushR_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BushR-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wuwangzaiju.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Wuwangzaiju.JPG/220px-Wuwangzaiju.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Wuwangzaiju.JPG/330px-Wuwangzaiju.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Wuwangzaiju.JPG/440px-Wuwangzaiju.JPG 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>"Forget not that you are in <a href="/wiki/Ju_(city)" title="Ju (city)">Jǔ</a>"--a rock in Kinmen Island with Chiang Kai-shek's calligraphy signifying the retaking of one's homeland</figcaption></figure> <p>In June 1949, the ROC declared a "closure" of all mainland China ports and its navy attempted to intercept all foreign ships. The closure was from a point north of the mouth of <a href="/wiki/Min_River_(Fujian)" title="Min River (Fujian)">Min River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> to the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Liao_River" title="Liao River">Liao River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tsang_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tsang-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since mainland China's railroad network was underdeveloped, north–south trade depended heavily on sea lanes. ROC naval activity also caused severe hardship for mainland China fishermen. </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">the retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan</a>, KMT troops, who could not retreat to Taiwan, were left behind to fight a <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla war</a> against the Communists. These <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">KMT remnants</a> were eliminated in what the PRC called the <a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Counterrevolutionaries" title="Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries">Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Category:Campaigns_to_Suppress_Bandits" title="Category:Campaigns to Suppress Bandits">Campaigns to Suppress Bandits.</a><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to official statistics from the CCP in 1954, during the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, at least 2.6 million people were arrested, some 1.29 million people were <a href="/wiki/Imprisonment" title="Imprisonment">imprisoned</a>, and 712,000 people were executed.<sup id="cite_ref-:Guo_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Guo-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of those killed were former Kuomintang officials, businessmen, former employees of Western companies and intellectuals whose loyalty was suspect.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Winning China proper in 1950, also after <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">annexation of Tibet</a>, the CCP controlled the entire mainland in late 1951 (excluding <a href="/wiki/Kinmen" title="Kinmen">Kinmen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matsu_Islands" title="Matsu Islands">Matsu Islands</a>). But a group of approximately 3,000 KMT Central soldiers retreated to <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a> and continued launching guerrilla attacks into south China during the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang_Islamic_insurgency_in_China_(1950%E2%80%931958)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuomintang Islamic insurgency in China (1950–1958)">Kuomintang Islamic Insurgency in China (1950–1958)</a> and <a href="/wiki/1960%E2%80%9361_campaign_at_the_China%E2%80%93Burma_border" class="mw-redirect" title="1960–61 campaign at the China–Burma border">Campaign at the China–Burma Border</a>. Their leader, <a href="/wiki/Li_Mi_(ROC_general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li Mi (ROC general)">Li Mi</a>, was paid a salary by the ROC government and given the nominal title of Governor of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>. Initially, the US-supported these remnants and the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> provided them with military aid. After the Burmese government appealed to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> in 1953, the US began pressuring the ROC to withdraw its loyalists. By the end of 1954 nearly 6,000 soldiers had left Burma and Li declared his army disbanded. However, thousands remained, and the ROC continued to supply and command them, even secretly supplying reinforcements at times to maintain a base close to China. </p><p>After the ROC complained to the United Nations against the Soviet Union for violating the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Alliance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance">Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance</a> to support the CCP, the <a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly_Resolution_505" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly Resolution 505">UN General Assembly Resolution 505</a> was adopted on 1 February 1952, condemning the Soviet Union. </p><p>In the end, the Communist military forces suffered 1.3 million combat casualties in the 1945–1949 phase of the war: 260,000 killed, 190,000 missing, and 850,000 wounded, discounting irregulars. Nationalist casualties in the same phase were recorded after the war by the PRC 5,452,700 regulars and 2,258,800 irregulars.<sup id="cite_ref-Chinese_People's_Liberation_Army_1983_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chinese_People's_Liberation_Army_1983-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After the formation of the PRC, the PRC government named the Western nations, led by the U.S., as the biggest threat to its national security.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Basing this judgment on multiple factors, including the idea of a Chinese <a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">century of humiliation</a> at the hands of Western powers beginning in the mid-19th century,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199422_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199422-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> U.S. support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199441_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199441-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199421_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199421-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the PRC leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the U.S.' crusade against Communism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199419_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199419-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a countermeasure and to elevate China's standing among the worldwide Communist movements, the PRC leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China's periphery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199425–26,_93_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199425–26,_93-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yangtze_Crossing_Monument_-_detail_-_P1070673.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Yangtze_Crossing_Monument_-_detail_-_P1070673.JPG/220px-Yangtze_Crossing_Monument_-_detail_-_P1070673.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Yangtze_Crossing_Monument_-_detail_-_P1070673.JPG/330px-Yangtze_Crossing_Monument_-_detail_-_P1070673.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Yangtze_Crossing_Monument_-_detail_-_P1070673.JPG/440px-Yangtze_Crossing_Monument_-_detail_-_P1070673.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Monument in memory of the crossing of the Yangtze in Nanjing</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan_Strait_tensions">Taiwan Strait tensions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Taiwan Strait tensions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though viewed as a military liability by the US, the ROC viewed its remaining islands in <a href="/wiki/Fujian_Province,_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Fujian Province, Republic of China">Fujian</a> as vital for any future campaign to defeat the PRC and retake mainland China. On 3 September 1954, the <a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a> started with the PRC shelling <a href="/wiki/Kinmen" title="Kinmen">Kinmen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tsang_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tsang-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The PRC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yijiangshan_Islands" title="Battle of Yijiangshan Islands">captured the Yijiangshan Islands</a> on 19 January 1955, leading to the ROC abandoning the <a href="/wiki/Dachen_Islands" title="Dachen Islands">Dachen Islands</a> the following month.<sup id="cite_ref-McCauley_2016-09-13_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCauley_2016-09-13-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 24 January 1955, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/Formosa_Resolution_of_1955" title="Formosa Resolution of 1955">Formosa Resolution</a> authorizing the President to defend the ROC's offshore islands. The First Taiwan Straits crisis ended in March 1955 when the PLA ceased its bombardment. The crisis ended during the <a href="/wiki/Asian%E2%80%93African_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian–African Conference">Bandung conference</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tsang_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tsang-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a> began on 23 August 1958 with air and naval engagements between PRC and ROC forces, leading to intense artillery bombardment of Kinmen by the PRC and <a href="/wiki/Xiamen" title="Xiamen">Xiamen</a> by the ROC, and ended on November of the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-Tsang_80-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tsang-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PLA patrol boats blockaded the islands from ROC supply ships. Though the US rejected Chiang Kai-shek's proposal to bomb mainland China artillery batteries, it quickly moved to supply fighter jets and anti-aircraft missiles to the ROC. It also provided <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">amphibious assault</a> ships to land supplies, as a sunken ROC naval vessel was blocking the harbor. On 7 September, the US escorted a convoy of ROC supply ships and the PRC refrained from firing. </p><p>The third crisis occurred in 1995–96. The PRC responded to Taiwanese President Lee Teng-hui's visit to the United States, and the U.S. recognition of Lee as a representative of Taiwan, with military exercises. The exercises were also meant to deter Taiwanese voters from supporting Lee in the 1996 election; Lee won the election. Two U.S. aircraft carriers were deployed during the crisis; they were not attacked and deescalation followed.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>US Speaker of the House <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Pelosi" title="Nancy Pelosi">Nancy Pelosi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/2022_United_States_congressional_delegation_visit_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 United States congressional delegation visit to Taiwan">visit to Taiwan</a> in August 2022 triggered <a href="/wiki/2022_Chinese_military_exercises_around_Taiwan" title="2022 Chinese military exercises around Taiwan">PRC military exercises</a> across the Taiwan Strait. She originally intended to travel to Taiwan in April 2022,<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but was delayed due to <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She rescheduled the trip to August as part of a wider Asian trip. The White House was reported to have been initially divided over the appropriateness of the trip but later affirmed Pelosi's right to visit Taiwan.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the PLA announced four days of unprecedented military live-fire drills,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in six zones that encircle the island on the busiest international waterways and aviation routes.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to the announcement, ROC officials complained that the PRC's live-fire drills were an invasion of Taiwan's territorial space and a direct challenge to free air and sea navigation.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_fallout">Political fallout</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Political fallout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/China_and_the_United_Nations" title="China and the United Nations">China and the United Nations</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_2758" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758">United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U2China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/U2China.jpg/220px-U2China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/U2China.jpg/330px-U2China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/U2China.jpg/440px-U2China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lockheed_U-2" title="Lockheed U-2">Lockheed U-2</a> wreckage (pilot <a href="/wiki/Chang_Liyi" title="Chang Liyi">Chang Liyi</a>) on display at the <a href="/wiki/Military_Museum_of_the_Chinese_People%27s_Revolution" title="Military Museum of the Chinese People's Revolution">Museum</a> in Beijing</figcaption></figure> <p>On 25 October 1971, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> admitted the PRC and <a href="/wiki/China_and_the_United_Nations" title="China and the United Nations">expelled the ROC</a>, which had been a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and was one of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Representatives of Chiang Kai-shek refused to recognise their accreditations as representatives of China and left the assembly. Recognition for the People's Republic of China soon followed from most other member nations, including the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1984, PRC and ROC began to de-escalate their hostilities through diplomatic relations with each other, and cross-straits trade and investment has been growing ever since. The state of war was officially declared over by the ROC in 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the end of the hostilities, the two sides have never signed any agreement or treaty to officially end the war. According to Mao Zedong, there were three ways of "staving off imperialist intervention in the short term" during the continuation of the Chinese Revolution. The first was through a rapid completion of the military takeover of the country, and through showing determination and strength against "foreign attempts at challenging the new regime along its borders". The second was by "formalising a comprehensive military alliance with the Soviet Union", which would dedicate Soviet power to directly defending China against its enemies; this aspect became extensively significant given the backdrop of the start of the Cold War. And finally, the regime had to "root out its domestic opponents: the heads of secret societies, religious sects, independent unions, or tribal and ethnic organisations". By destroying the basis of domestic reaction, Mao believed a safer world for the Chinese revolution to spread in would come into existence.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the new ROC president <a href="/wiki/Lee_Teng-hui" title="Lee Teng-hui">Lee Teng-hui</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Temporary_Provisions_Effective_During_the_Period_of_Communist_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion">Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion</a> was renounced in May 1991, thus ending the chances of the Kuomintang's quest to retake the mainland. In July 1999, Lee announced a "special diplomatic relationship". China was furious again, but the military drills were stopped by the <a href="/wiki/1999_Jiji_earthquake" title="1999 Jiji earthquake">921 earthquakes</a>. It was the last tense moment of this civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the election in 2000 of <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Progressive_Party" title="Democratic Progressive Party">Democratic Progressive Party</a> candidate <a href="/wiki/Chen_Shui-bian" title="Chen Shui-bian">Chen Shui-bian</a>, a party other than the KMT gained the presidency for the first time in Taiwan. The new president did not share the Chinese nationalist ideology of the KMT and CCP. This led to tension between the two sides, although trade and other ties such as the <a href="/wiki/2005_Pan-Blue_visits_to_mainland_China" title="2005 Pan-Blue visits to mainland China">2005 Pan-Blue visit</a> continued to increase. </p><p>With the election of pro-mainland President <a href="/wiki/Ma_Ying-jeou" title="Ma Ying-jeou">Ma Ying-jeou</a> (KMT) in 2008, significant warming of relations resumed between Taipei and Beijing, with high-level exchanges between the semi-official diplomatic organizations of both states such as the <a href="/wiki/Chen-Chiang_summit" class="mw-redirect" title="Chen-Chiang summit">Chen-Chiang summit</a> series. Although the <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Strait" title="Taiwan Strait">Taiwan Strait</a> remains a potential flash point, regular direct air links were established in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-so_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-so-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis">Analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Communist victory over the Nationalists is regarded as one of the most impressive twentieth century insurgent victories.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 1">: 1 </span></sup> Historians and political scientists cite a number of factors, including the CCP's success at mobilizing mass support and the shortcomings of the Nationalist government.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 1">: 1 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poor_governance_by_Nationalists">Poor governance by Nationalists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Poor governance by Nationalists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a></div> <p>Almost all studies of the failure of the Nationalist government identify <a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">hyperinflation</a> as a major factor in the government's collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_61-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 5">: 5 </span></sup> The Nationalist military and the government's civilian employees were most impacted by hyperinflation which in turn prompted widespread corruption and pilfering.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_61-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 5">: 5 </span></sup> Little funding reached enlisted soldiers, who were typically malnourished and poorly equipped.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_61-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 9">: 9 </span></sup> Desertion was common.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_61-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 9">: 9 </span></sup> </p><p>The historian <a href="/wiki/Rana_Mitter" title="Rana Mitter">Rana Mitter</a> writes that a lack of trust in the Nationalist government developed, as it was increasingly seen as "corrupt, vindictive, and with no overall vision of what China under its rule should look like".<sup id="cite_ref-:2_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chiang wrote in his diary in June 1948: "After the fall of Kaifeng our conditions worsened and became more serious. I now realized that the main reason our nation has collapsed, time after time throughout our history, was not because of superior power used by our external enemies, but because of disintegration and rot from within."<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a> says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai-shek and also because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists targeted different groups, such as peasants, and brought them to their side.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 1945, the economy in the ROC areas collapsed because of hyperinflation and the failure of <a href="/wiki/Price_controls" title="Price controls">price controls</a> by the ROC government and financial reforms; the Gold Yuan devaluated sharply in late 1948<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and resulted in the ROC government losing the support of the cities' <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle classes</a>. </p><p>United States Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/Dean_Acheson" title="Dean Acheson">Dean Acheson</a> described the Nationalists as "corrupt, reactionary, and inefficient." He believed that the Nationalists had displayed both political inadequacy as well as "the grossest incompetence ever experienced by any military command," and that the Communists "did not create this condition," but skillfully exploited the opportunity it provided.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular_support_for_Communists_and_cohesion">Popular support for Communists and cohesion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Popular support for Communists and cohesion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the meantime, the Communists continued their land reform programs, winning the support of the population in the countryside. This was a decisive factor in the Communists' success.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Millions of peasants who obtained land through the movement joined the People's Liberation Army or assisted in its logistical networks.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to historian Brian DeMare, land redistribution was a critical factor because it linked the interests of peasants in the north and northeast to the Communists' success.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, the Communists obtained the greatest popular support of any insurgency in modern history.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 3">: 3 </span></sup> </p><p>An important advantage of the Communists was the "extraordinary cohesion" within its top leadership. This cohesion not only secured it from defections during difficult times but also facilitated "communications and top level debates over tactics". The <a href="/wiki/Charismatic_authority" title="Charismatic authority">charismatic style of leadership</a> of Mao Zedong created a "unity of purpose" and a "unity of command" which the KMT lacked. Apart from that, the CCP had mastered the manipulation of local politics to their benefit; this was also derived from their <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">propaganda</a> skills that had also been decentralised successfully by portraying their opponents as "enemies of all groups of Chinese" and itself as "defenders of the nation" and people (given the backdrop of the war with Japan).<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_factors">International factors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: International factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strong American support for the Nationalists was hedged with the failure of the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Mission" title="Marshall Mission">Marshall Mission</a>, and then stopped completely mainly because of KMT corruption<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (such as the notorious Yangtze Development Corporation controlled by <a href="/wiki/H.H._Kung" class="mw-redirect" title="H.H. Kung">H.H. Kung</a> and <a href="/wiki/T._V._Soong" title="T. V. Soong">T. V. Soong</a>'s family)<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and KMT's military setback in Northeast China. Historians such as Jay Taylor, Robert Cowley, and Anne W. Carroll argue that the Nationalists' failure was largely caused by external reasons outside of the KMT's control, most notably the refusal of the Truman administration to support Chiang with the withdrawal of aid, the US armed embargo, the failed pursuit of a détente between the Nationalists and the communists, and the USSR's consistent support of the CCP in the Chinese Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-google102_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google102-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The better-trained Communist army's support from the USSR helped counter the American aid that the Nationalists received.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chen_Yun" title="Chen Yun">Chen Yun</a> said: "They did their best to help us, we were backed by the Soviet Union and North Korea."<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atrocities">Atrocities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Atrocities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the war, both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants deliberately killed by both sides.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This source, or at least page 88 of the source, just gives the 1.8m–3.5m death toll estimate for "Communist terror in Chinese civil war" (what about KMT killings, which we claim we deliberately committed in the previous sentence). It also doesn't appear to mention forced conscription or massacres. (October 2017)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="source only says "death toll" not massacres (October 2020)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Chinese_Civil_War#Dubious" title="Talk:Chinese Civil War">discuss</a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nationalist_atrocities">Nationalist atrocities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Nationalist atrocities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over several years after the 1927 <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a>, the Kuomintang killed between 300,000 and one million people, primarily peasants, in anti-communist campaigns as part of the White Terror.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnouin38_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnouin38-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the White Terror, the Nationalists specifically targeted women with short hair who had not been subjected to <a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">foot binding</a>, on the presumption that such "non-traditional" women were radicals.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nationalist forces cut off their breasts, shaved their heads, and displayed their mutilated bodies to intimidate the populace.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_128-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Torture, rape, and collective punishment were common Nationalist practices during its counter-insurgency campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_105-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 91–92">: 91–92 </span></sup> The Nationalists uprooted and moved entire communities in an effort to more easily monitor Communist activities.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_105-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 92">: 92 </span></sup> </p><p>From 1946 to 1949, the Nationalists arrested, tortured, and killed political dissidents via the Sino-American Cooperative Organization.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communist_atrocities">Communist atrocities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Communist atrocities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Changchun" title="Siege of Changchun">Siege of Changchun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Land_Reform#Mass_killings_of_landlords" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Land Reform">Chinese Land Reform § Mass killings of landlords</a></div> <p>During the December 1930 <a href="/wiki/Futian_incident" title="Futian incident">Futian incident</a>, the communists executed 2,000 to 3,000 members of the Futian battalion after its leaders had mutinied against Mao Zedong.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1931 and 1934 in the <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi%E2%80%93Fujian_Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet">Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet</a>, the communist authorities engaged in a widespread campaign of violence against civilians to ensure compliance with its policies and to stop defection to the advancing KMT, including mass executions, land confiscation and forced labor.<sup id="cite_ref-Revolution_Defeated_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Revolution_Defeated-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Li_Weihan" title="Li Weihan">Li Weihan</a>, a high-ranking communist in Jiangxi at the time, in response to mass flight of civilians to KMT held areas, the local authorities would "usually to send armed squads after those attempting to flee and kill them on the spot, producing numerous <a href="/wiki/Mass_grave" title="Mass grave">mass graves</a> throughout the CSR [Chinese Soviet Republic in Jiangxi] that would later be uncovered by the KMT and its allies." <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Wentian" title="Zhang Wentian">Zhang Wentian</a>, another high-ranking communist, reported that "the policy of annihilating landlords as an exploiting class had degenerated into a massacre"<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The population of the communist controlled area fell by 700,000 from 1931 and 1935, of which a large proportion were murdered as "class enemies", worked to death, committed suicide, or died in other circumstances attributable to the communists.<sup id="cite_ref-Halliday_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halliday-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Changchun" title="Siege of Changchun">Siege of Changchun</a>, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> implemented a military blockade on the KMT-held city of Changchun and prevented civilians from leaving the city during the blockade;<sup id="cite_ref-koga_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koga-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this blockade caused the starvation of tens<sup id="cite_ref-koga_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koga-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 150<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thousand civilians. The PLA continued to use siege tactics throughout Northeast China.<sup id="cite_ref-lardi_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lardi-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War in 1946, Mao Zedong began to push for a return to radical policies to mobilize China against the landlord class, but protected the rights of middle peasants and specified that rich peasants were not landlords.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 7 July Directive of 1946 set off eighteen months of fierce conflict in which all rich peasant and landlord property of all types was to be confiscated and redistributed to poor peasants. CCP work teams went quickly from village to village and divided the population into landlords, rich, middle, poor, and landless peasants. Because the work teams did not involve villagers in the process, however, rich and middle peasants quickly returned to power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETanner2015134–135_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETanner2015134–135-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Outline Land Law of October 1947 increased the pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those condemned as landlords were buried alive, dismembered, strangled and shot.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheidel225_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheidel225-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to the aforementioned land reform campaign, the Kuomintang helped establish the "Huanxiang Tuan" (<span lang="zh-Hant">還鄉團</span>), or Homecoming Legion, which was composed of landlords who sought the return of their redistributed land and property from peasants and CCP guerrillas, as well as forcibly conscripted peasants and communist POWs.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Homecoming legion conducted its guerrilla warfare campaign against CCP forces and purported collaborators up until the end of the civil war in 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_141-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Taiwan portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Outline of the Chinese Civil War">Outline of the Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Timeline of the Chinese Civil War">Timeline of the Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="List of wars involving the People's Republic of China">List of wars involving the People's Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_suppress_bandits_in_northeast_China" title="Campaign to suppress bandits in northeast China">Campaign to suppress bandits in northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Bandits_in_Wuping" title="Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Wuping">Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Wuping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_suppress_bandits_in_southwestern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaign to suppress bandits in southwestern China">Campaign to suppress bandits in southwestern China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Bandits_in_Eastern_China" title="Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Eastern China">Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Eastern China</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Nanchang-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nanchang_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nanchang_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nanchang_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLi2012" class="citation book cs1">Li, Xiaobing (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jhPyvsdymU8C&pg=PA295"><i>China at War: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. Bloomsbury. p. 295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-598-84415-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-598-84415-3"><bdi>978-1-598-84415-3</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+at+War%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=295&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-598-84415-3&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Xiaobing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjhPyvsdymU8C%26pg%3DPA295&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2007" class="citation book cs1">Li, Xiaobing (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=svBt-hzD53AC"><i>A History of the Modern Chinese Army</i></a>. University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-813-17224-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-813-17224-8"><bdi>978-0-813-17224-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Modern+Chinese+Army&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-813-17224-8&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Xiaobing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsvBt-hzD53AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hsiung-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hsiung_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hsiung_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsiung1992" class="citation book cs1">Hsiung, James C. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3Yt6TTRdUzwC"><i>China's Bitter Victory: The War With Japan, 1937–1945</i></a>. M. E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-563-24246-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-563-24246-X"><bdi>1-563-24246-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Bitter+Victory%3A+The+War+With+Japan%2C+1937%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-563-24246-X&rft.aulast=Hsiung&rft.aufirst=James+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3Yt6TTRdUzwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sarker-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sarker_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarker_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarker1994" class="citation book cs1">Sarker, Sunil Kumar (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rGf2b1nsn9cC"><i>The Rise and Fall of Communism</i></a>. Atlantic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-171-56515-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-171-56515-3"><bdi>978-8-171-56515-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Communism&rft.pub=Atlantic&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-8-171-56515-3&rft.aulast=Sarker&rft.aufirst=Sunil+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrGf2b1nsn9cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCao" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cao Qianfa (曹前发). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dangshi.people.com.cn/big5/n1/2017/0622/c85037-29355018.html"><bdi lang="zh">毛泽东的独创："兵民是胜利之本"</bdi></a>. <i>People's Daily</i> (in Chinese). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201029065431/http://dangshi.people.com.cn/big5/n1/2017/0622/c85037-29355018.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=People%27s+Daily&rft.atitle=%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E7%9A%84%E7%8B%AC%E5%88%9B%EF%BC%9A%22%E5%85%B5%E6%B0%91%E6%98%AF%E8%83%9C%E5%88%A9%E4%B9%8B%E6%9C%AC%22&rft.aulast=Cao&rft.aufirst=Qianfa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdangshi.people.com.cn%2Fbig5%2Fn1%2F2017%2F0622%2Fc85037-29355018.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ho_253-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ho_253_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ho_253_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHo" class="citation book cs1">Ho. <i>Studies in the Population of China</i>. p. 253.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+Population+of+China&rft.pages=253&rft.au=Ho&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2011" class="citation book cs1">White, Matthew (2011). <i>Atrocities</i>. W. W. Norton. p. 381. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-08192-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-08192-3"><bdi>978-0-393-08192-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atrocities&rft.pages=381&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-393-08192-3&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lynch-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lynch_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lynch_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lynch_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch2010" class="citation book cs1">Lynch, Michael (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rkJYue5dCJgC&pg=PA91"><i>The Chinese Civil War 1945–49</i></a>. Osprey. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-841-76671-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-841-76671-3"><bdi>978-1-841-76671-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Civil+War+1945%E2%80%9349&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-841-76671-3&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrkJYue5dCJgC%26pg%3DPA91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chinese_People's_Liberation_Army_1983-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chinese_People's_Liberation_Army_1983_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chinese_People's_Liberation_Army_1983_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The History of the Chinese People's Liberation Army</i>. Beijing: People's Liberation Army Press. 1983.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/20c1m.htm#Nationalist">"Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110305175626/http://necrometrics.com/20c1m.htm#Nationalist">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Twentieth+Century+Atlas+%E2%80%93+Death+Tolls&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2F20c1m.htm%23Nationalist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/20c1m.htm#Chinese">"Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110305175626/http://necrometrics.com/20c1m.htm#Chinese">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Twentieth+Century+Atlas+%E2%80%93+Death+Tolls&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2F20c1m.htm%23Chinese&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewLeung2013" class="citation book cs1">Lew, Christopher R.; Leung, Pak-Wah, eds. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8WYSAAAAQBAJ"><i>Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Civil War</i></a>. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-810-87873-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-810-87873-0"><bdi>978-0-810-87873-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Chinese+Civil+War&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Scarecrow&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-810-87873-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8WYSAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch2022" class="citation web cs1">Lynch, Michael (9 October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ospreypublishing.com/us/osprey-blog/2022/the-chinese-civil-war-1945-49/">"The Chinese Civil War: 1945–49"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2024</span>. <q>There is also a sense in which the Chinese Civil War has not ended; no formal peace treaty or agreement has ever been made.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Osprey+Publishing&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+Civil+War%3A+1945%E2%80%9349&rft.date=2022-10-09&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ospreypublishing.com%2Fus%2Fosprey-blog%2F2022%2Fthe-chinese-civil-war-1945-49%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-so-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-so_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-so_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoLinPoston2001" class="citation book cs1">So, Alvin Y.; <a href="/wiki/Nan_Lin" title="Nan Lin">Lin, Nan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dudley_L._Poston_Jr." title="Dudley L. Poston Jr.">Poston, Dudley</a>, eds. (2001). <i>The Chinese Triangle of Mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong: Comparative Institutional Analyses</i>. Contributions in Sociology. Vol. 133. Westport, CT; London: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30869-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30869-7"><bdi>978-0-313-30869-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0084-9278">0084-9278</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45248282">45248282</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Triangle+of+Mainland+China%2C+Taiwan%2C+and+Hong+Kong%3A+Comparative+Institutional+Analyses&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT%3B+London&rft.series=Contributions+in+Sociology&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45248282&rft.issn=0084-9278&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30869-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/chinese-rev">"Milestones: 1945–1952 – Office of the Historian"</a>. <i>history.state.gov</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170519004017/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/chinese-rev">Archived</a> from the original on 19 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.state.gov&rft.atitle=Milestones%3A+1945%E2%80%931952+%E2%80%93+Office+of+the+Historian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fmilestones%2F1945-1952%2Fchinese-rev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-March-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-March_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-March_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-March_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">March, G. Patrick. <i>Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific</i>. (1996). Greenwood Publishing Group. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-95566-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-95566-4">0-275-95566-4</a>. p. 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChangH-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChangH_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChangH_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">H.H. Chang, <i>Chiang Kai Shek: Asia's Man of Destiny</i> (Doubleday, 1944; reprint 2007 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4067-5818-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4067-5818-3">1-4067-5818-3</a>). p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HoA-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HoA_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ho, Alfred Kuo-liang. (2004). <i>China's Reforms and Reformers</i>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-96080-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-96080-3">0-275-96080-3</a>. p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fairbank-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fairbank_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fairbank_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fairbank_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairbank, John King. (1994). <i>China: A New History</i>. Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-11673-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-11673-9">0-674-11673-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn2005" class="citation book cs1">Kuhn, Robert (2005). <i>The man who changed China: the life and legacy of Jiang Zemin</i>. Crown Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+man+who+changed+China%3A+the+life+and+legacy+of+Jiang+Zemin&rft.pub=Crown+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zedong, Mao. Thompson, Roger R. (1990). Report from Xunwu. Stanford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2182-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2182-3">0-8047-2182-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brune-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brune_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brune, Lester H. Dean Burns, Richard Dean Burns. (2003). Chronological History of U.S. Foreign Relations. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-93914-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-93914-3">0-415-93914-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhaos-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zhaos_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhao, Suisheng. (2004). A Nation-state by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism. Stanford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-5001-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-5001-7">0-8047-5001-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guo-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Guo_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guo, Xuezhi. (2002). The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical and Cultural Perspective. Greenwood Publishing Group. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-97259-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-97259-3">0-275-97259-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theodore De Bary, William. Bloom, Irene. Chan, Wing-tsit. Adler, Joseph. Lufrano Richard. Lufrano, John. (1999). Sources of Chinese Tradition. Columbia University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-10938-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-10938-5">0-231-10938-5</a>. p. 328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee, Lai to. Trade Unions in China: 1949 To the Present. (1986). National University of Singapore Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9971-69-093-4" title="Special:BookSources/9971-69-093-4">9971-69-093-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blasko-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blasko_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blasko, Dennis J. (2006). The Chinese Army Today: Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-77003-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-77003-3">0-415-77003-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Esherick-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Esherick_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Esherick, Joseph. (2000). <i>Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 1900–1950</i>. University of Hawaii Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-2518-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-2518-7">0-8248-2518-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clark-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clark_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clark, Anne, Klein, Donald. eds. (1971). <i>Biographic Dictionary of Chinese Communism</i> (Harvard University Press), p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, Michael. Clausen, Søren. (2003). Mao. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-21577-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-21577-3">0-415-21577-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manwaring-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Manwaring_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manwaring_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Manwaring, Max G. Joes, Anthony James. (2000). Beyond Declaring Victory and Coming Home: The Challenges of Peace and Stability operations. Greenwood Publishing Group. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-96768-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-96768-9">0-275-96768-9</a>. p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2010" class="citation book cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045"><i>Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history</i></a>. Durham [NC]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">503828045</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212114812/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+Zedong+and+China+in+the+twentieth-century+world+%3A+a+concise+history&rft.place=Durham+%5BNC%5D&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F503828045&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4780-4&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F503828045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhang-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhang_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhang, Chunhou. Vaughan, C. Edwin. (2002). Mao Zedong as Poet and Revolutionary Leader: Social and Historical Perspectives. Lexington books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-0406-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-0406-3">0-7391-0406-3</a>. pp. 58, 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bianco-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bianco_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bianco" title="Lucien Bianco">Bianco, Lucien</a>. Bell, Muriel. (1971). Origins of the Chinese Revolution, 1915–1949. Stanford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-0827-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-0827-4">0-8047-0827-4</a>. p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lin_Hsiao-ting" class="mw-redirect" title="Lin Hsiao-ting">Lin, Hsiao-ting</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC&q=force+of+about+300+soldiers+was+organized+and+augmented+by+recruiting+local+Khampa+bandits+into+the+army&pg=PA52"><i>Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Kourney to the West</i></a>. Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia. Vol. 67 (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3"><bdi>978-0-415-58264-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411192241/https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC&q=force+of+about+300+soldiers+was+organized+and+augmented+by+recruiting+local+Khampa+bandits+into+the+army&pg=PA52">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2011</span>. <q>A force of about 300 soldiers was organized and augmented by recruiting local Khampa bandits into the army. The relationship between the Consolatory Commission and Liu Wenhui seriously deteriorated in early 1936, when the Norla Hutuktu</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+China%27s+Ethnic+Frontiers%3A+A+Kourney+to+the+West&rft.series=Routledge+studies+in+the+modern+history+of+Asia&rft.pages=52&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-415-58264-3&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Hsiao-ting&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrsLQdBUgyMUC%26q%3Dforce%2Bof%2Babout%2B300%2Bsoldiers%2Bwas%2Borganized%2Band%2Baugmented%2Bby%2Brecruiting%2Blocal%2BKhampa%2Bbandits%2Binto%2Bthe%2Barmy%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation archive">Background of Xi'an Incident. Cultural China. Retrieved June 4, 2021.</cite></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ye-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ye_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ye_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ye, Zhaoyan Ye, Berry, Michael. (2003). Nanjing 1937: A Love Story. Columbia University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-12754-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-12754-5">0-231-12754-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buss-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buss_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buss_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buss_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Buss, Claude Albert. (1972). Stanford Alumni Association. The People's Republic of China and Richard Nixon. United States.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-schok-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-schok_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schok_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Schoppa, R. Keith. (2000). The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History. Columbia University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-11276-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-11276-9">0-231-11276-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chen-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chen_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chen, Jian. (2001). Mao's China and the Cold War. The University of North Carolina Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-807-84932-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-807-84932-4">0-807-84932-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lary-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lary_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lary, Diana. (2007). <i>China's Republic</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-84256-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-84256-5">0-521-84256-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovell2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julia_Lovell" title="Julia Lovell">Lovell, Julia</a> (3 September 2019). <i>Maoism: A Global History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kx1-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT41">31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-525-65605-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-525-65605-0"><bdi>978-0-525-65605-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1078879585">1078879585</a>. <q>Though it is also worth pointing out that, in practice, Mao's recipe for guerrilla manoeuvres played a limited role in Chinese revolutionary wars during the 1930s and '40s. Nationalist armies carried most of the resistance to the Japanese during the Second World War, and Chinese Communist victory in the final years of the civil war up to 1949 was won through field battles that the Soviets taught the CCP how to fight.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maoism%3A+A+Global+History&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2019-09-03&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1078879585&rft.isbn=978-0-525-65605-0&rft.aulast=Lovell&rft.aufirst=Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zarrow-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zarrow_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zarrow_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zarrow, Peter Gue. (2005). <i>China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949</i>. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-36447-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-36447-7">0-415-36447-7</a>. p. 338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpector2007" class="citation book cs1">Spector, Ronald H. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ibEQxK_ypsQC&pg=PA38"><i>In the Ruins of Empire: The Japanese Surrender and the Battle for Postwar Asia</i></a>. New York: Random House. pp. 38–39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780375509155" title="Special:BookSources/9780375509155"><bdi>9780375509155</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Ruins+of+Empire%3A+The+Japanese+Surrender+and+the+Battle+for+Postwar+Asia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=38-39&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780375509155&rft.aulast=Spector&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DibEQxK_ypsQC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpector2007" class="citation book cs1">Spector, Ronald H. (2007). <i>In the Ruins of Empire: The Japanese Surrender and the Battle for Postwar Asia</i>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780375509155" title="Special:BookSources/9780375509155"><bdi>9780375509155</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Ruins+of+Empire%3A+The+Japanese+Surrender+and+the+Battle+for+Postwar+Asia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780375509155&rft.aulast=Spector&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xu-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Xu_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xu_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Xu, Guangqiu. (2001). <i>War Wings: The United States and Chinese Military Aviation, 1929–1949</i>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-32004-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-32004-7">0-313-32004-7</a>. p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bright-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bright_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bright, Richard Carl. (2007). <i>Pain and Purpose in the Pacific: True Reports of War</i>. Trafford Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4251-2544-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4251-2544-1">1-4251-2544-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lilley, James. <i>China hands: nine decades of adventure, espionage, and diplomacy in Asia</i>. PublicAffairs, New York, 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jessup-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jessup_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jessup_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJessup1989" class="citation book cs1">Jessup, John E. (1989). <i>A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945–1985</i>. New York: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-24308-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-24308-5"><bdi>0-313-24308-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Chronology+of+Conflict+and+Resolution%2C+1945%E2%80%931985&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-313-24308-5&rft.aulast=Jessup&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpector2007" class="citation book cs1">Spector, Ronald H. (2007). <i>In the Ruins of Empire: The Japanese Surrender and the Battle for Postwar Asia</i> (1st ed.). New York: Random House. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780375509155" title="Special:BookSources/9780375509155"><bdi>9780375509155</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Ruins+of+Empire%3A+The+Japanese+Surrender+and+the+Battle+for+Postwar+Asia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=61&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780375509155&rft.aulast=Spector&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang_Kuisong2011" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script">Yang Kuisong (24 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130926184147/http://book.sina.com.cn/excerpt/sz/rw/2011-11-24/0951293044_2.shtml"><bdi lang="zh">杨奎松《读史求实》：苏联给了林彪东北野战军多少现代武器</bdi></a>. <i>Sina</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://book.sina.com.cn/excerpt/sz/rw/2011-11-24/0951293044_2.shtml">the original</a> on 26 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sina&rft.atitle=%E6%9D%A8%E5%A5%8E%E6%9D%BE%E3%80%8A%E8%AF%BB%E5%8F%B2%E6%B1%82%E5%AE%9E%E3%80%8B%EF%BC%9A%E8%8B%8F%E8%81%94%E7%BB%99%E4%BA%86%E6%9E%97%E5%BD%AA%E4%B8%9C%E5%8C%97%E9%87%8E%E6%88%98%E5%86%9B%E5%A4%9A%E5%B0%91%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E6%AD%A6%E5%99%A8&rft.date=2011-11-24&rft.au=Yang+Kuisong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbook.sina.com.cn%2Fexcerpt%2Fsz%2Frw%2F2011-11-24%2F0951293044_2.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hu-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hu_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hu, Jubin. (2003). <i>Projecting a Nation: Chinese National Cinema Before 1949</i>. Hong Kong University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-209-610-7" title="Special:BookSources/962-209-610-7">962-209-610-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nat-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nat_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nat_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nat_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nat_53-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nat_53-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nat_53-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nat_53-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nat_53-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nat_53-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nat_53-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn_Anh_Thái_(chief_author)Nguyễn_Quốc_HùngVũ_Ngọc_OanhTrần_Thị_Vinh2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nguyễn Anh Thái (chief author); Nguyễn Quốc Hùng; Vũ Ngọc Oanh; Trần Thị Vinh; Đặng Thanh Toán; Đỗ Thanh Bình (2002). <i>Lịch sử thế giới hiện đại</i> (in Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City: Giáo Dục Publisher. pp. 320–322. 8934980082317.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%E1%BB%8Bch+s%E1%BB%AD+th%E1%BA%BF+gi%E1%BB%9Bi+hi%E1%BB%87n+%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i&rft.place=Ho+Chi+Minh+City&rft.pages=320-322&rft.pub=Gi%C3%A1o+D%E1%BB%A5c+Publisher&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Nguy%E1%BB%85n+Anh+Th%C3%A1i+%28chief+author%29&rft.au=Nguy%E1%BB%85n+Qu%E1%BB%91c+H%C3%B9ng&rft.au=V%C5%A9+Ng%E1%BB%8Dc+Oanh&rft.au=Tr%E1%BA%A7n+Th%E1%BB%8B+Vinh&rft.au=%C4%90%E1%BA%B7ng+Thanh+To%C3%A1n&rft.au=%C4%90%E1%BB%97+Thanh+B%C3%ACnh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|last=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael M Sheng, <i>Battling Western Imperialism</i>, Princeton University Press, 1997, pp. 132–135</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu1978" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Shiao Tang (1978). <i>Min Kuo Ta Shih Jih Chih</i>. Vol. 2. Taipei: Zhuan Chi Wen Shuan. p. 735.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Min+Kuo+Ta+Shih+Jih+Chih&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pages=735&rft.pub=Zhuan+Chi+Wen+Shuan&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Shiao+Tang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The New York Times</i>, 12 January 1947, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zeng Kelin, <i>Zeng Kelin jianjun zishu</i> (General Zeng Kelin Tells His Story), Liaoning renmin chubanshe, Shenyang, 1997. pp. 112–113</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ray_Huang" title="Ray Huang">Ray Huang</a>, <i>cong dalishi jiaodu du Jiang Jieshi riji</i> (Reading Chiang Kai-shek's diary from a macro-history perspective), China Times Publishing Press, Taipei, 1994, pp. 441–443</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lung_Ying-tai" title="Lung Ying-tai">Lung Ying-tai</a>, <i>dajiang dahai 1949</i>, Commonwealth Publishing Press, Taipei, 2009, p. 184</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harry S.Truman, Memoirs, Vol. Two: Years of Trial and Hope, 1946–1953 (Great Britain 1956), p. 66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_61-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_61-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_61-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_61-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_61-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoble2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Parks_M._Coble" title="Parks M. Coble">Coble, Parks M.</a> (2023). <i>The Collapse of Nationalist China: How Chiang Kai-shek Lost China's Civil War</i>. Cambridge & New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29761-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29761-5"><bdi>978-1-009-29761-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collapse+of+Nationalist+China%3A+How+Chiang+Kai-shek+Lost+China%27s+Civil+War&rft.place=Cambridge+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-29761-5&rft.aulast=Coble&rft.aufirst=Parks+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">p. 23, U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II, William Blum, Zed Books 2004 London.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:Li-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:Li_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2024" class="citation book cs1">Li, Hongshan (2024). <i>Fighting on the Cultural Front: U.S.-China Relations in the Cold War</i>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231207058" title="Special:BookSources/9780231207058"><bdi>9780231207058</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+on+the+Cultural+Front%3A+U.S.-China+Relations+in+the+Cold+War&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9780231207058&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Hongshan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lilley, James R. China Hands: Nine Decades of Adventure, Espionage, and Diplomacy in Asia. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58648-136-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-58648-136-3">1-58648-136-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Westad-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Westad_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Westad_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Westad_65-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Westad, Odd Arne. [2003] (2003). Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950. Stanford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-4484-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-4484-X">0-8047-4484-X</a>. pp. 192–193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AP-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AP_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pomfret, John. "Red Army Starved 150,000 Chinese Civilians, Books Says" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/19901122/1105487/red-army-starved-150000-chinese-civilians-books-says">Seattle Times 2 October 2009</a> Accessed: 2009-10-02. Archived <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/19901122/1105487/red-army-starved-150000-chinese-civilians-books-says">WebSite</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elleman-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elleman_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elleman_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Elleman, Bruce A. Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-21473-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-21473-4">0-415-21473-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Finkld-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Finkld_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Finkld_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Finkld_68-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Finkelstein, David Michael. Ryan, Mark A. McDevitt, Michael. (2003). Chinese Warfighting: The PLA Experience Since 1949. M.E. Sharpe. China. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7656-1088-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7656-1088-4">0-7656-1088-4</a>. p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donggil Kim, "Stalin and the Chinese Civil War." <i>Cold War History</i> 10.2 (2010): 185–202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_D._W._Forbes1986" class="citation book cs1">Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=warlords+and+muslims"><i>Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949</i></a>. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-25514-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-25514-7"><bdi>0-521-25514-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411192238/https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=warlords+and+muslims">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords+and+Muslims+in+Chinese+Central+Asia%3A+a+political+history+of+Republican+Sinkiang+1911%E2%80%931949&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=215&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-521-25514-7&rft.au=Andrew+D.+W.+Forbes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIAs9AAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dwarlords%2Band%2Bmuslims&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_D._W._Forbes1986" class="citation book cs1">Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=warlords+and+muslims"><i>Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949</i></a>. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 225. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-25514-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-25514-7"><bdi>0-521-25514-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411192238/https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=warlords+and+muslims">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords+and+Muslims+in+Chinese+Central+Asia%3A+a+political+history+of+Republican+Sinkiang+1911%E2%80%931949&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=225&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-521-25514-7&rft.au=Andrew+D.+W.+Forbes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIAs9AAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dwarlords%2Band%2Bmuslims&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsiao-ting_Lin2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hsiao-ting Lin (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC&q=shen+in+Chongqing+to+render+clandestine+support+to+pro-Nationalist+underground+forces+led+by+a+Khampa+Tibetan&pg=PA95"><i>Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west</i></a>. Vol. 67 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3"><bdi>978-0-415-58264-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411192239/https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC&q=shen+in+Chongqing+to+render+clandestine+support+to+pro-Nationalist+underground+forces+led+by+a+Khampa+Tibetan&pg=PA95">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2011</span>. <q>China's far northwest.23 A simultaneous proposal suggested that, with the support of the new Panchen Lama and his entourage, at least three army divisions of anti-Communist Khampa Tibetans could be mustered in southwest China.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+China%27s+ethnic+frontiers%3A+a+journey+to+the+west&rft.pages=117&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-415-58264-3&rft.au=Hsiao-ting+Lin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrsLQdBUgyMUC%26q%3Dshen%2Bin%2BChongqing%2Bto%2Brender%2Bclandestine%2Bsupport%2Bto%2Bpro-Nationalist%2Bunderground%2Bforces%2Bled%2Bby%2Ba%2BKhampa%2BTibetan%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsiao-ting_Lin2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hsiao-ting Lin (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC&q=shen+in+Chongqing+to+render+clandestine+support+to+pro-Nationalist+underground+forces+led+by+a+Khampa+Tibetan&pg=PA95"><i>Modern China's ethnic frontiers: a journey to the west</i></a>. Vol. 67 of Routledge studies in the modern history of Asia (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. xxi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-58264-3"><bdi>978-0-415-58264-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411192239/https://books.google.com/books?id=rsLQdBUgyMUC&q=shen+in+Chongqing+to+render+clandestine+support+to+pro-Nationalist+underground+forces+led+by+a+Khampa+Tibetan&pg=PA95">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2011</span>. <q>(tusi) from the Sichuan-Qinghai border; and Su Yonghe, a Khampa native-chieftain from Nagchuka on the Qinghai- Tibetan border. According to Nationalist intelligence reports, these leaders altogether commanded about 80000 irregulars.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+China%27s+ethnic+frontiers%3A+a+journey+to+the+west&rft.pages=xxi&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-415-58264-3&rft.au=Hsiao-ting+Lin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrsLQdBUgyMUC%26q%3Dshen%2Bin%2BChongqing%2Bto%2Brender%2Bclandestine%2Bsupport%2Bto%2Bpro-Nationalist%2Bunderground%2Bforces%2Bled%2Bby%2Ba%2BKhampa%2BTibetan%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cookc-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cookc_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cook, Chris Cook. Stevenson, John. (2005). <i>The Routledge Companion to World History Since 1914.</i> Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-34584-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-34584-7">0-415-34584-7</a>. p. 376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-QiB-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-QiB_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Qi, Bangyuan. Wang, Dewei. Wang, David Der-wei. (2003). The Last of the Whampoa Breed: Stories of the Chinese Diaspora. Columbia University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-13002-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-13002-3">0-231-13002-3</a>. p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacF-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MacF_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacFarquhar, Roderick. Fairbank, John K. Twitchett, Denis C. [1991] (1991). <i>The Cambridge History of China</i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-24337-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-24337-8">0-521-24337-8</a>. p. 820.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://china.usc.edu/harry-s-truman-%E2%80%9Cstatement-formosa%E2%80%9D-january-5-1950">"Harry S Truman, 'Statement on Formosa', January 5, 1950"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Southern_California" title="University of Southern California">University of Southern California</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170816232642/http://china.usc.edu/harry-s-truman-%E2%80%9Cstatement-formosa%E2%80%9D-january-5-1950">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harry+S+Truman%2C+%27Statement+on+Formosa%27%2C+January+5%2C+1950&rft.pub=University+of+Southern+California&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchina.usc.edu%2Fharry-s-truman-%25E2%2580%259Cstatement-formosa%25E2%2580%259D-january-5-1950&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYafeng_Xia2006" class="citation book cs1">Yafeng Xia (2006). <i>Negotiating with the Enemy: U.S.–China Talks during the Cold War, 1949–1972</i>. Indiana University Press. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253112378" title="Special:BookSources/9780253112378"><bdi>9780253112378</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Negotiating+with+the+Enemy%3A+U.S.%E2%80%93China+Talks+during+the+Cold+War%2C+1949%E2%80%931972&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780253112378&rft.au=Yafeng+Xia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BushR-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BushR_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bush, Richard C. (2005). Untying the Knot: Making Peace in the Taiwan Strait. Brookings Institution Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8157-1288-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8157-1288-X">0-8157-1288-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tsang-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tsang_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tsang_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tsang_80-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tsang_80-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tsang, Steve Yui-Sang Tsang. The Cold War's Odd Couple: The Unintended Partnership Between the Republic of China and the UK, 1950–1958. (2006). I.B. Tauris. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85043-842-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85043-842-0">1-85043-842-0</a>. pp. 155, 115–120, 139–145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2008" class="citation journal cs1">Yang, Kuisong (March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20192166">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Reconsidering the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The China Quarterly</i> (193): 102–121. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20192166">20192166</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220627184555/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20192166">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2022</span> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+China+Quarterly&rft.atitle=%22Reconsidering+the+Campaign+to+Suppress+Counterrevolutionaries%22&rft.issue=193&rft.pages=102-121&rft.date=2008-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20192166%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Kuisong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20192166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:Guo-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:Guo_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuo2012" class="citation book cs1">Guo, Xuezhi (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-7_lfNx76GcC&pg=PA62"><i>China's Security State: Philosophy, Evolution, and Politics</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02323-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02323-9"><bdi>978-1-107-02323-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411192235/https://books.google.com/books?id=-7_lfNx76GcC&pg=PA62">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2022</span>. <q>Among them, 712.000 counterrevolutionaries were executed, 1.29 million were imprisoned, and 1.2 million were subject to control at various times.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Security+State%3A+Philosophy%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Politics&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-107-02323-9&rft.aulast=Guo&rft.aufirst=Xuezhi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-7_lfNx76GcC%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven W. Mosher. <i>China Misperceived: American Illusions and Chinese Reality.</i> <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-09813-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-09813-4">0-465-09813-4</a> p. 73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen1994" class="citation book cs1">Chen, Jian (1994). <i>China's Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231100250" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231100250"><bdi>978-0231100250</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Road+to+the+Korean+War%3A+The+Making+of+the+Sino-American+Confrontation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0231100250&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Jian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199422-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199422_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen1994">Chen 1994</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199441-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199441_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen1994">Chen 1994</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199421-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199421_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen1994">Chen 1994</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199419-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199419_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen1994">Chen 1994</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChen199425–26,_93-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChen199425–26,_93_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen1994">Chen 1994</a>, pp. 25–26, 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCauley_2016-09-13-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCauley_2016-09-13_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCauley2016" class="citation web cs1">McCauley, Kevin (13 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jamestown.org/program/pla-yijiangshan-joint-amphibious-operation-past-is-prologue/">"PLA Yijiangshan Joint Amphibious Operation: Past is Prologue"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PLA+Yijiangshan+Joint+Amphibious+Operation%3A+Past+is+Prologue&rft.date=2016-09-13&rft.aulast=McCauley&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjamestown.org%2Fprogram%2Fpla-yijiangshan-joint-amphibious-operation-past-is-prologue%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhnFeng2022" class="citation web cs1">Kuhn, Anthony; Feng, Emily (2 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2022/08/02/1115234980/what-3-past-taiwan-strait-crises-can-teach-us-about-u-s-china-tensions-today">"What 3 past Taiwan Strait crises can teach us about U.S.-China tensions today"</a>. <i>www.npr.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220803204936/https://www.npr.org/2022/08/02/1115234980/what-3-past-taiwan-strait-crises-can-teach-us-about-u-s-china-tensions-today">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.npr.org&rft.atitle=What+3+past+Taiwan+Strait+crises+can+teach+us+about+U.S.-China+tensions+today&rft.date=2022-08-02&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Feng%2C+Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2022%2F08%2F02%2F1115234980%2Fwhat-3-past-taiwan-strait-crises-can-teach-us-about-u-s-china-tensions-today&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollard2022" class="citation news cs1">Pollard, Martin Quin (7 April 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-warns-strong-measures-if-us-speaker-pelosi-visits-taiwan-2022-04-07/">"China warns U.S. against House Speaker Pelosi visiting Taiwan"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220803051619/https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-warns-strong-measures-if-us-speaker-pelosi-visits-taiwan-2022-04-07/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=China+warns+U.S.+against+House+Speaker+Pelosi+visiting+Taiwan&rft.date=2022-04-07&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=Martin+Quin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fchina%2Fchina-warns-strong-measures-if-us-speaker-pelosi-visits-taiwan-2022-04-07%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChiacu2022" class="citation news cs1">Chiacu, Doina (8 April 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/us/us-house-speaker-pelosi-tests-positive-covid-spokesman-2022-04-07/">"U.S. House Speaker Pelosi is latest U.S. official to test positive for COVID"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220803051619/https://www.reuters.com/world/us/us-house-speaker-pelosi-tests-positive-covid-spokesman-2022-04-07/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=U.S.+House+Speaker+Pelosi+is+latest+U.S.+official+to+test+positive+for+COVID&rft.date=2022-04-08&rft.aulast=Chiacu&rft.aufirst=Doina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fus%2Fus-house-speaker-pelosi-tests-positive-covid-spokesman-2022-04-07%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasonMartina2022" class="citation news cs1">Mason, Jeff; Martina, Michael (1 August 2022). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/white-house-says-pelosi-has-right-visit-taiwan-2022-08-01">"White House: U.S. will not be intimidated by China; Pelosi has right to visit Taiwan"</a></span>. <i>Reuters</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220804001906/https://www.reuters./">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=White+House%3A+U.S.+will+not+be+intimidated+by+China%3B+Pelosi+has+right+to+visit+Taiwan&rft.date=2022-08-01&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft.au=Martina%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fasia-pacific%2Fwhite-house-says-pelosi-has-right-visit-taiwan-2022-08-01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/09669099-1565-4723-86c9-84e0ca465825">"Nancy Pelosi's plan to visit Taiwan prompts outrage from China"</a>. Financial Times. Archived from <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/09669099-1565-4723-86c9-84e0ca465825">the original</a></span> on 10 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nancy+Pelosi%27s+plan+to+visit+Taiwan+prompts+outrage+from+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F09669099-1565-4723-86c9-84e0ca465825&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/features-62389913"><bdi lang="uk">Китай-Тайвань: на тлі можливого візиту Пелосі зростає напруження</bdi></a> [China-Taiwan: Tensions rise amid possible Pelosi visit]. <i>BBC News Україна</i> (in Ukrainian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220802164200/https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/features-62389913">Archived</a> from the original on 2 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News+%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B0&rft.atitle=%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9-%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%3A+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%96+%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83+%D0%9F%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96+%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%94+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fukrainian%2Ffeatures-62389913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unian.ua/world/nensi-pelosi-letit-na-tayvan-shcho-potribno-znati-pro-krizu-mizh-ssha-i-kitayem-novini-svitu-11925576.html"><bdi lang="uk">Ненсі Пелосі летить на Тайвань: що потрібно знати про кризу між США і Китаєм</bdi></a> [Nancy Pelosi flies to Taiwan: what you need to know about the crisis between the USA and China]. <i>unian.ua</i> (in Ukrainian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220801182653/https://www.unian.ua/world/nensi-pelosi-letit-na-tayvan-shcho-potribno-znati-pro-krizu-mizh-ssha-i-kitayem-novini-svitu-11925576.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unian.ua&rft.atitle=%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%96+%D0%9F%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96+%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%3A+%D1%89%D0%BE+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%BE+%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE+%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%83+%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%B6+%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90+%D1%96+%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%94%D0%BC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unian.ua%2Fworld%2Fnensi-pelosi-letit-na-tayvan-shcho-potribno-znati-pro-krizu-mizh-ssha-i-kitayem-novini-svitu-11925576.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZheng2022" class="citation web cs1">Zheng, Sarah (2 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-08-02/china-announces-military-drills-encircling-taiwan-from-aug-4-7-l6cc5ljn">"China Plans Four Days of Military Drills in Areas Encircling Taiwan"</a>. <i>Bloomberg</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg&rft.atitle=China+Plans+Four+Days+of+Military+Drills+in+Areas+Encircling+Taiwan&rft.date=2022-08-02&rft.aulast=Zheng&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2022-08-02%2Fchina-announces-military-drills-encircling-taiwan-from-aug-4-7-l6cc5ljn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidsonNi2022" class="citation web cs1">Davidson, Helen; Ni, Vincent (3 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/03/china-to-begin-series-unprecedented-live-fire-drills-off-coast-of-taiwan">"China to begin series of unprecedented live-fire drills off Taiwan coast"</a>. <i>the Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220804035722/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/03/china-to-begin-series-unprecedented-live-fire-drills-off-coast-of-taiwan">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=China+to+begin+series+of+unprecedented+live-fire+drills+off+Taiwan+coast&rft.date=2022-08-03&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft.au=Ni%2C+Vincent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2022%2Faug%2F03%2Fchina-to-begin-series-unprecedented-live-fire-drills-off-coast-of-taiwan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2022" class="citation news cs1">Lee, Yimou (4 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/suspected-drones-over-taiwan-cyber-attacks-after-pelosi-visit-2022-08-04/">"China begins 'illegitimate, irresponsible' live-fire military drills - Taiwan"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220804044456/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/suspected-drones-over-taiwan-cyber-attacks-after-pelosi-visit-2022-08-04/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=China+begins+%27illegitimate%2C+irresponsible%27+live-fire+military+drills+-+Taiwan&rft.date=2022-08-04&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Yimou&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fasia-pacific%2Fsuspected-drones-over-taiwan-cyber-attacks-after-pelosi-visit-2022-08-04%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/25/oct-25-1971-peoples-republic-of-china-in-taiwan-out-at-un/">"People's Republic of China In, Taiwan Out, at U.N."</a> <i>The Learning Network</i>. 25 October 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200813021518/https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/25/oct-25-1971-peoples-republic-of-china-in-taiwan-out-at-un/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Learning+Network&rft.atitle=People%27s+Republic+of+China+In%2C+Taiwan+Out%2C+at+U.N.&rft.date=2011-10-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flearning.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F10%2F25%2Foct-25-1971-peoples-republic-of-china-in-taiwan-out-at-un%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/html/chinas_stance.stm">"Taiwan flashpoint"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171218121434/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/asia_pac/04/taiwan_flashpoint/html/chinas_stance.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 18 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Taiwan+flashpoint&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fshared%2Fspl%2Fhi%2Fasia_pac%2F04%2Ftaiwan_flashpoint%2Fhtml%2Fchinas_stance.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jbcoecrg5nec&q=chinese+civil+war.&pg=pr11"><i>Decisive Encounters</i></a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> By Westad, Odd Arne. Stanford University Press, 21 Mar pp. 292–297 2003 (Google Books).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.ifeng.com/history/2/shidian/200803/0313_2666_439865_9.shtml">"历次台海危机内幕及其背后大国之间的博弈(图)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220804104748/https://news.ifeng.com/history/2/shidian/200803/0313_2666_439865_9.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%8E%86%E6%AC%A1%E5%8F%B0%E6%B5%B7%E5%8D%B1%E6%9C%BA%E5%86%85%E5%B9%95%E5%8F%8A%E5%85%B6%E8%83%8C%E5%90%8E%E5%A4%A7%E5%9B%BD%E4%B9%8B%E9%97%B4%E7%9A%84%E5%8D%9A%E5%BC%88%28%E5%9B%BE%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.ifeng.com%2Fhistory%2F2%2Fshidian%2F200803%2F0313_2666_439865_9.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_105-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_105-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_105-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOpper2020" class="citation book cs1">Opper, Marc (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/23824"><i>People's Wars in China, Malaya, and Vietnam</i></a>. Ann Arbor: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902">10.3998/mpub.11413902</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12657%2F23824">20.500.12657/23824</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-90125-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-90125-8"><bdi>978-0-472-90125-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.11413902">10.3998/mpub.11413902</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211359950">211359950</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220118062521/https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.3998/mpub.11413902.8.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 18 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People%27s+Wars+in+China%2C+Malaya%2C+and+Vietnam&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12657%2F23824&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211359950%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=978-0-472-90125-8&rft.aulast=Opper&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.oapen.org%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12657%2F23824&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitter2020" class="citation book cs1">Mitter, Rana (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1141442704"><i>China's good war : how World War II is shaping a new nationalism</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98426-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98426-4"><bdi>978-0-674-98426-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1141442704">1141442704</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230402121743/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1141442704">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+good+war+%3A+how+World+War+II+is+shaping+a+new+nationalism&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=The+Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1141442704&rft.isbn=978-0-674-98426-4&rft.aulast=Mitter&rft.aufirst=Rana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1141442704&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrei2005" class="citation web cs1">Trei, Lisa (9 March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.stanford.edu/news/2005/march9/chinese-030905.html">"Hoover's new archival acquisitions shed light on Chinese history"</a>. <i>Stanford University</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190711184425/https://news.stanford.edu/news/2005/march9/chinese-030905.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+University&rft.atitle=Hoover%27s+new+archival+acquisitions+shed+light+on+Chinese+history&rft.date=2005-03-09&rft.aulast=Trei&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.stanford.edu%2Fnews%2F2005%2Fmarch9%2Fchinese-030905.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Odd Arne Westad, <i>Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750</i> (2012) p. 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150102062530/http://www.mof.gov.tw/museum/ct.asp?xItem=3682&ctNode=34">"金圓券相關史料 – 財政部財政史料陳列室"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mof.gov.tw/museum/ct.asp?xItem=3682&ctNode=34">the original</a> on 2 January 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E9%87%91%E5%9C%93%E5%88%B8%E7%9B%B8%E9%97%9C%E5%8F%B2%E6%96%99+%E2%80%93+%E8%B2%A1%E6%94%BF%E9%83%A8%E8%B2%A1%E6%94%BF%E5%8F%B2%E6%96%99%E9%99%B3%E5%88%97%E5%AE%A4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mof.gov.tw%2Fmuseum%2Fct.asp%3FxItem%3D3682%26ctNode%3D34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKissinger2011" class="citation book cs1">Kissinger, Henry (2011). <i>On China</i>. Penguin Press. pp. 117–118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594202711" title="Special:BookSources/9781594202711"><bdi>9781594202711</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+China&rft.pages=117-118&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781594202711&rft.aulast=Kissinger&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin2006" class="citation book cs1">Lin, Chun (2006). <i>The Transformation of Chinese Socialism</i>. Durham [N.C.]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1598240800003520">10.1017/S1598240800003520</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3785-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3785-0"><bdi>978-0-8223-3785-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63178961">63178961</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155992759">155992759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transformation+of+Chinese+Socialism&rft.place=Durham+%5BN.C.%5D&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F63178961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155992759%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1598240800003520&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-3785-0&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Chun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeMare2019" class="citation book cs1">DeMare, Brian James (2019). <i>Land Wars: the Story of China's Agrarian Revolution</i>. Stanford, Calif: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-0952-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-0952-5"><bdi>978-1-5036-0952-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Land+Wars%3A+the+Story+of+China%27s+Agrarian+Revolution&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-0952-5&rft.aulast=DeMare&rft.aufirst=Brian+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For quotes see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdd_Arne_Westad2003" class="citation book cs1">Odd Arne Westad (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JBCOecRg5nEC&pg=PA10"><i>Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950</i></a>. Stanford University Press. pp. 9–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804744843" title="Special:BookSources/9780804744843"><bdi>9780804744843</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411192532/https://books.google.com/books?id=JBCOecRg5nEC&pg=PA10">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decisive+Encounters%3A+The+Chinese+Civil+War%2C+1946%E2%80%931950&rft.pages=9-11&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780804744843&rft.au=Odd+Arne+Westad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJBCOecRg5nEC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSun1982" class="citation web cs1">Sun, Tung-hsun (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ea.sinica.edu.tw/eu_file/12010586724.pdf">"Some Recent American Interpretations of Sino-American Relations of the Late 1940s: An Assessment"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Institute of European and American Studies, Academia Sinica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191205024030/https://www.ea.sinica.edu.tw/eu_file/12010586724.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 5 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+of+European+and+American+Studies%2C+Academia+Sinica&rft.atitle=Some+Recent+American+Interpretations+of+Sino-American+Relations+of+the+Late+1940s%3A+An+Assessment&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Sun&rft.aufirst=Tung-hsun&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ea.sinica.edu.tw%2Feu_file%2F12010586724.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.hoover.org/sites/default/files/documents/soong_register.pdf">T.V. Soong – A Register of His Papers in the Hoover Institution Archives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150227195642/http://media.hoover.org/sites/default/files/documents/soong_register.pdf">Archived</a> 27 February 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> media.hoover.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150227190213/http://big5.backchina.com/blog/323944/article-142137.html"><bdi lang="zh">轉載：杜月笙的1931 （6） – 五湖煙景的日誌 – 倍可親</bdi></a>. <i>big5.backchina.com</i> (in Traditional Chinese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://big5.backchina.com/blog/323944/article-142137.html">the original</a> on 27 February 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=big5.backchina.com&rft.atitle=%E8%BD%89%E8%BC%89%EF%BC%9A+%E6%9D%9C%E6%9C%88%E7%AC%99%E7%9A%841931+%EF%BC%886%EF%BC%89+%E2%80%93+%E4%BA%94%E6%B9%96%E7%85%99%E6%99%AF%E7%9A%84%E6%97%A5%E8%AA%8C+%E2%80%93+%E5%80%8D%E5%8F%AF%E8%A6%AA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbig5.backchina.com%2Fblog%2F323944%2Farticle-142137.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google102-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google102_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2009" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jay (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DUg2KGMQWHQC&q=describe%20peace"><i>The Generalissimo</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 102–103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674054714" title="Special:BookSources/9780674054714"><bdi>9780674054714</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406143613/https://books.google.com/books?id=DUg2KGMQWHQC&q=describe%20peace">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Generalissimo&rft.pages=102-103&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780674054714&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDUg2KGMQWHQC%26q%3Ddescribe%2520peace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldif.economist.com/article/12130/chiangs-china">"Chiang's China"</a>. <i>Worldif.economist.com</i>. 1 July 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220719100737/https://worldif.economist.com/article/12130/chiangs-china">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Worldif.economist.com&rft.atitle=Chiang%27s+China&rft.date=2015-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworldif.economist.com%2Farticle%2F12130%2Fchiangs-china&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uchronia.net/label/waldchinaw.html">"China Without Tears: If Chiang Kai-Shek Hadn't Gambled in 1946"</a>. <i>Uchronia.net</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221003180407/http://www.uchronia.net/label/waldchinaw.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Uchronia.net&rft.atitle=China+Without+Tears%3A+If+Chiang+Kai-Shek+Hadn%27t+Gambled+in+1946&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uchronia.net%2Flabel%2Fwaldchinaw.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/who-lost-china-10801">"Who Lost China? | EWTN"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220723190451/https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/who-lost-china-10801">Archived</a> from the original on 23 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Who+Lost+China%3F+%26%23124%3B+EWTN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ewtn.com%2Fcatholicism%2Flibrary%2Fwho-lost-china-10801&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xliby.ru/istorija/rossija_i_kitai_konflikty_i_sotrudnichestvo/p35.php">"ГЛАВА 35 ГРАЖДАНСКАЯ ВОЙНА В КИТАЕ"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210127062850/http://www.xliby.ru/istorija/rossija_i_kitai_konflikty_i_sotrudnichestvo/p35.php">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%93%D0%9B%D0%90%D0%92%D0%90+35+%D0%93%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%96%D0%94%D0%90%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%AF+%D0%92%D0%9E%D0%99%D0%9D%D0%90+%D0%92+%D0%9A%D0%98%D0%A2%D0%90%D0%95&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.xliby.ru%2Fistorija%2Frossija_i_kitai_konflikty_i_sotrudnichestvo%2Fp35.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF青" class="citation web cs1">青, 山. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210506195325/https://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/68742/69118/69659/4731844.html">"苏联出兵之后中共对东北的争夺"</a>. <i>中国共产党新闻网</i>. 人民网. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/68742/69118/69659/4731844.html">the original</a> on 6 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A%E6%96%B0%E9%97%BB%E7%BD%91&rft.atitle=%E8%8B%8F%E8%81%94%E5%87%BA%E5%85%B5%E4%B9%8B%E5%90%8E%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%AF%B9%E4%B8%9C%E5%8C%97%E7%9A%84%E4%BA%89%E5%A4%BA&rft.aulast=%E9%9D%92&rft.aufirst=%E5%B1%B1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcpc.people.com.cn%2FGB%2F68742%2F69118%2F69659%2F4731844.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF吕" class="citation web cs1">吕, 明辉. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wyxy.thnu.edu.cn/koreanps/Article/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=176">"朝鲜支援中国东北解放战争纪实"</a>. <i>通化师范学院</i>. 白山出版社. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210514072156/https://wyxy.thnu.edu.cn/koreanps/Article/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=176">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E9%80%9A%E5%8C%96%E5%B8%88%E8%8C%83%E5%AD%A6%E9%99%A2&rft.atitle=%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E6%94%AF%E6%8F%B4%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%9C%E5%8C%97%E8%A7%A3%E6%94%BE%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89%E7%BA%AA%E5%AE%9E&rft.aulast=%E5%90%95&rft.aufirst=%E6%98%8E%E8%BE%89&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwyxy.thnu.edu.cn%2Fkoreanps%2FArticle%2FShowArticle.asp%3FArticleID%3D176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF金" class="citation web cs1">金, 东吉. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/Details.aspx?id=6375">"中国人民解放军中的朝鲜师回朝鲜问题新探"</a>. <i>香港中文大學</i>. 中國研究服務中心. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211113103846/http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/Details.aspx?id=6375">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8&rft.atitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E8%A7%A3%E6%94%BE%E5%86%9B%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E5%B8%88%E5%9B%9E%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E9%97%AE%E9%A2%98%E6%96%B0%E6%8E%A2&rft.aulast=%E9%87%91&rft.aufirst=%E4%B8%9C%E5%90%89&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk%2FPaperCollection%2FDetails.aspx%3Fid%3D6375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rummel, Rudolph (1994), <i>Death by Government</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Valentino, Benjamin A. <i>Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century</i>. Cornell University Press. (2005). p. 88 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barnouin38-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barnouin38_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NztlWQeXf2IC"><i>Zhou Enlai: A Political Life</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170325202546/https://books.google.com/books?id=NztlWQeXf2IC">Archived</a> 25 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-996-280-2" title="Special:BookSources/962-996-280-2">962-996-280-2</a>. Retrieved 12 November 2022. p. 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_128-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarl2010" class="citation book cs1">Karl, Rebecca E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045"><i>Mao Zedong and China in the twentieth-century world : a concise history</i></a>. Durham [NC]: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4780-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4780-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">503828045</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221212114812/https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/503828045">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+Zedong+and+China+in+the+twentieth-century+world+%3A+a+concise+history&rft.place=Durham+%5BNC%5D&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F503828045&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4780-4&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F503828045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitter2020" class="citation book cs1">Mitter, Rana (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1141442704"><i>China's good war : how World War II is shaping a new nationalism</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98426-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98426-4"><bdi>978-0-674-98426-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1141442704">1141442704</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230402121743/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1141442704">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+good+war+%3A+how+World+War+II+is+shaping+a+new+nationalism&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=The+Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1141442704&rft.isbn=978-0-674-98426-4&rft.aulast=Mitter&rft.aufirst=Rana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1141442704&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeigon2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lee_Feigon" title="Lee Feigon">Feigon, Lee</a> (2002). <i>Mao: A Reinterpretation</i>. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. pp. 51–53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1566634588" title="Special:BookSources/978-1566634588"><bdi>978-1566634588</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%3A+A+Reinterpretation&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=51-53&rft.pub=Ivan+R.+Dee&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1566634588&rft.aulast=Feigon&rft.aufirst=Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Revolution_Defeated-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Revolution_Defeated_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOpper2018" class="citation journal cs1">Opper, Marc (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftcc.2018.0003">"Revolution Defeated: The Collapse of the Chinese Soviet Republic"</a>. <i>Twentieth-Century China</i>. <b>43</b> (1): 60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftcc.2018.0003">10.1353/tcc.2018.0003</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148775889">148775889</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Twentieth-Century+China&rft.atitle=Revolution+Defeated%3A+The+Collapse+of+the+Chinese+Soviet+Republic&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=60&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftcc.2018.0003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148775889%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Opper&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1353%252Ftcc.2018.0003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOpper2020" class="citation book cs1">Opper, Marc (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220118062521/https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.3998/mpub.11413902.8.pdf">"The Chinese Soviet Republic, 1931–1934"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/23824"><i>People's Wars in China, Malaya, and Vietnam</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902">10.3998/mpub.11413902</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12657%2F23824">20.500.12657/23824</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780472131846" title="Special:BookSources/9780472131846"><bdi>9780472131846</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.11413902.8">10.3998/mpub.11413902.8</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211359950">211359950</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.3998/mpub.11413902.8.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 18 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+Soviet+Republic%2C+1931%E2%80%931934&rft.btitle=People%27s+Wars+in+China%2C+Malaya%2C+and+Vietnam&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12657%2F23824&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902.8%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211359950%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=9780472131846&rft.aulast=Opper&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fpdf%2F10.3998%2Fmpub.11413902.8.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Halliday-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Halliday_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallidayChang2012" class="citation book cs1">Halliday, Jon; Chang, Jung (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L_bQX73aOvcC&pg=PA133"><i>Mao: The Unknown Story</i></a>. Random House. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781448156863" title="Special:BookSources/9781448156863"><bdi>9781448156863</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411192257/https://books.google.com/books?id=L_bQX73aOvcC&pg=PA133">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%3A+The+Unknown+Story&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781448156863&rft.aulast=Halliday&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft.au=Chang%2C+Jung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL_bQX73aOvcC%26pg%3DPA133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span> The Ruijin base, the seat of the first Red state, consisted of large parts of the provinces of Jiangxi and Fujian. These two provinces suffered the greatest population decrease in the whole of China from the year when the Communist state was founded, 1931, to the year after the Reds left, 1935. The population of Red Jiangxi fell by more than half a million – a drop of 20 percent. The fall in Red Fujian was comparable. Given that escapes were few, this means that altogether some 700,000 people died in the Ruijin base. A large part of these were murdered as “class enemies,” or were worked to death, or committed suicide, or died other premature deaths attributable to the regime.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-koga-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-koga_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-koga_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Koga, Yukiko (2016). <i>Inheritance of Loss: China, Japan, and the Political Economy of Redemption After Empire</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/022641213X" title="Special:BookSources/022641213X">022641213X</a>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/19901122/1105487/red-army-starved-150000-chinese-civilians-books-says">"Pomfret, John (October 2, 2009). "Red Army Starved 150,000 Chinese Civilians, Books Says". Associated Press. The Seattle Times. Archived from the original on October 2, 2009. Retrieved October 2, 2009"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111025143728/http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19901122&slug=1105487">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pomfret%2C+John+%28October+2%2C+2009%29.+%22Red+Army+Starved+150%2C000+Chinese+Civilians%2C+Books+Says%22.+Associated+Press.+The+Seattle+Times.+Archived+from+the+original+on+October+2%2C+2009.+Retrieved+October+2%2C+2009.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.seattletimes.com%2Farchive%2F19901122%2F1105487%2Fred-army-starved-150000-chinese-civilians-books-says&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lardi-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lardi_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lary, Diana (2015). <i>China's Civil War</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1107054672" title="Special:BookSources/1107054672">1107054672</a>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeMare, Brian James (2019). <i>Land Wars: The Story of China's Agrarian Revolution</i>. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1503609525" title="Special:BookSources/978-1503609525">978-1503609525</a>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETanner2015134–135-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETanner2015134–135_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTanner2015">Tanner (2015)</a>, pp. 134–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Saich <i>The Rise to Power of the Chinese Communist Party</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w48YDQAAQBAJ&q=%22Outline+Land+Law%22+-wikipedia">Outline Land Law of 1947</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230406143614/https://books.google.com/books?id=w48YDQAAQBAJ&q=%22Outline+Land+Law%22+-wikipedia">Archived</a> 6 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scheidel225-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scheidel225_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheidel2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scheidel" title="Walter Scheidel">Scheidel, Walter</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10921.html"><i>The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 225. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16502-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16502-8"><bdi>978-0-691-16502-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170904231557/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10921.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Leveler%3A+Violence+and+the+History+of+Inequality+from+the+Stone+Age+to+the+Twenty-First+Century&rft.pages=225&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16502-8&rft.aulast=Scheidel&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Ftitles%2F10921.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liu-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Liu_141-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Liu_141-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">Liu, Zaiyu (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c071-200104044.pdf"><bdi lang="zh">第二次國共戰爭時期的還鄉團</bdi></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Hong Kong: Twenty First Century Bimonthly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191205024025/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c071-200104044.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 5 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%B1%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F%E7%9A%84%E9%82%84%E9%84%89%E5%9C%98&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pub=Twenty+First+Century+Bimonthly&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Zaiyu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cuhk.edu.hk%2Fics%2F21c%2Fmedia%2Farticles%2Fc071-200104044.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheng2005" class="citation journal cs1">Cheng, Victor Shiu Chiang (January 2005). "Imagining China's Madrid in Manchuria: The Communist Military Strategy at the Onset of the Chinese Civil War, 1945-1946". <i><a href="/wiki/Modern_China_(journal)" title="Modern China (journal)">Modern China</a></i>. <b>31</b> (1): 72–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0097700404270549">10.1177/0097700404270549</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0097-7004">0097-7004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Imagining+China%27s+Madrid+in+Manchuria%3A+The+Communist+Military+Strategy+at+the+Onset+of+the+Chinese+Civil+War%2C+1945-1946&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=72-114&rft.date=2005-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0097700404270549&rft.issn=0097-7004&rft.aulast=Cheng&rft.aufirst=Victor+Shiu+Chiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChi1982" class="citation book cs1">Chi, Hsi-sheng (1982). <i>Nationalist China at war: military defeats and political collapse, 1937-45</i>. Michigan studies on China. Ann Arbor: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10018-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10018-7"><bdi>978-0-472-10018-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalist+China+at+war%3A+military+defeats+and+political+collapse%2C+1937-45&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.series=Michigan+studies+on+China&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-472-10018-7&rft.aulast=Chi&rft.aufirst=Hsi-sheng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreyer2014" class="citation book cs1">Dreyer, Edward L. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YsWOAwAAQBAJ"><i>China at War 1901-1949</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89984-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89984-6"><bdi>978-1-317-89984-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+at+War+1901-1949&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-89984-6&rft.aulast=Dreyer&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYsWOAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGueniffey1969" class="citation book cs1">Gueniffey, Patrice (1969). <i>The military history of the Chinese Civil War</i>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Watts_%26_Co._(publishing_firm)" title="Watts & Co. (publishing firm)">Watts</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-531-01252-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-531-01252-9"><bdi>978-0-531-01252-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+military+history+of+the+Chinese+Civil+War&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Watts&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-531-01252-9&rft.aulast=Gueniffey&rft.aufirst=Patrice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEastman1981" class="citation journal cs1">Eastman, Lloyd E. (December 1981). "Who Lost China? Chiang Kai-shek Testifies". <i><a href="/wiki/The_China_Quarterly" title="The China Quarterly">The China Quarterly</a></i>. <b>88</b>: 658–668. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0305741000029416">10.1017/S0305741000029416</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7410">0305-7410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+China+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Who+Lost+China%3F+Chiang+Kai-shek+Testifies&rft.volume=88&rft.pages=658-668&rft.date=1981-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0305741000029416&rft.issn=0305-7410&rft.aulast=Eastman&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEastman1991" class="citation book cs1">Eastman, Lloyd E. (1991). <i>The Nationalist era in China: 1927 - 1949</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38591-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38591-6"><bdi>978-0-521-38591-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nationalist+era+in+China%3A+1927+-+1949&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-521-38591-6&rft.aulast=Eastman&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenby2003" class="citation book cs1">Fenby, Jonathan (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm52829166"><i>Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the China he lost</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)" title="Free Press (publisher)">Free Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-3144-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-3144-2"><bdi>978-0-7432-3144-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52829166">52829166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generalissimo%3A+Chiang+Kai-shek+and+the+China+he+lost&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Focm52829166&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-3144-2&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Focm52829166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerlanti2012" class="citation journal cs1">Ferlanti, Federica (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ccposters.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Ferlanti.pdf">"The New Life Movement at War: Wartime Mobilisation and State Control in Chongqing and Chengdu, 1938–1942"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>European Journal of East Asian Studies</i>. <b>11</b> (2): 187–212. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15700615-20121104">10.1163/15700615-20121104</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1568-0584">1568-0584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+East+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+New+Life+Movement+at+War%3A+Wartime+Mobilisation+and+State+Control+in+Chongqing+and+Chengdu%2C+1938%E2%80%931942&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=187-212&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15700615-20121104&rft.issn=1568-0584&rft.aulast=Ferlanti&rft.aufirst=Federica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fccposters.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F11%2FFerlanti.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJian1997" class="citation journal cs1">Jian, Chen (January 1997). "The Myth of America's "Lost Chance" in China: A Chinese Persopective in Light of New Evidence". <i><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_History_(journal)" title="Diplomatic History (journal)">Diplomatic History</a></i>. <b>21</b> (1): 77–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-7709.00052">10.1111/1467-7709.00052</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-2096">0145-2096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomatic+History&rft.atitle=The+Myth+of+America%27s+%22Lost+Chance%22+in+China%3A+A+Chinese+Persopective+in+Light+of+New+Evidence&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=77-86&rft.date=1997-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-7709.00052&rft.issn=0145-2096&rft.aulast=Jian&rft.aufirst=Chen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLary2015" class="citation book cs1">Lary, Diana (2015). <i>China's Civil War: A Social History, 1945-1949</i>. New approaches to Asian history. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-05467-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-05467-7"><bdi>978-1-107-05467-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Civil+War%3A+A+Social+History%2C+1945-1949&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=New+approaches+to+Asian+history&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-05467-7&rft.aulast=Lary&rft.aufirst=Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine1979" class="citation journal cs1">Levine, Steven I. (October 1979). "A New Look at American Mediation in the Chinese Civil War: The Marshall Mission and Manchuria". <i>Diplomatic History</i>. <b>3</b> (4): 349–376. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-7709.1979.tb00322.x">10.1111/j.1467-7709.1979.tb00322.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-2096">0145-2096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomatic+History&rft.atitle=A+New+Look+at+American+Mediation+in+the+Chinese+Civil+War%3A+The+Marshall+Mission+and+Manchuria&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=349-376&rft.date=1979-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-7709.1979.tb00322.x&rft.issn=0145-2096&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=Steven+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLew2009" class="citation book cs1">Lew, Christopher R. (2009). <i>The Third Chinese Revolutionary Civil War, 1945-49: an analysis of communist strategy and leadership</i>. Asian states and empires. London; New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77730-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77730-8"><bdi>978-0-415-77730-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/237880729">237880729</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Third+Chinese+Revolutionary+Civil+War%2C+1945-49%3A+an+analysis+of+communist+strategy+and+leadership&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.series=Asian+states+and+empires&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F237880729&rft.isbn=978-0-415-77730-8&rft.aulast=Lew&rft.aufirst=Christopher+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2012" class="citation book cs1">Li, Xiaobing, ed. 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"Research Note Changed by War: The Changing Historiography Of Wartime China and New Interpretations Of Modern Chinese History". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chinese_Historical_Review" title="The Chinese Historical Review">The Chinese Historical Review</a></i>. <b>17</b> (1): 85–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Ftcr.2010.17.1.85">10.1179/tcr.2010.17.1.85</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1547-402X">1547-402X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chinese+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Research+Note+Changed+by+War%3A+The+Changing+Historiography+Of+Wartime+China+and+New+Interpretations+Of+Modern+Chinese+History&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=85-95&rft.date=2010-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2Ftcr.2010.17.1.85&rft.issn=1547-402X&rft.aulast=Mitter&rft.aufirst=Rana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasca2013" class="citation thesis cs1">Nasca, David S. 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The Harvard Cold War studies book series. Lanham: <a href="/wiki/Lexington_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexington Books">Lexington Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-1169-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-1169-8"><bdi>978-1-4985-1169-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+and+the+Sino-Soviet+partnership%2C+1945-1959%3A+a+new+history&rft.place=Lanham&rft.series=The+Harvard+Cold+War+studies+book+series&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4985-1169-8&rft.aulast=Shen&rft.aufirst=Zhi+hua&rft.au=Xia%2C+Yafeng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanner2015" class="citation book cs1">Tanner, Harold Miles (2015). <i>Where Chiang Kai-Shek lost China: the Liao-Shen campaign, 1948</i>. Twentieth-century battles. Bloomington: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01692-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01692-8"><bdi>978-0-253-01692-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Where+Chiang+Kai-Shek+lost+China%3A+the+Liao-Shen+campaign%2C+1948&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.series=Twentieth-century+battles&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-253-01692-8&rft.aulast=Tanner&rft.aufirst=Harold+Miles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorHuang2012" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Jeremy E.; Huang, Grace C. (January 2012). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Deep changes in interpretive currents"? Chiang Kai-shek studies in the post-cold war era". <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Asian_Studies" title="International Journal of Asian Studies">International Journal of Asian Studies</a></i>. <b>9</b> (1): 99–121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1479591411000209">10.1017/S1479591411000209</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1479-5914">1479-5914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=%22Deep+changes+in+interpretive+currents%22%3F+Chiang+Kai-shek+studies+in+the+post-cold+war+era&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=99-121&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1479591411000209&rft.issn=1479-5914&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jeremy+E.&rft.au=Huang%2C+Grace+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2009" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jay (2009). <i>The generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the struggle for modern China</i>. Cambridge (Mass.): <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03338-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03338-2"><bdi>978-0-674-03338-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+generalissimo%3A+Chiang+Kai-shek+and+the+struggle+for+modern+China&rft.place=Cambridge+%28Mass.%29&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03338-2&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_de_Ven2017" class="citation book cs1">Van de Ven, Hans J. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HHCbDwAAQBAJ"><i>China at war: triumph and tragedy in the emergence of the new China</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98350-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98350-2"><bdi>978-0-674-98350-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+at+war%3A+triumph+and+tragedy+in+the+emergence+of+the+new+China&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-674-98350-2&rft.aulast=Van+de+Ven&rft.aufirst=Hans+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHHCbDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestad2003" class="citation book cs1">Westad, Odd Arne (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JBCOecRg5nEC&pg=PA10"><i>Decisive encounters: the Chinese civil war, 1946-1950</i></a>. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4478-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4478-2"><bdi>978-0-8047-4478-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decisive+encounters%3A+the+Chinese+civil+war%2C+1946-1950&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4478-2&rft.aulast=Westad&rft.aufirst=Odd+Arne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJBCOecRg5nEC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYick2015" class="citation book cs1">Yick, Joseph K. S. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=651zCQAAQBAJ"><i>Making Urban Revolution in China: The CCP-GMD Struggle for Beiping-Tianjin, 1945-49: The CCP-GMD Struggle for Beiping-Tianjin, 1945-49</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-46568-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-46568-3"><bdi>978-1-317-46568-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Urban+Revolution+in+China%3A+The+CCP-GMD+Struggle+for+Beiping-Tianjin%2C+1945-49%3A+The+CCP-GMD+Struggle+for+Beiping-Tianjin%2C+1945-49&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-46568-3&rft.aulast=Yick&rft.aufirst=Joseph+K.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D651zCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+Civil+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_Civil_War&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China" title="Military history of China">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">Language</a></li> <li>Economic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Economic history of China before 1912">before 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Economic history of China (1912–1949)">1912–1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">1949–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_foreign_relations_of_China" title="History of foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">Monarchs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">Imperial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Wu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin (266–420)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin (1115–1234)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Modern_China" title="History of China">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">Tiananmen Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">persecution of Uyghurs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_China" title="Borders of China">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_China" title="List of extreme points of China">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_China" title="Geology of China">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters_in_China" title="Natural disasters in China">Natural disasters</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_China" title="List of regions of China">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Central_China" title="South Central China">South Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_China" title="Central China">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_China" title="Northwestern China">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_China" title="Southwestern China">Southwestern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Terrain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bays_of_China" title="Category:Bays of China">Bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canyons_and_gorges_of_China" title="Category:Canyons and gorges of China">Canyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves_of_China" title="Category:Caves of China">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_China" title="Category:Deserts of China">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grasslands_of_China" title="Category:Grasslands of China">Grasslands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hills_of_China" title="Category:Hills of China">Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_China" title="List of islands of China">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_China" title="Category:Mountains of China">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_China" title="Category:Mountain ranges of China">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_passes_of_China" title="Category:Mountain passes of China">passes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peninsulas_of_China" title="Category:Peninsulas of China">Peninsulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_Plain" title="Northeast China Plain">Northeast</a> / <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North</a> / <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Valleys_of_China" title="Category:Valleys of China">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_China" title="List of volcanoes in China">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canals_in_China" title="Category:Canals in China">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_China" title="List of lakes of China">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_China" title="List of rivers of China">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Waterfalls_of_China" title="Category:Waterfalls of China">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wetlands_of_China" title="Category:Wetlands of China">Wetlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_of_China" title="Water resources of China">Water resources</a></li> <li>Seas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohai_Sea" title="Bohai Sea">Bohai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_China" title="Environment of China">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_China" title="Climate change in China">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_policy_of_China" title="Climate policy of China">Climate policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China" title="Environmental issues in China">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_China" title="List of protected areas of China">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_China" title="List of national parks of China">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nature_reserves_in_China" title="Category:Nature reserves in China">Nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UNESCO_Biosphere_Reserves_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in China">UNESCO Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_China" title="Wildlife of China">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna of China">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_China" title="Flora of China">Flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baselines_of_the_Chinese_territorial_sea" title="Baselines of the Chinese territorial sea">Baseline islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Border_crossings_of_China" title="Category:Border crossings of China">Border crossings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_China" title="List of cities in China">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Province-level subdivisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Law" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Law of the People's Republic of China">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_China" title="Judicial system of China">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in China">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">in Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_China" title="Law enforcement in China">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">Penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_laws_in_China" title="Naming laws in China">Naming laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationality law of China">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_China" title="Terrorism in China">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Civil service of the People's Republic of China">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_China" title="Constitution of China">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_democracy_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese democracy movement">Pro-democratisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Standing Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_China" title="National security of China">National security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_China" title="List of political parties in China">Political parties and movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_(China)" title="United front (China)">United front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Political Consultative Conference</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_stage_of_socialism" title="Primary stage of socialism">Primary stage of socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_China" title="President of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_China" title="Vice President of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_China" title="Premier of China">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_China" title="Vice Premier of China">Vice Premier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of China">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_military_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Outline of the military history of the People's Republic of China">Outline of military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_(China)" title="Ministry of National Defense (China)">Ministry of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Ground_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Ground Force">Ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Navy" title="People's Liberation Army Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Air_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Air Force">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Rocket_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Rocket Force">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">Strategic Support</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Armed_Police" title="People's Armed Police">People's Armed Police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Coast_Guard" title="China Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">Militia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Militia" title="Maritime Militia">Maritime Militia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_China" title="Aquaculture in China">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">Economic history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special economic zones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce_in_China" title="E-commerce in China">E-commerce</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_advertising_in_China" title="Online advertising in China">Online advertising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China" title="Energy policy of China">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_China" title="Coal in China">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid received</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_foreign_aid" title="Chinese foreign aid">Foreign aid program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China" title="Historical GDP of China">Historical GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_China" title="Industry of China">Industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_China" title="Chemical industry in China">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_China" title="Gold mining in China">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_China" title="Semiconductor industry in China">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_China" title="Textile industry in China">Textiles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_China" title="Standard of living in China">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_China" title="Taxation in China">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of trade of the People's Republic of China">Trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture in China">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_China" title="Housing in China">Housing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_China" title="Transport in China">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_China" title="Automotive industry in China">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_China" title="Civil aviation in China">Civil aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_China" title="Rail transport in China">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_industry_of_China" title="Shipping industry of China">Shipping industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_China" title="Category:Society of China">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_China" title="Abortion in China">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Dream" title="Chinese Dream">Chinese Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_China" title="Crime in China">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_China" title="Literacy in China">Literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonious_Society" title="Harmonious Society">Harmonious Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_intellectualism" title="Chinese intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_China" title="Public holidays in China">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_society_in_China" title="Rural society in China">Rural society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China" title="Technological and industrial history of China">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_China" title="Sexuality in China">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_China" title="Social issues in China">Social issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy_in_China" title="Patriarchy in China">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_discrimination_in_China" title="Regional discrimination in China">Regional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_China" title="Suicide in China">Suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_social_relations" title="Chinese social relations">Social relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">Structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_China" title="Time in China">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_society_in_China" title="Urban society in China">Urban society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_China" title="Welfare in China">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_China" title="Archaeology of China">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archives_in_China" title="Archives in China">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_China" title="Dance in China">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libraries_in_China" title="Libraries in China">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_China" title="Mass media in China">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_China" title="Smoking in China">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_China" title="Sport in China">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_variety_art" title="Chinese variety art">Variety art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_Historical_and_Cultural_Site_Protected_at_the_National_Level" class="mw-redirect" title="Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level">Major Historical and Cultural Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_China" title="List of World Heritage Sites in China">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fours_of_China" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Fours of China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Treasures_of_the_Study" title="Four Treasures of the Study">Four Treasures of the Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions" title="Four Great Inventions">Four Great Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Gentlemen" title="Four Gentlemen">Four Gentlemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowers_of_the_Four_Seasons" title="Flowers of the Four Seasons">Flowers of the Four Seasons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Beauties" title="Four Beauties">Four Beauties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels" title="Classic Chinese Novels">Four Classic Novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_arts" title="Four arts">Four arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols" title="Four Symbols">Four Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Beasts" title="Four Holy Beasts">Four Holy Beasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pillars_of_Destiny" title="Four Pillars of Destiny">Four Pillars of Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Paragons_of_the_Early_Tang" title="Four Paragons of the Early Tang">Four Paragons of the Early Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty">Four Masters of the Ming dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty">Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pests_campaign" title="Four Pests campaign">Four Pests campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunuchs_in_China" title="Eunuchs in China">Eunuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">Internal migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-80s" title="Post-80s">Post-80s</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-90s" title="Post-90s">Post-90s</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_China" title="Urbanization in China">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China" title="Women in China">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Catholic Church in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_China" title="National symbols of China">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Volunteers" title="March of the Volunteers">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Emblem_of_China" title="National Emblem of China">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_China" title="Flag of China">Flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:China" title="Category:China">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_Civil_War" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template talk:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese Civil War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background: none;"><div> <dl><dt>Principal belligerents and <a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Chinese Civil War">campaigns</a></dt></dl> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/20px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/30px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/40px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Nationalist Party</a> / <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">National Government</a> (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the Republic of China">→</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Constitutional ROC Government</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces" title="Republic of China Armed Forces">ROC Armed Forces</a>) <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">→</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China on Taiwan</a><hr /> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Danghui_(pre-1996).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/20px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/30px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/40px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="305" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party</a> / <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/20px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/30px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/40px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Soviet Republic</a> (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/20px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/30px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/40px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="229" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Red Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">→</a> <a href="/wiki/Communist-controlled_China_(1927%E2%80%931949)" title="Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)">Liberated Area</a> (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">8th Route Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">etc.</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">→</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">→</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> </p> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;">Pre-1945</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Post-1945</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align: left;width:10em;"><div> <table style="line-height: 1.3em;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1923</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Sun%E2%80%93Joffe_Manifesto" title="Sun–Joffe Manifesto">Sun–Joffe Manifesto</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1924</td><td> <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1926</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Canton Coup</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1927–1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1927</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanking incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Nanjing%E2%80%93Wuhan_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing–Wuhan split">Nanjing–Wuhan split</a><br /><a href="/wiki/July_15_Incident" title="July 15 Incident">715 Incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Little_Long_March" title="Little Long March">Little Long March</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_uprising" title="Nanchang uprising">Nanchang uprising</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Autumn_Harvest_Uprising" title="Autumn Harvest Uprising">Autumn Harvest Uprising</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_Uprising" title="Guangzhou Uprising">Guangzhou Uprising</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1930–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Encirclement_campaigns_(Chinese_Civil_War)" title="Encirclement campaigns (Chinese Civil War)">Encirclement campaigns</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1931–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1933–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Fujian_People%27s_Government" title="Fujian People's Government">Fujian People's Government</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1934–1936</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1936</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1937–1946</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wartime_perception_of_the_Chinese_Communists" title="Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists">Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1941</td><td> <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_incident" title="New Fourth Army incident">New Fourth Army incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1944</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Dixie_Mission" title="Dixie Mission">Dixie Mission</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align: left;width:10em;"><div> <table style="line-height: 1.3em"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chongqing_Negotiations" title="Chongqing Negotiations">Chongqing Negotiations</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Double_Tenth_Agreement" title="Double Tenth Agreement">Double Tenth Agreement</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_of_Taiwan" title="Retrocession of Taiwan">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1946</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Jiaochangkou_incident" title="Jiaochangkou incident">Jiaochangkou Incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shen_Chong_case" title="Shen Chong case">Peiping rape case</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945–1947</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Mission" title="Marshall Mission">Marshall Mission</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945–1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1947</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Yu_Zisan_Incident" title="Yu Zisan Incident">Yu Zisan Incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1948</td><td> <a href="/wiki/SS_Kiangya" title="SS Kiangya">SS <i>Kiangya</i> incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Liaoshen_campaign" title="Liaoshen campaign">Liaoshen campaign</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1948–1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Huaihai_campaign" title="Huaihai campaign">Huaihai campaign</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Pingjin_campaign" title="Pingjin campaign">Pingjin campaign</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Taiping_(steamer)" title="Taiping (steamer)"><i>Taiping Steamer</i> Incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Crossing_campaign" title="Yangtze River Crossing campaign">Yangtze River Crossing campaign</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Amethyst_incident" title="Amethyst incident"><i>Amethyst</i> Incident</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Retreat of the government of Republic of China to Taiwan">ROC Government retreat to Taiwan</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_Xinjiang_into_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China">PRC incorporation of Xinjiang</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1949–1953</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Shanghai_(1949-1953)" title="Bombing of Shanghai (1949-1953)">Bombing of Shanghai</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1950</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hainan_Island" title="Battle of Hainan Island">Hainan Island campaign</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Wanshan_Archipelago_Campaign" title="Wanshan Archipelago Campaign">Wanshan Archipelago Campaign</a><br /></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1950–1958</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang_Islamic_insurgency" title="Kuomintang Islamic insurgency">Kuomintang Islamic insurgency</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1961–1972</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Cross-strait_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Taiwan&#124;link=Taiwan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cross-strait_relations" title="Template:Cross-strait relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cross-strait_relations" title="Template talk:Cross-strait relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cross-strait_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cross-strait relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Cross-strait_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Taiwan&#124;link=Taiwan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_relations" title="Cross-strait relations">Cross-strait relations</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diplomatic posts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Economic,_Trade_and_Cultural_Office_(Taiwan)" title="Hong Kong Economic, Trade and Cultural Office (Taiwan)">Hong Kong Economic, Trade and Cultural Office (Taiwan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Hong_Kong" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Hong Kong">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_(Taiwan)" title="Macau Economic and Cultural Office (Taiwan)">Macau Economic and Cultural Office (Taiwan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Macau" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Macau">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opening_of_the_South-North_route" title="Opening of the South-North route">Opening of the South-North route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_of_Taiwan_strait_shipping" title="Restoration of Taiwan strait shipping">Restoration of Taiwan strait shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang%E2%80%93Koo_summit" title="Wang–Koo summit">Wang–Koo summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_charter" title="Cross-strait charter">Cross-strait charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Taiwanese_cross-strait_relations_referendum" title="2004 Taiwanese cross-strait relations referendum">2004 Taiwanese cross-strait relations referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_17_Statement" title="May 17 Statement">May 17 Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_Pan%E2%80%93Blue_visits_to_mainland_China" class="mw-redirect" title="2005 Pan–Blue visits to mainland China">2005 Pan–Blue visits to mainland China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_high-level_talks" title="Cross-strait high-level talks">Cross-strait high-level talks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="First Chen–Chiang summit">First Chen–Chiang summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="Second Chen–Chiang summit">Second Chen–Chiang summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="Fourth Chen–Chiang summit">Fourth Chen–Chiang summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="Fifth Chen–Chiang summit">Fifth Chen–Chiang summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="Sixth Chen–Chiang summit">Sixth Chen–Chiang summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Chen%E2%80%93Chiang_summit" title="Seventh Chen–Chiang summit">Seventh Chen–Chiang summit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuan_Tuan_and_Yuan_Yuan" title="Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan">Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Framework_Agreement" title="Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement">Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_CEO_Summit" title="Cross-Strait CEO Summit">Cross-Strait CEO Summit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_Service_Trade_Agreement" title="Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement">Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinjiang%E2%80%93Kinmen_Pipeline" title="Jinjiang–Kinmen Pipeline">Jinjiang–Kinmen Pipeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Wang%E2%80%93Zhang_meetings" title="2014 Wang–Zhang meetings">2014 Wang–Zhang meetings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Xi%E2%80%93Chu_meeting" title="2015 Xi–Chu meeting">2015 Xi–Chu meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%E2%80%93Xi_meeting" title="Ma–Xi meeting">Ma–Xi meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straits_Forum" title="Straits Forum">Straits Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai-Taipei_City_Forum" title="Shanghai-Taipei City Forum">Shanghai-Taipei City Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Ma%E2%80%93Xi_meeting" title="Second Ma–Xi meeting">Second Ma–Xi meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanbi_policy" title="Guanbi policy">Guanbi policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dong-Yin" title="Battle of Dong-Yin">Battle of Dong-Yin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dongshan" title="Battle of Dongshan">Battle of Dongshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_East_Chongwu" title="Battle of East Chongwu">Battle of East Chongwu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Third Taiwan Strait Crisis">Third Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senkaku_Islands" title="Senkaku Islands">Senkaku Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senkaku_Islands_dispute" title="Senkaku Islands dispute">Dispute</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the Tuapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_2758" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758">United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Communiqu%C3%A9_on_the_Establishment_of_Diplomatic_Relations" title="Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations">Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAAC_Flight_296" title="CAAC Flight 296">CAAC Flight 296</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Airlines_Flight_334" title="China Airlines Flight 334">China Airlines Flight 334</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Guangzhou_Baiyun_airport_collisions" title="1990 Guangzhou Baiyun airport collisions">1990 Guangzhou Baiyun airport collisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiandao_Lake_incident" title="Qiandao Lake incident">Qiandao Lake incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Airlines_Flight_611" title="China Airlines Flight 611">China Airlines Flight 611</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunflower_Student_Movement" title="Sunflower Student Movement">Sunflower Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braga_incident" title="Braga incident">Braga incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_Box_Curriculum_Movement" title="Anti-Black Box Curriculum Movement">Anti-Black Box Curriculum Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Liqiang" title="Wang Liqiang">Wang Liqiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_pineapples" title="Freedom pineapples">Freedom pineapples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Solomon_Islands_unrest" title="2021 Solomon Islands unrest">2021 Solomon Islands unrest</a></li> <li>Chinese military exercises around Taiwan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_Chinese_military_exercises_around_Taiwan" title="2022 Chinese military exercises around Taiwan">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Chinese_military_exercises_around_Taiwan" title="2023 Chinese military exercises around Taiwan">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Sword-2024" title="Joint Sword-2024">2024</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Kinmen_Chinese_motorboat_capsizing_incident" title="2024 Kinmen Chinese motorboat capsizing incident">2024 Kinmen Chinese motorboat capsizing incident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_Act" title="Cross-Strait Act">Cross-Strait Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_National_Unification_Promotion_Law" title="Proposed National Unification Promotion Law">Proposed National Unification Promotion Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Secession_Law" title="Anti-Secession Law">Anti-Secession Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Infiltration_Act" title="Anti-Infiltration Act">Anti-Infiltration Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-China_Federation_of_Taiwan_Compatriots" title="All-China Federation of Taiwan Compatriots">All-China Federation of Taiwan Compatriots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alumni_Association_of_Huangpu_Military_Academy" title="Alumni Association of Huangpu Military Academy">Alumni Association of Huangpu Military Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Relations_Across_the_Taiwan_Straits" title="Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits">Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Tourism_Exchange_Across_the_Taiwan_Straits" title="Association for Tourism Exchange Across the Taiwan Straits">Association for Tourism Exchange Across the Taiwan Straits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Leading_Group_for_Taiwan_Affairs" title="Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs">Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Council_for_the_Promotion_of_Peaceful_National_Reunification" title="China Council for the Promotion of Peaceful National Reunification">China Council for the Promotion of Peaceful National Reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Straits_Common_Market_Foundation" title="Cross-Straits Common Market Foundation">Cross-Straits Common Market Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_Economic,_Trade_and_Culture_Forum" title="Cross-Strait Economic, Trade and Culture Forum">Cross-Strait Economic, Trade and Culture Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_Peace_Forum" title="Cross-Strait Peace Forum">Cross-Strait Peace Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Alliance_for_China%27s_Reunification_under_the_Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Grand Alliance for China's Reunification under the Three Principles of the People">Grand Alliance for China's Reunification under the Three Principles of the People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lienchiang_Cross-Strait_Matters_Forum" title="Lienchiang Cross-Strait Matters Forum">Lienchiang Cross-Strait Matters Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Affairs_Council" title="Mainland Affairs Council">Mainland Affairs Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Unification_Council" title="National Unification Council">National Unification Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straits_Exchange_Foundation" title="Straits Exchange Foundation">Straits Exchange Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Affairs_Office" title="Taiwan Affairs Office">Taiwan Affairs Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Competitiveness_Forum" title="Taiwan Competitiveness Forum">Taiwan Competitiveness Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Strait_Tourism_Association" title="Taiwan Strait Tourism Association">Taiwan Strait Tourism Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_Consensus" title="1992 Consensus">1992 Consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Circle" title="China Circle">China Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_unification" title="Chinese unification">Chinese unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_irredentism" title="Chinese irredentism">Chinese irredentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Taipei" title="Chinese Taipei">Chinese Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_Economic_Zone" title="Cross-Strait Economic Zone">Cross-Strait Economic Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dang_Guo" title="Dang Guo">Dang Guo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noes_and_One_Without" title="Four Noes and One Without">Four Noes and One Without</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_China" title="Greater China">Greater China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_chauvinism" title="Han chauvinism">Han chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_China" title="One China">One China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-China_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One-China policy">One-China policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Country_on_Each_Side" title="One Country on Each Side">One Country on Each Side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">Propaganda in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_propaganda" title="Cross-strait propaganda">Cross-strait propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_on_Taiwan" title="Republic of China on Taiwan">Republic of China on Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_ideology_of_the_Kuomintang" title="Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang">Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_non-state-to-state_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Special non-state-to-state relations">Special non-state-to-state relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Assurances" title="Six Assurances">Six Assurances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan,_China" title="Taiwan, China">Taiwan, China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Chinas" title="Two Chinas">Two Chinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Noes" title="Three Noes">Three Noes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Links" title="Three Links">Three Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_consensus" title="Taiwan consensus">Taiwan consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_independence_movement" title="Taiwan independence movement">Taiwan independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_Undetermined_Status_of_Taiwan" title="Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan">Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_in_Taiwan" title="United front in Taiwan">United front in Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Under_the_Roof_of_One_China" title="Under the Roof of One China">Under the Roof of One China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping_Thought" title="Xi Jinping Thought">Xi Jinping Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_minzu" title="Zhonghua minzu">Zhonghua minzu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fujian%E2%80%93Taiwan_relationship" title="Fujian–Taiwan relationship">Fujian–Taiwan relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Taiwan_relations" title="Hong Kong–Taiwan relations">Hong Kong–Taiwan relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Taiwan_Economic_and_Cultural_Co-operation_and_Promotion_Council" title="Hong Kong–Taiwan Economic and Cultural Co-operation and Promotion Council">Hong Kong–Taiwan Economic and Cultural Co-operation and Promotion Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_Economic_and_Cultural_Co-operation_Council" title="Taiwan–Hong Kong Economic and Cultural Co-operation Council">Taiwan–Hong Kong Economic and Cultural Co-operation Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_and_Kowloon_Trades_Union_Council" title="Hong Kong and Kowloon Trades Union Council">Hong Kong and Kowloon Trades Union Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-ROC_camp_(Hong_Kong)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-ROC camp (Hong Kong)">Pro-ROC camp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Travel_Document" title="Chinese Travel Document">Chinese Travel Document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Entry_Permit" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwan Entry Permit">Taiwan Entry Permit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Travel_Permit_for_Taiwan_Resident" title="Mainland Travel Permit for Taiwan Resident">Mainland Travel Permit for Taiwan Resident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_language_database" title="Cross-strait language database">Cross-strait language database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ECFA_Debate" title="ECFA Debate">ECFA Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Aurora_(12)" title="HMS Aurora (12)">HMS Aurora (12)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_and_the_United_Nations" title="China and the United Nations">China and the United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_and_the_World_Bank" title="China and the World Bank">China and the World Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_intelligence_activity_abroad" title="Chinese intelligence activity abroad">Chinese intelligence activity abroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_information_operations_and_information_warfare" title="Chinese information operations and information warfare">Chinese information operations and information warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China">Timeline of diplomatic relations with China</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">Political status of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Taiwan" title="Foreign relations of Taiwan">Foreign relations of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_polling_on_Taiwanese_identity" title="Opinion polling on Taiwanese identity">Opinion polling on Taiwanese identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_diplomatic_relations_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Timeline of diplomatic relations of the Republic of China">Timeline of diplomatic relations with Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrategy_in_Taiwan" title="Geostrategy in Taiwan">Geostrategy in Taiwan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Communist_Hero" title="Anti-Communist Hero">Anti-Communist Hero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk_Tea_Alliance" title="Milk Tea Alliance">Milk Tea Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taishang" title="Taishang">Taishang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G3_Beijing%E2%80%93Taipei_Expressway" title="G3 Beijing–Taipei Expressway">G3 Beijing–Taipei Expressway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G99_Taiwan_Ring_Expressway" title="G99 Taiwan Ring Expressway">G99 Taiwan Ring Expressway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_National_Highway_228_(Taiwan)" title="China National Highway 228 (Taiwan)">China National Highway 228 (Taiwan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_and_Tibetan_Affairs_Commission" title="Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission">Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_Religious_Foundation_of_His_Holiness_the_Dalai_Lama" title="Tibet Religious Foundation of His Holiness the Dalai Lama">Tibet Religious Foundation of His Holiness the Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_World_Turned_Upside_Down_(sculpture)" title="The World Turned Upside Down (sculpture)">The World Turned Upside Down</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Go_and_Reclaim_the_Mainland" title="Go and Reclaim the Mainland">Go and Reclaim the Mainland</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-Republic_of_China" title="Pro-Republic of China">Pro-Republic of China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Cross-strait_relations" title="Category:Cross-strait relations">Category:Cross-strait relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation <i>Priboi</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation <i>Jungle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation <i>Unthinkable</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation <i>Masterdom</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation <i>Blacklist Forty</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the <i>Tuapse</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation <i>Gladio</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS <i>Pueblo</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%931971_East_Pakistan_communist_insurgency" title="1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency">1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation <i>Condor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological<br />competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and<br />intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_China–United_States_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Template:China–United States relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Template talk:China–United States relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:China–United States relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_China–United_States_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="China–United States relations">China–United States relations</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomatic posts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_China,_Washington,_D.C." title="Embassy of China, Washington, D.C.">Embassy of China, Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_China_to_the_United_States" title="List of ambassadors of China to the United States">Ambassadors of China to the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_the_United_States,_Beijing" title="Embassy of the United States, Beijing">Embassy of the United States, Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_China" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to China">Ambassadors of the United States to China</a></li> <li>Chinese Consulate-Generals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_China,_New_York" title="Consulate General of China, New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Consuls-General_of_China_in_New_York" title="List of Consuls-General of China in New York">Consuls-General of China, New York</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_China,_Los_Angeles" class="mw-redirect" title="Consulate General of China, Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_China,_Houston" title="Consulate General of China, Houston">Houston</a></li></ul></li> <li>American Consulate-Generals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Chengdu" title="Consulate General of the United States, Chengdu">Chengdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Guangzhou" title="Consulate General of the United States, Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Hong_Kong_and_Macau" title="Consulate General of the United States, Hong Kong and Macau">Hong Kong and Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Shanghai" title="Consulate General of the United States, Shanghai">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Shenyang" title="Consulate General of the United States, Shenyang">Shenyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_General_of_the_United_States,_Wuhan" title="Consulate General of the United States, Wuhan">Wuhan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_East_Asian_and_Pacific_Affairs" title="Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs">Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_China_Coordination" title="Office of China Coordination">Office of China Coordination</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_foreign_policy_toward_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="United States foreign policy toward the People's Republic of China">Diplomacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gresham-Yang_Treaty" title="Gresham-Yang Treaty">Gresham-Yang Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_International_Settlement" title="Shanghai International Settlement">Shanghai International Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Concession_(Shanghai)" title="American Concession (Shanghai)">American Concession (Shanghai)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_for_China" title="United States Court for China">United States Court for China</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_between_the_United_States_and_China_for_the_Relinquishment_of_Extraterritorial_Rights_in_China" title="Treaty between the United States and China for the Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China">Treaty between the United States and China for the Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Friendship,_Commerce_and_Navigation_between_the_United_States_of_America_and_the_Republic_of_China" title="Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the United States of America and the Republic of China">Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the United States of America and the Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Mission" title="Marshall Mission">Marshall Mission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loss_of_China" title="Loss of China">Loss of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_White_Paper" title="China White Paper">China White Paper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRC-US_Ambassadorial_Talks" title="PRC-US Ambassadorial Talks">PRC-US Ambassadorial Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Communiqu%C3%A9" title="Shanghai Communiqué">Shanghai Communiqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Communiqu%C3%A9s" title="Three Communiqués">Three Communiqués</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-China_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One-China policy">One-China policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_goes_to_China" title="Nixon goes to China">Nixon goes to China</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nixon%27s_China_Game" title="Nixon's China Game">Nixon's China Game</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Feldman" title="Harvey Feldman">Harvey Feldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ling-Ling_and_Hsing-Hsing" title="Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing">Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Communiqu%C3%A9_on_the_Establishment_of_Diplomatic_Relations" title="Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations">Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goldwater_v._Carter" title="Goldwater v. Carter">Goldwater v. Carter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_visit_by_Deng_Xiaoping_to_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="State visit by Deng Xiaoping to the United States">State visit by Deng Xiaoping to the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Rule_of_Law_Initiative" title="Presidential Rule of Law Initiative">Presidential Rule of Law Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing%E2%80%93Washington_hotline" title="Beijing–Washington hotline">Beijing–Washington hotline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_visit_by_Xi_Jinping_to_the_United_States" title="State visit by Xi Jinping to the United States">State visit by Xi Jinping to the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_United_States%E2%80%93China_Cybersecurity_Agreement" title="2015 United States–China Cybersecurity Agreement">2015 United States–China Cybersecurity Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93China_talks_in_Alaska" title="United States–China talks in Alaska">United States–China talks in Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93China_Working_Group" title="United States–China Working Group">United States–China Working Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Relief_Expedition" title="China Relief Expedition">China Relief Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_biological_warfare_in_the_Korean_War" title="Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War">Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-Strait conflict">Cross-Strait conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_King_Kong" title="Operation King Kong">Operation King Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Third Taiwan Strait Crisis">Third Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_Tibetan_program" title="CIA Tibetan program">CIA Tibetan program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrilateral_Security_Dialogue" title="Quadrilateral Security Dialogue">Quadrilateral Security Dialogue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rover_incident" title="Rover incident">Rover incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chy_Lung_v._Freeman" title="Chy Lung v. Freeman">Chy Lung v. Freeman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheong_Ah_Moy_v._United_States" title="Cheong Ah Moy v. United States">Cheong Ah Moy v. United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States" title="Chae Chan Ping v. United States">Chae Chan Ping v. United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twain%E2%80%93Ament_indemnities_controversy" title="Twain–Ament indemnities controversy">Twain–Ament indemnities controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1905_Chinese_boycott" title="1905 Chinese boycott">1905 Chinese boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Monocacy_incident" title="USS Monocacy incident">USS Monocacy incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_United_States_Air_Force_C-47_Crash_at_Yan%27an" title="1946 United States Air Force C-47 Crash at Yan'an">1946 United States Air Force C-47 Crash at Yan'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Chong_case" title="Shen Chong case">Shen Chong case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamont_v._Postmaster_General" title="Lamont v. Postmaster General">Lamont v. Postmaster General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Na" title="Hu Na">Hu Na</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Sabre_II" title="Project Sabre II">Project Sabre II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinhe_incident" title="Yinhe incident">Yinhe incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_United_States_campaign_finance_controversy" title="1996 United States campaign finance controversy">1996 United States campaign finance controversy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johnny_Chung" title="Johnny Chung">Johnny Chung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Chaoying" title="Liu Chaoying">Liu Chaoying</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_bombing_of_the_Chinese_embassy_in_Belgrade" title="United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade">United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainan_Island_incident" title="Hainan Island incident">Hainan Island incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Shady_RAT" title="Operation Shady RAT">Operation Shady RAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Aurora" title="Operation Aurora">Operation Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contents_of_the_United_States_diplomatic_cables_leak_(China)" title="Contents of the United States diplomatic cables leak (China)">United States diplomatic cables leak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_China_anti-Japanese_demonstrations" class="mw-redirect" title="2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations">2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Shao_Tong" title="Murder of Shao Tong">Murder of Shao Tong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappearance_of_David_Louis_Sneddon" title="Disappearance of David Louis Sneddon">Disappearance of David Louis Sneddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trump%E2%80%93Tsai_call" title="Trump–Tsai call">Trump–Tsai call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havana_syndrome" title="Havana syndrome">Havana syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Science_Products_v._Hebei_Welcome_Pharmaceuticals" title="Animal Science Products v. Hebei Welcome Pharmaceuticals">Animal Science Products v. Hebei Welcome Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Initiative" title="China Initiative">China Initiative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Anming_Hu" title="Trial of Anming Hu">Trial of Anming Hu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concerns_over_Chinese_involvement_in_5G_wireless_networks" title="Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks">Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meng_Wanzhou" title="Meng Wanzhou">Meng Wanzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_case_of_Meng_Wanzhou" title="Extradition case of Meng Wanzhou">Extradition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TikTok_v._Trump" title="TikTok v. Trump">TikTok v. Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._WeChat_Users_Alliance_v._Trump" title="U.S. WeChat Users Alliance v. Trump">U.S. WeChat Users Alliance v. Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense_China_Task_Force" title="United States Department of Defense China Task Force">United States Department of Defense China Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_visit_by_Nancy_Pelosi_to_Taiwan" title="2022 visit by Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan">2022 visit by Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Chinese espionage in the United States">Chinese espionage in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_China" title="Cyberwarfare by China">Cyberwarfare by China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alleged_Chinese_spy_cases_persecuted_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of alleged Chinese spy cases persecuted in the United States">Alleged Chinese spy cases persecuted in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cox_Report" title="Cox Report">Cox Report</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cox_Report_controversy" title="Timeline of the Cox Report controversy">Timeline of the Cox Report controversy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_China" title="American espionage in China">American espionage in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Francis_Redmond" title="Hugh Francis Redmond">Hugh Francis Redmond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_detainees_at_Guantanamo_Bay" title="Uyghur detainees at Guantanamo Bay">Uyghur detainees at Guantanamo Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Chinese_balloon_incident" title="2023 Chinese balloon incident">2023 balloon incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_interference_in_the_2024_United_States_elections" title="Chinese interference in the 2024 United States elections">Chinese interference in the 2024 United States elections</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93China_security_cooperation" title="United States–China security cooperation">Military relations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_Patrol" title="Yangtze Patrol">Yangtze Patrol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Dollar_incident" title="Alice Dollar incident">Alice Dollar incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Volunteer_Group" title="American Volunteer Group">American Volunteer Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Cat_Squadron" title="Black Cat Squadron">Black Cat Squadron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_Chinese_Nationalist_air_force_(1937%E2%80%931945)" title="Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (1937–1945)">Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (1937–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Air_Task_Force" title="China Air Task Force">China Air Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Marines" title="China Marines">China Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixie_Mission" title="Dixie Mission">Dixie Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Tigers" title="Flying Tigers">Flying Tigers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-American_Cooperative_Organization" title="Sino-American Cooperative Organization">Sino-American Cooperative Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RIMPAC" title="RIMPAC">RIMPAC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_sanctions_against_China" title="United States sanctions against China">United States sanctions against China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._immigration_policy_toward_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="U.S. immigration policy toward the People's Republic of China">U.S. immigration policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnuson_Act" title="Magnuson Act">Magnuson Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Relations_Act" title="Taiwan Relations Act">Taiwan Relations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_12711" title="Executive Order 12711">Executive Order 12711</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Student_Protection_Act_of_1992" title="Chinese Student Protection Act of 1992">Chinese Student Protection Act of 1992</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States-Hong_Kong_Policy_Act" title="United States-Hong Kong Policy Act">United States-Hong Kong Policy Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_Agreement_for_the_Surrender_of_Fugitive_Offenders" title="United States–Hong Kong Agreement for the Surrender of Fugitive Offenders">United States–Hong Kong Agreement for the Surrender of Fugitive Offenders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_Abortion_Condemnation_Act" title="Forced Abortion Condemnation Act">Forced Abortion Condemnation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Security_Enhancement_Act" title="Taiwan Security Enhancement Act">Taiwan Security Enhancement Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93China_Relations_Act_of_2000" title="United States–China Relations Act of 2000">United States–China Relations Act of 2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Amendment" title="Wolf Amendment">Wolf Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Travel_Act" title="Taiwan Travel Act">Taiwan Travel Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EQUITABLE_Act" title="EQUITABLE Act">EQUITABLE Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Be_Water_Act" title="Hong Kong Be Water Act">Hong Kong Be Water Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Human_Rights_and_Democracy_Act" title="Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act">Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_Policy_and_Support_Act" title="Tibet Policy and Support Act">Tibet Policy and Support Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Allies_International_Protection_and_Enhancement_Initiative_Act" title="Taiwan Allies International Protection and Enhancement Initiative Act">Taiwan Allies International Protection and Enhancement Initiative Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_10043" title="Proclamation 10043">Proclamation 10043</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Human_Rights_Policy_Act" title="Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act">Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Autonomy_Act" title="Hong Kong Autonomy Act">Hong Kong Autonomy Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13936" title="Executive Order 13936">Executive Order 13936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13959" title="Executive Order 13959">Executive Order 13959</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holding_Foreign_Companies_Accountable_Act" title="Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act">Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_14032" title="Executive Order 14032">Executive Order 14032</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Innovation_and_Competition_Act" title="United States Innovation and Competition Act">United States Innovation and Competition Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Forced_Labor_Prevention_Act" title="Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act">Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Economic relations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_China_Trade" title="Old China Trade">Old China Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States-China_Economic_and_Security_Review_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission">United States-China Economic and Security Review Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_Two" title="Group of Two">Group of Two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Economic_Dialogue" title="Strategic Economic Dialogue">Strategic Economic Dialogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace_Dialogue" title="Summer Palace Dialogue">Summer Palace Dialogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93China_Strategic_and_Economic_Dialogue" title="U.S.–China Strategic and Economic Dialogue">U.S.–China Strategic and Economic Dialogue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senior_Dialogue" title="Senior Dialogue">Senior Dialogue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trump_tariffs" title="Trump tariffs">Trump tariffs</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_normal_trade_relations" title="Permanent normal trade relations">Permanent normal trade relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="History of China–United States relations">History of China–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Hong Kong–United States relations">Hong Kong–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Macau–United States relations">Macau–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Taiwan–United States relations">Taiwan–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans_in_China" title="Americans in China">Americans in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Americans" title="Chinese Americans">Chinese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-American_sentiment_in_mainland_China" title="Anti-American sentiment in mainland China">Anti-American sentiment in mainland China</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ruguanxue" title="Ruguanxue">Ruguanxue</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimerica" title="Chimerica">Chimerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Lobby" class="mw-redirect" title="China Lobby">China Lobby</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia_First" title="Asia First">Asia First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Century" title="Chinese Century">Chinese Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Hands" title="China Hands">China Hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_watcher" title="China watcher">China watcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_in_Asia" title="Cold War in Asia">Cold War in Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_Cold_War" title="Artificial Intelligence Cold War">Artificial Intelligence Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangular_diplomacy" title="Triangular diplomacy">Triangular diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Evolution_theory" title="Peaceful Evolution theory">Peaceful Evolution theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linkage_(policy)" title="Linkage (policy)">Linkage (policy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_of_Pearls_(Indian_Ocean)" title="String of Pearls (Indian Ocean)">String of Pearls (Indian Ocean)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides_Trap" title="Thucydides Trap">Thucydides Trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_(business)" title="Hong (business)">Hong (business)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_route_authority_between_the_United_States_and_China" title="Air route authority between the United States and China">Air route authority between the United States and China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Team_(U.S._politics)" title="Blue Team (U.S. politics)">Blue Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TPE_(cable_system)" title="TPE (cable system)">TPE (cable system)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_missions_in_China" title="Protestant missions in China">Protestant missions in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Coleman_Bridgman" title="Elijah Coleman Bridgman">Elijah Coleman Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divie_Bethune_McCartee" title="Divie Bethune McCartee">Divie Bethune McCartee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_1990_Institute" title="The 1990 Institute">The 1990 Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Indemnity_Scholarship" title="Boxer Indemnity Scholarship">Boxer Indemnity Scholarship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Aid_Society" title="China Aid Society">China Aid Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Educational_Mission" title="Chinese Educational Mission">Chinese Educational Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_a_Democratic_Far_Eastern_Policy" title="Committee for a Democratic Far Eastern Policy">Committee for a Democratic Far Eastern Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional-Executive_Commission_on_China" title="Congressional-Executive Commission on China">Congressional-Executive Commission on China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua_Yuan_Science_and_Technology_Association" title="Hua Yuan Science and Technology Association">Hua Yuan Science and Technology Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Parliamentary_Alliance_on_China" title="Inter-Parliamentary Alliance on China">Inter-Parliamentary Alliance on China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Select_Committee_on_Strategic_Competition_between_the_United_States_and_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="United States House Select Committee on Strategic Competition between the United States and the Chinese Communist Party">United States House Select Committee on Strategic Competition between the United States and the Chinese Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissinger_Institute_on_China_and_the_United_States" title="Kissinger Institute on China and the United States">Kissinger Institute on China and the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Committee_on_United_States%E2%80%93China_Relations" title="National Committee on United States–China Relations">National Committee on United States–China Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlin_Shansi_Memorial_Association" title="Oberlin Shansi Memorial Association">Oberlin Shansi Memorial Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-American_Joint_Commission_on_Rural_Reconstruction" title="Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction">Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US-China_Business_Council" title="US-China Business Council">US-China Business Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US%E2%80%93China_Education_Trust" title="US–China Education Trust">US–China Education Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US%E2%80%93China_Peoples_Friendship_Association" title="US–China Peoples Friendship Association">US–China Peoples Friendship Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_International_Academy" title="Massachusetts International Academy">Massachusetts International Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Summit_for_Young_Leaders_in_China" title="Harvard Summit for Young Leaders in China">Harvard Summit for Young Leaders in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_School_of_Beijing" title="International School of Beijing">International School of Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARS_conspiracy_theory" title="SARS conspiracy theory">SARS conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yixian_glazed_pottery_luohans" title="Yixian glazed pottery luohans">Yixian glazed pottery luohans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Bixi" title="Harvard Bixi">Harvard Bixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Hinton" title="William H. Hinton">William H. Hinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Record_of_the_United_States" title="Human Rights Record of the United States">Human Rights Record of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USA_pavilion_at_Expo_2010" title="USA pavilion at Expo 2010">USA pavilion at Expo 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Federal_State_of_China" title="New Federal State of China">New Federal State of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Human_Rights_Biweekly" title="China Human Rights Biweekly">China Human Rights Biweekly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_East_Reporter" title="Far East Reporter">Far East Reporter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke-UNC_China_Leadership_Summit" title="Duke-UNC China Leadership Summit">Duke-UNC China Leadership Summit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Coming_Conflict_with_China" title="The Coming Conflict with China">The Coming Conflict with China</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Great_Wall:_Six_Presidents_and_China" title="A Great Wall: Six Presidents and China">A Great Wall: Six Presidents and China</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Chinese_Empire" title="The New Chinese Empire">The New Chinese Empire</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_Investing_in_America" title="The Art of Investing in America">The Art of Investing in America</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_China" title="On China">On China</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_War" title="Peaceful War">Peaceful War</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Transpacific_Experiment" title="The Transpacific Experiment">The Transpacific Experiment</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stealth_War:_How_China_Took_Over_While_America%27s_Elite_Slept" class="mw-redirect" title="Stealth War: How China Took Over While America's Elite Slept">Stealth War: How China Took Over While America's Elite Slept</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red_Chinese_Battle_Plan" title="Red Chinese Battle Plan">Red Chinese Battle Plan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_China_Hustle" title="The China Hustle">The China Hustle</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Category:China–United States relations">Category:China–United States relations</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Taiwan&#124;link=Taiwan_Taiwan–United_States_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taiwan%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Template:Taiwan–United States relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Taiwan%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Template talk:Taiwan–United States relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Taiwan%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Taiwan–United States relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Taiwan&#124;link=Taiwan_Taiwan–United_States_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Taiwan–United States relations">Taiwan–United States relations</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomatic posts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Haiti,_Washington,_D.C." title="Embassy of Haiti, Washington, D.C.">Former Embassy of Taiwan, Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Atlanta" class="mw-redirect" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Atlanta">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Boston" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Boston">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Honolulu" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Honolulu">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Honolulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Houston" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Houston">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Miami" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Miami">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Miami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Los_Angeles" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Los Angeles">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_San_Francisco" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in San Francisco">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Office_in_Seattle" class="mw-redirect" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Seattle">Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Seattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Economic_and_Cultural_Representative_Office_in_the_United_States" title="Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the United States">Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin_Oaks_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Twin Oaks (Washington, D.C.)">Twin Oaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_China" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to China">Former Ambassador of the United States to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Institute_in_Taiwan" title="American Institute in Taiwan">American Institute in Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Institute_in_Taiwan_Kaohsiung_Branch_Office" title="American Institute in Taiwan Kaohsiung Branch Office">American Institute in Taiwan Kaohsiung Branch Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipei_Film_House" title="Taipei Film House">Former Embassy of the United States in Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Commercial_Service_in_Taiwan" title="U.S. Commercial Service in Taiwan">U.S. Commercial Service in Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_East_Asian_and_Pacific_Affairs" title="Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs">Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_Defense_Treaty_between_the_United_States_and_the_Republic_of_China" title="Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States and the Republic of China">Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States and the Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formosa_Resolution_of_1955" title="Formosa Resolution of 1955">Formosa Resolution of 1955</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(Taiwan)_9%E2%80%9313_July_2002_state_visit_to_the_United_States_of_America" title="Republic of China (Taiwan) 9–13 July 2002 state visit to the United States of America">July 2002 state visit to the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trump%E2%80%93Tsai_call" title="Trump–Tsai call">Trump–Tsai call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_visit_by_Nancy_Pelosi_to_Taiwan" title="2022 visit by Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan">2022 visit by Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Taiwan_Caucus" title="Congressional Taiwan Caucus">Congressional Taiwan Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Taiwan_Caucus" title="Senate Taiwan Caucus">Senate Taiwan Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Assurances" title="Six Assurances">Six Assurances</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rover_incident" title="Rover incident">Rover incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Taipei" title="Raid on Taipei">Raid on Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the Tuapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_24_incident" title="May 24 incident">May 24 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Communiqu%C3%A9_on_the_Establishment_of_Diplomatic_Relations" title="Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations">Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goldwater_v._Carter" title="Goldwater v. Carter">Goldwater v. Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-China_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="One-China policy">One-China policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_beef_imports_in_Taiwan" title="United States beef imports in Taiwan">United States beef imports in Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Laguna_Woods_shooting" title="2022 Laguna Woods shooting">2022 Laguna Woods shooting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Military relations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_King_Kong" title="Operation King Kong">Operation King Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Third Taiwan Strait Crisis">Third Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Taiwan_Defense_Command" title="United States Taiwan Defense Command">United States Taiwan Defense Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangmingshan_American_Military_Housing" title="Yangmingshan American Military Housing">Yangmingshan American Military Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_US_arms_sales_to_Taiwan" title="List of US arms sales to Taiwan">American arms sales to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_non-NATO_ally" title="Major non-NATO ally">Major non-NATO ally</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Relations_Act" title="Taiwan Relations Act">Taiwan Relations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Security_Enhancement_Act" title="Taiwan Security Enhancement Act">Taiwan Security Enhancement Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Relations_Act_Affirmation_and_Naval_Vessel_Transfer_Act_of_2014" title="Taiwan Relations Act Affirmation and Naval Vessel Transfer Act of 2014">Taiwan Relations Act Affirmation and Naval Vessel Transfer Act of 2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Travel_Act" title="Taiwan Travel Act">Taiwan Travel Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Allies_International_Protection_and_Enhancement_Initiative_Act" title="Taiwan Allies International Protection and Enhancement Initiative Act">Taiwan Allies International Protection and Enhancement Initiative Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Chamber_of_Commerce_in_Taipei" class="mw-redirect" title="American Chamber of Commerce in Taipei">American Chamber of Commerce in Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formosan_Association_for_Public_Affairs" title="Formosan Association for Public Affairs">Formosan Association for Public Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Community_Radio_Taipei" title="International Community Radio Taipei">International Community Radio Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="China–United States relations">China–United States relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Taiwan%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Category:Taiwan–United States relations">Category:Taiwan–United States relations</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taiwan_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taiwan_topics" title="Template:Taiwan topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Taiwan_topics" title="Template talk:Taiwan topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Taiwan_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Taiwan topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Taiwan_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Taiwan-related_articles" title="Index of Taiwan-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Taiwanese_history" title="Timeline of Taiwanese history">Timeline of Taiwanese history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Taiwan" title="Prehistory of Taiwan">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Taiwan" title="List of archaeological sites in Taiwan">archaeological sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Chinese_contact_with_Taiwan" title="Early Chinese contact with Taiwan">Early Chinese contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Middag" title="Kingdom of Middag">Kingdom of Middag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Formosa" title="Dutch Formosa">Dutch Formosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Spanish Formosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Formosa" title="Republic of Formosa">Republic of Formosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan under Japanese rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan_(1945%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Taiwan (1945–present)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Retreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan">Retreat to Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanbi_policy" title="Guanbi policy">Guanbi policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Taiwan)" title="White Terror (Taiwan)">White Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Taiwan" title="Martial law in Taiwan">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_Policy_in_Taiwan%27s_White_Terror" class="mw-redirect" title="Language Policy in Taiwan's White Terror">Mandarin policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan" title="Geography of Taiwan">Geography</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Taiwan" title="List of beaches in Taiwan">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Taiwan" title="List of cities in Taiwan">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan#Climate" title="Geography of Taiwan">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Taiwan" title="Deforestation in Taiwan">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Taiwan" title="List of earthquakes in Taiwan">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_endemic_species_of_Taiwan" title="List of endemic species of Taiwan">Endemic species</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_species_in_Taiwan" title="List of protected species in Taiwan">Protected species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_hot_springs" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese hot springs">Hot springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Taiwan" title="List of islands of Taiwan">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Taiwan" title="List of lakes of Taiwan">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Taiwan" title="List of mountains in Taiwan">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Taiwan" title="National parks of Taiwan">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Taiwan" title="List of rivers of Taiwan">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_scenic_areas_in_Taiwan" title="List of national scenic areas in Taiwan">Scenic areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_superlatives" title="List of Taiwanese superlatives">Superlatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Taiwan" title="List of volcanoes in Taiwan">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="GovernmentPoliticsEconomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Government</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Taiwan" title="Politics of Taiwan">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Taiwan" title="Economy of Taiwan">Economy</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Government</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Taiwan" title="Politics of Taiwan">politics</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Yuan" title="Executive Yuan">Cabinet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Premier of the Republic of China">Premier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Taiwan" title="Censorship in Taiwan">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense_in_Taiwan" title="Civil defense in Taiwan">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the Republic of China">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Additional_Articles_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China">Additional Articles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Taiwan" title="Elections in Taiwan">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Taiwan" title="Human rights in Taiwan">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Taiwan">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Bureau_(Taiwan)" title="National Security Bureau (Taiwan)">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Taiwan" title="Law of Taiwan">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Taiwan" title="Law enforcement in Taiwan">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces" title="Republic of China Armed Forces">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Taiwan" title="Military history of Taiwan">Military history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Yuan" title="Legislative Yuan">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="President of the Republic of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_President_(Taiwan)" title="Office of the President (Taiwan)">Office of the President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_to_the_President_(Republic_of_China)" title="Secretary-General to the President (Republic of China)">Secretary-General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Vice President of the Republic of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Taiwan" title="List of political parties in Taiwan">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Republic_of_China" title="Propaganda in the Republic of China">Propaganda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Taiwan" title="Regions of Taiwan">Regions of Taiwan</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Taiwan" title="Administrative divisions of Taiwan">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_municipality_(Taiwan)" title="Special municipality (Taiwan)">Special municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(Taiwan)" class="mw-redirect" title="County (Taiwan)">Counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_city_(Taiwan)" title="Provincial city (Taiwan)">Cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_administrative_divisions_of_Taiwan" title="List of administrative divisions of Taiwan">List of administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_Taiwan" title="List of metropolitan areas in Taiwan">Metropolitan areas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">Political issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Taiwan" title="Conscription in Taiwan">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Strait_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-Strait relations">Cross-Strait relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_unification" title="Chinese unification">Chinese unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Taipei" title="Chinese Taipei">Chinese Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dang_Guo" title="Dang Guo">Dang Guo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Sinicization" title="De-Sinicization">De-Sinicization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Taiwan" title="Foreign relations of Taiwan">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_Taiwan" title="North–South divide in Taiwan">North–South divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Country_on_Each_Side" title="One Country on Each Side">One Country on Each Side</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_polling_on_Taiwanese_identity" title="Opinion polling on Taiwanese identity">Opinion polling on Taiwanese identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">Political status of Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_non-state-to-state_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Special non-state-to-state relations">Special non-state-to-state relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Chinas" title="Two Chinas">Two Chinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_nationalism" title="Taiwanese nationalism">Taiwanese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_independence_movement" title="Taiwan independence movement">Taiwan independence movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Taiwan" title="Economy of Taiwan">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Taiwan" title="Agriculture in Taiwan">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_Taiwan" title="Aquaculture in Taiwan">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture_in_Taiwan" title="Floriculture in Taiwan">Floriculture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Taiwan" title="Automotive industry in Taiwan">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Taiwan" title="Banking in Taiwan">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Taiwan" title="List of banks in Taiwan">List of banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_the_Republic_of_China_(Taiwan)" title="Central Bank of the Republic of China (Taiwan)">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Taiwan" title="List of companies of Taiwan">Companies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_companies_in_Taiwan" title="List of largest companies in Taiwan">Largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprises_of_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="State-owned enterprises of Taiwan">State-owned enterprises</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Taiwan" title="Defense industry of Taiwan">Defense industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Taiwan_dollar" title="New Taiwan dollar">Dollar <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Taiwan" title="Economic history of Taiwan">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Taiwan" title="Energy in Taiwan">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Taiwan" title="Forestry in Taiwan">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_industries_of_Taiwan" title="Maritime industries of Taiwan">Maritime industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Taiwan" title="Mining in Taiwan">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_Taiwan" title="Semiconductor industry in Taiwan">Semiconductor industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Stock_Exchange" title="Taiwan Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Miracle" title="Taiwan Miracle">Taiwan Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Taiwan" title="Taxation in Taiwan">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Taiwan" title="Telecommunications in Taiwan">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_Taiwan" title="Textile industry in Taiwan">Textile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Taiwan" title="Tourism in Taiwan">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_Taiwan" title="Transportation in Taiwan">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Invoice_lottery" title="Uniform Invoice lottery">Uniform Invoice lottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Taiwan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Taiwan">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"><div id="National_SymbolsPeopleSocietyCulture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>National Symbols</li><li>People</li><li>Society</li><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols" class="mw-redirect" title="National symbols">National symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="National Anthem of the Republic of China">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Emblem of Taiwan">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Flag of the Republic of China">Flag</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proposed_flags_of_Taiwan" title="Proposed flags of Taiwan">proposed</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Flower_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="National Flower of the Republic of China">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Seals_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="National Seals of the Republic of China">Seals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Taiwan" title="Demographics of Taiwan">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_people" title="Taiwanese people">Taiwanese people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_indigenous_peoples" title="Taiwanese indigenous peoples">Taiwanese indigenous peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_Taiwan" title="List of Indigenous peoples of Taiwan">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Taiwanese" title="Han Taiwanese">Hans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoklo_Taiwanese" title="Hoklo Taiwanese">Hoklos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Taiwanese" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka Taiwanese">Hakkas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waishengren" title="Waishengren">Waishengren</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Taiwan" title="Languages of Taiwan">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formosan_languages" title="Formosan languages">Formosan languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amis_language" title="Amis language">Amis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atayal_language" title="Atayal language">Atayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunun_language" title="Bunun language">Bunun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanakanavu_language" title="Kanakanavu language">Kanakanavu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kavalan_language" title="Kavalan language">Kavalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiwan_language" title="Paiwan language">Paiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puyuma_language" title="Puyuma language">Puyuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukai_language" title="Rukai language">Rukai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saaroa_language" title="Saaroa language">Saaroa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saisiyat_language" title="Saisiyat language">Saisiyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakizaya_language" title="Sakizaya language">Sakizaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seediq_language" title="Seediq language">Seediq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thao_language" title="Thao language">Thao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsou_language" title="Tsou language">Tsou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yami_language" title="Yami language">Yami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Sign_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Sign Language">Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Braille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Taiwan" title="Architecture of Taiwan">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Taiwan" title="Crime in Taiwan">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime_in_Taiwan" title="Organized crime in Taiwan">Organized crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Taiwan" title="Sex trafficking in Taiwan">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Taiwan" title="Healthcare in Taiwan">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Taiwanese inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Taiwan" title="Prostitution in Taiwan">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Taiwan" title="Public holidays in Taiwan">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing_in_Taiwan" title="Public housing in Taiwan">Public housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Taiwan" title="Squatting in Taiwan">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_superlatives" title="List of Taiwanese superlatives">Superlatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_studies" title="Taiwan studies">Taiwan studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Taiwan" title="Waste management in Taiwan">Waste management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taiwan" title="Women in Taiwan">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.75em"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_animation" title="Taiwanese animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_art" title="Taiwanese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Taiwan" title="Cinema of Taiwan">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_cuisine" title="Taiwanese cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_wine" title="Taiwanese wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_Taiwan" title="Cultural history of Taiwan">Cultural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese drama">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Taiwan" title="Gambling in Taiwan">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glove_puppetry" title="Glove puppetry">Glove puppetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_literature" title="Taiwanese literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Taiwan">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Taiwan" title="Music of Taiwan">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_opera" title="Taiwanese opera">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_markets_in_Taiwan" title="Night markets in Taiwan">Night markets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Taiwan" title="Photography in Taiwan">Photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Taiwan" title="Smoking in Taiwan">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports in Taiwan">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-Beauty" title="T-Beauty">T-Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_wave" title="Taiwanese wave">Taiwanese wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_tea" title="Taiwanese tea">Tea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_tea_culture" title="Taiwanese tea culture">tea culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tourist_attractions_in_Taiwan" title="List of tourist attractions in Taiwan">Tourist attractions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Taiwan" title="Category:Taiwan">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Taiwan" title="Portal:Taiwan">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Taiwan" title="Outline of Taiwan">Outline</a></b></li></ul> 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