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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Start_of_dynastic_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Start_of_dynastic_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Start of dynastic rule </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Start_of_dynastic_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynastic_transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynastic_transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Dynastic transition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dynastic_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_dynastic_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_dynastic_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 End of dynastic rule </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_dynastic_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_legitimacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 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id="toc-Central_Plain_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Plain_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Central Plain dynasties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Plain_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unified_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unified_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Unified dynasties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unified_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infiltration_dynasties_and_conquest_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infiltration_dynasties_and_conquest_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infiltration_dynasties_and_conquest_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naming_convention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naming_convention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Naming convention </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Naming_convention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Naming convention subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Naming_convention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Official_nomenclature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Official_nomenclature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Official nomenclature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Official_nomenclature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Retroactive_nomenclature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Retroactive_nomenclature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Retroactive nomenclature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Retroactive_nomenclature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Territorial_extent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territorial_extent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Territorial extent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Territorial_extent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_major_Chinese_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_major_Chinese_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 List of major Chinese dynasties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_major_Chinese_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timelines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timelines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Timelines </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Timelines-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Timelines subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Timelines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Timeline_of_major_historical_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline_of_major_historical_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Timeline of major historical periods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline_of_major_historical_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline_of_major_regimes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline_of_major_regimes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Timeline of major regimes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline_of_major_regimes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Dynasties of China</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" > 49 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A" title="سلالات حاكمة في التاريخ الصيني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلالات حاكمة في التاريخ الصيني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="চীনের সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চীনের সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierniezhio%C3%B9_istor_Sina" title="Tierniezhioù istor Sina – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tierniezhioù istor Sina" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastie_%C4%8D%C3%ADnsk%C3%A9_historie" title="Dynastie čínské historie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dynastie čínské historie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesiske_dynastier" title="Kinesiske dynastier – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kinesiske dynastier" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%9A%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Δυναστείες της Κίνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυναστείες της Κίνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%88inaj_dinastioj" title="Ĉinaj dinastioj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĉinaj dinastioj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="فهرست دودمان‌های تاریخ چین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فهرست دودمان‌های تاریخ چین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronologie_des_dynasties_chinoises" title="Chronologie des dynasties chinoises – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chronologie des dynasties chinoises" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%BBng-koet_Chh%C3%A8u-thoi" title="Chûng-koet Chhèu-thoi – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chûng-koet Chhèu-thoi" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daulolin_Kasar_Sin_A_Tarihi" title="Daulolin Kasar Sin A Tarihi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daulolin Kasar Sin A Tarihi" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="चीन के राजवंश – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चीन के राजवंश" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastije_u_kineskoj_povijesti" title="Dinastije u kineskoj povijesti – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dinastije u kineskoj povijesti" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiala_dinastii_Chiniana" title="Imperiala dinastii Chiniana – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Imperiala dinastii Chiniana" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_dalam_sejarah_Tiongkok" title="Dinasti dalam sejarah Tiongkok – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinasti dalam sejarah Tiongkok" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastie_della_storia_cinese" title="Dinastie della storia cinese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dinastie della storia cinese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ჩინეთის დინასტიები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩინეთის დინასტიები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orodha_ya_nasaba_za_Kichina" title="Orodha ya nasaba za Kichina – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Orodha ya nasaba za Kichina" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familiae_imperiales_Sinarum" title="Familiae imperiales Sinarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Familiae imperiales Sinarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B6%C4%ABnas_dinastijas" title="Ķīnas dinastijas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ķīnas dinastijas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastias_de_Xina_(Lista)" title="Dinastias de Xina (Lista) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Dinastias de Xina (Lista)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Кинески династии – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Кинески династии" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%BE" title="ചൈനയുടെ ചരിത്രത്തിലെ രാജവംശങ്ങൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചൈനയുടെ ചരിത്രത്തിലെ രാജവംശങ്ങൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%E1%B9%B3%CC%86ng-gu%C3%B3k_di%C3%A8u-d%C3%A2i" title="Dṳ̆ng-guók dièu-dâi – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Dṳ̆ng-guók dièu-dâi" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82" title="चीनका वंशहरू – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="चीनका वंशहरू" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="चीनया राजवंश – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="चीनया राजवंश" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E4%BB%A3%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E4%B8%80%E8%A6%A7" title="中国の歴代王朝一覧 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中国の歴代王朝一覧" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%87_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC" title="ਚੀਨ ਦੇ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਚੀਨ ਦੇ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%92_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D9%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="چین دے راج ٹبر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چین دے راج ٹبر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="background:#FFEECC;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_China" title="Category:History of China">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China"><img alt="History of China in Chinese characters and seal script" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/200px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/300px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/400px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="121" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #f0faff; text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 8500 – c. 2000 BC)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao civilization</a></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Ancient</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #eeffe8; text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a> (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1250 – c. 1046 BC)</dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> (c. 1046 – c. 256 BC)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> (1046–771 BC)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a> (771–256 BC) <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a> (c. 770 – c. 476 BC)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a> (475–221 BC)</dd></dl></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a> (221–207 BC)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> (206 BC – 220 AD)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">Chu–Han Contention</a> (206–202 BC)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a> (202 BC – 9 AD)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin</a> (9–23 AD)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a> (25–220 AD)</dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> (220–280 AD)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Wu</a></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a> (266–420)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a> (266–316)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a> (317–420)</dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li> </li> <li> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a> (304–439)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a> (420–589)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a> (581–618)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> (618–907) <ul><li><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Wu_Zhou" title="Wu Zhou">Wu Zhou</a> (690–705)</dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a> (907–979)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> (960–1279)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a> (960–1127)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a> (1127–1279)</dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a> (916–1125)</li> <li> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> (1038–1227)</li> <li> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a> (1115–1234)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a> (1271–1368)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> (1368–1644)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> (1644–1912)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Modern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern China">Modern</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fff0f6; text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> (mainland, 1912–1949)</li></ul> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fff0f6; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (1949–present)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> (Taiwan, 1949–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: 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Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support#Manchu" title="Help:Multilingual support">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu alphabet</a>.</div></div> </div> For most of its history, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> was organized into various <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynastic states</a> under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">hereditary monarchs</a>. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by <a href="/wiki/Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu the Great</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2070 BC,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> and ending with the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">abdication</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong Emperor</a> in AD 1912, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Chinese historiography</a> came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-Pre-Xia-7">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-Post-Qing-8">[b]</a> Besides those established by the dominant <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> ethnic group or its spiritual <a href="/wiki/Huaxia" title="Huaxia">Huaxia</a> predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.<a href="#cite_note-EthnicOrigin-9">[7]</a> Dividing Chinese history into dynastic epochs is a convenient and conventional method of <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">periodization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Periodization1-10">[8]</a> Accordingly, a dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, as well as to describe events, trends, personalities, artistic compositions, and artifacts of that period.<a href="#cite_note-Periodization2-11">[9]</a> For example, porcelain made during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> may be referred to as "Ming porcelain".<a href="#cite_note-Periodization3-12">[10]</a> The longest-reigning orthodox dynasty of China was the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a>, ruling for a total length of about 790 years, albeit it is divided into the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a> in Chinese historiography.<a href="#cite_note-Longest-13">[11]</a> The largest orthodox Chinese dynasty in terms of territorial size was either the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, depending on the historical source.<a href="#cite_note-Largest1-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Largest2-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Largest3-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Largest4-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Largest5-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreatYuan-22">[c]</a> The term "<a href="/wiki/Celestial_Empire" title="Celestial Empire">Tiāncháo</a>" (天朝; "Celestial Dynasty" or "Heavenly Dynasty") was frequently employed as a self-reference by Chinese dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-Tianchao1-23">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tianchao2-24">[21]</a> As a form of respect and subordination, <a href="/wiki/List_of_tributary_states_of_China" title="List of tributary states of China">Chinese tributary states</a> referred to these dynasties as "Tiāncháo Shàngguó" (天朝上國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State") or "Tiāncháo Dàguó" (天朝大國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Great State"). <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> The Chinese character <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:朝">朝</a> (cháo) originally meant "morning" or "today". Subsequently, its scope was extended to refer to the regime of the incumbent ruler. Terms commonly used when discussing historical Chinese dynasties include: <ul><li>朝 (cháo; 'dynasty')</li> <li>朝代 (cháodài; 'dynastic era')</li> <li>王朝 (wángcháo; 'royal dynasty')<a href="#cite_note-26">[d]</a></li> <li>皇朝 (huángcháo; 'imperial dynasty')<a href="#cite_note-Terminology-25">[22]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Start_of_dynastic_rule">Start of dynastic rule</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Start of dynastic rule">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Yu_of_Xia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/King_Yu_of_Xia.jpg/220px-King_Yu_of_Xia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="476" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/King_Yu_of_Xia.jpg/330px-King_Yu_of_Xia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/King_Yu_of_Xia.jpg/440px-King_Yu_of_Xia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9590" data-file-height="20755" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of <a href="/wiki/Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu</a>, the initiator of dynastic rule in China, by the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a> court painter <a href="/wiki/Ma_Lin_(painter)" title="Ma Lin (painter)">Ma Lin</a>.</figcaption></figure> As the founder of China's first orthodox dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu the Great</a> is conventionally regarded as the inaugurator of dynastic rule in China.<a href="#cite_note-Yu-27">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pre-Xia-7">[a]</a> In the Chinese dynastic system, sovereign rulers theoretically possessed <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute power</a> and private ownership of the realm, even though in practice their actual power was dependent on numerous factors.<a href="#cite_note-JiaTianxia1-28">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Constitution-32">[e]</a> By tradition, the <a href="/wiki/Dragon_Throne" title="Dragon Throne">Chinese throne</a> was inherited exclusively by members of the male line, but there were numerous cases whereby the <a href="/wiki/Consort_kin" title="Consort kin">consort kins</a> came to possess de facto power at the expense of the monarchs.<a href="#cite_note-JiaTianxia2-33">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-ConsortKin-35">[f]</a> This concept, known as jiā <a href="/wiki/Tianxia" title="Tianxia">tiānxià</a> (家天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the ruling family"), was in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">pre-Xia</a> notion of gōng tiānxià (公天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the public") whereby leadership succession was non-hereditary and based on the <a href="/wiki/Abdication_system" title="Abdication system">abdication system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JiaTianxia1-28">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-GongTianxia-36">[30]</a> There may also be a predynastic period before a regime managed to overthrow the existing dynasty which led to the official establishment of the new dynasty. For example, the state of Zhou that existed during the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>, before <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muye" title="Battle of Muye">its conquest of the Shang</a> which led to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a>, is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Zhou" title="Predynastic Zhou">Predynastic Zhou</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[31]</a> or Proto-Zhou.<a href="#cite_note-38">[32]</a> Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">state of Qin</a> that existed during the Zhou dynasty before <a href="/wiki/Qin%27s_wars_of_unification" title="Qin's wars of unification">its wars of unification</a> and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> in 221 BC is also referred to as the Predynastic Qin<a href="#cite_note-39">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[34]</a> or Proto-Qin.<a href="#cite_note-41">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dynastic_transition">Dynastic transition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dynastic transition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shanhaiguan.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Shanhaiguan.gif/220px-Shanhaiguan.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Shanhaiguan.gif/330px-Shanhaiguan.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Shanhaiguan.gif 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a>, a decisive battle fought during the Ming–Qing transition. The victorious <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> extended its rule into China proper thereafter.</figcaption></figure> The rise and fall of dynasties is a prominent feature of Chinese history. Some scholars have attempted to explain this phenomenon by attributing the success and failure of dynasties to the morality of the rulers, while others have focused on the tangible aspects of monarchical rule.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticCycle1-42">[36]</a> This method of explanation has come to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Dynastic_cycle" title="Dynastic cycle">dynastic cycle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticCycle1-42">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticCycle2-43">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticCycle3-44">[38]</a> Cases of dynastic transition (改朝換代; gǎi cháo huàn dài) in the history of China occurred primarily through two ways: military conquest and usurpation.<a href="#cite_note-Transition1-45">[39]</a> The supersession of the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> was achieved following a series of successful military campaigns, as was the later unification of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>; on the other hand, the transition from the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a>, as well as from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang dynasty</a>, were cases of usurpation. Oftentimes, <a href="/wiki/Usurper" title="Usurper">usurpers</a> would seek to portray their predecessors as having relinquished the throne willingly—akin to the abdication system of throne succession—as a means to legitimize their rule.<a href="#cite_note-Usurpation-46">[40]</a> One might incorrectly infer from viewing <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">historical timelines</a> that transitions between dynasties occurred abruptly and roughly. Rather, new dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing regime.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName1-47">[41]</a> For example, AD 1644 is frequently cited as the year in which the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> succeeded the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> in possessing the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>. However, the Qing dynasty was officially proclaimed in AD 1636 by the <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Emperor Taizong of Qing</a> through renaming the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a> established in AD 1616, while the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">Ming imperial family</a> would rule the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a> until AD 1662.<a href="#cite_note-Transition2-48">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Transition3-49">[43]</a> The Ming loyalist <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a> based in Taiwan continued to oppose the Qing until AD 1683.<a href="#cite_note-Transition4-50">[44]</a> Meanwhile, other factions also fought for control over China during the <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Ming–Qing transition</a>, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty">Shun</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Xi_dynasty" title="Xi dynasty">Xi</a> dynasties proclaimed by <a href="/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng">Li Zicheng</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xianzhong" title="Zhang Xianzhong">Zhang Xianzhong</a> respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Transition5-51">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Transition6-52">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Transition7-53">[47]</a> This change of ruling houses was a convoluted and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost two decades to extend their rule over the entirety of China proper. Similarly, during the earlier <a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Sui_to_Tang" title="Transition from Sui to Tang">Sui–Tang transition</a>, numerous regimes established by rebel forces vied for control and legitimacy as the power of the ruling <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> weakened. Autonomous regimes that existed during this period of upheaval included, but not limited to, Wei (魏; by <a href="/wiki/Li_Mi_(Sui_dynasty)" title="Li Mi (Sui dynasty)">Li Mi</a>), Qin (秦; by <a href="/wiki/Xue_Ju" title="Xue Ju">Xue Ju</a>), Qi (齊; by Gao Tancheng), Xu (許; by <a href="/wiki/Yuwen_Huaji" title="Yuwen Huaji">Yuwen Huaji</a>), Liang (梁; by <a href="/wiki/Shen_Faxing" title="Shen Faxing">Shen Faxing</a>), Liang (梁; by <a href="/wiki/Liang_Shidu" title="Liang Shidu">Liang Shidu</a>), Xia (夏; by <a href="/wiki/Dou_Jiande" title="Dou Jiande">Dou Jiande</a>), Zheng (鄭; by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Shichong" title="Wang Shichong">Wang Shichong</a>), Chu (楚; by <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Can" title="Zhu Can">Zhu Can</a>), Chu (楚; by <a href="/wiki/Lin_Shihong" title="Lin Shihong">Lin Shihong</a>), Wu (吳; by <a href="/wiki/Li_Zitong" title="Li Zitong">Li Zitong</a>), Yan (燕; by <a href="/wiki/Gao_Kaidao" title="Gao Kaidao">Gao Kaidao</a>), and Song (宋; by <a href="/wiki/Fu_Gongshi" title="Fu Gongshi">Fu Gongshi</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> that superseded the Sui launched a decade-long military campaign to reunify China proper.<a href="#cite_note-Transition8-54">[48]</a> Frequently, remnants and descendants of previous dynasties were either purged or granted <a href="/wiki/Chinese_nobility" title="Chinese nobility">noble titles</a> in accordance with the "<a href="/wiki/Chinese_nobility#Two_crownings_and_three_respects" title="Chinese nobility">two crownings, three respects</a>" system. The latter served as a means for the reigning dynasty to claim legitimate succession from earlier dynasties. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaojing_of_Eastern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei">Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei</a> was accorded the title "Prince of Zhongshan" by the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wenxuan_of_Northern_Qi" title="Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi">Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi</a> following the latter's deposition of the former.<a href="#cite_note-PrinceOfZhongshan-55">[49]</a> Similarly, Chai Yong, a nephew of the <a href="/wiki/Chai_Rong" title="Chai Rong">Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou</a>, was conferred the title "Duke of Chongyi" by the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Renzong_of_Song" title="Emperor Renzong of Song">Emperor Renzong of Song</a>; other descendants of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Later Zhou</a> ruling house came to inherit the noble title thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-DukeOfChongyi-56">[50]</a> According to Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would compose the history of the preceding dynasty, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-Four_Histories" title="Twenty-Four Histories">Twenty-Four Histories</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TwentyFourHistories-57">[51]</a> This tradition was maintained even after the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>. However, <a href="/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">the attempt</a> by the Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Two_Chinas" title="Two Chinas">political division of China</a> into the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> on <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China</a> on <a href="/wiki/Free_area_of_the_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Free area of the Republic of China">Taiwan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HistoryOfQing-58">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_dynastic_rule">End of dynastic rule</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: End of dynastic rule">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puyi_(1922).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Puyi_%281922%29.jpg/220px-Puyi_%281922%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Puyi_%281922%29.jpg/330px-Puyi_%281922%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Puyi_%281922%29.jpg/440px-Puyi_%281922%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A photograph of the <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong Emperor</a>, widely considered to be the last legitimate monarch of China, taken in AD 1922.</figcaption></figure> Dynastic rule in China collapsed in AD 1912 when the Republic of China superseded the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> following the success of the Xinhai Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticRule-59">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-XinhaiRevolution-60">[54]</a> While there were attempts after the Xinhai Revolution to reinstate dynastic rule in China, they were unsuccessful at consolidating their rule and gaining political legitimacy. During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%94%E4%BB%A4%E8%B2%BD" class="extiw" title="zh:孔令貽">孔令貽</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Duke_Yansheng" title="Duke Yansheng">Duke of Yansheng</a> and a 76th-generation descendant of <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by <a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KongLingyi-61">[55]</a> Meanwhile, gentry in <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a> supported a restoration of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> under Zhu Yuxun (朱煜勳), the <a href="/wiki/Marquis_of_Extended_Grace" title="Marquis of Extended Grace">Marquis of Extended Grace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ZhuYuxun-62">[56]</a> Both suggestions were ultimately rejected. The <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China</a> (AD 1915–1916) proclaimed by <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> sparked the <a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a>, resulting in the premature collapse of the regime 101 days later.<a href="#cite_note-MonarchyRestoration1-63">[57]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a> (AD 1917) was an unsuccessful attempt at reviving the Qing dynasty, lasting merely 11 days.<a href="#cite_note-MonarchyRestoration2-64">[58]</a> Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a> (AD 1932–1945; monarchy since AD 1934), a puppet state of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> with limited diplomatic recognition, is not regarded as a legitimate regime.<a href="#cite_note-MonarchyRestoration3-65">[59]</a> Ergo, historians usually consider the abdication of the <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong Emperor</a> on 12 February 1912 as the end of the Chinese dynastic system. Dynastic rule in China lasted almost four millennia.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticRule-59">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_legitimacy">Political legitimacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Political legitimacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg/220px-Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg/330px-Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg/440px-Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Imperial seal of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> with "Dà Qīng Dìguó zhī xǐ" (大清帝國之璽; "Seal of the Great Qing Empire") rendered in <a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">seal script</a>. Seals were a symbol of political authority and legitimacy.</figcaption></figure> China was politically divided during multiple periods in its history, with different regions ruled by different dynasties. These dynasties effectively functioned as separate states with their own <a href="/wiki/Royal_court" title="Royal court">court</a> and political institutions. Political division existed during the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a> periods, among others. Relations between Chinese dynasties during periods of division often revolved around <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">political legitimacy</a>, which was derived from the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy1-66">[60]</a> Dynasties ruled by ethnic Han would proclaim rival dynasties founded by other ethnicities as illegitimate, usually justified based on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction" title="Hua–Yi distinction">Hua–Yi distinction</a>. On the other hand, many dynasties of non-Han origin saw themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China and often sought to portray themselves as the true inheritor of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a> and history. Traditionally, only regimes deemed as "legitimate" or "orthodox" (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E7%B5%B1" class="extiw" title="zh:法統">正統</a>; zhèngtǒng) are termed cháo (朝; "dynasty"); "illegitimate" or "unorthodox" regimes are referred to as guó (國; usually translated as either "state" or "kingdom"<a href="#cite_note-Kingdom-67">[g]</a>), even if these regimes were dynastic in nature.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy2-68">[61]</a> Such legitimacy disputes existed during the following periods: <ul><li>Three Kingdoms<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy3-69">[62]</a> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu Han</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Eastern Wu</a> considered themselves legitimate while simultaneously denounced the rivaling claims of others.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xian_of_Han" title="Emperor Xian of Han">Emperor Xian of Han</a> abdicated in favor of the <a href="/wiki/Cao_Pi" title="Cao Pi">Emperor Wen of Cao Wei</a>; hence, the Cao Wei directly succeeded the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a> in orthodox historiography.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a> accepted the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty of the Three Kingdoms period and claimed succession from it.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> viewed the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty during this period, whereas the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> proposed treating the Shu Han as legitimate.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy4-70">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy5-71">[64]</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a> and Sixteen Kingdoms<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy6-72">[65]</a> <ul><li>The Eastern Jin viewed itself as a continuation of the Western Jin, and thus legitimate.</li> <li>Several of the Sixteen Kingdoms such as the <a href="/wiki/Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han-Zhao</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Later Zhao</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a> also claimed legitimacy.</li></ul></li> <li>Northern and Southern dynasties<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy7-73">[66]</a> <ul><li>All dynasties during this period saw themselves as the legitimate representative of China; the <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties#Northern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern dynasties</a> referred to their southern counterparts as "dǎoyí" (島夷; "island dwelling barbarians"), while the <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties#Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Southern dynasties</a> called their northern neighbors "suǒlǔ" (索虜; "barbarians with braids").<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy8-74">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy9-75">[68]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy10-76">[69]</a> <ul><li>Having directly succeeded the Tang dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Liang (Five Dynasties)">Later Liang</a> considered itself to be a legitimate dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy10-76">[69]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Later_Tang" title="Later Tang">Later Tang</a> regarded itself as the restorer of the earlier Tang dynasty and rejected the legitimacy of its predecessor, the Later Liang.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy10-76">[69]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Jin (Five Dynasties)">Later Jin</a> succeeded the Later Tang and accepted it as a legitimate regime.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy10-76">[69]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Southern_Tang" title="Southern Tang">Southern Tang</a> was, for a period of time, considered the legitimate dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy10-76">[69]</a></li> <li>Since the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, Chinese historiography has generally considered the <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period#Five_Dynasties" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties</a>, as opposed to the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period#Ten_Kingdoms" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Ten Kingdoms</a>, to be legitimate.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy10-76">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy11-77">[70]</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a>, Song dynasty, and <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a><a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy12-78">[71]</a> <ul><li>Following the conquest of the Later Jin, the Liao dynasty claimed legitimacy and succession from it<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy13-79">[72]</a></li> <li>Both the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a> and Southern Song considered themselves to be the legitimate Chinese dynasty.</li> <li>The Jin dynasty challenged the Song's claim of legitimacy.</li> <li>The succeeding <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> recognized all three in addition to the <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Western Liao</a> as legitimate Chinese dynasties, culminating in the composition of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Liao" title="History of Liao">History of Liao</a>, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Song_(book)" title="History of Song (book)">History of Song</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jin" title="History of Jin">History of Jin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy14-80">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy15-81">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy16-82">[75]</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a><a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy17-83">[76]</a> <ul><li>The Ming dynasty recognized the preceding Yuan dynasty as a legitimate Chinese dynasty, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Yuan, thus considering the Northern Yuan as illegitimate.</li> <li>Northern Yuan rulers maintained the dynastic name "Great Yuan" and claimed traditional Han-style titles continuously until AD 1388 or AD 1402; Han-style titles were restored on several occasions thereafter for brief periods, notably during the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Taisun_Khan" title="Taisun Khan">Taisun Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Esen_Taishi" title="Esen Taishi">Choros Esen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dayan_Khan" title="Dayan Khan">Dayan Khan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy18-84">[77]</a></li> <li>The historian Rashipunsug argued that the Northern Yuan had succeeded the legitimacy from the Yuan dynasty; the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, which later defeated and annexed the Northern Yuan, inherited this legitimacy, thus rendering the Ming illegitimate.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy14-A-85">[78]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Qing dynasty and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a><a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy19-86">[79]</a> <ul><li>The Qing dynasty recognized the preceding Ming dynasty as legitimate, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Ming, thus refuting the claimed legitimacy of the Southern Ming.</li> <li>The Southern Ming continued to claim legitimacy until its eventual defeat by the Qing.</li> <li>The Ming loyalist <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a> in Taiwan denounced the Qing dynasty as illegitimate.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon dynasty</a> of Korea and the <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Lê dynasty</a> of Vietnam had at various times considered the Southern Ming, instead of the Qing dynasty, as legitimate.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy20-87">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy21-88">[81]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa shogunate</a> of Japan did not accept the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty and instead saw itself as the rightful representative of Huá (華; "China"); this narrative served as the basis of Japanese texts such as Chūchō Jijitsu and Kai Hentai.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy22-89">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy23-90">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy24-91">[84]</a></li></ul></li></ul> Traditionally, periods of disunity often resulted in heated debates among officials and historians over which prior dynasties could and should be considered orthodox, given that it was politically imperative for a dynasty to present itself as being linked in an unbroken lineage of moral and political authority back to ancient times. However, the Northern Song statesman <a href="/wiki/Ouyang_Xiu" title="Ouyang Xiu">Ouyang Xiu</a> propounded that such orthodoxy existed in a state of limbo during fragmented periods and was restored after political unification was achieved.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy25-92">[85]</a> From this perspective, the Song dynasty possessed legitimacy by virtue of its ability to end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period despite not having succeeded the orthodoxy from the <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Later Zhou</a>. Similarly, Ouyang considered the concept of orthodoxy to be in oblivion during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern dynasties periods.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy25-92">[85]</a> Traditionally, as most Chinese historiographical sources uphold the idea of unilineal dynastic succession, only one dynasty could be considered orthodox at any given time.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy11-77">[70]</a> Most historical sources consider the legitimate line of succession to be as follows:<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy11-77">[70]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent"><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a> → <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> → <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> → <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a> → <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> → <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a> → Eastern Han → Cao Wei → Western Jin → Eastern Jin → <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song</a> → <a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a> → <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang dynasty</a> → <a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen dynasty</a> → <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> → Tang dynasty → Later Liang → Later Tang → Later Jin → <a href="/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Han (Five Dynasties)">Later Han</a> → Later Zhou → Northern Song → Southern Song → Yuan dynasty → Ming dynasty → Qing dynasty</div> These historical legitimacy disputes are similar to the modern competing claims of legitimacy by the People's Republic of China based in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> and the Republic of China based in <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>. Both regimes formally adhere to the <a href="/wiki/One_China" title="One China">One-China principle</a> and claim to be the <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_mandate#Mainland_China_and_Taiwan" title="Exclusive mandate">sole legitimate representative</a> of the whole of China.<a href="#cite_note-Legitimacy26-93">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Agnatic_lineages">Agnatic lineages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Agnatic lineages">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Han_Guangwu_Di.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Emperor Guangwu of Han" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Han_Guangwu_Di.jpg/218px-Han_Guangwu_Di.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Han_Guangwu_Di.jpg/327px-Han_Guangwu_Di.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Han_Guangwu_Di.jpg/436px-Han_Guangwu_Di.jpg 2x" data-file-width="988" data-file-height="1274" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Liu_Bei_Tang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Liu_Bei_Tang.jpg/218px-Liu_Bei_Tang.jpg" decoding="async" width="218" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Liu_Bei_Tang.jpg/327px-Liu_Bei_Tang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Liu_Bei_Tang.jpg/436px-Liu_Bei_Tang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="872" data-file-height="1258" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Guangwu_of_Han" title="Emperor Guangwu of Han">Emperor Guangwu of Han</a> (top) and the <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bei" title="Liu Bei">Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han</a> (bottom) were descended from a common paternal ancestor but are typically considered by historians to be the founders of two separate dynasties.</div></div></div></div> There were several groups of Chinese dynasties that were ruled by families with <a href="/wiki/Chinese_kin" title="Chinese kin">patrilineal relations</a>, yet due to various reasons these regimes are considered to be separate dynasties and given distinct retroactive names for historiographical purpose. Such conditions as differences in their official dynastic title and fundamental changes having occurred to their rule would necessitate nomenclatural distinction in academia, despite these ruling clans having shared common ancestral origins. Additionally, numerous other dynasties claimed descent from earlier dynasties as a calculated political move to obtain or enhance their legitimacy, even if such claims were unfounded. The agnatic relations of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li>The Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou were ruled by the House of Ji; they are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a><a href="#cite_note-Longest-13">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhou-94">[87]</a></li> <li>The founder of the Eastern Zhou, the <a href="/wiki/King_Ping_of_Zhou" title="King Ping of Zhou">King Ping of Zhou</a>, was a son of the last Western Zhou ruler, the <a href="/wiki/King_You_of_Zhou" title="King You of Zhou">King You of Zhou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a>, <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu Han</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song</a> <ul><li>The Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Shu Han, and the Liu Song were ruled by the House of Liu; the first two of which are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a><a href="#cite_note-Han-95">[88]</a></li> <li>The first emperor of the Eastern Han, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Guangwu_of_Han" title="Emperor Guangwu of Han">Emperor Guangwu of Han</a>, was a ninth-generation descendant of the Western Han founder, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han">Emperor Gao of Han</a>; he was also a seventh-generation descendant of the sixth Western Han monarch, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Han" title="Emperor Jing of Han">Emperor Jing of Han</a></li> <li>The founder of the Shu Han, the <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bei" title="Liu Bei">Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han</a>, was also descended from the Emperor Jing of Han</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Song" title="Book of Song">Book of Song</a> states that the first Liu Song ruler, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Song" title="Emperor Wu of Song">Emperor Wu of Liu Song</a>, was a male-line descendant of a younger brother of the Emperor Gao of Han, the <a href="/wiki/Liu_Jiao_(prince)" title="Liu Jiao (prince)">Prince Yuan of Chu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a> <ul><li>The Western Jin and the Eastern Jin were ruled by the House of Sima; they are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty</a><a href="#cite_note-Jin-96">[89]</a></li> <li>The Eastern Jin founder, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Jin" title="Emperor Yuan of Jin">Emperor Yuan of Jin</a>, was a great-grandson of the <a href="/wiki/Sima_Yi" title="Sima Yi">Emperor Xuan of Jin</a>; he was also a grandson of the <a href="/wiki/Sima_Zhou" title="Sima Zhou">Prince Wu of Langya</a> and a son of the Prince Gong of Langya</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han-Zhao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xia_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Hu Xia</a> <ul><li>The Han-Zhao and the Hu Xia were ruled by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Luandi_(Clan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luandi (Clan) (page does not exist)">House of Luandi</a> (later renamed the House of Liu and the House of Helian respectively)</li> <li>The Han-Zhao founder, the <a href="/wiki/Liu_Yuan_(Han-Zhao)" title="Liu Yuan (Han-Zhao)">Emperor Guangwen of Han-Zhao</a>, and the Hu Xia founder, the <a href="/wiki/Helian_Bobo" title="Helian Bobo">Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia</a>, were descended from <a href="/wiki/Qiangqu" title="Qiangqu">Liu Qiangqu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qubei" title="Qubei">Liu Qubei</a> respectively; according to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Dynasties" title="History of the Northern Dynasties">History of the Northern Dynasties</a>, Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei were brothers</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_Yan" title="Former Yan">Former Yan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Later_Yan" title="Later Yan">Later Yan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Yan" title="Southern Yan">Southern Yan</a> <ul><li>The Former Yan, the Later Yan, and the Southern Yan were ruled by the House of Murong</li> <li>The founder of the Later Yan, the <a href="/wiki/Murong_Chui" title="Murong Chui">Emperor Chengwu of Later Yan</a>, was a son of the Former Yan founder, the <a href="/wiki/Murong_Huang" title="Murong Huang">Emperor Wenming of Former Yan</a></li> <li>The first monarch of the Southern Yan, the <a href="/wiki/Murong_De" title="Murong De">Emperor Xianwu of Southern Yan</a>, was also a son of the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Southern Liang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wei" title="Eastern Wei">Eastern Wei</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Wei</a> <ul><li>The Northern Wei, the Southern Liang, the Eastern Wei, and the Western Wei were ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Tuoba" title="Tuoba">House of Tuoba</a> (later renamed the House of Yuan and the House of Tufa respectively)</li> <li>The Northern Wei founder, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Daowu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei">Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei</a>, and the Southern Liang founder, the <a href="/wiki/Tufa_Wugu" title="Tufa Wugu">Prince Wu of Southern Liang</a>, were respectively descended from the sons of the <a href="/wiki/Tuoba_Jiefen" title="Tuoba Jiefen">Emperor Shengwu of Northern Wei</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tuoba_Liwei" title="Tuoba Liwei">Emperor Shenyuan of Northern Wei</a> and Tufa Pigu<a href="#cite_note-SouthernLiang-97">[90]</a></li> <li>The only ruler of the Eastern Wei, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaojing_of_Eastern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei">Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei</a>, was a great-grandson of the seventh emperor of the Northern Wei, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowen_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei">Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei</a></li> <li>The Western Wei founder, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Western_Wei" title="Emperor Wen of Western Wei">Emperor Wen of Western Wei</a>, was a grandson of the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang dynasty</a> <ul><li>The Southern Qi and the Liang dynasty were ruled by the House of Xiao</li> <li>The founder of the Liang dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang" title="Emperor Wu of Liang">Emperor Wu of Liang</a>, was a son of the Emperor Wen of Liang who was a distant cousin of the Southern Qi founder, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gao_of_Southern_Qi" title="Emperor Gao of Southern Qi">Emperor Gao of Southern Qi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Western Liang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> <ul><li>The Western Liang and the Tang dynasty were ruled by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Li" title="House of Li">House of Li</a></li> <li>The founder of the Tang dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Tang" title="Emperor Gaozu of Tang">Emperor Gaozu of Tang</a>, was a seventh-generation descendant of the Western Liang founder, the <a href="/wiki/Li_Gao" title="Li Gao">Prince Wuzhao of Western Liang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Han (Five Dynasties)">Later Han</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Han" title="Northern Han">Northern Han</a> <ul><li>The Later Han and the Northern Han were ruled by the House of Liu</li> <li>The first ruler of the Northern Han, the <a href="/wiki/Liu_Chong" title="Liu Chong">Emperor Shizu of Northern Han</a>, was a younger brother of the Later Han founder, the <a href="/wiki/Liu_Zhiyuan" title="Liu Zhiyuan">Emperor Gaozu of Later Han</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Western Liao</a> <ul><li>The Liao dynasty and the Western Liao were ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Yel%C3%BC" title="Yelü">House of Yelü</a></li> <li>The Western Liao founder, the <a href="/wiki/Yel%C3%BC_Dashi" title="Yelü Dashi">Emperor Dezong of Western Liao</a>, was an eighth-generation descendant of the first emperor of the Liao dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Abaoji" title="Abaoji">Emperor Taizu of Liao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a> and <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a> <ul><li>The Northern Song and the Southern Song were ruled by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhao" title="House of Zhao">House of Zhao</a>; they are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a><a href="#cite_note-Song-98">[91]</a></li> <li>The first ruler of the Southern Song, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Song" title="Emperor Gaozong of Song">Emperor Gaozong of Song</a>, was a son of the eighth Northern Song monarch, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Huizong_of_Song" title="Emperor Huizong of Song">Emperor Huizong of Song</a>; he was also a younger brother of the last Northern Song emperor, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Qinzong" title="Emperor Qinzong">Emperor Qinzong of Song</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a> <ul><li>The Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan were ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">House of Borjigin</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Toghon_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Toghon Temür">Emperor Huizong of Yuan</a> was both the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and the first ruler of the Northern Yuan</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a> <ul><li>The Ming dynasty and the Southern Ming were ruled by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">House of Zhu</a></li> <li>The Southern Ming founder, the <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Yousong" title="Zhu Yousong">Hongguang Emperor</a>, was a grandson of the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor">Wanli Emperor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> <ul><li>The Later Jin and the Qing dynasty were ruled by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aisin-Gioro" title="House of Aisin-Gioro">House of Aisin Gioro</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Emperor Taizong of Qing</a> was both the last Later Jin khan and the first emperor of the Qing dynasty</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinesisches_Reich_LOC_2011585250.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Chinesisches_Reich_LOC_2011585250.jpg/220px-Chinesisches_Reich_LOC_2011585250.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Chinesisches_Reich_LOC_2011585250.jpg/330px-Chinesisches_Reich_LOC_2011585250.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Chinesisches_Reich_LOC_2011585250.jpg/440px-Chinesisches_Reich_LOC_2011585250.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5635" data-file-height="4153" /></a><figcaption>A German map of the Chinese Empire during the <a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">height</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>. The Qing dynasty is considered to be a "Central Plain dynasty", a "unified dynasty", and a "conquest dynasty".</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_Plain_dynasties">Central Plain dynasties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Central Plain dynasties">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plain</a> is a vast area on the lower reaches of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. "Central Plain dynasties" (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8E%9F%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:中原王朝">中原王朝</a>; Zhōngyuán wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China that had their <a href="/wiki/Historical_capitals_of_China" title="Historical capitals of China">capital cities</a> situated within the Central Plain.<a href="#cite_note-CentralPlainDynasties-99">[92]</a> This term could refer to dynasties of both Han and non-Han ethnic origins.<a href="#cite_note-CentralPlainDynasties-99">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unified_dynasties">Unified dynasties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Unified dynasties">edit</a>]</div> "Unified dynasties" (大一統王朝; dàyītǒng wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China, regardless of their ethnic origin, that achieved the unification of China proper. "China proper" is a region generally regarded as the traditional heartland of the Han people, and is not equivalent to the term "China". Imperial dynasties that had attained the unification of China proper may be known as the "Chinese Empire" or the "Empire of China" (中華帝國; Zhōnghuá Dìguó).<a href="#cite_note-ChineseEmpire1-100">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-ChineseEmpire2-101">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-ChineseEmpire1-102">[h]</a> The concept of "great unity" or "grand unification" (大一統; dàyītǒng) was first mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Gongyang_Zhuan" title="Gongyang Zhuan">Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals</a> that was supposedly authored by the <a href="/wiki/Qi_(state)" title="Qi (state)">Qi</a> scholar Gongyang Gao.<a href="#cite_note-GreatUnity1-103">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreatUnity2-104">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreatUnity3-105">[97]</a> Other prominent figures like Confucius and <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a> also elaborated on this concept in their respective works.<a href="#cite_note-GreatUnity4-106">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreatUnity5-107">[99]</a> Historians typically consider the following dynasties to have unified China proper: the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty_(690%E2%80%93705)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou dynasty (690–705)">Wu Zhou</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UnifiedDynasties1-108">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-UnifiedDynasties2-109">[101]</a> The status of the Northern Song as a unified dynasty is disputed among historians as the <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Prefectures" title="Sixteen Prefectures">Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun</a> were partially administered by the contemporaneous <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> exercised partial control over <a href="/wiki/Hetao" title="Hetao">Hetao</a>; the Northern Song, in this sense, did not truly achieve the unification of China proper.<a href="#cite_note-UnifiedDynasties1-108">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-UnifiedDynasties3-110">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infiltration_dynasties_and_conquest_dynasties">Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">Conquest dynasty</a></div> According to the historian and sinologist <a href="/wiki/Karl_August_Wittfogel" title="Karl August Wittfogel">Karl August Wittfogel</a>, dynasties of China founded by non-Han peoples that ruled parts or all of China proper could be classified into two types, depending on the means by which the ruling ethnic groups had entered China proper.<a href="#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest1-111">[103]</a> "Infiltration dynasties" or "dynasties of infiltration" (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BB%B2%E9%80%8F%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:滲透王朝">滲透王朝</a>; shèntòu wángcháo) refer to Chinese dynasties founded by non-Han ethnicities that tended towards accepting Han culture and assimilating into the Han-dominant society.<a href="#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest1-111">[103]</a> For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han-Zhao</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a>, established by the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> ethnicities respectively, are considered infiltration dynasties of China.<a href="#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest1-111">[103]</a> "Conquest dynasties" or "dynasties of conquest" (征服王朝; zhēngfú wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China established by non-Han peoples that tended towards resisting Han culture and preserving the identities of the ruling ethnicities.<a href="#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest1-111">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest2-112">[104]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> peoples respectively, are considered conquest dynasties of China.<a href="#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest1-111">[103]</a> These terms remain sources of controversy among scholars who believe that Chinese history should be analyzed and understood from a multiethnic and multicultural perspective.<a href="#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest3-113">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naming_convention">Naming convention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Naming convention">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Official_nomenclature">Official nomenclature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Official nomenclature">edit</a>]</div> It was customary for Chinese monarchs to adopt an official name for the realm, known as the guóhào (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7" class="extiw" title="zh:国号">國號</a>; "name of the state"), upon the establishment of a dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName1-A-114">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName2-115">[107]</a> During the rule of a dynasty, its guóhào functioned as the formal name of the state, both internally and for diplomatic purposes. The formal name of Chinese dynasties was usually derived from one of the following sources: <ul><li>The name of the ruling tribe or tribal confederation<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName3-116">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName4-117">[109]</a> <ul><li>e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia dynasty</a> took its name from its ruling class, the Xia tribal confederation<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName3-116">[108]</a></li></ul></li> <li>The noble title held by the dynastic founder prior to the founding of the dynasty<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName3-116">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName4-117">[109]</a> <ul><li>e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Chen" title="Emperor Wu of Chen">Emperor Wu of Chen</a> adopted the dynastic name "Chen" from his pre-imperial title "Prince of Chen" upon the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen dynasty</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName5-118">[110]</a></li></ul></li> <li>The name of a historical state that occupied the same geographical location as the new dynasty<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName4-117">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName6-119">[111]</a> <ul><li>e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Former_Yan" title="Former Yan">Former Yan</a> was officially named "Yan" based on the ancient <a href="/wiki/Yan_(state)" title="Yan (state)">State of Yan</a> located in the same region<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName6-119">[111]</a></li></ul></li> <li>The name of a previous dynasty from which the new dynasty claimed descent or succession from, even if such familial link was questionable<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName4-117">[109]</a> <ul><li>e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Guo_Wei" title="Guo Wei">Emperor Taizu of Later Zhou</a> officially proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Later Zhou</a> with the official title "Zhou" as he claimed ancestry from Guo Shu, a royal of the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName7-120">[112]</a></li></ul></li> <li>A term with auspicious or other significant connotations<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName3-116">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName4-117">[109]</a> <ul><li>e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> was officially the "Great Yuan", a name derived from a clause in the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">Classic of Changes</a>, "dà zāi Qián Yuán" (大哉乾元; "Great is the Heavenly and Primal")<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName8-121">[113]</a></li></ul></li></ul> There were instances whereby the official name was changed during the reign of a dynasty. For example, the dynasty known retroactively as <a href="/wiki/Southern_Han" title="Southern Han">Southern Han</a> initially used the name "Yue", only to be renamed to "Han" subsequently.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName9-122">[114]</a> The official title of several dynasties bore the character "dà" (大; "great"). In Yongzhuang Xiaopin by the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Guozhen_(Ming_dynasty)" title="Zhu Guozhen (Ming dynasty)">Zhu Guozhen</a>, it was claimed that the first dynasty to do so was the Yuan dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName10-123">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName11-124">[116]</a> However, several sources like the History of Liao and the History of Jin compiled by the Yuan historian <a href="/wiki/Toqto%27a_(Yuan_dynasty)" title="Toqto'a (Yuan dynasty)">Toqto'a</a> revealed that the official dynastic name of some earlier dynasties such as the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a> also contained the character "dà".<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName12-125">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName13-126">[118]</a> It was also common for officials, subjects, or tributary states of a particular dynasty to include the term "dà" (or an equivalent term in other languages) when referring to this dynasty as a form of respect, even if the official dynastic name did not include it.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName11-124">[116]</a> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Nihon_Shoki" title="Nihon Shoki">The Chronicles of Japan</a> referred to the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> as "Dai Tō" (大唐; "Great Tang") despite its dynastic name being simply "Tang". While all dynasties of China sought to associate their respective realm with Zhōngguó (中國; "Central State"; usually translated as "Middle Kingdom" or "China" in English texts) and various other <a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">names of China</a>, none of these regimes officially used such names as their dynastic title.<a href="#cite_note-Zhongguo1-127">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhongguo2-128">[120]</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> explicitly identified their state with and employed "Zhōngguó"—and its <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> equivalent "Dulimbai Gurun" (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237794275">.mw-parser-output .font-mong{font-family:"Menk Hawang Tig","Menk Qagan Tig","Menk Garqag Tig","Menk Har_a Tig","Menk Scnin Tig","Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig","Oyun Qagan Tig","Oyun Garqag Tig","Oyun Har_a Tig","Oyun Scnin Tig","Oyun Agula Tig","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White","Mongol Usug","Mongolian White","MongolianScript","Code2000","Menksoft Qagan"}.mw-parser-output .font-mong-mnc,.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(mnc-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(dta-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(sjo-Mong){font-family:"Abkai Xanyan","Abkai Xanyan LA","Abkai Xanyan VT","Abkai Xanyan XX","Abkai Xanyan SC","Abkai Buleku","Daicing White","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White"}</style><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top; text-align:left">ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ)—in official capacity in numerous international treaties beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a> dated AD 1689, its dynastic name had remained the "Great Qing".<a href="#cite_note-Zhongguo3-129">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhongguo4-130">[122]</a> "Zhōngguó", which has become nearly synonymous with "China" in modern times, is a concept with geographical, political, and cultural connotations.<a href="#cite_note-Zhongguo5-131">[123]</a> The adoption of guóhào, as well as the importance assigned to it, had promulgated within the <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cultural sphere">Sinosphere</a>. Notably, rulers of <a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_dynasties" title="List of Vietnamese dynasties">Vietnam</a> and Korea also declared guóhào for their respective realm. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Retroactive_nomenclature">Retroactive nomenclature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Retroactive nomenclature">edit</a>]</div> In Chinese historiography, historians generally do not refer to dynasties directly by their official name. Instead, historiographical names, which were most commonly derived from their official name, are used. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> is known as such because its formal name was "Sui". Likewise, the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> was officially the "Great Jin". When more than one dynasty shared the same <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese character(s)</a> as their formal name, as was common in Chinese history, prefixes are retroactively applied to dynastic names by historians in order to distinguish between these similarly-named regimes.<a href="#cite_note-Periodization1-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName1-47">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName14-132">[124]</a> Frequently used prefixes include: <ul><li>Cardinal direction <ul><li>"Northern" (北; běi): e.g., <a href="/wiki/Northern_Qi" title="Northern Qi">Northern Qi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></li> <li>"Southern" (南; nán): e.g., <a href="/wiki/Southern_Yan" title="Southern Yan">Southern Yan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Tang" title="Southern Tang">Southern Tang</a></li> <li>"Eastern" (東; dōng): e.g., <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wei" title="Eastern Wei">Eastern Wei</a></li> <li>"Western" (西; xī): e.g., <a href="/wiki/Western_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Western Liang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Western Liao</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sequence <ul><li>"Former"<a href="#cite_note-Prefix1-135">[i]</a> (前; qián): e.g., <a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Former_Shu" title="Former Shu">Former Shu</a></li> <li>"Later"<a href="#cite_note-Prefix2-141">[j]</a> (後; hòu): e.g., <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Later Zhao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Han (Five Dynasties)">Later Han</a></li></ul></li> <li>Surname of the ruling family <ul><li>e.g., <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty_(690%E2%80%93705)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou dynasty (690–705)">Wu Zhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Chu" title="Ma Chu">Ma Chu</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other types of prefixes <ul><li>e.g., <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu Han</a> (the prefix "Shu" is a reference to the realm's geographical location at <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Xia_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Hu Xia</a> (the prefix "Hu", meaning "<a href="/wiki/Barbarian#China" title="Barbarian">barbarian</a>", refers to the dynasty's ethnic Xiongnu origin)</li></ul></li></ul> A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a> is also known as the "Former Han", and the <a href="/wiki/Yang_Wu" title="Yang Wu">Yang Wu</a> is also called the "Southern Wu".<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName15-142">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName16-143">[133]</a> Scholars usually make a historiographical distinction for dynasties whose rule were interrupted. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> is divided into the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Jingkang_incident" title="Jingkang incident">Jingkang Incident</a> as the dividing line; the original "Song" founded by the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Song" title="Emperor Taizu of Song">Emperor Taizu of Song</a> was therefore differentiated from the "Song" restored under the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Song" title="Emperor Gaozong of Song">Emperor Gaozong of Song</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName17-144">[134]</a> In such cases, the regime had collapsed, only to be re-established; a nomenclatural distinction between the original regime and the new regime is thus necessary for historiographical purpose. Major exceptions to this historiographical practice include the <a href="/wiki/Western_Qin" title="Western Qin">Western Qin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Southern Liang</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>; the first two were interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Later_Qin" title="Later Qin">Later Qin</a>, while the continuity of the latter was broken by the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty_(690%E2%80%93705)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou dynasty (690–705)">Wu Zhou</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName18-145">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName19-146">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-DynasticName20-147">[137]</a> In Chinese sources, the term "dynasty" (朝; cháo) is usually omitted when referencing dynasties that have prefixes in their historiographical names. Such a practice is sometimes adopted in English usage, even though the inclusion of the word "dynasty" is also widely seen in English scholarly writings. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a> is also sometimes referred to as the "Northern Zhou dynasty".<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName21-148">[138]</a> Often, scholars would refer to a specific Chinese dynasty by attaching the word "China" after the dynastic name. For instance, "Tang China" refers to the Chinese state under the rule of the Tang dynasty and the corresponding historical era.<a href="#cite_note-DynasticName22-149">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Territorial_extent">Territorial extent</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Territorial extent">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_Dynasties.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/China_Dynasties.gif/220px-China_Dynasties.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/China_Dynasties.gif/330px-China_Dynasties.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/China_Dynasties.gif/440px-China_Dynasties.gif 2x" data-file-width="956" data-file-height="676" /></a><figcaption>Approximate territories controlled by the various dynasties and states throughout Chinese history, juxtaposed with the <a href="/wiki/Borders_of_China" title="Borders of China">modern Chinese borders</a>.</figcaption></figure> While the earliest orthodox Chinese dynasties were established along the Yellow River and the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a> in China proper, numerous Chinese dynasties later <a href="/wiki/Chinese_expansionism" title="Chinese expansionism">expanded beyond the region</a> to encompass other territorial domains.<a href="#cite_note-Territory1-150">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory2-151">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory3-152">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory4-153">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory5-154">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory6-155">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory7-156">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory8-157">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory9-158">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory10-159">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory11-160">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory12-161">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory13-162">[152]</a> At various points in time, Chinese dynasties exercised control over China proper (including <a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Territory1-150">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory2-151">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory3-152">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Territory4-153">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> (both <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Inner Manchuria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outer_Manchuria" title="Outer Manchuria">Outer Manchuria</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Territory5-154">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory6-155">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Territory7-156">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory8-157">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Plateau" title="Mongolian Plateau">Mongolia</a> (both <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolia" title="Outer Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Territory6-155">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory9-158">[148]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_under_Chinese_rule" title="Vietnam under Chinese rule">Vietnam</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Territory10-159">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory6-A-163">[153]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Territory5-154">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory6-155">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/East_Turkestan" title="East Turkestan">Xinjiang</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Territory11-160">[150]</a> as well as parts of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Territory6-155">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory7-156">[146]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korean Peninsula</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Territory12-161">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Territory13-162">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-Territory5-A-164">[154]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Territory6-155">[145]</a> Territorially, the largest orthodox Chinese dynasty was either the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, depending on the historical source.<a href="#cite_note-Largest1-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Largest2-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Largest3-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Largest4-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Largest5-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreatYuan-22">[c]</a> This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan realm: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Baikal" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a>, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic</a> coast, with its western boundary with the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> in Siberia delimited by the <a href="/wiki/Ob_(river)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ob (river)">Ob</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Irtysh" title="Irtysh">Irtysh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Largest6-165">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-Largest7-166">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-Largest8-167">[157]</a> In contrast, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined. Apart from exerting direct control over the Chinese realm, various dynasties of China also maintained hegemony over other states and tribes through the <a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">Chinese tributary system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tributary1-168">[158]</a> The Chinese tributary system first emerged during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a> and lasted until the 19th century AD when the <a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentric</a> order broke down.<a href="#cite_note-Tributary2-169">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tributary3-170">[160]</a> The modern territorial claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China are inherited from the lands once held by the Qing dynasty at the time of its collapse.<a href="#cite_note-Largest5-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-ModernTerritory1-171">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-ModernTerritory2-172">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-ModernTerritory3-173">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-ModernTerritory4-174">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_major_Chinese_dynasties">List of major Chinese dynasties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: List of major Chinese dynasties">edit</a>]</div> This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. This list is neither comprehensive nor representative of Chinese history as a whole. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Major dynasties of China </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th>Dynasty </th> <th colspan="3">Ruling house </th> <th colspan="2">Period of rule </th> <th colspan="3">Rulers </th></tr> <tr> <th>Name<a href="#cite_note-Name-175">[k]</a> (English<a href="#cite_note-Pinyin-177">[l]</a> / Chinese<a href="#cite_note-ChineseCharacters-178">[m]</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a>) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Chinese_surname" title="Chinese surname">Surname</a> (English<a href="#cite_note-Pinyin-177">[l]</a> / Chinese<a href="#cite_note-ChineseCharacters-178">[m]</a>) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">Ethnicity</a><a href="#cite_note-Ethnicity-181">[n]</a> </th> <th>Status<a href="#cite_note-Status-182">[o]</a> </th> <th>Year </th> <th>Term </th> <th>Founder<a href="#cite_note-Founder-183">[p]</a> </th> <th>Last monarch </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">List</a> / Family tree </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="10">Semi-legendary </th></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a> 夏朝 Xià Cháo Hsia4 Ch῾ao2 ㄒㄧㄚˋ ㄔㄠˊ </td> <td>Si<a href="#cite_note-Si-185">[q]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yi-187">[r]</a><a href="#cite_note-YunZhuo-189">[s]</a> 姒 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Huaxia" title="Huaxia">Huaxia</a><a href="#cite_note-Yi-187">[r]</a><a href="#cite_note-YunZhuo-189">[s]</a> </td> <td>Royal </td> <td>2070–1600 BC<a href="#cite_note-Year1-190">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-Xia–Shang–Zhou-191">[t]</a><a href="#cite_note-TraditionalXia-194">[u]</a> </td> <td>470 years<a href="#cite_note-TraditionalXia-194">[u]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu of Xia</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jie_of_Xia" title="Jie of Xia">Jie of Xia</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Xia_dynasty_(夏朝)_(2070–1600_BC)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(ancient)#Xia_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Ancient China</a> </th></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> 商朝 Shāng Cháo Shang1 Ch῾ao2 ㄕㄤㄔㄠˊ </td> <td>Zi 子 </td> <td>Huaxia </td> <td>Royal </td> <td>1600–1046 BC<a href="#cite_note-Year2-195">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-Xia–Shang–Zhou-191">[t]</a><a href="#cite_note-TraditionalShang-197">[v]</a> </td> <td>554 years<a href="#cite_note-TraditionalShang-197">[v]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tang_of_Shang" title="Tang of Shang">Tang of Shang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/King_Zhou_of_Shang" title="King Zhou of Shang">Zhou of Shang</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Shang_dynasty_(商朝)_(1600–1046_BC)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(ancient)#Shang_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhou-198">[w]</a> 西周 Xī Zhōu Hsi1 Chou1 ㄒㄧㄓㄡ </td> <td>Ji 姬 </td> <td>Huaxia </td> <td>Royal </td> <td>1046–771 BC<a href="#cite_note-Year3-199">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-Xia–Shang–Zhou-191">[t]</a><a href="#cite_note-TraditionalZhou-200">[x]</a> </td> <td>275 years<a href="#cite_note-TraditionalZhou-200">[x]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/King_Wu_of_Zhou" title="King Wu of Zhou">Wu of Zhou</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/King_You_of_Zhou" title="King You of Zhou">You of Zhou</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Zhou_dynasty_(周朝)_(1046–256_BC)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(ancient)#Zhou_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhou-198">[w]</a> 東周 Dōng Zhōu Tung1 Chou1 ㄉㄨㄥㄓㄡ </td> <td>Ji 姬 </td> <td>Huaxia </td> <td>Royal </td> <td>770–256 BC<a href="#cite_note-Year3-199">[176]</a> </td> <td>514 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/King_Ping_of_Zhou" title="King Ping of Zhou">Ping of Zhou</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/King_Nan_of_Zhou" title="King Nan of Zhou">Nan of Zhou</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Zhou_dynasty_(周朝)_(1046–256_BC)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(ancient)#Zhou_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Early_imperial_China" title="History of China">Early Imperial China</a><a href="#cite_note-ChineseEmpire2-201">[y]</a> </th></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> 秦朝 Qín Cháo Ch῾in2 Ch῾ao2 ㄑㄧㄣˊ ㄔㄠˊ </td> <td>Ying<a href="#cite_note-Ying-203">[z]</a> 嬴 </td> <td>Huaxia </td> <td>Imperial (221–207 BC)<hr />Royal (207 BC) </td> <td>221–207 BC<a href="#cite_note-Year4-204">[178]</a> </td> <td>14 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ziying_of_Qin" title="Ziying of Qin">Ying Ziying</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Qin_dynasty_(秦朝)_(221–207_BC)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Qin_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a><a href="#cite_note-Han-205">[aa]</a> 西漢 Xī Hàn Hsi1 Han4 ㄒㄧㄏㄢˋ </td> <td>Liu 劉 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>202 BC–AD 9<a href="#cite_note-Year5-206">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeWesternHan-208">[ab]</a> </td> <td>211 years<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeWesternHan-208">[ab]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han">Gao of Han</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ruzi_Ying" title="Ruzi Ying">Liu Ying</a><a href="#cite_note-LiuYing-210">[ac]</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Han_dynasty#Emperors" title="List of emperors of the Han dynasty">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Han_dynasty,_Xin_dynasty_and_Shu_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin dynasty</a> 新朝 Xīn Cháo Hsin1 Ch῾ao2 ㄒㄧㄣㄔㄠˊ </td> <td>Wang 王 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 9–23<a href="#cite_note-Year6-211">[182]</a> </td> <td>14 years </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Wang_Mang" title="Wang Mang">Wang Mang</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Xin_dynasty_(新朝)_(9–23_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Han_dynasty,_Xin_dynasty_and_Shu_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a><a href="#cite_note-Han-205">[aa]</a> 東漢 Dōng Hàn Tung1 Han4 ㄉㄨㄥㄏㄢˋ </td> <td>Liu 劉 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 25–220<a href="#cite_note-Year7-212">[183]</a> </td> <td>195 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Guangwu_of_Han" title="Emperor Guangwu of Han">Guangwu of Han</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xian_of_Han" title="Emperor Xian of Han">Xian of Han</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Han_dynasty#Emperors" title="List of emperors of the Han dynasty">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Han_dynasty,_Xin_dynasty_and_Shu_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:lightgray;"> <td style="background:#FFA25E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> 三國 Sān Guó San1 Kuo2 ㄙㄢㄍㄨㄛˊ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>AD 220–280<a href="#cite_note-Year8-213">[184]</a> </td> <td>60 years </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Three_Kingdoms_(三國)_(220–280_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Han_dynasty_and_Three_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FFA25E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a> 曹魏 Cáo Wèi Ts῾ao2 Wei4 ㄘㄠˊ ㄨㄟˋ </td> <td>Cao 曹 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 220–266<a href="#cite_note-Year9-214">[185]</a> </td> <td>46 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cao_Pi" title="Cao Pi">Wen of Cao Wei</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cao_Huan" title="Cao Huan">Yuan of Cao Wei</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Cao_Wei_(曹魏)_(220–266_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei_family_trees" title="Cao Wei family trees">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FFA25E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu Han</a> 蜀漢 Shǔ Hàn Shu3 Han4 ㄕㄨˇ ㄏㄢˋ </td> <td>Liu 劉 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 221–263<a href="#cite_note-Year10-215">[186]</a> </td> <td>42 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liu_Bei" title="Liu Bei">Zhaolie of Shu Han</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liu_Shan" title="Liu Shan">Huai of Shu Han</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Shu_Han_(蜀漢)_(221–263_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Shu_Han_family_trees" title="Shu Han family trees">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FFA25E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Eastern Wu</a> 東吳 Dōng Wú Tung1 Wu2 ㄉㄨㄥㄨˊ </td> <td>Sun 孫 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Royal (AD 222–229)<hr />Imperial (AD 229–280) </td> <td>AD 222–280<a href="#cite_note-Year11-216">[187]</a> </td> <td>58 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sun_Quan" title="Sun Quan">Da of Eastern Wu</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sun_Hao" title="Sun Hao">Sun Hao</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Eastern_Wu_(東吳)_(222–280_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu_family_trees" title="Eastern Wu family trees">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a><a href="#cite_note-Jin1-217">[ad]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jin2-218">[ae]</a> 西晉 Xī Jìn Hsi1 Chin4 ㄒㄧㄐㄧㄣˋ </td> <td>Sima 司馬 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 266–316<a href="#cite_note-Year12-219">[188]</a> </td> <td>50 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Jin" title="Emperor Wu of Jin">Wu of Jin</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Min_of_Jin" title="Emperor Min of Jin">Min of Jin</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Jin_dynasty_(晉朝)_(266–420_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Jin_dynasty_and_Chu" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a><a href="#cite_note-Jin1-217">[ad]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jin2-218">[ae]</a> 東晉 Dōng Jìn Tung1 Chin4 ㄉㄨㄥㄐㄧㄣˋ </td> <td>Sima 司馬 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 317–420<a href="#cite_note-Year13-220">[189]</a> </td> <td>103 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Jin" title="Emperor Yuan of Jin">Yuan of Jin</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gong_of_Jin" title="Emperor Gong of Jin">Gong of Jin</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Jin_dynasty_(晉朝)_(266–420_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Jin_dynasty_and_Chu" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:lightgray;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a><a href="#cite_note-SixteenKingdoms-222">[af]</a> 十六國 Shíliù Guó Shih2-liu4 Kuo2 ㄕˊ ㄌㄧㄡˋ ㄍㄨㄛˊ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>AD 304–439<a href="#cite_note-Year14-223">[191]</a> </td> <td>135 years </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Sixteen_Kingdoms_(十六國)_(304–439_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Sixteen_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han-Zhao</a> 漢趙 Hàn Zhào Han4 Chao4 ㄏㄢˋ ㄓㄠˋ </td> <td>Liu<a href="#cite_note-Luandi-226">[ag]</a><a href="#cite_note-JinZhun-228">[ah]</a> 劉 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> </td> <td>Royal (AD 304–308)<hr />Imperial (AD 308–329) </td> <td>AD 304–329<a href="#cite_note-Year15-229">[195]</a> </td> <td>25 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yuan_(Han-Zhao)" title="Liu Yuan (Han-Zhao)">Guangwen of Han-Zhao</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yao" title="Liu Yao">Liu Yao</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Han_Zhao_(漢趙)_(304–329_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#(Han)_Former_Zhao" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cheng-Han" title="Cheng-Han">Cheng-Han</a> 成漢 Chéng Hàn Ch῾eng2 Han4 ㄔㄥˊ ㄏㄢˋ </td> <td>Li 李 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Di_(Five_Barbarians)" title="Di (Five Barbarians)">Di</a> </td> <td>Princely (AD 304–306)<hr />Imperial (AD 306–347) </td> <td>AD 304–347<a href="#cite_note-Year16-230">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeChengHan-232">[ai]</a> </td> <td>43 years<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeChengHan-232">[ai]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Li_Xiong" title="Li Xiong">Wu of Cheng-Han</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeChengHan-232">[ai]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Li_Shi_(emperor)" title="Li Shi (emperor)">Li Shi</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Cheng_Han_(成漢)_(304–347_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Cheng_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Later_Zhao" title="Later Zhao">Later Zhao</a> 後趙 Hòu Zhào Hou4 Chao4 ㄏㄡˋ ㄓㄠˋ </td> <td>Shi 石 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jie_people" title="Jie people">Jie</a> </td> <td>Royal (AD 319–330)<hr />Imperial (AD 330–351)<hr />Princely (AD 351) </td> <td>AD 319–351<a href="#cite_note-Year17-233">[198]</a> </td> <td>32 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shi_Le" title="Shi Le">Ming of Later Zhao</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shi_Zhi" title="Shi Zhi">Shi Zhi</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Later_Zhao_(後趙)_(319–351_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Later_Zhao" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Former_Liang" title="Former Liang">Former Liang</a> 前涼 Qián Liáng Ch῾ien2 Liang2 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄌㄧㄤˊ </td> <td>Zhang 張 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Princely (AD 320–354, AD 355–363)<hr />Imperial (AD 354–355)<hr />Ducal (AD 363–376) </td> <td>AD 320–376<a href="#cite_note-Year18-234">[199]</a> </td> <td>56 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Mao" title="Zhang Mao">Cheng of Former Liang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Tianxi" title="Zhang Tianxi">Dao of Former Liang</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Former_Liang_(前涼)_(320–376_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Former_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Former_Yan" title="Former Yan">Former Yan</a> 前燕 Qián Yān Ch῾ien2 Yen1 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄧㄢ </td> <td>Murong 慕容 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> </td> <td>Princely (AD 337–353)<hr />Imperial (AD 353–370) </td> <td>AD 337–370<a href="#cite_note-Year19-235">[200]</a> </td> <td>33 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Murong_Huang" title="Murong Huang">Wenming of Former Yan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Murong_Wei" title="Murong Wei">You of Former Yan</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Former_Yan_(前燕)_(337–370_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Yan_states_and_Tuyuhun" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a> 前秦 Qián Qín Ch῾ien2 Ch῾in2 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄑㄧㄣˊ </td> <td>Fu<a href="#cite_note-Pu-237">[aj]</a> 苻 </td> <td>Di </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 351–394<a href="#cite_note-Year19-235">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeFormerQin-239">[ak]</a> </td> <td>43 years<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeFormerQin-239">[ak]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fu_Jian_(317%E2%80%93355)" title="Fu Jian (317–355)">Jingming of Former Qin</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeFormerQin-239">[ak]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fu_Chong" title="Fu Chong">Fu Chong</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Former_Qin_(前秦)_(351–394_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Former_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Later_Yan" title="Later Yan">Later Yan</a> 後燕 Hòu Yān Hou4 Yen1 ㄏㄡˋ ㄧㄢ </td> <td>Murong<a href="#cite_note-LanHan-241">[al]</a><a href="#cite_note-GaoYun1-243">[am]</a> 慕容 </td> <td>Xianbei<a href="#cite_note-GaoYun1-243">[am]</a> </td> <td>Princely (AD 384–386)<hr />Imperial (AD 386–409) </td> <td>AD 384–409<a href="#cite_note-Year20-244">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-LaterYan-245">[an]</a> </td> <td>25 years<a href="#cite_note-LaterYan-245">[an]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Murong_Chui" title="Murong Chui">Chengwu of Later Yan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Murong_Xi" title="Murong Xi">Zhaowen of Later Yan</a><hr /><a href="/wiki/Gao_Yun_(emperor)" title="Gao Yun (emperor)">Huiyi of Yan</a><a href="#cite_note-GaoYun2-246">[ao]</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Later_Yan_(後燕)_(384–409_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Yan_states_and_Tuyuhun" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Later_Qin" title="Later Qin">Later Qin</a> 後秦 Hòu Qín Hou4 Ch῾in2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄑㄧㄣˊ </td> <td>Yao 姚 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a> </td> <td>Royal (AD 384–386)<hr />Imperial (AD 386–417) </td> <td>AD 384–417<a href="#cite_note-Year21-247">[206]</a> </td> <td>33 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yao_Chang" title="Yao Chang">Wuzhao of Later Qin</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yao_Hong" title="Yao Hong">Yao Hong</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Later_Qin_(後秦)_(384–417_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Later_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Western_Qin" title="Western Qin">Western Qin</a> 西秦 Xī Qín Hsi1 Ch῾in2 ㄒㄧㄑㄧㄣˊ </td> <td>Qifu 乞伏 </td> <td>Xianbei </td> <td>Princely </td> <td>AD 385–400, AD 409–431<a href="#cite_note-Year22-248">[207]</a> </td> <td>37 years<a href="#cite_note-WesternQin-249">[ap]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Qifu_Guoren" title="Qifu Guoren">Xuanlie of Western Qin</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Qifu_Mumo" title="Qifu Mumo">Qifu Mumo</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Western_Qin_(西秦)_(385–400_AD,_409–431_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Western_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Later Liang</a><a href="#cite_note-LaterLiang-250">[aq]</a> 後涼 Hòu Liáng Hou4 Liang2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄌㄧㄤˊ </td> <td>Lü 呂 </td> <td>Di </td> <td>Ducal (AD 386–389)<hr />Princely (AD 389–396)<hr />Imperial (AD 396–403) </td> <td>AD 386–403<a href="#cite_note-Year23-251">[208]</a> </td> <td>17 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Guang" title="Lü Guang">Yiwu of Later Liang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Long" title="Lü Long">Lü Long</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Later_Liang_(後涼)_(386–403_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Later_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Southern Liang</a> 南涼 Nán Liáng Nan2 Liang2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄌㄧㄤˊ </td> <td>Tufa<a href="#cite_note-Tufa-252">[ar]</a> 禿髮 </td> <td>Xianbei </td> <td>Princely </td> <td>AD 397–404, AD 408–414<a href="#cite_note-Year24-253">[209]</a> </td> <td>13 years<a href="#cite_note-SouthernLiang-254">[as]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tufa_Wugu" title="Tufa Wugu">Wu of Southern Liang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tufa_Rutan" title="Tufa Rutan">Jing of Southern Liang</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Southern_Liang_(南涼)_(397–414_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Southern_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang</a> 北涼 Běi Liáng Pei3 Liang2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄌㄧㄤˊ </td> <td>Juqu<a href="#cite_note-DuanYe-256">[at]</a> 沮渠 </td> <td>Lushuihu<a href="#cite_note-DuanYe-256">[at]</a> </td> <td>Ducal (AD 397–399, AD 401–412)<hr />Princely (AD 399–401, AD 412–439) </td> <td>AD 397–439<a href="#cite_note-Year25-257">[211]</a> </td> <td>42 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Duan_Ye" title="Duan Ye">Duan Ye</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Juqu_Mujian" title="Juqu Mujian">Ai of Northern Liang</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Northern_Liang_(北涼)_(397–439_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Northern_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Yan" title="Southern Yan">Southern Yan</a> 南燕 Nán Yān Nan2 Yen1 ㄋㄢˊ ㄧㄢ </td> <td>Murong 慕容 </td> <td>Xianbei </td> <td>Princely (AD 398–400)<hr />Imperial (AD 400–410) </td> <td>AD 398–410<a href="#cite_note-Year26-258">[212]</a> </td> <td>12 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Murong_De" title="Murong De">Xianwu of Southern Yan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Murong_Chao" title="Murong Chao">Murong Chao</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Southern_Yan_(南燕)_(398–410_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Yan_states_and_Tuyuhun" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Western_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Western Liang</a> 西涼 Xī Liáng Hsi1 Liang2 ㄒㄧㄌㄧㄤˊ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/House_of_Li" title="House of Li">Li</a> 李 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Ducal </td> <td>AD 400–421<a href="#cite_note-Year27-259">[213]</a> </td> <td>21 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Li_Gao" title="Li Gao">Wuzhao of Western Liang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Li_Xun_(Western_Liang)" title="Li Xun (Western Liang)">Li Xun</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Western_Liang_(西涼)_(400–421_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Western_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Xia_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Hu Xia</a> 胡夏 Hú Xià Hu2 Hsia4 ㄏㄨˊ ㄒㄧㄚˋ </td> <td>Helian<a href="#cite_note-Helian-262">[au]</a> 赫連 </td> <td>Xiongnu </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 407–431<a href="#cite_note-Year28-263">[216]</a> </td> <td>24 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helian_Bobo" title="Helian Bobo">Wulie of Hu Xia</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helian_Ding" title="Helian Ding">Helian Ding</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Hu_Xia_(胡夏)_(407–431_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Xia" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#5E7EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yan" title="Northern Yan">Northern Yan</a> 北燕 Běi Yān Pei3 Yen1 ㄅㄟˇ ㄧㄢ </td> <td>Feng<a href="#cite_note-GaoYun3-264">[av]</a> 馮 </td> <td>Han<a href="#cite_note-GaoYun3-264">[av]</a> </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 407–436<a href="#cite_note-Year29-265">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-NorthernYan-266">[aw]</a> </td> <td>29 years<a href="#cite_note-NorthernYan-266">[aw]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gao_Yun_(emperor)" title="Gao Yun (emperor)">Huiyi of Yan</a><a href="#cite_note-GaoYun2-246">[ao]</a><hr /><a href="/wiki/Feng_Ba" title="Feng Ba">Wencheng of Northern Yan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Feng_Hong" title="Feng Hong">Zhaocheng of Northern Yan</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Northern_Yan_(北燕)_(407–436_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)#Yan_states_and_Tuyuhun" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:lightgray;"> <td style="background:#60FF5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties#Northern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern dynasties</a> 北朝 Běi Cháo Pei3 Ch῾ao2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄔㄠˊ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>AD 386–581<a href="#cite_note-Year30-267">[218]</a> </td> <td>195 years </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_China%27s_Northern_Dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of emperors of China's Northern Dynasties">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#60FF5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a> 北魏 Běi Wèi Pei3 Wei4 ㄅㄟˇ ㄨㄟˋ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tuoba" title="Tuoba">Tuoba</a><a href="#cite_note-Tuoba1-269">[ax]</a> 拓跋 </td> <td>Xianbei </td> <td>Princely (AD 386–399)<hr />Imperial (AD 399–535) </td> <td>AD 386–535<a href="#cite_note-Year31-270">[220]</a> </td> <td>149 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Daowu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei">Daowu of Northern Wei</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei">Xiaowu of Northern Wei</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Northern_Wei_(北魏)_(386–535_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Northern_Wei,_Eastern_Wei,_Western_Wei" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#60FF5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wei" title="Eastern Wei">Eastern Wei</a> 東魏 Dōng Wèi Tung1 Wei4 ㄉㄨㄥㄨㄟˋ </td> <td>Yuan<a href="#cite_note-Tuoba2-271">[ay]</a> 元 </td> <td>Xianbei </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 534–550<a href="#cite_note-Year32-272">[221]</a> </td> <td>16 years </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaojing_of_Eastern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei">Xiaojing of Eastern Wei</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Eastern_Wei_(東魏)_(534–550_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Northern_Wei,_Eastern_Wei,_Western_Wei" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#60FF5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Wei</a> 西魏 Xī Wèi Hsi1 Wei4 ㄒㄧㄨㄟˋ </td> <td>Yuan<a href="#cite_note-Tuoba3-274">[az]</a> 元 </td> <td>Xianbei </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 535–557<a href="#cite_note-Year32-272">[221]</a> </td> <td>22 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Western_Wei" title="Emperor Wen of Western Wei">Wen of Western Wei</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gong_of_Western_Wei" title="Emperor Gong of Western Wei">Gong of Western Wei</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Western_Wei_(西魏)_(535–557_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Northern_Wei,_Eastern_Wei,_Western_Wei" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#60FF5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Qi" title="Northern Qi">Northern Qi</a> 北齊 Běi Qí Pei3 Ch῾i2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄑㄧˊ </td> <td>Gao 高 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 550–577<a href="#cite_note-Year32-272">[221]</a> </td> <td>27 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wenxuan_of_Northern_Qi" title="Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi">Wenxuan of Northern Qi</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gao_Heng" title="Gao Heng">Gao Heng</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Northern_Qi_(北齊)_(550–577_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Northern_Qi" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#60FF5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a> 北周 Běi Zhōu Pei3 Chou1 ㄅㄟˇ ㄓㄡ </td> <td>Yuwen 宇文 </td> <td>Xianbei </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 557–581<a href="#cite_note-Year32-272">[221]</a> </td> <td>24 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaomin_of_Northern_Zhou" title="Emperor Xiaomin of Northern Zhou">Xiaomin of Northern Zhou</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Northern_Zhou" title="Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou">Jing of Northern Zhou</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Northern_Zhou_(北周)_(557–581_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Northern_Zhou" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:lightgray;"> <td style="background:#C05EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties#Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Southern dynasties</a> 南朝 Nán Cháo Nan2 Ch῾ao2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄔㄠˊ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>AD 420–589<a href="#cite_note-Year33-275">[223]</a> </td> <td>169 years </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_China%27s_Southern_Dynasties#Emperors_of_the_Southern_Dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of emperors of China's Southern Dynasties">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#C05EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song</a> 劉宋 Liú Sòng Liu2 Sung4 ㄌㄧㄡˊ ㄙㄨㄥˋ </td> <td>Liu 劉 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 420–479<a href="#cite_note-Year34-276">[224]</a> </td> <td>59 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Song" title="Emperor Wu of Song">Wu of Liu Song</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Shun_of_Song" title="Emperor Shun of Song">Shun of Liu Song</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Liu_Song_(劉宋)_(420–479_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#C05EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a> 南齊 Nán Qí Nan2 Ch῾i2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄑㄧˊ </td> <td>Xiao 蕭 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 479–502<a href="#cite_note-Year35-277">[225]</a> </td> <td>23 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gao_of_Southern_Qi" title="Emperor Gao of Southern Qi">Gao of Southern Qi</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_He_of_Southern_Qi" title="Emperor He of Southern Qi">He of Southern Qi</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Southern_Qi_(南齊)_(479–502_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Southern_Qi" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#C05EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang dynasty</a> 梁朝 Liáng Cháo Liang2 Ch῾ao2 ㄌㄧㄤˊ ㄔㄠˊ </td> <td>Xiao 蕭 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 502–557<a href="#cite_note-Year36-278">[226]</a> </td> <td>55 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang" title="Emperor Wu of Liang">Wu of Liang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Liang" title="Emperor Jing of Liang">Jing of Liang</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Liang_dynasty_(梁朝)_(502–557_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Liang_dynasty_and_Western_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#C05EFF;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen dynasty</a> 陳朝 Chén Cháo Ch῾en2 Ch῾ao2 ㄔㄣˊ ㄔㄠˊ </td> <td>Chen 陳 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 557–589<a href="#cite_note-Year37-279">[227]</a> </td> <td>32 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Chen" title="Emperor Wu of Chen">Wu of Chen</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chen_Shubao" title="Chen Shubao">Chen Shubao</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Chen_dynasty_(陳朝)_(557–589_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Chen_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Mid-imperial_China" title="History of China">Middle Imperial China</a><a href="#cite_note-ChineseEmpire2-201">[y]</a> </th></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> 隋朝 Suí Cháo Sui2 Ch῾ao2 ㄙㄨㄟˊ ㄔㄠˊ </td> <td>Yang<a href="#cite_note-Yang-281">[ba]</a> 楊 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 581–619<a href="#cite_note-Year38-282">[229]</a> </td> <td>38 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Wen of Sui</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yang_Tong" title="Yang Tong">Gong of Sui</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Sui_dynasty_(隋朝)_(581–619_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Sui_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> 唐朝 Táng Cháo T῾ang2 Ch῾ao2 ㄊㄤˊ ㄔㄠˊ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/House_of_Li" title="House of Li">Li</a><a href="#cite_note-Li-284">[bb]</a> 李 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 618–690, AD 705–907<a href="#cite_note-Year39-285">[231]</a> </td> <td>274 years<a href="#cite_note-Tang-286">[bc]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Tang" title="Emperor Gaozu of Tang">Gaozu of Tang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ai_of_Tang" title="Emperor Ai of Tang">Ai of Tang</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Tang_dynasty#List_of_Emperors" title="List of emperors of the Tang dynasty">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Tang_and_Wu_Zhou_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty_(690%E2%80%93705)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou dynasty (690–705)">Wu Zhou</a> 武周 Wǔ Zhōu Wu3 Chou1 ㄨˇ ㄓㄡ </td> <td>Wu 武 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 690–705<a href="#cite_note-Year40-287">[232]</a> </td> <td>15 years </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Zetian" title="Wu Zetian">Shengshen of Wu Zhou</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Wu_Zhou_(武周)_(690–705_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Tang_and_Wu_Zhou_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:lightgray;"> <td style="background:#FFEB5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period#Five_Dynasties" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties</a> 五代 Wǔ Dài Wu3 Tai4 ㄨˇ ㄉㄞˋ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>AD 907–960<a href="#cite_note-Year41-288">[233]</a> </td> <td>53 years </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Five_Dynasties_(五代)_(907–960_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FFEB5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Liang (Five Dynasties)">Later Liang</a><a href="#cite_note-LaterLiang-250">[aq]</a> 後梁 Hòu Liáng Hou4 Liang2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄌㄧㄤˊ </td> <td>Zhu 朱 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 907–923<a href="#cite_note-Year42-289">[234]</a> </td> <td>16 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Wen" title="Zhu Wen">Taizu of Later Liang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Youzhen" title="Zhu Youzhen">Zhu Youzhen</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Later_Liang_(後梁)_(907–923_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Later_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FFEB5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Later_Tang" title="Later Tang">Later Tang</a> 後唐 Hòu Táng Hou4 T῾ang2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄊㄤˊ </td> <td>Li<a href="#cite_note-Zhuye-291">[bd]</a><a href="#cite_note-LiSiyuan-293">[be]</a><a href="#cite_note-LiCongke-295">[bf]</a> 李 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shatuo" title="Shatuo">Shatuo</a><a href="#cite_note-LiCongke-295">[bf]</a> </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 923–937<a href="#cite_note-Year43-296">[238]</a> </td> <td>14 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Li_Cunxu" title="Li Cunxu">Zhuangzong of Later Tang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Li_Congke" title="Li Congke">Li Congke</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Later_Tang_(後唐)_(923–937_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Later_Tang" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FFEB5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Jin (Five Dynasties)">Later Jin</a><a href="#cite_note-LaterJin-297">[bg]</a> 後晉 Hòu Jìn Hou4 Chin4 ㄏㄡˋ ㄐㄧㄣˋ </td> <td>Shi 石 </td> <td>Shatuo </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 936–947<a href="#cite_note-Year44-298">[239]</a> </td> <td>11 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shi_Jingtang" title="Shi Jingtang">Gaozu of Later Jin</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shi_Chonggui" title="Shi Chonggui">Chu of Later Jin</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Later_Jin_(後晉)_(936–947_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Later_Jin" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FFEB5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Han (Five Dynasties)">Later Han</a> 後漢 Hòu Hàn Hou4 Han4 ㄏㄡˋ ㄏㄢˋ </td> <td>Liu 劉 </td> <td>Shatuo </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 947–951<a href="#cite_note-Year44-298">[239]</a> </td> <td>4 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liu_Zhiyuan" title="Liu Zhiyuan">Gaozu of Later Han</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liu_Chengyou" title="Liu Chengyou">Yin of Later Han</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Later_Han_(後漢)_(947–951_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Later_Han_and_Northern_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FFEB5E;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Later Zhou</a> 後周 Hòu Zhōu Hou4 Chou1 ㄏㄡˋ ㄓㄡ </td> <td>Guo<a href="#cite_note-ChaiRong-300">[bh]</a> 郭 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 951–960<a href="#cite_note-Year44-298">[239]</a> </td> <td>9 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guo_Wei" title="Guo Wei">Taizu of Later Zhou</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guo_Zongxun" title="Guo Zongxun">Gong of Later Zhou</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Later_Zhou_(後周)_(951–960_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Later_Zhou" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:lightgray;"> <td style="background:#FF5E96;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period#Ten_Kingdoms" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Ten Kingdoms</a> 十國 Shí Guó Shih2 Kuo2 ㄕˊ ㄍㄨㄛˊ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>AD 907–979<a href="#cite_note-Year45-301">[241]</a> </td> <td>72 years </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Ten_Kingdoms_(十國)_(907–979_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FF5E96;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Former_Shu" title="Former Shu">Former Shu</a> 前蜀 Qián Shǔ Ch῾ien2 Shu3 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄕㄨˇ </td> <td>Wang 王 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 907–925<a href="#cite_note-Year46-302">[242]</a> </td> <td>18 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jian_(Former_Shu)" title="Wang Jian (Former Shu)">Gaozu of Former Shu</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wang_Zongyan" title="Wang Zongyan">Wang Yan</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Former_Shu_(前蜀)_(907–925_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Former_Shu" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FF5E96;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yang_Wu" title="Yang Wu">Yang Wu</a> 楊吳 Yáng Wú Yang2 Wu2 ㄧㄤˊ ㄨˊ </td> <td>Yang 楊 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Princely (AD 907–919)<hr />Royal (AD 919–927)<hr />Imperial (AD 927–937) </td> <td>AD 907–937<a href="#cite_note-Year47-303">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeYangWu-305">[bi]</a> </td> <td>30 years<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeYangWu-305">[bi]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yang_Wo" title="Yang Wo">Liezu of Yang Wu</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeYangWu-305">[bi]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yang_Pu" title="Yang Pu">Rui of Yang Wu</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Yang_Wu_(楊吳)_(907–937_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Wu_and_Southern_Tang" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FF5E96;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ma_Chu" title="Ma Chu">Ma Chu</a> 馬楚 Mǎ Chǔ Ma3 Ch῾u3 ㄇㄚˇ ㄔㄨˇ </td> <td>Ma 馬 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Royal (AD 907–930)<hr />Princely (AD 930–951) </td> <td>AD 907–951<a href="#cite_note-Year48-306">[245]</a> </td> <td>44 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ma_Yin" title="Ma Yin">Wumu of Ma Chu</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ma_Xichong" title="Ma Xichong">Ma Xichong</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Ma_Chu_(馬楚)_(907–951_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Chu" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FF5E96;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wuyue" title="Wuyue">Wuyue</a> 吳越 Wúyuè Wu2-yüeh4 ㄨˊ ㄩㄝˋ </td> <td>Qian 錢 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Royal (AD 907–932, AD 937–978)<hr />Princely (AD 934–937) </td> <td>AD 907–978<a href="#cite_note-Year48-306">[245]</a> </td> <td>71 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Qian_Liu" title="Qian Liu">Taizu of Wuyue</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Qian_Chu" title="Qian Chu">Zhongyi of Qin</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Wuyue_(吳越)_(907–978_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Wuyue" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FF5E96;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Min_(Ten_Kingdoms)" title="Min (Ten Kingdoms)">Min</a> 閩 Mǐn Min3 ㄇㄧㄣˇ </td> <td>Wang<a href="#cite_note-ZhuWenjin-308">[bj]</a> 王 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Princely (AD 909–933, AD 944–945)<hr />Imperial (AD 933–944, AD 945) </td> <td>AD 909–945<a href="#cite_note-Year48-306">[245]</a> </td> <td>36 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wang_Shenzhi" title="Wang Shenzhi">Taizu of Min</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yanzheng" title="Wang Yanzheng">Tiande</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Min_(閩)_(909–945_AD)_&_Yin_(殷)_(943–945_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FF5E96;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Han" title="Southern Han">Southern Han</a> 南漢 Nán Hàn Nan2 Han4 ㄋㄢˊ ㄏㄢˋ </td> <td>Liu 劉 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 917–971<a href="#cite_note-Year48-306">[245]</a> </td> <td>54 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yan_(emperor)" title="Liu Yan (emperor)">Gaozu of Southern Han</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liu_Chang_(Southern_Han)" title="Liu Chang (Southern Han)">Liu Chang</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Southern_Han_(南漢)_(917–971_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Southern_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FF5E96;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jingnan" title="Jingnan">Jingnan</a> 荊南 Jīngnán Ching1-nan2 ㄐㄧㄥㄋㄢˊ </td> <td>Gao<a href="#cite_note-Gao-310">[bk]</a> 高 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Princely </td> <td>AD 924–963<a href="#cite_note-Year48-306">[245]</a> </td> <td>39 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gao_Jixing" title="Gao Jixing">Wuxin of Chu</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gao_Jichong" title="Gao Jichong">Gao Jichong</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Jingnan_(荊南)_(924–963_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Jingnan" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FF5E96;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Later_Shu" title="Later Shu">Later Shu</a> 後蜀 Hòu Shǔ Hou4 Shu3 ㄏㄡˋ ㄕㄨˇ </td> <td>Meng 孟 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 934–965<a href="#cite_note-Year48-306">[245]</a> </td> <td>31 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Meng_Zhixiang" title="Meng Zhixiang">Gaozu of Later Shu</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Meng_Chang" title="Meng Chang">Gongxiao of Chu</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Later_Shu_(後蜀)_(934–965_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Later_Shu" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FF5E96;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Tang" title="Southern Tang">Southern Tang</a> 南唐 Nán Táng Nan2 T῾ang2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄊㄤˊ </td> <td>Li<a href="#cite_note-Xu-312">[bl]</a> 李 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial (AD 937–958)<hr />Royal (AD 958–976) </td> <td>AD 937–976<a href="#cite_note-Year49-313">[249]</a> </td> <td>37 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Li_Bian" title="Li Bian">Liezu of Southern Tang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Li_Yu_(Southern_Tang)" title="Li Yu (Southern Tang)">Li Yu</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Southern_Tang_(南唐)_(937–976_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Wu_and_Southern_Tang" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td style="background:#FF5E96;"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Han" title="Northern Han">Northern Han</a> 北漢 Běi Hàn Pei3 Han4 ㄅㄟˇ ㄏㄢˋ </td> <td>Liu<a href="#cite_note-LiuJi'en-315">[bm]</a><a href="#cite_note-LiuJiyuan-317">[bn]</a> 劉 </td> <td>Shatuo<a href="#cite_note-LiuJi'en-315">[bm]</a><a href="#cite_note-LiuJiyuan-317">[bn]</a> </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 951–979<a href="#cite_note-Year50-318">[252]</a> </td> <td>28 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liu_Chong" title="Liu Chong">Shizu of Northern Han</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liu_Jiyuan" title="Liu Jiyuan">Yingwu of Northern Han</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Northern_Han_(北漢)_(951–979_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Later_Han_and_Northern_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a> 遼朝 Liáo Cháo Liao2 Ch῾ao2 ㄌㄧㄠˊ ㄔㄠˊ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yel%C3%BC" title="Yelü">Yelü</a> 耶律 <a href="/wiki/File:Ei.ra.u.ud.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ei.ra.u.ud.svg/20px-Ei.ra.u.ud.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ei.ra.u.ud.svg/30px-Ei.ra.u.ud.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ei.ra.u.ud.svg/40px-Ei.ra.u.ud.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a> (𘬜𘭪𘲚𘱪) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitan</a> </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 916–1125<a href="#cite_note-Year51-319">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeLiao-321">[bo]</a> </td> <td>209 years<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeLiao-321">[bo]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Abaoji" title="Abaoji">Taizu of Liao</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Tianzuo_of_Liao" title="Emperor Tianzuo of Liao">Tianzuo of Liao</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Liao_dynasty#Emperors_table" title="List of emperors of the Liao dynasty">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Liao_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Western Liao</a> 西遼 Xī Liáo Hsi1 Liao2 ㄒㄧㄌㄧㄠˊ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yel%C3%BC" title="Yelü">Yelü</a><a href="#cite_note-Kuchlug-324">[bp]</a> 耶律 <a href="/wiki/File:Ei.ra.u.ud.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ei.ra.u.ud.svg/20px-Ei.ra.u.ud.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ei.ra.u.ud.svg/30px-Ei.ra.u.ud.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ei.ra.u.ud.svg/40px-Ei.ra.u.ud.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a> (𘬜𘭪𘲚𘱪) </td> <td>Khitan<a href="#cite_note-Kuchlug-324">[bp]</a> </td> <td>Royal (AD 1124–1132)<hr />Imperial (AD 1132–1218) </td> <td>AD 1124–1218<a href="#cite_note-Year52-325">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeWesternLiao-327">[bq]</a> </td> <td>94 years<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeWesternLiao-327">[bq]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yel%C3%BC_Dashi" title="Yelü Dashi">Dezong of Western Liao</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kuchlug" title="Kuchlug">Kuchlug</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Western_Liao_(西遼)_(1124–1218_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Liao_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a><a href="#cite_note-Song-328">[br]</a> 北宋 Běi Sòng Pei3 Sung4 ㄅㄟˇ ㄙㄨㄥˋ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhao" title="House of Zhao">Zhao</a> 趙 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 960–1127<a href="#cite_note-Year53-329">[259]</a> </td> <td>167 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Song" title="Emperor Taizu of Song">Taizu of Song</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Qinzong" title="Emperor Qinzong">Qinzong of Song</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="List of emperors of the Song dynasty">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a><a href="#cite_note-Song-328">[br]</a> 南宋 Nán Sòng Nan2 Sung4 ㄋㄢˊ ㄙㄨㄥˋ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhao" title="House of Zhao">Zhao</a> 趙 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 1127–1279<a href="#cite_note-Year54-330">[260]</a> </td> <td>152 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Song" title="Emperor Gaozong of Song">Gaozong of Song</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Bing" title="Zhao Bing">Zhao Bing</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="List of emperors of the Song dynasty">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Song_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> 西夏 Xī Xià Hsi1 Hsia4 ㄒㄧㄒㄧㄚˋ </td> <td>Weiming<a href="#cite_note-Weiming-332">[bs]</a> 嵬名 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1065318431">.mw-parser-output .Tangut{font-family:"Tangut Yinchuan","Tangut N4694","New Tangut","New Tangut Std","Tangut TWU","TH-Tshyn-P1","TH-Feon-B","Noto Serif Tangut"}</style>𗼨𗆟 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tangut_people" title="Tangut people">Tangut</a> </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 1038–1227<a href="#cite_note-Year55-333">[262]</a> </td> <td>189 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jingzong_of_Western_Xia" title="Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia">Jingzong of Western Xia</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Mo_of_Western_Xia" title="Emperor Mo of Western Xia">Li Xian</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Western_Xia_(西夏)_(1038–1227_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Western_Xia_and_Dingnan_Jiedushi" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a><a href="#cite_note-Jin2-218">[ae]</a> 金朝 Jīn Cháo Chin1 Ch῾ao2 ㄐㄧㄣㄔㄠˊ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wanyan" title="Wanyan">Wanyan</a> 完顏 <a href="/wiki/File:Wo-on_gia-an.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Wo-on_gia-an.png/35px-Wo-on_gia-an.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Wo-on_gia-an.png/53px-Wo-on_gia-an.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Wo-on_gia-an.png/70px-Wo-on_gia-an.png 2x" data-file-width="444" data-file-height="112" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen</a> </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 1115–1234<a href="#cite_note-Year56-334">[263]</a> </td> <td>119 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Jin" title="Emperor Taizu of Jin">Taizu of Jin</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Mo_of_Jin" title="Emperor Mo of Jin">Wanyan Chenglin</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs#Jin_dynasty_(金朝)_(1115–1234_AD)" title="List of Chinese monarchs">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)#Jin_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Late_imperial_China" title="History of China">Late Imperial China</a><a href="#cite_note-ChineseEmpire2-201">[y]</a> </th></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> 元朝 Yuán Cháo Yüan2 Ch῾ao2 ㄩㄢˊ ㄔㄠˊ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin</a><a href="#cite_note-Borjigin1-335">[bt]</a> 孛兒只斤 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 1271–1368<a href="#cite_note-Year57-336">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeYuan-338">[bu]</a> </td> <td>97 years<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeYuan-338">[bu]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Shizu of Yuan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toghon_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Toghon Temür">Huizong of Yuan</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Yuan_dynasty#List_of_emperors" title="List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)#Yuan_dynasty_and_Northern_Yuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a> 北元 Běi Yuán Pei3 Yüan2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄩㄢˊ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin</a><a href="#cite_note-Borjigin2-339">[bv]</a><a href="#cite_note-ChorosEsen-342">[bw]</a> 孛兒只斤 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ </td> <td>Mongol<a href="#cite_note-ChorosEsen-342">[bw]</a> </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 1368–1635<a href="#cite_note-Year58-343">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeNorthernYuan-347">[bx]</a> </td> <td>267 years<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeNorthernYuan-347">[bx]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toghon_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Toghon Temür">Huizong of Yuan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ejei_Khan" title="Ejei Khan">Borjigin Erke Khongghor</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeNorthernYuan-347">[bx]</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Northern_Yuan_khans#List_of_khans" title="List of Northern Yuan khans">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)#Yuan_dynasty_and_Northern_Yuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> 明朝 Míng Cháo Ming2 Ch῾ao2 ㄇㄧㄥˊ ㄔㄠˊ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">Zhu</a> 朱 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 1368–1644<a href="#cite_note-Year59-348">[272]</a> </td> <td>276 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Ming_dynasty#Emperors_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Ming dynasty">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)#Ming_dynasty_and_Southern_Ming" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a> 南明 Nán Míng Nan2 Ming2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄇㄧㄥˊ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">Zhu</a> 朱 </td> <td>Han </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 1644–1662<a href="#cite_note-Year60-349">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeSouthernMing-351">[by]</a> </td> <td>18 years<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeSouthernMing-351">[by]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Yousong" title="Zhu Yousong">Hongguang</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Youlang" title="Zhu Youlang">Yongli</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeSouthernMing-351">[by]</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Ming_dynasty#Emperors_of_the_Southern_Ming_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Ming dynasty">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)#Ming_dynasty_and_Southern_Ming" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:white;"> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a><a href="#cite_note-LaterJin-297">[bg]</a> 後金 Hòu Jīn Hou4 Chin1 ㄏㄡˋ ㄐㄧㄣ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/House_of_Aisin-Gioro" title="House of Aisin-Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a> 愛新覺羅 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top; text-align:left">ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ </td> <td>Jurchen<a href="#cite_note-Jurchen-354">[bz]</a> </td> <td>Royal </td> <td>AD 1616–1636<a href="#cite_note-Year61-355">[277]</a> </td> <td>20 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Tianming</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Taizong of Qing</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty#List_of_emperors" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)#Later_Jin_and_Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">tree</a>) </td></tr> <tr style="background:#FFFDF9;"> <td> </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /> <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> 清朝 Qīng Cháo Ch῾ing1 Ch῾ao2 ㄑㄧㄥㄔㄠˊ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/House_of_Aisin-Gioro" title="House of Aisin-Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a> 愛新覺羅 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top; text-align:left">ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> </td> <td>Imperial </td> <td>AD 1636–1912<a href="#cite_note-Year62-356">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-FavorableTreatment-358">[ca]</a><a href="#cite_note-ManchuRestoration-359">[cb]</a> </td> <td>276 years </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Taizong of Qing</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty#List_of_emperors" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">list</a>)<hr />(<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)#Later_Jin_and_Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">tree</a>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><div style="display:block;border-style: solid;padding: 3px;border-color: black;border-width: 1px;background-color: white;color: black;text-align: left;margin: 3px;float: center;">Legend <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Dynasties of relatively great significance</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Major time periods</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Dynasties counted among the "Three Kingdoms"</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Dynasties counted among the "Sixteen Kingdoms"<a href="#cite_note-SixteenKingdoms-222">[af]</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Dynasties counted among the "Northern dynasties" within the broader "<a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a>"</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Dynasties counted among the "Southern dynasties" within the broader "Northern and Southern dynasties"</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Dynasties counted among the "Five Dynasties" within the broader "<a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a>"</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Dynasties counted among the "Ten Kingdoms" within the broader "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms"</div></div></div> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><div style="display:block;border-style: solid;padding: 3px;border-color: black;border-width: 1px;background-color: white;color: black;text-align: left;margin: 3px;float: center;">Criteria for inclusion This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. Many other dynastic regimes existed within or overlapped with the geographical boundaries specified in the definition of "China" in the study of Chinese historical geography.<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography-372">[cc]</a> These were:<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography13-373">[292]</a> <ul><li>Dynastic regimes that existed within the <a href="/wiki/Fengjian" title="Fengjian">fengjian</a> system: e.g., <a href="/wiki/Deng_(state)" title="Deng (state)">State of Deng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huo_(state)" title="Huo (state)">State of Huo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chu_(state)" title="Chu (state)">State of Chu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yiqu" title="Yiqu">State of Yiqu</a></li> <li>Dynastic regimes that existed within the <a href="/wiki/Jimi_system" title="Jimi system">jimi</a> system: e.g., Xuanque Prefecture (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8E%84%E9%98%99%E5%B7%9E" class="extiw" title="zh:玄阙州">玄闕州</a>), Zhulong Prefecture (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%83%9B%E9%BE%99%E5%B7%9E" class="extiw" title="zh:烛龙州">燭龍州</a>), Maolian Guard (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AF%9B%E6%80%9C%E5%8D%AB" class="extiw" title="zh:毛怜卫">毛憐衛</a>), Jianzhou Left Guard (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BB%BA%E5%B7%9E%E5%B7%A6%E5%8D%AB" class="extiw" title="zh:建州左卫">建州左衛</a>)</li> <li>Dynastic regimes that existed within the <a href="/wiki/Tusi" title="Tusi">tusi</a> system: e.g., <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Bozhou" title="Chiefdom of Bozhou">Chiefdom of Bozhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Shuidong" title="Chiefdom of Shuidong">Chiefdom of Shuidong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Yongning" title="Chiefdom of Yongning">Chiefdom of Yongning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Tsanlha" title="Chiefdom of Tsanlha">Chiefdom of Tsanlha</a></li> <li>Localized dynastic regimes: e.g., <a href="/wiki/Nanyue" title="Nanyue">Nanyue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuyuhun" title="Tuyuhun">Tuyuhun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom">Dali Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a></li> <li>Short-lived dynastic regimes: e.g., <a href="/wiki/Zhai_Wei" title="Zhai Wei">Zhai Wei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Liao" title="Northern Liao">Northern Liao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chen_Han" title="Chen Han">Chen Han</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shun_dynasty" title="Shun dynasty">Shun dynasty</a></li> <li>Regional dynastic regimes that ruled an area historically or currently associated with "China": e.g., <a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran Khaganate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balhae" title="Balhae">Bohai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a></li></ul> Dynasties that belonged to the following categories are excluded from this list: <ul><li>Dynasties outside of "China" with full or partial Chinese ancestry: e.g., <a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Early Lý dynasty">Early Lý dynasty</a> of Vietnam, <a href="/wiki/Thonburi_Kingdom" title="Thonburi Kingdom">Thonburi dynasty</a> of Siam<a href="#cite_note-EarlyLý1-374">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-EarlyLý2-375">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thonburi1-376">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thonburi2-377">[296]</a></li> <li>Dynasties that ruled Chinese tributary states outside of "China": e.g., <a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Đinh dynasty</a> of Vietnam, <a href="/wiki/First_Sh%C5%8D_dynasty" title="First Shō dynasty">First Shō dynasty</a> of the Ryukyu Islands<a href="#cite_note-Đinh-378">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-FirstShō-379">[298]</a></li> <li>Dynasties outside of "China" which <a href="/wiki/Little_China_(ideology)" title="Little China (ideology)">identified themselves as "China"</a>: e.g., <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon dynasty</a> of Korea, <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Nguyễn dynasty</a> of Vietnam<a href="#cite_note-Joseon1-380">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-Joseon2-381">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nguyễn1-382">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nguyễn2-383">[302]</a></li> <li>Dynasties that ruled <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">Sinicized</a> states outside of "China": e.g., <a href="/wiki/Baekje" title="Baekje">Baekje dynasty</a> of Korea, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Lê dynasty</a> of Vietnam<a href="#cite_note-Baekje-384">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-LaterLê-385">[304]</a></li></ul></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timelines">Timelines</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Timelines">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline of Chinese history</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline_of_major_historical_periods">Timeline of major historical periods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Timeline of major historical periods">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1050355024">.mw-parser-output .stackedbar{border:1px solid grey;height:10px;width:100%;line-height:0;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate>div:first-child{font-size:14px;width:100%;text-align:center;display:flex}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate>div:first-child>div>span{padding:0.15em}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate_lean>div:first-child>div{transform:translateX(1em)rotate(200deg)}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate_lean>div:first-child>div>span{text-align:left;writing-mode:vertical-rl}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate_vertical>div:first-child>div{transform:rotate(180deg)}.mw-parser-output .StackedBarTemplate_vertical>div:first-child>div>span{text-align:left;writing-mode:vertical-rl}</style> <div class="StackedBarTemplate"><div style=""> <div style="flex:31.7">Xia–Shang–W. Zhou</div><div style="flex:7.2"><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a></div><div style="flex:6.2"><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a></div><div style="flex:10.8">Qin–Han</div><div style="flex:9">Jin–Northern and Southern Dynasties</div><div style="flex:7.8">Sui–Tang</div><div style="flex:11.3">Five Dynasties–Liao–Song–W. Xia–Jin–Yuan</div><div style="flex:13.3">Ming–Qing</div><div style="flex:2.7">ROC–PRC</div> </div> <table class="stackedbar" cellspacing="1" style="height:10px"> <tbody><tr> <td style="font-size:0px; background: #85e084; width: 31.7%" title=""> </td> <td style="font-size:0px; background: #64d1cf; width: 7.2%" title=""> </td> <td style="font-size:0px; background: #6fc0f2; width: 6.2%" title=""> </td> <td style="font-size:0px; background: #9692e3; width: 10.8%" title=""> </td> <td style="font-size:0px; background: #bd64d1; width: 9%" title=""> </td> <td style="font-size:0px; background: #fc80c2; width: 7.8%" title=""> </td> <td style="font-size:0px; background: #e5726e; width: 11.3%" title=""> </td> <td style="font-size:0px; background: #e5ab6e; width: 13.3%" title=""> </td> <td style="font-size:0px; background: #e5e36e; width: 2.7%" title=""> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline_of_major_regimes">Timeline of major regimes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Timeline of major regimes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_2gnlgndfdq8ek2a6i55pultuwm535sh"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" coords="1380,1078,1432,1099" title="History of the People's Republic of China" alt="History of the People's Republic of China" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" coords="1380,1064,1432,1084" title="History of the Republic of China" alt="History of the Republic of China" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" coords="1277,1049,1352,1069" title="Southern Ming" alt="Southern Ming" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" coords="1353,1034,1411,1055" title="Qing dynasty" alt="Qing dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" coords="1269,1019,1338,1040" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)" alt="Later Jin (1616–1636)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" coords="1271,1004,1329,1025" title="Ming dynasty" alt="Ming dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" coords="1268,990,1343,1010" title="Northern Yuan" alt="Northern Yuan" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" coords="1187,975,1245,995" title="Yuan dynasty" alt="Yuan dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Song_dynasty%23Southern_Song%2C_1127%E2%80%931279" coords="1160,960,1235,981" title="Song dynasty#Southern Song, 1127–1279" alt="Song dynasty#Southern Song, 1127–1279" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" coords="1141,945,1216,966" title="Qara Khitai" alt="Qara Khitai" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" coords="1146,930,1199,951" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)" alt="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Western_Xia" coords="1144,916,1214,936" title="Western Xia" alt="Western Xia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Song_dynasty%23Northern_Song%2C_960%E2%80%931127" 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dynasty (266–420)#Western Jin (266–316)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" coords="856,176,920,196" title="Eastern Wu" alt="Eastern Wu" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Shu_Han" coords="851,161,926,182" title="Shu Han" alt="Shu Han" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" coords="852,146,927,167" title="Cao Wei" alt="Cao Wei" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Han_dynasty%23Eastern_Han" coords="838,131,907,152" title="Han dynasty#Eastern Han" alt="Han dynasty#Eastern Han" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" coords="778,116,830,137" title="Xin dynasty" alt="Xin dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Han_dynasty%23Western_Han" coords="773,102,843,122" title="Han dynasty#Western Han" alt="Han dynasty#Western Han" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" coords="708,87,760,108" title="Qin dynasty" alt="Qin dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" coords="693,72,768,93" title="Eastern Zhou" alt="Eastern Zhou" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" coords="536,57,611,78" title="Western Zhou" alt="Western Zhou" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" coords="452,43,516,63" title="Shang dynasty" alt="Shang dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" coords="284,28,336,48" title="Xia dynasty" alt="Xia dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" coords="140,13,365,34" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors" alt="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_2gnlgndfdq8ek2a6i55pultuwm535sh" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/2gnlgndfdq8ek2a6i55pultuwm535sh.png" /></div> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><div style="display:inline-block;border-style: solid;padding: 3px;border-color: black;border-width: 1px;background-color: white;color: black;text-align: left;margin: 3px;float: center;">Legend <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Protodynastic rulers</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Dynastic regimes<a href="#cite_note-Timeline-386">[cd]</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Non-dynastic regimes</div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/30px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/45px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg/60px-Imperial_Crown_Heraldry.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="115" data-file-height="108" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Monarchy" title="Portal:Monarchy">Monarchy portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_territory_in_dynastic_China" title="Administration of territory in dynastic China">Administration of territory in dynastic China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_states" title="Ancient Chinese states">Ancient Chinese states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expansionism" title="Chinese expansionism">Chinese expansionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Chinese historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_sovereign" title="Chinese sovereign">Chinese sovereign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">Conquest dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_the_Chineseness_of_Yuan_and_Qing_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="Debate on the Chineseness of Yuan and Qing dynasties">Debate on the Chineseness of Yuan and Qing dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_Throne" title="Dragon Throne">Dragon Throne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynastic_cycle" title="Dynastic cycle">Dynastic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Kingdoms" title="Eighteen Kingdoms">Eighteen Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_at_home,_king_abroad" title="Emperor at home, king abroad">Emperor at home, king abroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(ancient)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)">Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(early)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)">Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(middle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)">Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(Warring_States_period)" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (Warring States period)">Family tree of Chinese monarchs (Warring States period)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanzhen" title="Fanzhen">Fanzhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fengjian" title="Fengjian">Fengjian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ages_of_China" title="Golden ages of China">Golden ages of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_capitals_of_China" title="Historical capitals of China">Historical capitals of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiedushi" title="Jiedushi">Jiedushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_system" title="Jimi system">Jimi system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">List of Chinese monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Confucian_states_and_dynasties" title="List of Confucian states and dynasties">List of Confucian states and dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_states" title="List of Mongol states">List of Mongol states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_recipients_of_tribute_from_China" title="List of recipients of tribute from China">List of recipients of tribute from China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tributary_states_of_China" title="List of tributary states of China">List of tributary states of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_dynasties" title="List of Vietnamese dynasties">List of Vietnamese dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_China_(ideology)" title="Little China (ideology)">Little China (ideology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_China" title="Monarchy of China">Monarchy of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Sinica" title="Pax Sinica">Pax Sinica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Dynasties" title="Six Dynasties">Six Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Chinese_throne" title="Succession to the Chinese throne">Succession to the Chinese throne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianxia" title="Tianxia">Tianxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline of Chinese history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">Tributary system of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusi" title="Tusi">Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-Four_Histories" title="Twenty-Four Histories">Twenty-Four Histories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xia%E2%80%93Shang%E2%80%93Zhou_Chronology_Project" title="Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project">Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhonghua_minzu" title="Zhonghua minzu">Zhonghua minzu</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Pre-Xia-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pre-Xia_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pre-Xia_7-1">b</a> While the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a> is typically considered to be the first orthodox Chinese dynasty, numerous sources including the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a> mention two other dynasties that preceded the Xia: the "Tang" (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%B6%E5%94%90%E6%B0%8F" class="extiw" title="zh:陶唐氏">唐</a>) and the "<a href="/wiki/Youyu-shi" title="Youyu-shi">Yu</a>" (虞) dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-TangYu1-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-TangYu2-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-TangYu3-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-TangYu4-5">[5]</a> The former is sometimes called the "Ancient Tang" (古唐) to distinguish it from other dynasties named "Tang".<a href="#cite_note-TangYu5-6">[6]</a> Should the historicity of these earlier dynasties be attested, <a href="/wiki/Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu the Great</a> would not have been the initiator of dynastic rule in China. </li> <li id="cite_note-Post-Qing-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Post-Qing_8-0">^</a> All attempts at restoring monarchical and dynastic rule in China following the Xinhai Revolution ended in failure. Hence, the abdication of the <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong Emperor</a> in AD 1912 is typically regarded as the formal end of the <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_China" title="Monarchy of China">Chinese monarchy</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-GreatYuan-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GreatYuan_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GreatYuan_22-1">b</a> As per contemporary historiographical norm, the "<a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>" in this article refers exclusively to the realm based in <a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Dadu</a>. However, the Han-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" (大元) as proclaimed by the <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Emperor Shizu of Yuan</a> and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GreatYuan1-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreatYuan2-20">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreatYuan3-21">[19]</a> In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern-day scholars due to the de facto <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">disintegration</a> of the Mongol Empire. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> While the character 王 (wáng) is translated as "king", this term is often more broadly applied to all dynasties, including those whose rulers held non-royal <a href="/wiki/Imperial,_royal_and_noble_ranks" title="Imperial, royal and noble ranks">titles</a>, such as "<a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperor</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Terminology-25">[22]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Constitution-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Constitution_32-0">^</a> In AD 1906, the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> initiated <a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">a series of reforms</a> under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Xiaoqinxian</a> to transition to a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. On 27 August 1908, the <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Constitution_(1908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of the Constitution (1908)">Outline of the Constitution Compiled by Imperial Order</a> was promulgated and served as a preliminary version of a full constitution originally intended to take effect 10 years later.<a href="#cite_note-Constitution1-29">[25]</a> On 3 November 1911, as a response to the ongoing Xinhai Revolution, the Qing dynasty issued the <a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Articles" title="Nineteen Articles">Nineteen Major Articles of Good Faith on the Constitution</a> which limited the power of the Qing emperor, marking the official transition to a constitutional monarchy.<a href="#cite_note-Constitution2-30">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Constitution3-31">[27]</a> The Qing dynasty, however, was overthrown on 12 February 1912. </li> <li id="cite_note-ConsortKin-35"><a href="#cite_ref-ConsortKin_35-0">^</a> A powerful consort kin, usually a male, could force the reigning monarch to abdicate in his favor, thereby prompting a change in dynasty. For example, <a href="/wiki/Wang_Mang" title="Wang Mang">Wang Mang</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin dynasty</a> was a nephew of the <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhengjun" title="Wang Zhengjun">Empress Xiaoyuan</a> who in turn was the spouse of the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a> ruler, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Han" title="Emperor Yuan of Han">Emperor Yuan of Han</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ConsortKin-34">[29]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kingdom-67"><a href="#cite_ref-Kingdom_67-0">^</a> The term "kingdom" is potentially misleading as not all rulers held the title of king. For example, all sovereigns of the <a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a> held the title huángdì (皇帝; "emperor") during their reign despite the realm being listed as one of the "<a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a>". Similarly, monarchs of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Qin" title="Western Qin">Western Qin</a>, one of the "<a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a>", bore the title wáng (王; usually translated as "prince" in English writings). </li> <li id="cite_note-ChineseEmpire1-102"><a href="#cite_ref-ChineseEmpire1_102-0">^</a> As proposed by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Fu_Ssu-nien" title="Fu Ssu-nien">Fu Sinian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ray_Huang" title="Ray Huang">Ray Huang</a>, there were three major Chinese empires historically. The "First Chinese Empire" (中華第一帝國) included the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang dynasty</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen dynasty</a>. The "Second Chinese Empire" (中華第二帝國) encompassed the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Wei</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Liang (Five Dynasties)">Later Liang</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Later_Tang" title="Later Tang">Later Tang</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Jin (Five Dynasties)">Later Jin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Han (Five Dynasties)">Later Han</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Later Zhou</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a>. The "Third Chinese Empire" (中華第三帝國) consisted of the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>. Accordingly, the terms "Chinese Empire" and "Empire of China" need not necessarily refer to imperial dynasties that had unified China proper. </li> <li id="cite_note-Prefix1-135"><a href="#cite_ref-Prefix1_135-0">^</a> "Anterior" is employed in some sources in place of "Former".<a href="#cite_note-Prefix1-133">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-Prefix2-134">[126]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prefix2-141"><a href="#cite_ref-Prefix2_141-0">^</a> "Latter" or "Posterior" is employed in some sources in place of "Later".<a href="#cite_note-Prefix3-136">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Prefix4-137">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Prefix5-138">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Prefix6-139">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-Prefix7-140">[131]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Name-175"><a href="#cite_ref-Name_175-0">^</a> The English and Chinese names stated are historiographical denominations. These should not be confused with the guóhào officially proclaimed by each dynasty. A dynasty may be known by more than one historiographical name. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pinyin-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pinyin_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pinyin_177-1">b</a> The English names shown are based on the Hanyu Pinyin renditions, the most common form of <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> romanization currently in adoption. Some scholarly works utilize the Wade–Giles system, which may differ drastically in the spelling of certain words. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> is rendered as "Ch῾ing dynasty" in Wade–Giles.<a href="#cite_note-Wade–Giles-176">[165]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChineseCharacters-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChineseCharacters_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChineseCharacters_178-1">b</a> The Chinese characters shown are in <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a>. Some characters may have <a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified versions</a> that are currently used in mainland China. For instance, the characters for the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a> are written as "東漢" in Traditional Chinese and "东汉" in Simplified Chinese. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ethnicity-181"><a href="#cite_ref-Ethnicity_181-0">^</a> While Chinese historiography tends to treat dynasties as being of specific ethnic stocks, there were some monarchs who had mixed heritage.<a href="#cite_note-Ethnicity1-179">[166]</a> For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a> of the Manchu-led <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> was of mixed Manchu and Han descent, having derived his Han ancestry from his mother, the <a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaoyichun" title="Empress Xiaoyichun">Empress Xiaoyichun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ethnicity2-180">[167]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Status-182"><a href="#cite_ref-Status_182-0">^</a> The status of a dynasty was dependent upon the supreme title bore by its monarch at any given time. For instance, since all monarchs of the <a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen dynasty</a> held the title of emperor during their reign, the Chen dynasty was of imperial status. </li> <li id="cite_note-Founder-183"><a href="#cite_ref-Founder_183-0">^</a> The monarchs listed were the de facto founders of dynasties. However, it was common for Chinese monarchs to <a href="/wiki/Posthumous_promotion#China" title="Posthumous promotion">posthumously honor</a> earlier members of the family as monarchs. For instance, while the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Jin (Five Dynasties)">Later Jin</a> was officially established by the <a href="/wiki/Shi_Jingtang" title="Shi Jingtang">Emperor Gaozu of Later Jin</a>, four earlier members of the ruling house were posthumously accorded imperial titles, the most senior of which was Shi Jing who was conferred the <a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">temple name</a> "Jingzu" (靖祖) and the <a href="/wiki/Posthumous_name" title="Posthumous name">posthumous name</a> "Emperor Xiao'an" (孝安皇帝). </li> <li id="cite_note-Si-185"><a href="#cite_ref-Si_185-0">^</a> In addition to the ancestral name Si (姒), the ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a> also bore the lineage name Xiahou (夏后).<a href="#cite_note-Si-184">[168]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yi-187">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yi_187-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yi_187-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Hou_Yi#Historical_references" title="Hou Yi">Youqiong Yi</a>, surnamed Youqiong (有窮), was of <a href="/wiki/Dongyi" title="Dongyi">Dongyi</a> descent.<a href="#cite_note-Yi-186">[169]</a> His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession. </li> <li id="cite_note-YunZhuo-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-YunZhuo_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-YunZhuo_189-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Han_Zhuo" title="Han Zhuo">Yun Zhuo</a>, surnamed Yun (妘), was of <a href="/wiki/Dongyi" title="Dongyi">Dongyi</a> descent.<a href="#cite_note-YunZhuo-188">[170]</a> His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession. </li> <li id="cite_note-Xia–Shang–Zhou-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Xia–Shang–Zhou_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xia–Shang–Zhou_191-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xia–Shang–Zhou_191-2">c</a> The dates given for the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> prior to the start of the <a href="/wiki/Gonghe_Regency" title="Gonghe Regency">Gonghe Regency</a> in 841 BC are derived from the <a href="/wiki/Xia%E2%80%93Shang%E2%80%93Zhou_Chronology_Project" title="Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project">Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-TraditionalXia-194">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalXia_194-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalXia_194-1">b</a> The rule of the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a> was traditionally dated 2205–1766 BC as per the calculations made by the historian <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xin_(scholar)" title="Liu Xin (scholar)">Liu Xin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TraditionalXiaShangZhou-192">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-TraditionalXia-193">[173]</a> Accordingly, the Xia dynasty lasted 439 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-TraditionalShang-197">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalShang_197-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalShang_197-1">b</a> The rule of the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> was traditionally dated 1766–1122 BC as per the calculations made by the historian <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xin_(scholar)" title="Liu Xin (scholar)">Liu Xin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TraditionalXiaShangZhou-192">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-TraditionalShangZhou-196">[175]</a> Accordingly, the Shang dynasty lasted 644 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhou-198">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zhou_198-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhou_198-1">b</a> The <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> (西周) and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a> (東周) are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> (周朝; Zhōu Cháo; Chou1 Ch῾ao2; ㄓㄡㄔㄠˊ).<a href="#cite_note-Longest-13">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhou-94">[87]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-TraditionalZhou-200">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalZhou_200-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalZhou_200-1">b</a> The rule of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> was traditionally dated 1122–771 BC as per the calculations made by the historian <a href="/wiki/Liu_Xin_(scholar)" title="Liu Xin (scholar)">Liu Xin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TraditionalXiaShangZhou-192">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-TraditionalShangZhou-196">[175]</a> Accordingly, the Western Zhou lasted 351 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-ChineseEmpire2-201">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChineseEmpire2_201-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChineseEmpire2_201-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChineseEmpire2_201-2">c</a> The terms "Chinese Empire" and "Empire of China" usually refer to the Chinese state under the rule of various imperial dynasties, particularly those that had unified China proper.<a href="#cite_note-ChineseEmpire1-100">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-ChineseEmpire2-101">[94]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ying-203"><a href="#cite_ref-Ying_203-0">^</a> In addition to the ancestral name Ying (嬴), the ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> also bore the lineage name Zhao (趙).<a href="#cite_note-Ying-202">[177]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Han-205">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Han_205-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Han_205-1">b</a> The <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a> (西漢) and the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a> (東漢) are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (漢朝; Hàn Cháo; Han4 Ch῾ao2; ㄏㄢˋ ㄔㄠˊ).<a href="#cite_note-Han-95">[88]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeWesternHan-208">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeWesternHan_208-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeWesternHan_208-1">b</a> Some historians consider 206 BC, the year in which the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han" title="Emperor Gaozu of Han">Emperor Gao of Han</a> was proclaimed "King of Han", to be the start of the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeWesternHan-207">[180]</a> Accordingly, the Western Han lasted 215 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-LiuYing-210"><a href="#cite_ref-LiuYing_210-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ruzi_Ying" title="Ruzi Ying">Liu Ying</a> was not officially enthroned and maintained the title huáng tàizǐ (皇太子; "crown prince") during the regency of <a href="/wiki/Wang_Mang" title="Wang Mang">Wang Mang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LiuYing-209">[181]</a> The last <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a> monarch who was officially enthroned was the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ping_of_Han" title="Emperor Ping of Han">Emperor Ping of Han</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jin1-217">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jin1_217-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jin1_217-1">b</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a> (西晉) and the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a> (東晉) are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty</a> (晉朝; Jìn Cháo; Chin4 Ch῾ao2; ㄐㄧㄣˋ ㄔㄠˊ).<a href="#cite_note-Jin-96">[89]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jin2-218">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jin2_218-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jin2_218-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jin2_218-2">c</a> The names of the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty</a> (晉朝) of the Sima clan and the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> (金朝) of the <a href="/wiki/Wanyan" title="Wanyan">Wanyan</a> clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Jin". </li> <li id="cite_note-SixteenKingdoms-222">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SixteenKingdoms_222-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SixteenKingdoms_222-1">b</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a> are also referred to as the "Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians" (五胡十六國; Wǔ Hú Shíliù Guó), although not all dynasties counted among the 16 were ruled by the "<a href="/wiki/Five_Barbarians" title="Five Barbarians">Five Barbarians</a>".<a href="#cite_note-SixteenKingdoms-221">[190]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luandi-226"><a href="#cite_ref-Luandi_226-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han-Zhao</a> initially bore the surname <a href="/w/index.php?title=Luandi_(Clan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luandi (Clan) (page does not exist)">Luandi</a> (攣鞮).<a href="#cite_note-Luandi1-224">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-Luandi2-225">[193]</a> Liu (劉) was subsequently adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Han-Zhao. </li> <li id="cite_note-JinZhun-228"><a href="#cite_ref-JinZhun_228-0">^</a> As <a href="/wiki/Jin_Zhun" title="Jin Zhun">Jin Zhun</a>, surnamed Jin (靳), was not a member of the Liu (劉) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.<a href="#cite_note-JinZhun-227">[194]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeChengHan-232">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeChengHan_232-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeChengHan_232-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeChengHan_232-2">c</a> Some historians consider AD 303, the year in which the <a href="/wiki/Li_Te" title="Li Te">Emperor Jing of Cheng-Han</a> declared the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_era_name" title="Chinese era name">era name</a> "Jianchu" (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BB%BA%E5%88%9D_(%E6%88%90%E6%B1%89)" class="extiw" title="zh:建初 (成汉)">建初</a>), to be the start of the <a href="/wiki/Cheng-Han" title="Cheng-Han">Cheng-Han</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeChengHan-231">[197]</a> Accordingly, the Cheng-Han was founded by the Emperor Jing of Cheng-Han and lasted 44 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pu-237"><a href="#cite_ref-Pu_237-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a> initially bore the surname Pu (蒲).<a href="#cite_note-Pu-236">[201]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fu_Hong" title="Fu Hong">Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin</a> subsequently adopted Fu (苻) as the surname in AD 349 prior to the establishment of the Former Qin.<a href="#cite_note-Pu-236">[201]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeFormerQin-239">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeFormerQin_239-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeFormerQin_239-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeFormerQin_239-2">c</a> Some historians consider AD 350, the year in which the <a href="/wiki/Fu_Hong" title="Fu Hong">Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin</a> was proclaimed "Prince of Three Qins", to be the start of the <a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeFormerQin-238">[202]</a> Accordingly, the Former Qin was founded by the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin and lasted 44 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-LanHan-241"><a href="#cite_ref-LanHan_241-0">^</a> As <a href="/wiki/Lan_Han" title="Lan Han">Lan Han</a>, surnamed Lan (蘭), was not a member of the Murong (慕容) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.<a href="#cite_note-LanHan-240">[203]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-GaoYun1-243">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GaoYun1_243-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GaoYun1_243-1">b</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gao_Yun_(emperor)" title="Gao Yun (emperor)">Emperor Huiyi of Yan</a> was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan.<a href="#cite_note-GaoYun-242">[204]</a> His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession. </li> <li id="cite_note-LaterYan-245">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LaterYan_245-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LaterYan_245-1">b</a> Depending on the status of the <a href="/wiki/Gao_Yun_(emperor)" title="Gao Yun (emperor)">Emperor Huiyi of Yan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Later_Yan" title="Later Yan">Later Yan</a> ended in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 23 years or 25 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-GaoYun2-246">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GaoYun2_246-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GaoYun2_246-1">b</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gao_Yun_(emperor)" title="Gao Yun (emperor)">Emperor Huiyi of Yan</a> could either be the last <a href="/wiki/Later_Yan" title="Later Yan">Later Yan</a> monarch or the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yan" title="Northern Yan">Northern Yan</a> depending on the historian's characterization.<a href="#cite_note-GaoYun-242">[204]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-WesternQin-249"><a href="#cite_ref-WesternQin_249-0">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Western_Qin" title="Western Qin">Western Qin</a> was interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Later_Qin" title="Later Qin">Later Qin</a> between AD 400 and AD 409. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 400 and the realm restored in AD 409. The <a href="/wiki/Qifu_Gangui" title="Qifu Gangui">Prince Wuyuan of Western Qin</a> was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum. </li> <li id="cite_note-LaterLiang-250">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LaterLiang_250-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LaterLiang_250-1">b</a> The names of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Later Liang</a> (後涼) of the Lü clan and the <a href="/wiki/Later_Liang_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Liang (Five Dynasties)">Later Liang</a> (後梁) of the Zhu clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Liang". </li> <li id="cite_note-Tufa-252"><a href="#cite_ref-Tufa_252-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Southern Liang</a> initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋).<a href="#cite_note-SouthernLiang-97">[90]</a> Tufa Pigu subsequently adopted Tufa (禿髮) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Southern Liang.<a href="#cite_note-SouthernLiang-97">[90]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-SouthernLiang-254"><a href="#cite_ref-SouthernLiang_254-0">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Southern_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Southern Liang</a> was interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Later_Qin" title="Later Qin">Later Qin</a> between AD 404 and AD 408. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 404 and the realm restored in AD 408. The <a href="/wiki/Tufa_Rutan" title="Tufa Rutan">Prince Jing of Southern Liang</a> was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum. </li> <li id="cite_note-DuanYe-256">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DuanYe_256-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DuanYe_256-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Duan_Ye" title="Duan Ye">Duan Ye</a>, surnamed Duan (段), was of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> descent.<a href="#cite_note-DuanYe-255">[210]</a> The enthronement of the <a href="/wiki/Juqu_Mengxun" title="Juqu Mengxun">Prince Wuxuan of Northern Liang</a> was therefore not a typical dynastic succession. </li> <li id="cite_note-Helian-262"><a href="#cite_ref-Helian_262-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Xia_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Hu Xia</a> initially bore the surname <a href="/w/index.php?title=Luandi_(Clan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luandi (Clan) (page does not exist)">Luandi</a> (攣鞮).<a href="#cite_note-Helian1-260">[214]</a> Liu (劉) was adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Hu Xia.<a href="#cite_note-Helian2-261">[215]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Helian_Bobo" title="Helian Bobo">Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia</a> subsequently adopted Helian (赫連) as the surname in AD 413 after the establishment of the Hu Xia.<a href="#cite_note-Helian2-261">[215]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-GaoYun3-264">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GaoYun3_264-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GaoYun3_264-1">b</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gao_Yun_(emperor)" title="Gao Yun (emperor)">Emperor Huiyi of Yan</a> was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan.<a href="#cite_note-GaoYun-242">[204]</a> The enthronement of the <a href="/wiki/Feng_Ba" title="Feng Ba">Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan</a> was therefore not a typical dynastic succession. </li> <li id="cite_note-NorthernYan-266">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NorthernYan_266-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NorthernYan_266-1">b</a> Depending on the status of the <a href="/wiki/Gao_Yun_(emperor)" title="Gao Yun (emperor)">Emperor Huiyi of Yan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yan" title="Northern Yan">Northern Yan</a> was established in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 29 years or 27 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-Tuoba1-269"><a href="#cite_ref-Tuoba1_269-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a> initially bore the surname <a href="/wiki/Tuoba" title="Tuoba">Tuoba</a> (拓跋).<a href="#cite_note-Tuoba1-268">[219]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowen_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei">Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei</a> subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 after the establishment of the Northern Wei.<a href="#cite_note-Tuoba1-268">[219]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tuoba2-271"><a href="#cite_ref-Tuoba2_271-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wei" title="Eastern Wei">Eastern Wei</a> initially bore the surname <a href="/wiki/Tuoba" title="Tuoba">Tuoba</a> (拓跋).<a href="#cite_note-Tuoba1-268">[219]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowen_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei">Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei</a> subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 prior to the establishment of the Eastern Wei.<a href="#cite_note-Tuoba1-268">[219]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tuoba3-274"><a href="#cite_ref-Tuoba3_274-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Wei</a> initially bore the surname <a href="/wiki/Tuoba" title="Tuoba">Tuoba</a> (拓跋).<a href="#cite_note-Tuoba1-268">[219]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowen_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei">Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei</a> subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 prior to the establishment of the Western Wei, only for the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gong_of_Western_Wei" title="Emperor Gong of Western Wei">Emperor Gong of Western Wei</a> to restore the surname Tuoba in AD 554 after the establishment of the Western Wei.<a href="#cite_note-Tuoba1-268">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tuoba2-273">[222]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yang-281"><a href="#cite_ref-Yang_281-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> initially bore the surname Yang (楊). The <a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Wei</a> later bestowed the surname Puliuru (普六茹) upon the family.<a href="#cite_note-Yang-280">[228]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a> subsequently restored Yang as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Sui dynasty. </li> <li id="cite_note-Li-284"><a href="#cite_ref-Li_284-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> initially bore the surname Li (李). The <a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Wei</a> later bestowed the surname Daye (大野) upon the family.<a href="#cite_note-Li-283">[230]</a> Li was subsequently restored as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Tang dynasty. </li> <li id="cite_note-Tang-286"><a href="#cite_ref-Tang_286-0">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> was interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty_(690%E2%80%93705)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou dynasty (690–705)">Wu Zhou</a> between AD 690 and AD 705. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 690 and the realm restored in AD 705. The <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ruizong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Ruizong of Tang">Emperor Ruizong of Tang</a> was the last ruler before the interregnum; the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Zhongzong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Zhongzong of Tang">Emperor Zhongzong of Tang</a> was the first ruler after the interregnum. </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhuye-291"><a href="#cite_ref-Zhuye_291-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Tang" title="Later Tang">Later Tang</a> initially bore the surname Zhuye (朱邪).<a href="#cite_note-Zhuye-290">[235]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Li_Guochang" title="Li Guochang">Emperor Xianzu of Later Tang</a> subsequently adopted Li (李) as the surname in AD 869 prior to the establishment of the Later Tang.<a href="#cite_note-Zhuye-290">[235]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-LiSiyuan-293"><a href="#cite_ref-LiSiyuan_293-0">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Li_Siyuan" title="Li Siyuan">Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang</a>, originally without surname, was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan.<a href="#cite_note-LiSiyuan-292">[236]</a> His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession. </li> <li id="cite_note-LiCongke-295">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LiCongke_295-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LiCongke_295-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Li_Congke" title="Li Congke">Li Congke</a> was of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> descent. Originally surnamed Wang (王), he was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan.<a href="#cite_note-LiCongke-294">[237]</a> His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession. </li> <li id="cite_note-LaterJin-297">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LaterJin_297-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LaterJin_297-1">b</a> The names of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Jin (Five Dynasties)">Later Jin</a> (後晉) of the Shi clan and the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a> (後金) of the <a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a> clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Jin". </li> <li id="cite_note-ChaiRong-300"><a href="#cite_ref-ChaiRong_300-0">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chai_Rong" title="Chai Rong">Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou</a>, originally surnamed Chai (柴), was an adopted member of the Guo (郭) clan.<a href="#cite_note-ChaiRong-299">[240]</a> His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession. </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeYangWu-305">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeYangWu_305-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeYangWu_305-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeYangWu_305-2">c</a> Some historians consider AD 902, the year in which the <a href="/wiki/Yang_Xingmi" title="Yang Xingmi">Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu</a> was proclaimed "Prince of Wu", to be the start of the <a href="/wiki/Yang_Wu" title="Yang Wu">Yang Wu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeYangWu-304">[244]</a> Accordingly, the Yang Wu was founded by the Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu and lasted 35 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-ZhuWenjin-308"><a href="#cite_ref-ZhuWenjin_308-0">^</a> As <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Wenjin" title="Zhu Wenjin">Zhu Wenjin</a>, surnamed Zhu (朱), was not a member of the Wang (王) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.<a href="#cite_note-ZhuWenjin-307">[246]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gao-310"><a href="#cite_ref-Gao_310-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Jingnan" title="Jingnan">Jingnan</a> initially bore the surname Gao (高). The <a href="/wiki/Gao_Jixing" title="Gao Jixing">Prince Wuxin of Chu</a> subsequently adopted Zhu (朱) as the surname, only to restore the surname Gao prior to the establishment of the Jingnan.<a href="#cite_note-Gao-309">[247]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xu-312"><a href="#cite_ref-Xu_312-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Tang" title="Southern Tang">Southern Tang</a> initially bore the surname Li (李). The <a href="/wiki/Li_Bian" title="Li Bian">Emperor Liezu of Southern Tang</a> subsequently adopted Xu (徐) as the surname, only to restore the surname Li in AD 939 after the establishment of the Southern Tang.<a href="#cite_note-Xu-311">[248]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-LiuJi'en-315">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LiuJi'en_315-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LiuJi'en_315-1">b</a> Liu Ji'en was of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> descent. Originally surnamed Xue (薛), he was an adopted member of the Liu (劉) clan.<a href="#cite_note-Liu_Ji'en-314">[250]</a> His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession. </li> <li id="cite_note-LiuJiyuan-317">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LiuJiyuan_317-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LiuJiyuan_317-1">b</a> The <a href="/wiki/Liu_Jiyuan" title="Liu Jiyuan">Emperor Yingwu of Northern Han</a> was of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> descent. Originally surnamed He (何), he was an adopted member of the Liu (劉) clan.<a href="#cite_note-LiuJiyuan-316">[251]</a> His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession. </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeLiao-321">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeLiao_321-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeLiao_321-1">b</a> Some historians consider AD 907, the year in which the <a href="/wiki/Abaoji" title="Abaoji">Emperor Taizu of Liao</a> was proclaimed "Khagan of the <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a>", to be the start of the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeLiao-320">[254]</a> Accordingly, the Liao dynasty lasted 218 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuchlug-324">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kuchlug_324-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuchlug_324-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Kuchlug" title="Kuchlug">Kuchlug</a>, originally without surname, was of <a href="/wiki/Naimans" title="Naimans">Naiman</a> descent. As he was not a member of the <a href="/wiki/Yel%C3%BC" title="Yelü">Yelü</a> (耶律) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.<a href="#cite_note-Kuchlug1-322">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kuchlug2-323">[256]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeWesternLiao-327">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeWesternLiao_327-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeWesternLiao_327-1">b</a> Some historians consider AD 1132, the year in which the <a href="/wiki/Yel%C3%BC_Dashi" title="Yelü Dashi">Emperor Dezong of Western Liao</a> was proclaimed "<a href="/wiki/Gurkhan" title="Gurkhan">Gurkhan</a>", to be the start of the <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Western Liao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeWesternLiao-326">[258]</a> Accordingly, the Western Liao lasted 86 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-Song-328">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Song_328-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song_328-1">b</a> The <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a> (北宋) and the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a> (南宋) are collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (宋朝; Sòng Cháo; Sung4 Ch῾ao2; ㄙㄨㄥˋ ㄔㄠˊ).<a href="#cite_note-Song-98">[91]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weiming-332"><a href="#cite_ref-Weiming_332-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a> initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋). The <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> later bestowed the surnames Li (李) and Zhao (趙) upon the family respectively. The <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jingzong_of_Western_Xia" title="Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia">Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia</a> subsequently adopted Weiming (嵬名) as the surname in AD 1032 prior to the establishment of the Western Xia.<a href="#cite_note-Weiming-331">[261]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Borjigin1-335"><a href="#cite_ref-Borjigin1_335-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> initially bore the surname Kiyad (乞顏). <a href="/wiki/Bodonchar_Munkhag" title="Bodonchar Munkhag">Borjigin Munkhag</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khabul_Khan" title="Khabul Khan">Kiyad-Borjigin Khabul</a> respectively adopted <a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin</a> (孛兒只斤) and Kiyad-Borjigin (乞顏·孛兒只斤) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty. The <a href="/wiki/Yesugei" title="Yesugei">Emperor Liezu of Yuan</a> subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty. </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeYuan-338">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeYuan_338-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeYuan_338-1">b</a> Some historians consider AD 1260, the year in which the <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Emperor Shizu of Yuan</a> was proclaimed "Khagan of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Great Mongol State</a>" and declared the era name "Zhongtong" (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E7%B5%B1_(%E5%B9%B4%E8%99%9F)" class="extiw" title="zh:中統 (年號)">中統</a>), to be the start of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeYuan-337">[265]</a> Accordingly, the Yuan dynasty lasted 108 years. </li> <li id="cite_note-Borjigin2-339"><a href="#cite_ref-Borjigin2_339-0">^</a> The ruling house of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a> initially bore the surname Kiyad (乞顏). <a href="/wiki/Bodonchar_Munkhag" title="Bodonchar Munkhag">Borjigin Munkhag</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khabul_Khan" title="Khabul Khan">Kiyad-Borjigin Khabul</a> respectively adopted <a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin</a> (孛兒只斤) and Kiyad-Borjigin (乞顏·孛兒只斤) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan. The <a href="/wiki/Yesugei" title="Yesugei">Emperor Liezu of Yuan</a> subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan. </li> <li id="cite_note-ChorosEsen-342">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChorosEsen_342-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChorosEsen_342-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Esen_Taishi" title="Esen Taishi">Choros Esen</a>, surnamed <a href="/wiki/Choros_(Oirats)" title="Choros (Oirats)">Choros</a> (綽羅斯), was of <a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirat</a> descent. As he was not a member of the <a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin</a> (孛兒只斤) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.<a href="#cite_note-ChorosEsen1-340">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-ChorosEsen2-341">[267]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeNorthernYuan-347">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeNorthernYuan_347-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeNorthernYuan_347-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeNorthernYuan_347-2">c</a> Traditional Chinese historiography considers the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a> to have ended in either AD 1388 or AD 1402 when the dynastic name "Great Yuan" was abolished.<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeNorthernYuan1-344">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlternativeNorthernYuan2-345">[270]</a> Accordingly, the Northern Yuan lasted either 20 years or 34 years, and its last ruler was either the <a href="/wiki/Uskhal_Khan_T%C3%B6g%C3%BCs_Tem%C3%BCr" title="Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür">Tianyuan Emperor</a> or the <a href="/wiki/%C3%96r%C3%BCg_Tem%C3%BCr_Khan" title="Örüg Temür Khan">Örüg Temür Khan</a>. However, some historians regard the Mongol-ruled regime that existed from AD 1388 or AD 1402 up to AD 1635—referred to in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a> as "Dada" (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9E%91%E9%9D%BC_(%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4)" class="extiw" title="zh:鞑靼 (蒙古)">韃靼</a>)—as a direct continuation of the Northern Yuan.<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeNorthernYuan3-346">[271]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeSouthernMing-351">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeSouthernMing_351-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeSouthernMing_351-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeSouthernMing_351-2">c</a> Some historians consider AD 1664, the year in which the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Benli" title="Zhu Benli">Dingwu Emperor</a> came to an end, to be the end of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming" title="Southern Ming">Southern Ming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AlternativeSouthernMing-350">[274]</a> Accordingly, the Southern Ming lasted 20 years and its last ruler was the Dingwu Emperor. However, the existence and identity of the Dingwu Emperor, supposedly reigned from AD 1646 to AD 1664, are disputed. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jurchen-354"><a href="#cite_ref-Jurchen_354-0">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen</a> ethnic group was renamed "<a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>" in AD 1635 by the <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Emperor Taizong of Qing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jurchen1-352">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jurchen2-353">[276]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FavorableTreatment-358"><a href="#cite_ref-FavorableTreatment_358-0">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Favourable_Treatment_of_the_Great_Qing_Emperor_after_His_Abdication" title="Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication">Articles of Favorable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor After His Abdication</a> allowed the <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong Emperor</a> to retain his imperial title and enjoy other privileges following his abdication, resulting in the existence of a titular court in the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a> known as the "Remnant Court of the Abdicated Qing Imperial Family" (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%9C%E6%B8%85%E7%9A%87%E5%AE%A4%E5%B0%8F%E6%9C%9D%E5%BB%B7" class="extiw" title="zh:遜清皇室小朝廷">遜清皇室小朝廷</a>) between AD 1912 and AD 1924.<a href="#cite_note-FavorableTreatment-357">[279]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Coup" title="Beijing Coup">Beijing Coup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a> revoked the privileges and abolished the titular court in AD 1924.<a href="#cite_note-FavorableTreatment-357">[279]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ManchuRestoration-359"><a href="#cite_ref-ManchuRestoration_359-0">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> was briefly <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">restored</a> between 1 July 1917 and 12 July 1917 when <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xun" title="Zhang Xun">Zhang Xun</a> reinstalled the <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong Emperor</a> to the Chinese throne.<a href="#cite_note-MonarchyRestoration2-64">[58]</a> Due to the abortive nature of the event, it is usually excluded from Qing history. </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography-372"><a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography_372-0">^</a> As proposed by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Tan_Qixiang" title="Tan Qixiang">Tan Qixiang</a>, the geographical extent of "China" as defined in Chinese historical geography largely corresponds with the territories once ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> during its territorial peak between the AD 1750s and the AD 1840s, prior to the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography1-360">[280]</a> At its height, the Qing dynasty exercised jurisdiction over an area larger than 13 million km2, encompassing:<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography2-361">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography3-362">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography4-363">[283]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tannu_Uriankhai" title="Tannu Uriankhai">Tannu Uriankhai</a> in the north;<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography5-364">[284]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanovoy_Range" title="Stanovoy Range">Stanovoy Range</a> and Sakhalin in the northeast;<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography6-365">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography7-366">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography8-367">[287]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan</a> and its adjacent islands in the southeast;<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography6-365">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography7-366">[286]</a></li> <li>Hainan and the <a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea_Islands" title="South China Sea Islands">South China Sea Islands</a> in the south;<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography6-365">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography7-366">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography8-367">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography9-368">[288]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamir_Mountains" title="Pamir Mountains">Pamir Mountains</a> in the west;<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography7-366">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography8-367">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography10-369">[289]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Balkhash" title="Lake Balkhash">Lake Balkhash</a> in the northwest.<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography6-365">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography7-366">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography8-367">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography10-369">[289]</a></li></ul> Modern Chinese historiography considers all regimes, regardless of the ethnicity of the ruling class, that were established within or overlapped with the above geographical boundaries to be part of Chinese history.<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography11-370">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography12-371">[291]</a> Similarly, all ethnic groups that were active within the above geographical boundaries are considered ethnicities of China.<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography11-370">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-HistoricalGeography12-371">[291]</a> Regions outside of the above geographical boundaries but were under Chinese rule during various historical periods are included in the histories of the respective Chinese dynasties. </li> <li id="cite_note-Timeline-386"><a href="#cite_ref-Timeline_386-0">^</a> The dynastic regimes included in this timeline are the same as the list above. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFXueqin2002" class="citation journal cs1">Xueqin, Li (2002-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/jeaa/4/1/article-p321.xml">"The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project: Methodology and Results"</a>. Journal of East Asian Archaeology. 4 (1): 332. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852302322454585">10.1163/156852302322454585</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1387-6813">1387-6813</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+East+Asian+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Xia-Shang-Zhou+Chronology+Project%3A+Methodology+and+Results&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=332&rft.date=2002-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156852302322454585&rft.issn=1387-6813&rft.aulast=Xueqin&rft.aufirst=Li&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fjeaa%2F4%2F1%2Farticle-p321.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TangYu1-2"><a href="#cite_ref-TangYu1_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadeau2012" class="citation book cs1">Nadeau, Randall (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FmnKSfAS4PcC&q=tang+yu+xia+shang+zhou&pg=PA31">The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444361971" title="Special:BookSources/9781444361971"><bdi>9781444361971</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wiley-Blackwell+Companion+to+Chinese+Religions&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781444361971&rft.aulast=Nadeau&rft.aufirst=Randall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFmnKSfAS4PcC%26q%3Dtang%2Byu%2Bxia%2Bshang%2Bzhou%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TangYu2-3"><a href="#cite_ref-TangYu2_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeo2008" class="citation book cs1">Yeo, Khiok-Khng (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_tDYDwAAQBAJ&q=yu+xia+shang+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA24">Musing with Confucius and Paul: Toward a Chinese Christian Theology</a>. James Clarke & Company Limited. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780227903308" title="Special:BookSources/9780227903308"><bdi>9780227903308</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Musing+with+Confucius+and+Paul%3A+Toward+a+Chinese+Christian+Theology&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=James+Clarke+%26+Company+Limited&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780227903308&rft.aulast=Yeo&rft.aufirst=Khiok-Khng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_tDYDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dyu%2Bxia%2Bshang%2Bzhou%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TangYu3-4"><a href="#cite_ref-TangYu3_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChao2009" class="citation book cs1">Chao, Yuan-ling (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oiGkWyynvAMC&q=tang+yu+xia+shang+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA73">Medicine and Society in Late Imperial China: A Study of Physicians in Suzhou, 1600–1850</a>. Peter Lang. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781433103810" title="Special:BookSources/9781433103810"><bdi>9781433103810</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medicine+and+Society+in+Late+Imperial+China%3A+A+Study+of+Physicians+in+Suzhou%2C+1600%E2%80%931850&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781433103810&rft.aulast=Chao&rft.aufirst=Yuan-ling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoiGkWyynvAMC%26q%3Dtang%2Byu%2Bxia%2Bshang%2Bzhou%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TangYu4-5"><a href="#cite_ref-TangYu4_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2002" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, Shumin (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ixueshu.com/document/13b7db55e198eae3318947a18e7f9386.html">"夏、商、周之前还有个虞朝"</a>. 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Cengage Learning. p. 373. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781133171065" title="Special:BookSources/9781133171065"><bdi>9781133171065</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Civilizations%3A+Volume+I%3A+To+1700&rft.pages=373&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781133171065&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Pouwels%2C+Randall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTds8AAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dqing%2Bdynasty%2Blargest%2Bterritory%26pg%3DPA373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Largest5-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Largest5_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Largest5_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Largest5_18-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowe2010" class="citation book cs1">Rowe, William (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KN7Awmzx2PAC&q=qing+dynasty+largest+territory&pg=PA1">China's Last Empire: The Great Qing</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674054554" title="Special:BookSources/9780674054554"><bdi>9780674054554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Last+Empire%3A+The+Great+Qing&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780674054554&rft.aulast=Rowe&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKN7Awmzx2PAC%26q%3Dqing%2Bdynasty%2Blargest%2Bterritory%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GreatYuan1-19"><a href="#cite_ref-GreatYuan1_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2019" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, David (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=itKyDwAAQBAJ&q=great+yuan+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA50">In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108482448" title="Special:BookSources/9781108482448"><bdi>9781108482448</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Shadow+of+the+Mongol+Empire%3A+Ming+China+and+Eurasia&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781108482448&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DitKyDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dgreat%2Byuan%2Bentire%2Bmongol%2Bempire%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GreatYuan2-20"><a href="#cite_ref-GreatYuan2_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2009" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, David (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PDjWpqU55eMC&q=great+yuan+refer+to+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA293">Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols</a>. p. 293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674036086" title="Special:BookSources/9780674036086"><bdi>9780674036086</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire%27s+Twilight%3A+Northeast+Asia+Under+the+Mongols&rft.pages=293&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780674036086&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPDjWpqU55eMC%26q%3Dgreat%2Byuan%2Brefer%2Bto%2Bentire%2Bmongol%2Bempire%26pg%3DPA293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GreatYuan3-21"><a href="#cite_ref-GreatYuan3_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrookWalt_van_PraagBoltjes2018" class="citation book cs1">Brook, Timothy; Walt van Praag, Michael van; Boltjes, Miek (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6p1WDwAAQBAJ&q=great+yuan+refer+to+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA45">Sacred Mandates: Asian International Relations since Chinggis Khan</a>. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226562933" title="Special:BookSources/9780226562933"><bdi>9780226562933</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+Mandates%3A+Asian+International+Relations+since+Chinggis+Khan&rft.pages=45&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780226562933&rft.aulast=Brook&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft.au=Walt+van+Praag%2C+Michael+van&rft.au=Boltjes%2C+Miek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6p1WDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dgreat%2Byuan%2Brefer%2Bto%2Bentire%2Bmongol%2Bempire%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tianchao1-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Tianchao1_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNevius1869" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Livingstone_Nevius" class="mw-redirect" title="John Livingstone Nevius">Nevius, John</a> (1869). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lvt8GobNM5MC&q=heavenly+dynasty+china&pg=PA22">China and the Chinese</a>. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120606906" title="Special:BookSources/9788120606906"><bdi>9788120606906</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+the+Chinese&rft.pages=22&rft.date=1869&rft.isbn=9788120606906&rft.aulast=Nevius&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlvt8GobNM5MC%26q%3Dheavenly%2Bdynasty%2Bchina%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tianchao2-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Tianchao2_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2007" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Hongsheng (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EXoLAQAAMAAJ&q=中国朝代自称天朝">历史的瀑布与峡谷：中华文明的文化结构和现代转型</a>. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787300081830" title="Special:BookSources/9787300081830"><bdi>9787300081830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E7%9A%84%E7%80%91%E5%B8%83%E4%B8%8E%E5%B3%A1%E8%B0%B7%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E%E7%9A%84%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%92%8C%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E8%BD%AC%E5%9E%8B&rft.pages=139&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9787300081830&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Hongsheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEXoLAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%9D%E4%BB%A3%E8%87%AA%E7%A7%B0%E5%A4%A9%E6%9C%9D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Terminology-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Terminology_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Terminology_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_1864544">"陆大鹏谈翻译：历史上的"王朝"与"皇朝""</a>. 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Princeton University Press. p. 213. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400848690" title="Special:BookSources/9781400848690"><bdi>9781400848690</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucian+Perfectionism%3A+A+Political+Philosophy+for+Modern+Times&rft.pages=213&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781400848690&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZaj3AAAAQBAJ%26q%3Djia%2Btian%2Bxia%26pg%3DPA213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Constitution1-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Constitution1_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoenigChaudhuri2017" class="citation book cs1">Koenig, Lion; Chaudhuri, Bidisha (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3GeaCwAAQBAJ&q=Principles+of+the+Constitution+qing&pg=PA157">Politics of the 'Other' in India and China: Western Concepts in Non-Western Contexts</a>. Routledge. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317530558" title="Special:BookSources/9781317530558"><bdi>9781317530558</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+of+the+%27Other%27+in+India+and+China%3A+Western+Concepts+in+Non-Western+Contexts&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781317530558&rft.aulast=Koenig&rft.aufirst=Lion&rft.au=Chaudhuri%2C+Bidisha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3GeaCwAAQBAJ%26q%3DPrinciples%2Bof%2Bthe%2BConstitution%2Bqing%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Constitution2-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Constitution2_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaoZhangTian2015" class="citation book cs1">Gao, Quanxi; Zhang, Wei; Tian, Feilong (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6eBsBgAAQBAJ&q=qing+constitution+1911+19+creed&pg=PA135">The Road to the Rule of Law in Modern China</a>. Springer. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783662456378" title="Special:BookSources/9783662456378"><bdi>9783662456378</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+the+Rule+of+Law+in+Modern+China&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9783662456378&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=Quanxi&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Wei&rft.au=Tian%2C+Feilong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6eBsBgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dqing%2Bconstitution%2B1911%2B19%2Bcreed%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Constitution3-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Constitution3_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTo2017" class="citation book cs1">To, Michael (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsEzDwAAQBAJ&q=qing+constitution+1911+19+creed&pg=PA54">China's Quest for a Modern Constitutional Polity: from dynastic empires to modern republics</a>. p. 54.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Quest+for+a+Modern+Constitutional+Polity%3A+from+dynastic+empires+to+modern+republics&rft.pages=54&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=To&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZsEzDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dqing%2Bconstitution%2B1911%2B19%2Bcreed%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JiaTianxia2-33"><a href="#cite_ref-JiaTianxia2_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitakerShinn1972" class="citation book cs1">Whitaker, Donald; Shinn, Rinn-Sup (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gXl80SVbbjoC&q=chinese+throne+inheritance+male+line&pg=PA37">Area Handbook for the People's Republic of China</a>. p. 37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Area+Handbook+for+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.pages=37&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Whitaker&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft.au=Shinn%2C+Rinn-Sup&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgXl80SVbbjoC%26q%3Dchinese%2Bthrone%2Binheritance%2Bmale%2Bline%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ConsortKin-34"><a href="#cite_ref-ConsortKin_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiong2015" class="citation book cs1">Xiong, Deshan (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=90stDQAAQBAJ&q=wang+mang+wang+zhengjun+emperor+yuan&pg=PA95">Social History Of China</a>. World Scientific. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781938368264" title="Special:BookSources/9781938368264"><bdi>9781938368264</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+History+Of+China&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781938368264&rft.aulast=Xiong&rft.aufirst=Deshan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D90stDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dwang%2Bmang%2Bwang%2Bzhengjun%2Bemperor%2Byuan%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GongTianxia-36"><a href="#cite_ref-GongTianxia_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQi2016" class="citation book cs1">Qi, Zhixiang (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DPcCDAAAQBAJ&q=公天下&pg=PA21">中國現當代人學史：思想演變的時代特徵及其歷史軌跡</a>. 獨立作家. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789869244923" title="Special:BookSources/9789869244923"><bdi>9789869244923</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E7%8F%BE%E7%95%B6%E4%BB%A3%E4%BA%BA%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2%EF%BC%9A%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E6%BC%94%E8%AE%8A%E7%9A%84%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E7%89%B9%E5%BE%B5%E5%8F%8A%E5%85%B6%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E8%BB%8C%E8%B7%A1&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=%E7%8D%A8%E7%AB%8B%E4%BD%9C%E5%AE%B6&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9789869244923&rft.aulast=Qi&rft.aufirst=Zhixiang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDPcCDAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%85%AC%E5%A4%A9%E4%B8%8B%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGina_L._Barnes2015" class="citation book cs1">Gina L. Barnes (2015). Archaeology of East Asia: The Rise of Civilization in China, Korea and Japan. Oxbow Books. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781785700712" title="Special:BookSources/9781785700712"><bdi>9781785700712</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+of+East+Asia%3A+The+Rise+of+Civilization+in+China%2C+Korea+and+Japan&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781785700712&rft.au=Gina+L.+Barnes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLothar_von_Falkenhausen2012" class="citation book cs1">Lothar von Falkenhausen (2012). The Lloyd Cotsen Study Collection of Chinese Bronze Mirrors: Volume 2. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781950446445" title="Special:BookSources/9781950446445"><bdi>9781950446445</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lloyd+Cotsen+Study+Collection+of+Chinese+Bronze+Mirrors%3A+Volume+2&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Cotsen+Institute+of+Archaeology+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781950446445&rft.au=Lothar+von+Falkenhausen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGideon_Shelach-Lavi2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Shelach-Lavi" title="Gideon Shelach-Lavi">Gideon Shelach-Lavi</a> (2015). The Archaeology of Early China. Cambridge University Press. p. 314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521196895" title="Special:BookSources/9780521196895"><bdi>9780521196895</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Early+China&rft.pages=314&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780521196895&rft.au=Gideon+Shelach-Lavi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhixin_Sun2017" class="citation book cs1">Zhixin Sun (2017). Age of Empires: Art of the Qin and Han Dynasties. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781588396174" title="Special:BookSources/9781588396174"><bdi>9781588396174</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Age+of+Empires%3A+Art+of+the+Qin+and+Han+Dynasties&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781588396174&rft.au=Zhixin+Sun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLothar_von_Falkenhausen2006" class="citation book cs1">Lothar von Falkenhausen (2006). Chinese Society in the Age of Confucius (1000-250 BC). 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Harvard University Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674042025" title="Special:BookSources/9780674042025"><bdi>9780674042025</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Marches+West%3A+The+Qing+Conquest+of+Central+Eurasia&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780674042025&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ4L-_cjmSqoC%26q%3Ddynastic%2Bcycle%2Bchina%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticCycle2-43"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticCycle2_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllemanPaine2019" class="citation book cs1">Elleman, Bruce; Paine, Sarah (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-SEDwAAQBAJ&q=dynastic+cycle&pg=PA19">Modern China: Continuity and Change, 1644 to the Present</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781538103876" title="Special:BookSources/9781538103876"><bdi>9781538103876</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+China%3A+Continuity+and+Change%2C+1644+to+the+Present&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781538103876&rft.aulast=Elleman&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft.au=Paine%2C+Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8-SEDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Ddynastic%2Bcycle%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticCycle3-44"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticCycle3_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhengHuang2018" class="citation book cs1">Zheng, Yongnian; Huang, Yanjie (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CHpnDwAAQBAJ&q=dynastic+cycle+john+fairbank&pg=PA83">Market in State: The Political Economy of Domination in China</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108473446" title="Special:BookSources/9781108473446"><bdi>9781108473446</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Market+in+State%3A+The+Political+Economy+of+Domination+in+China&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781108473446&rft.aulast=Zheng&rft.aufirst=Yongnian&rft.au=Huang%2C+Yanjie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCHpnDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Ddynastic%2Bcycle%2Bjohn%2Bfairbank%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Transition1-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Transition1_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kknews.cc/history/2vj832e.html">"我国古代改朝换代的方式不外乎两种，哪种才是主流？"</a>. 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Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674002494" title="Special:BookSources/9780674002494"><bdi>9780674002494</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+History%3A+A+Manual&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Harvard+Univ+Asia+Center&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780674002494&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Endymion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DERnrQq0bsPYC%26q%3Dchinese%2Bdynastic%2Bname%2Bguohao%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Transition2-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Transition2_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2013" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, Dorothy (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KMQeAgAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+later+jin&pg=PA1">Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture</a>. Routledge. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135935627" title="Special:BookSources/9781135935627"><bdi>9781135935627</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+China%3A+History+and+Culture&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781135935627&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Dorothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKMQeAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dqing%2Bdynasty%2Blater%2Bjin%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Transition3-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Transition3_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDi_Cosmo2007" class="citation book cs1">Di Cosmo, Nicola (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8piRAgAAQBAJ&q=southern+ming&pg=PA1">The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: "My Service in the Army", by Dzengseo</a>. 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Harvard University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674023062" title="Special:BookSources/9780674023062"><bdi>9780674023062</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+of+Modern+Science+in+China&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780674023062&rft.aulast=Elman&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcIfkH9EWUngC%26q%3Dsouthern%2Bming%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Transition5-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Transition5_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanner2009" class="citation book cs1">Tanner, Harold (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&q=shun+dynasty&pg=PA335">China: A History</a>. Hackett. p. 335. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0872209152" title="Special:BookSources/978-0872209152"><bdi>978-0872209152</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+A+History&rft.pages=335&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0872209152&rft.aulast=Tanner&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVIWC9wCX2c8C%26q%3Dshun%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA335&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Transition6-52"><a href="#cite_ref-Transition6_52-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPines2012" class="citation book cs1">Pines, Yuri (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hwoM6gOPydEC&q=zhang+xianzhong+great+xi&pg=PA157">The Everlasting Empire: The Political Culture of Ancient China and Its Imperial Legacy</a>. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691134956" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691134956"><bdi>978-0691134956</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Everlasting+Empire%3A+The+Political+Culture+of+Ancient+China+and+Its+Imperial+Legacy&rft.pages=157&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0691134956&rft.aulast=Pines&rft.aufirst=Yuri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhwoM6gOPydEC%26q%3Dzhang%2Bxianzhong%2Bgreat%2Bxi%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Transition7-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Transition7_53-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMote2003" class="citation book cs1">Mote, Frederick (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC&q=zhang+xianzhong+great+xi&pg=PA798">Imperial China 900-1800</a>. p. 798. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674012127" title="Special:BookSources/9780674012127"><bdi>9780674012127</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+China+900-1800&rft.pages=798&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780674012127&rft.aulast=Mote&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSQWW7QgUH4gC%26q%3Dzhang%2Bxianzhong%2Bgreat%2Bxi%26pg%3DPA798&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Transition8-54"><a href="#cite_ref-Transition8_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkaff2012" class="citation book cs1">Skaff, Jonathan (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qTm6Yka5GigC&q=rebel+during+sui+tang+transition&pg=PA80">Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800</a>. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199734139" title="Special:BookSources/9780199734139"><bdi>9780199734139</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sui-Tang+China+and+Its+Turko-Mongol+Neighbors%3A+Culture%2C+Power%2C+and+Connections%2C+580-800&rft.pages=80&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780199734139&rft.aulast=Skaff&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqTm6Yka5GigC%26q%3Drebel%2Bduring%2Bsui%2Btang%2Btransition%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PrinceOfZhongshan-55"><a href="#cite_ref-PrinceOfZhongshan_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGong2006" class="citation book cs1">Gong, Yin (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gxhKAQAAIAAJ&q=東魏孝静帝+中山王">中国民族政策史</a>. p. 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787220071041" title="Special:BookSources/9787220071041"><bdi>9787220071041</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96%E5%8F%B2&rft.pages=253&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9787220071041&rft.aulast=Gong&rft.aufirst=Yin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgxhKAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%E6%9D%B1%E9%AD%8F%E5%AD%9D%E9%9D%99%E5%B8%9D%2B%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E7%8E%8B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DukeOfChongyi-56"><a href="#cite_ref-DukeOfChongyi_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2007" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Cheng (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k-gyAQAAIAAJ&q=柴咏+崇义公">禅让：中国历史上的一种权力游戏</a>. p. 200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787801066961" title="Special:BookSources/9787801066961"><bdi>9787801066961</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%A6%85%E8%AE%A9%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%80%E7%A7%8D%E6%9D%83%E5%8A%9B%E6%B8%B8%E6%88%8F&rft.pages=200&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9787801066961&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Cheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk-gyAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%E6%9F%B4%E5%92%8F%2B%E5%B4%87%E4%B9%89%E5%85%AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TwentyFourHistories-57"><a href="#cite_ref-TwentyFourHistories_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStunkel2012" class="citation book cs1">Stunkel, Kenneth (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9pem7Ip_WUgC&q=a+new+dynasty+took+on+responsibility+to+write+the+history+of+the+previous+dynasty&pg=PA143">Fifty Key Works of History and Historiography</a>. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136723667" title="Special:BookSources/9781136723667"><bdi>9781136723667</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fifty+Key+Works+of+History+and+Historiography&rft.pages=143&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781136723667&rft.aulast=Stunkel&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9pem7Ip_WUgC%26q%3Da%2Bnew%2Bdynasty%2Btook%2Bon%2Bresponsibility%2Bto%2Bwrite%2Bthe%2Bhistory%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bprevious%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoryOfQing-58"><a href="#cite_ref-HistoryOfQing_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorner2010" class="citation book cs1">Horner, Charles (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=debJCgAAQBAJ&q=draft+history+of+qing+republic+of+china&pg=PA59">Rising China and Its Postmodern Fate: Memories of Empire in a New Global Context</a>. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820335889" title="Special:BookSources/9780820335889"><bdi>9780820335889</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rising+China+and+Its+Postmodern+Fate%3A+Memories+of+Empire+in+a+New+Global+Context&rft.pages=59&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780820335889&rft.aulast=Horner&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdebJCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Ddraft%2Bhistory%2Bof%2Bqing%2Brepublic%2Bof%2Bchina%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticRule-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticRule_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticRule_59-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoodyRoss2020" class="citation book cs1">Moody, Alys; Ross, Stephen (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DLjIDwAAQBAJ&q=china+dynastic+rule+four+millennia&pg=PA282">Global Modernists on Modernism: An Anthology</a>. p. 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781474242349" title="Special:BookSources/9781474242349"><bdi>9781474242349</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Modernists+on+Modernism%3A+An+Anthology&rft.pages=282&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781474242349&rft.aulast=Moody&rft.aufirst=Alys&rft.au=Ross%2C+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDLjIDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dchina%2Bdynastic%2Brule%2Bfour%2Bmillennia%26pg%3DPA282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-XinhaiRevolution-60"><a href="#cite_ref-XinhaiRevolution_60-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrosse2019" class="citation book cs1">Grosse, Christine (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5n-XDwAAQBAJ&q=xinhai+revolution+dynastic+rule&pg=PA71">The Global Manager's Guide to Cultural Literacy</a>. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781527533875" title="Special:BookSources/9781527533875"><bdi>9781527533875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Global+Manager%27s+Guide+to+Cultural+Literacy&rft.pages=71&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781527533875&rft.aulast=Grosse&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5n-XDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dxinhai%2Brevolution%2Bdynastic%2Brule%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-KongLingyi-61"><a href="#cite_ref-KongLingyi_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoškerSuhadolnik2014" class="citation book cs1">Rošker, Jana; Suhadolnik, Nataša (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ECJQBwAAQBAJ&q=put+a+descendant+of+Confucius+on+the+throne+Duke+Yansheng&pg=PA74">Modernisation of Chinese Culture: Continuity and Change</a>. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781443867726" title="Special:BookSources/9781443867726"><bdi>9781443867726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modernisation+of+Chinese+Culture%3A+Continuity+and+Change&rft.pages=74&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781443867726&rft.aulast=Ro%C5%A1ker&rft.aufirst=Jana&rft.au=Suhadolnik%2C+Nata%C5%A1a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DECJQBwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dput%2Ba%2Bdescendant%2Bof%2BConfucius%2Bon%2Bthe%2Bthrone%2BDuke%2BYansheng%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ZhuYuxun-62"><a href="#cite_ref-ZhuYuxun_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAldrich2008" class="citation book cs1">Aldrich, M. A. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TMMvxX67FpIC&q=Marquis+of+Extended+Grace&pg=PA176">The Search for a Vanishing Beijing: A Guide to China's Capital Through the Ages</a>. p. 176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789622097773" title="Special:BookSources/9789622097773"><bdi>9789622097773</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+for+a+Vanishing+Beijing%3A+A+Guide+to+China%27s+Capital+Through+the+Ages&rft.pages=176&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9789622097773&rft.aulast=Aldrich&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTMMvxX67FpIC%26q%3DMarquis%2Bof%2BExtended%2BGrace%26pg%3DPA176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MonarchyRestoration1-63"><a href="#cite_ref-MonarchyRestoration1_63-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchillinger2016" class="citation book cs1">Schillinger, Nicholas (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=moZwDQAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+of+yuan+shikai+empire+of+china&pg=PA176">The Body and Military Masculinity in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Art of Governing Soldiers</a>. p. 176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781498531696" title="Special:BookSources/9781498531696"><bdi>9781498531696</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Body+and+Military+Masculinity+in+Late+Qing+and+Early+Republican+China%3A+The+Art+of+Governing+Soldiers&rft.pages=176&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781498531696&rft.aulast=Schillinger&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmoZwDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlegitimacy%2Bof%2Byuan%2Bshikai%2Bempire%2Bof%2Bchina%26pg%3DPA176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MonarchyRestoration2-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MonarchyRestoration2_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MonarchyRestoration2_64-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHao2019" class="citation book cs1">Hao, Shiyuan (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qcm1DwAAQBAJ&q=puyi+restoration+1917&pg=PA51">China's Solution to Its Ethno-national Issues</a>. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789813295193" title="Special:BookSources/9789813295193"><bdi>9789813295193</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Solution+to+Its+Ethno-national+Issues&rft.pages=51&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9789813295193&rft.aulast=Hao&rft.aufirst=Shiyuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQcm1DwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dpuyi%2Brestoration%2B1917%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MonarchyRestoration3-65"><a href="#cite_ref-MonarchyRestoration3_65-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2009" class="citation book cs1">Wells, Anne (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_ptE9EGO_WUC&q=legitimacy+of+manchukuo&pg=PA167">The A to Z of World War II: The War Against Japan</a>. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810870260" title="Special:BookSources/9780810870260"><bdi>9780810870260</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+World+War+II%3A+The+War+Against+Japan&rft.pages=167&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780810870260&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ptE9EGO_WUC%26q%3Dlegitimacy%2Bof%2Bmanchukuo%26pg%3DPA167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy1-66"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy1_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2019" class="citation book cs1">Wu, Bin (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dl6mDwAAQBAJ&q=political+legitimacy+of+imperial+china&pg=PA45">Government Performance Management in China: Theory and Practice</a>. pp. 44–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789811382253" title="Special:BookSources/9789811382253"><bdi>9789811382253</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Government+Performance+Management+in+China%3A+Theory+and+Practice&rft.pages=44-45&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9789811382253&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Bin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddl6mDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dpolitical%2Blegitimacy%2Bof%2Bimperial%2Bchina%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy2-68"><a 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.todayonhistory.com/people/201910/36697.html">the original</a> on 15 January 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E5%9B%BD%E5%92%8C%E4%BB%A3%E5%88%B0%E5%BA%95%E6%9C%89%E4%BB%80%E4%B9%88%E5%8C%BA%E5%88%AB%EF%BC%9F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.todayonhistory.com%2Fpeople%2F201910%2F36697.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy3-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy3_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBesio2012" class="citation book cs1">Besio, Kimberly (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yhogHgTrzyEC&q=legitimacy+during+three+kingdoms&pg=PA64">Three Kingdoms and Chinese Culture</a>. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791480496" title="Special:BookSources/9780791480496"><bdi>9780791480496</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Three+Kingdoms+and+Chinese+Culture&rft.pages=64&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780791480496&rft.aulast=Besio&rft.aufirst=Kimberly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyhogHgTrzyEC%26q%3Dlegitimacy%2Bduring%2Bthree%2Bkingdoms%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy4-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy4_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaaquieWang2018" class="citation journal cs1">Baaquie, Belal Ehsan; Wang, Qing-Hai (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS2591729318500037">"Chinese Dynasties and Modern China: Unification and Fragmentation"</a>. China and the World: Ancient and Modern Silk Road. 1 (1): 5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS2591729318500037">10.1142/S2591729318500037</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+and+the+World%3A+Ancient+and+Modern+Silk+Road&rft.atitle=Chinese+Dynasties+and+Modern+China%3A+Unification+and+Fragmentation&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=5&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2FS2591729318500037&rft.aulast=Baaquie&rft.aufirst=Belal+Ehsan&rft.au=Wang%2C+Qing-Hai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1142%252FS2591729318500037&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy5-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy5_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNosco1997" class="citation book cs1">Nosco, Peter (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bcTE3TUssCAC&q=shu+han+continuation+of+the+legitimate+Han+dynasty+chu+hsi&pg=PA68">Confucianism and Tokugawa Culture</a>. University of Hawaii Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824818654" title="Special:BookSources/9780824818654"><bdi>9780824818654</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucianism+and+Tokugawa+Culture&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780824818654&rft.aulast=Nosco&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbcTE3TUssCAC%26q%3Dshu%2Bhan%2Bcontinuation%2Bof%2Bthe%2Blegitimate%2BHan%2Bdynasty%2Bchu%2Bhsi%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy6-72"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy6_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolcombe2017" class="citation book cs1">Holcombe, Charles (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kYKlDQAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+during+eastern+jin+dynasty+sixteen+kingdoms&pg=PA63">A History of East Asia</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107118737" title="Special:BookSources/9781107118737"><bdi>9781107118737</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+East+Asia&rft.pages=62-63&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781107118737&rft.aulast=Holcombe&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkYKlDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlegitimacy%2Bduring%2Beastern%2Bjin%2Bdynasty%2Bsixteen%2Bkingdoms%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy7-73"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy7_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2019" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Shao-yun (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O5K3DwAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+during+northern+and+southern+dynasties&pg=PA63">The Way of the Barbarians: Redrawing Ethnic Boundaries in Tang and Song China</a>. University of Washington Press. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780295746012" title="Special:BookSources/9780295746012"><bdi>9780295746012</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Way+of+the+Barbarians%3A+Redrawing+Ethnic+Boundaries+in+Tang+and+Song+China&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780295746012&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Shao-yun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO5K3DwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlegitimacy%2Bduring%2Bnorthern%2Band%2Bsouthern%2Bdynasties%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy8-74"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy8_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2007" class="citation book cs1">Chen, Huaiyu (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8qCNXQSG7mUC&q=daoyi+northern+and+southern+dynasties&pg=PA24">The Revival of Buddhist Monasticism in Medieval China</a>. Peter Lang. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820486246" title="Special:BookSources/9780820486246"><bdi>9780820486246</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Revival+of+Buddhist+Monasticism+in+Medieval+China&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780820486246&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Huaiyu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8qCNXQSG7mUC%26q%3Ddaoyi%2Bnorthern%2Band%2Bsouthern%2Bdynasties%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy9-75"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy9_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakeman1985" class="citation book cs1">Wakeman, Frederic (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&q=suolu+barbarian&pg=PA446">The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China, Volume 1</a>. University of California Press. p. 446. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520048041" title="Special:BookSources/9780520048041"><bdi>9780520048041</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Enterprise%3A+The+Manchu+Reconstruction+of+Imperial+Order+in+Seventeenth-century+China%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=446&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780520048041&rft.aulast=Wakeman&rft.aufirst=Frederic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8nXLwSG2O8AC%26q%3Dsuolu%2Bbarbarian%26pg%3DPA446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy10-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy10_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy10_76-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy10_76-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy10_76-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy10_76-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy10_76-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2017" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Pujiang (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YWZ0DwAAQBAJ&q=十国正统&pg=PT29">正统与华夷：中国传统政治文化研究</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787101125795" title="Special:BookSources/9787101125795"><bdi>9787101125795</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%AD%A3%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%8E%E5%8D%8E%E5%A4%B7%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9787101125795&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Pujiang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYWZ0DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%8D%81%E5%9B%BD%E6%AD%A3%E7%BB%9F%26pg%3DPT29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy11-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy11_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy11_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy11_77-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2000" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Thomas (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EvLACfv6egkC&q=five+dynasties+and+ten+kingdoms+legitimacy&pg=PA238">Education in Traditional China: A History</a>. BRILL. p. 238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004103635" title="Special:BookSources/9004103635"><bdi>9004103635</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Education+in+Traditional+China%3A+A+History&rft.pages=238&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9004103635&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEvLACfv6egkC%26q%3Dfive%2Bdynasties%2Band%2Bten%2Bkingdoms%2Blegitimacy%26pg%3DPA238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy12-78"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy12_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNgWang2005" class="citation book cs1">Ng, On Cho; Wang, Edward (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wN99fsHpbTsC&q=legitimacy+during+song+liao+jin&pg=PA177">Mirroring the Past: The Writing And Use of History in Imperial China</a>. University of Hawaii Press. p. 177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824829131" title="Special:BookSources/9780824829131"><bdi>9780824829131</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mirroring+the+Past%3A+The+Writing+And+Use+of+History+in+Imperial+China&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780824829131&rft.aulast=Ng&rft.aufirst=On+Cho&rft.au=Wang%2C+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwN99fsHpbTsC%26q%3Dlegitimacy%2Bduring%2Bsong%2Bliao%2Bjin%26pg%3DPA177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy13-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy13_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200731074611/https://xw.qq.com/partner/hwbrowser/20191010A0H8X2/20191010A0H8X200?ADTAG=hwb&pgv_ref=hwb&appid=hwbrowser&ctype=news">"宋和辽究竟哪个才是正统王朝？"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://xw.qq.com/partner/hwbrowser/20191010A0H8X2/20191010A0H8X200?ADTAG=hwb&pgv_ref=hwb&appid=hwbrowser&ctype=news">the original</a> on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%AE%8B%E5%92%8C%E8%BE%BD%E7%A9%B6%E7%AB%9F%E5%93%AA%E4%B8%AA%E6%89%8D%E6%98%AF%E6%AD%A3%E7%BB%9F%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%EF%BC%9F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fxw.qq.com%2Fpartner%2Fhwbrowser%2F20191010A0H8X2%2F20191010A0H8X200%3FADTAG%3Dhwb%26pgv_ref%3Dhwb%26appid%3Dhwbrowser%26ctype%3Dnews&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy14-80"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy14_80-0">^</a> Brook, Walt van Praag & Boltjes (2018). p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy15-81"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy15_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiran2005" class="citation book cs1">Biran, Michal (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B934LaVBaz8C&q=qara+khitai+legitimate+dynasty+of+china">The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521842266" title="Special:BookSources/9780521842266"><bdi>9780521842266</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Empire+of+the+Qara+Khitai+in+Eurasian+History%3A+Between+China+and+the+Islamic+World&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780521842266&rft.aulast=Biran&rft.aufirst=Michal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB934LaVBaz8C%26q%3Dqara%2Bkhitai%2Blegitimate%2Bdynasty%2Bof%2Bchina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy16-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy16_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.360doc.com/content/19/1105/08/60669552_871172581.shtml">"试论清人的辽金"正统观"——以辽宋金"三史分修""各与正统"问题讨论为中心"</a>. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E8%AF%95%E8%AE%BA%E6%B8%85%E4%BA%BA%E7%9A%84%E8%BE%BD%E9%87%91%22%E6%AD%A3%E7%BB%9F%E8%A7%82%22%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E4%BB%A5%E8%BE%BD%E5%AE%8B%E9%87%91%22%E4%B8%89%E5%8F%B2%E5%88%86%E4%BF%AE%22%22%E5%90%84%E4%B8%8E%E6%AD%A3%E7%BB%9F%22%E9%97%AE%E9%A2%98%E8%AE%A8%E8%AE%BA%E4%B8%BA%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.360doc.com%2Fcontent%2F19%2F1105%2F08%2F60669552_871172581.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy17-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy17_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2015" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Feng (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ynr8CAAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+during+ming+northern+yuan&pg=PA126">Chinese Hegemony: Grand Strategy and International Institutions in East Asian History</a>. Stanford University Press. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804795043" title="Special:BookSources/9780804795043"><bdi>9780804795043</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Hegemony%3A+Grand+Strategy+and+International+Institutions+in+East+Asian+History&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780804795043&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Feng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dynr8CAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlegitimacy%2Bduring%2Bming%2Bnorthern%2Byuan%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy18-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy18_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkada2002" class="citation journal cs1">Okada, Hidehiro (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/befeo_0336-1519_1994_num_81_1_2245.pdf">"Dayan Khan as a Yuan Emperor : The Political Legitimacy in 15th Century Mongolia"</a> (PDF). Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. 81: 53. Retrieved 7 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+de+l%27%C3%89cole+fran%C3%A7aise+d%27Extr%C3%AAme-Orient&rft.atitle=Dayan+Khan+as+a+Yuan+Emperor+%3A+The+Political+Legitimacy+in+15th+Century+Mongolia&rft.volume=81&rft.pages=53&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Okada&rft.aufirst=Hidehiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2FdocAsPDF%2Fbefeo_0336-1519_1994_num_81_1_2245.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy14-A-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy14-A_85-0">^</a> Brook, Walt van Praag & Boltjes (2018). p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy19-86"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy19_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2000" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Wing-ming (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yH8wAQAAIAAJ&q=legitimacy+of+southern+ming+and+qing">East Asian History, Issues 19-20</a>. p. 30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asian+History%2C+Issues+19-20&rft.pages=30&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Wing-ming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyH8wAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dlegitimacy%2Bof%2Bsouthern%2Bming%2Band%2Bqing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy20-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy20_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFang2019" class="citation book cs1">Fang, Weigui (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HheJDwAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+during+Qing+southern+ming&pg=PA30">Modern Notions of Civilization and Culture in China</a>. Springer. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789811335587" title="Special:BookSources/9789811335587"><bdi>9789811335587</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Notions+of+Civilization+and+Culture+in+China&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9789811335587&rft.aulast=Fang&rft.aufirst=Weigui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHheJDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlegitimacy%2Bduring%2BQing%2Bsouthern%2Bming%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy21-88"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy21_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaldanza2016" class="citation book cs1">Baldanza, Kathlene (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6u6xCwAAQBAJ&q=legitimacy+during+Qing+southern+ming&pg=PA206">Ming China and Vietnam</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107124240" title="Special:BookSources/9781107124240"><bdi>9781107124240</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ming+China+and+Vietnam&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781107124240&rft.aulast=Baldanza&rft.aufirst=Kathlene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6u6xCwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlegitimacy%2Bduring%2BQing%2Bsouthern%2Bming%26pg%3DPA206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy22-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy22_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2019" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Bret (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kmCpDwAAQBAJ&q=Ch%C5%ABch%C5%8D+jijitsu+imperial+japan+central+dynasty+china&pg=PA294">The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Philosophy</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 294. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199945726" title="Special:BookSources/9780199945726"><bdi>9780199945726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Japanese+Philosophy&rft.pages=294&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780199945726&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Bret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkmCpDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DCh%25C5%25ABch%25C5%258D%2Bjijitsu%2Bimperial%2Bjapan%2Bcentral%2Bdynasty%2Bchina%26pg%3DPA294&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy23-90"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy23_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNg2019" class="citation book cs1">Ng, Wai-ming (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g4KKDwAAQBAJ&q=kai+hentai+qing+dynasty&pg=PR17">Imagining China in Tokugawa Japan: Legends, Classics, and Historical Terms</a>. SUNY Press. p. xvii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438473086" title="Special:BookSources/9781438473086"><bdi>9781438473086</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imagining+China+in+Tokugawa+Japan%3A+Legends%2C+Classics%2C+and+Historical+Terms&rft.pages=xvii&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781438473086&rft.aulast=Ng&rft.aufirst=Wai-ming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg4KKDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dkai%2Bhentai%2Bqing%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPR17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy24-91"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy24_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2014" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Xiaoling (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7fmaBQAAQBAJ&q=%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D%E4%B8%8D%E6%98%AF%E6%AD%A3%E7%B5%B1+%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC+%E8%8F%AF%E5%A4%B7%E8%AE%8A%E6%85%8B&pg=PA224">從現代到後現代的自我追尋：夏目漱石與村上春樹的比較研究</a>. 獨立作家－秀威出版. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789863263012" title="Special:BookSources/9789863263012"><bdi>9789863263012</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%BE%9E%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%88%B0%E5%BE%8C%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E7%9A%84%E8%87%AA%E6%88%91%E8%BF%BD%E5%B0%8B%EF%BC%9A%E5%A4%8F%E7%9B%AE%E6%BC%B1%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%9D%91%E4%B8%8A%E6%98%A5%E6%A8%B9%E7%9A%84%E6%AF%94%E8%BC%83%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=%E7%8D%A8%E7%AB%8B%E4%BD%9C%E5%AE%B6%EF%BC%8D%E7%A7%80%E5%A8%81%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789863263012&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Xiaoling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7fmaBQAAQBAJ%26q%3D%25E6%25B8%2585%25E6%259C%259D%25E4%25B8%258D%25E6%2598%25AF%25E6%25AD%25A3%25E7%25B5%25B1%2B%25E6%2597%25A5%25E6%259C%25AC%2B%25E8%258F%25AF%25E5%25A4%25B7%25E8%25AE%258A%25E6%2585%258B%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy25-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy25_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy25_92-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2018" class="citation book cs1">Wu, Huaiqi (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7QdGDwAAQBAJ&q=orthodox+northern+and+southern+dynasties&pg=PA321">An Historical Sketch of Chinese Historiography</a>. Springer. p. 322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783662562536" title="Special:BookSources/9783662562536"><bdi>9783662562536</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Historical+Sketch+of+Chinese+Historiography&rft.pages=322&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9783662562536&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Huaiqi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7QdGDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dorthodox%2Bnorthern%2Band%2Bsouthern%2Bdynasties%26pg%3DPA321&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Legitimacy26-93"><a href="#cite_ref-Legitimacy26_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson2014" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, Christopher (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hm63AwAAQBAJ&q=prc+and+roc+legitimacy&pg=PA59">The China Handbook</a>. Routledge. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134269662" title="Special:BookSources/9781134269662"><bdi>9781134269662</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+China+Handbook&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781134269662&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhm63AwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dprc%2Band%2Broc%2Blegitimacy%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhou-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zhou_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhou_94-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaw2004" class="citation book cs1">Law, Eugene (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hUb_BQNkXdQC&q=western+Zhou+eastern+zhou+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA11">Best of China</a>. 五洲传播出版社. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787508504292" title="Special:BookSources/9787508504292"><bdi>9787508504292</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Best+of+China&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=%E4%BA%94%E6%B4%B2%E4%BC%A0%E6%92%AD%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9787508504292&rft.aulast=Law&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhUb_BQNkXdQC%26q%3Dwestern%2BZhou%2Beastern%2Bzhou%2Bzhou%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Han-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Han_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Han_95-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2012" class="citation book cs1">Li, Xiaobing (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R7qNuIJJsNEC&q=han+dynasty+divided+into+two+periods&pg=PA485">China at War: An Encyclopedia</a>. Abc-Clio. p. 485. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781598844160" title="Special:BookSources/9781598844160"><bdi>9781598844160</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+at+War%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=485&rft.pub=Abc-Clio&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781598844160&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Xiaobing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR7qNuIJJsNEC%26q%3Dhan%2Bdynasty%2Bdivided%2Binto%2Btwo%2Bperiods%26pg%3DPA485&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jin-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jin_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jin_96-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMao2005" class="citation book cs1">Mao, Zengyin (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o_vtGt6L4GQC&q=jin+dynasty+western+jin+eastern+jin&pg=PP90">三字经与中国民俗画</a>. 五洲传播出版社. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787508507996" title="Special:BookSources/9787508507996"><bdi>9787508507996</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%89%E5%AD%97%E7%BB%8F%E4%B8%8E%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%B0%91%E4%BF%97%E7%94%BB&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=%E4%BA%94%E6%B4%B2%E4%BC%A0%E6%92%AD%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9787508507996&rft.aulast=Mao&rft.aufirst=Zengyin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do_vtGt6L4GQC%26q%3Djin%2Bdynasty%2Bwestern%2Bjin%2Beastern%2Bjin%26pg%3DPP90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SouthernLiang-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SouthernLiang_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SouthernLiang_97-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SouthernLiang_97-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2018" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Yong (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhRhEAAAQBAJ&dq=%E7%A7%83%E5%8F%91+%E6%8B%93%E8%B7%8B%E6%B0%8F%E5%90%8C%E6%BA%90+%E7%A7%83%E5%8F%91%E5%8C%B9%E5%AD%A4&pg=PA27">东亚文化环流十讲</a>. 上海交通大学出版社有限公司. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787313200105" title="Special:BookSources/9787313200105"><bdi>9787313200105</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%9C%E4%BA%9A%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E7%8E%AF%E6%B5%81%E5%8D%81%E8%AE%B2&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E4%BA%A4%E9%80%9A%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9787313200105&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Yong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZhRhEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%25E7%25A7%2583%25E5%258F%2591%2B%25E6%258B%2593%25E8%25B7%258B%25E6%25B0%258F%25E5%2590%258C%25E6%25BA%2590%2B%25E7%25A7%2583%25E5%258F%2591%25E5%258C%25B9%25E5%25AD%25A4%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Song-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Song_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Song_98-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2002" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Shoufa (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zGtMAAAAIAAJ&q=宋朝+北宋+南宋">中国政治制度史</a>. 山东人民出版社. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787209030762" title="Special:BookSources/9787209030762"><bdi>9787209030762</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6%E5%8F%B2&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=%E5%B1%B1%E4%B8%9C%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9787209030762&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Shoufa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzGtMAAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D%2B%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B%2B%E5%8D%97%E5%AE%8B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CentralPlainDynasties-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CentralPlainDynasties_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CentralPlainDynasties_99-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiShan2015" class="citation book cs1">Li, Xiaobing; 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Lexington Books. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781498507295" title="Special:BookSources/9781498507295"><bdi>9781498507295</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+China%3A+Identity%2C+Assimilation%2C+and+Resistance&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781498507295&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Xiaobing&rft.au=Shan%2C+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiB0oCwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dzhongyuan%2Bwangchao%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChineseEmpire1-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChineseEmpire1_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChineseEmpire1_100-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/chinese-empire">"Chinese Empire"</a>. Retrieved 9 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chinese+Empire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Fchinese-empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChineseEmpire2-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChineseEmpire2_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChineseEmpire2_101-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.360kuai.com/pc/9f72d57dccdee86f4?cota=3&kuai_so=1&sign=360_7bc3b157">"经常提到的波斯帝国，那你知道波斯第一、第二、第三帝国吗？"</a>. Retrieved 13 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E7%BB%8F%E5%B8%B8%E6%8F%90%E5%88%B0%E7%9A%84%E6%B3%A2%E6%96%AF%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%EF%BC%8C%E9%82%A3%E4%BD%A0%E7%9F%A5%E9%81%93%E6%B3%A2%E6%96%AF%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E3%80%81%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E3%80%81%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%90%97%EF%BC%9F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.360kuai.com%2Fpc%2F9f72d57dccdee86f4%3Fcota%3D3%26kuai_so%3D1%26sign%3D360_7bc3b157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GreatUnity1-103"><a href="#cite_ref-GreatUnity1_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFengYang2000" class="citation book cs1">Feng, Tianyu; Yang, Hua (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PY7kAAAAMAAJ&q=大一统+最早">中国文化发展轨迹</a>. 上海人民出版社. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787208034600" title="Special:BookSources/9787208034600"><bdi>9787208034600</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%8F%91%E5%B1%95%E8%BD%A8%E8%BF%B9&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9787208034600&rft.aulast=Feng&rft.aufirst=Tianyu&rft.au=Yang%2C+Hua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPY7kAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F%2B%E6%9C%80%E6%97%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GreatUnity2-104"><a href="#cite_ref-GreatUnity2_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiaZhu2015" class="citation book cs1">Jia, Bingqiang; Zhu, Xiaohong (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UWWADwAAQBAJ&q=大一统+公羊传+隐公元年&pg=PT60">图说治水与中华文明</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787517031246" title="Special:BookSources/9787517031246"><bdi>9787517031246</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%9B%BE%E8%AF%B4%E6%B2%BB%E6%B0%B4%E4%B8%8E%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9787517031246&rft.aulast=Jia&rft.aufirst=Bingqiang&rft.au=Zhu%2C+Xiaohong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUWWADwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F%2B%E5%85%AC%E7%BE%8A%E4%BC%A0%2B%E9%9A%90%E5%85%AC%E5%85%83%E5%B9%B4%26pg%3DPT60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GreatUnity3-105"><a href="#cite_ref-GreatUnity3_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2009" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Xilong (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=boOjDwAAQBAJ&q=大一统+公羊传+最早&pg=PT785">历史文化探研──兰州大学历史文化学院专门史论文集</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787542114525" title="Special:BookSources/9787542114525"><bdi>9787542114525</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E6%8E%A2%E7%A0%94%E2%94%80%E2%94%80%E5%85%B0%E5%B7%9E%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E9%99%A2%E4%B8%93%E9%97%A8%E5%8F%B2%E8%AE%BA%E6%96%87%E9%9B%86&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9787542114525&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Xilong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DboOjDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F%2B%E5%85%AC%E7%BE%8A%E4%BC%A0%2B%E6%9C%80%E6%97%A9%26pg%3DPT785&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GreatUnity4-106"><a href="#cite_ref-GreatUnity4_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2015" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Faxing (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iqo3CgAAQBAJ&q=大一统+孔子&pg=PT969">世界伟人传记丛书（上）</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E4%BC%9F%E4%BA%BA%E4%BC%A0%E8%AE%B0%E4%B8%9B%E4%B9%A6%EF%BC%88%E4%B8%8A%EF%BC%89&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Faxing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Diqo3CgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F%2B%E5%AD%94%E5%AD%90%26pg%3DPT969&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GreatUnity5-107"><a href="#cite_ref-GreatUnity5_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGao2018" class="citation book cs1">Gao, Qi (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mA61DwAAQBAJ&q=大一统+孟子&pg=PT200">传统文化与治国理政</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787101127669" title="Special:BookSources/9787101127669"><bdi>9787101127669</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E4%B8%8E%E6%B2%BB%E5%9B%BD%E7%90%86%E6%94%BF&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9787101127669&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=Qi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmA61DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F%2B%E5%AD%9F%E5%AD%90%26pg%3DPT200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UnifiedDynasties1-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UnifiedDynasties1_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UnifiedDynasties1_108-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kknews.cc/history/p5qxl3e.html">"中国历史上十个大一统王朝，其中四个国祚不过百年"</a>. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E4%B8%8A%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%AA%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%B6%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%9B%E4%B8%AA%E5%9B%BD%E7%A5%9A%E4%B8%8D%E8%BF%87%E7%99%BE%E5%B9%B4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkknews.cc%2Fhistory%2Fp5qxl3e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UnifiedDynasties2-109"><a href="#cite_ref-UnifiedDynasties2_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kknews.cc/history/ygblbka.html">"我国历史上这两大王朝均是大一统王朝，却教科书上却极少被提及"</a>. Retrieved 24 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%88%91%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E4%B8%8A%E8%BF%99%E4%B8%A4%E5%A4%A7%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E5%9D%87%E6%98%AF%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%EF%BC%8C%E5%8D%B4%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E4%B9%A6%E4%B8%8A%E5%8D%B4%E6%9E%81%E5%B0%91%E8%A2%AB%E6%8F%90%E5%8F%8A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkknews.cc%2Fhistory%2Fygblbka.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UnifiedDynasties3-110"><a href="#cite_ref-UnifiedDynasties3_110-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraffHigham2012" class="citation book cs1">Graff, David; Higham, Robin (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wKpj1YfXfHEC&q=A+Military+History+of+China+sixteen+prefectures+song+emperor&pg=PA70">A Military History of China</a>. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 70–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813140674" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813140674"><bdi>978-0813140674</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+China&rft.pages=70-71&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0813140674&rft.aulast=Graff&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Higham%2C+Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwKpj1YfXfHEC%26q%3DA%2BMilitary%2BHistory%2Bof%2BChina%2Bsixteen%2Bprefectures%2Bsong%2Bemperor%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-InfiltrationConquest1-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-InfiltrationConquest1_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-InfiltrationConquest1_111-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-InfiltrationConquest1_111-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-InfiltrationConquest1_111-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-InfiltrationConquest1_111-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2018" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Fan (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00094633.2018.1466564?scroll=top&needAccess=true&journalCode=mcsh20">"Characteristics of the Yuan dynasty: Reflections on several issues from Mongol Yuan history"</a>. Chinese Studies in History. 51 (1): 52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00094633.2018.1466564">10.1080/00094633.2018.1466564</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165215790">165215790</a>. Retrieved 2 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Studies+in+History&rft.atitle=Characteristics+of+the+Yuan+dynasty%3A+Reflections+on+several+issues+from+Mongol+Yuan+history&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=52&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00094633.2018.1466564&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165215790%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Fan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F00094633.2018.1466564%3Fscroll%3Dtop%26needAccess%3Dtrue%26journalCode%3Dmcsh20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-InfiltrationConquest2-112"><a href="#cite_ref-InfiltrationConquest2_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_de_Ven2000" class="citation book cs1">van de Ven, Hans (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IXKkCXDvYFYC&q=conquest+dynasties&pg=PA77">Warfare in Chinese History</a>. BRILL. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004117741" title="Special:BookSources/9004117741"><bdi>9004117741</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+Chinese+History&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9004117741&rft.aulast=van+de+Ven&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIXKkCXDvYFYC%26q%3Dconquest%2Bdynasties%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-InfiltrationConquest3-113"><a href="#cite_ref-InfiltrationConquest3_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBulag2010" class="citation book cs1">Bulag, Uradyn (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sQLiMYUk-nIC&q=conquest+dynasty+nationalist&pg=PA56">Collaborative Nationalism: The Politics of Friendship on China's Mongolian Frontier</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 56–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442204331" title="Special:BookSources/9781442204331"><bdi>9781442204331</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collaborative+Nationalism%3A+The+Politics+of+Friendship+on+China%27s+Mongolian+Frontier&rft.pages=56-57&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781442204331&rft.aulast=Bulag&rft.aufirst=Uradyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsQLiMYUk-nIC%26q%3Dconquest%2Bdynasty%2Bnationalist%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName1-A-114"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName1-A_114-0">^</a> Wilkinson (2000). pp. 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName2-115"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName2_115-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhuWu2000" class="citation book cs1">Zhu, Fayuan; Wu, Qixing (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aVp_DwAAQBAJ&q=中国朝代国号&pg=PT195">中国文化ABC</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787210045892" title="Special:BookSources/9787210045892"><bdi>9787210045892</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96ABC&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9787210045892&rft.aulast=Zhu&rft.aufirst=Fayuan&rft.au=Wu%2C+Qixing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaVp_DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%9D%E4%BB%A3%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%26pg%3DPT195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName3-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName3_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName3_116-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName3_116-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName3_116-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diyifanwen.com/tool/lishichaodai/126900432717083.htm">"历代王朝国号的分类"</a>. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%8E%86%E4%BB%A3%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E7%9A%84%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.diyifanwen.com%2Ftool%2Flishichaodai%2F126900432717083.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName4-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName4_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName4_117-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName4_117-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName4_117-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName4_117-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.ifeng.com/history/1/200709/0929_335_243492.shtml">"名不正则言不顺：中国各朝代名称、国号的由来"</a>. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%90%8D%E4%B8%8D%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%99%E8%A8%80%E4%B8%8D%E9%A1%BA%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%90%84%E6%9C%9D%E4%BB%A3%E5%90%8D%E7%A7%B0%E3%80%81%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E7%9A%84%E7%94%B1%E6%9D%A5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.ifeng.com%2Fhistory%2F1%2F200709%2F0929_335_243492.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName5-118"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName5_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kknews.cc/history/2la3op9.html">"唐朝的皇帝姓李，为什么不叫李朝而叫唐朝？"</a>. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%94%90%E6%9C%9D%E7%9A%84%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E5%A7%93%E6%9D%8E%EF%BC%8C%E4%B8%BA%E4%BB%80%E4%B9%88%E4%B8%8D%E5%8F%AB%E6%9D%8E%E6%9C%9D%E8%80%8C%E5%8F%AB%E5%94%90%E6%9C%9D%EF%BC%9F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkknews.cc%2Fhistory%2F2la3op9.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName6-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName6_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName6_119-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200731132305/https://new.qq.com/omn/20180701/20180701A024FI.html">"先秦时期的诸侯国名，哪些最受后世的青睐？"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://new.qq.com/omn/20180701/20180701A024FI.html">the original</a> on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%85%88%E7%A7%A6%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%B8%E4%BE%AF%E5%9B%BD%E5%90%8D%EF%BC%8C%E5%93%AA%E4%BA%9B%E6%9C%80%E5%8F%97%E5%90%8E%E4%B8%96%E7%9A%84%E9%9D%92%E7%9D%90%EF%BC%9F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnew.qq.com%2Fomn%2F20180701%2F20180701A024FI.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName7-120"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName7_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.8794.cn/lishi/shijian/55356.html">"后周皇帝列表及简介后周太祖世宗恭帝简介后周是怎么灭亡的"</a>. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%90%8E%E5%91%A8%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8%E5%8F%8A%E7%AE%80%E4%BB%8B+%E5%90%8E%E5%91%A8%E5%A4%AA%E7%A5%96%E4%B8%96%E5%AE%97%E6%81%AD%E5%B8%9D%E7%AE%80%E4%BB%8B+%E5%90%8E%E5%91%A8%E6%98%AF%E6%80%8E%E4%B9%88%E7%81%AD%E4%BA%A1%E7%9A%84&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.8794.cn%2Flishi%2Fshijian%2F55356.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName8-121"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName8_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHung2016" class="citation book cs1">Hung, Hing Ming (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rf8gDAAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+da+zai+qian+yuan&pg=PA13">From the Mongols to the Ming Dynasty: How a Begging Monk Became Emperor of China, Zhu Yuan Zhang</a>. Algora. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781628941524" title="Special:BookSources/9781628941524"><bdi>9781628941524</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+Mongols+to+the+Ming+Dynasty%3A+How+a+Begging+Monk+Became+Emperor+of+China%2C+Zhu+Yuan+Zhang&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Algora&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781628941524&rft.aulast=Hung&rft.aufirst=Hing+Ming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drf8gDAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dyuan%2Bdynasty%2Bda%2Bzai%2Bqian%2Byuan%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName9-122"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName9_122-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200731132304/http://www.xinhuanet.com/local/2017-01/04/c_129431196.htm">"南越国与南汉国"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xinhuanet.com/local/2017-01/04/c_129431196.htm">the original</a> on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E5%8D%97%E8%B6%8A%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%8E%E5%8D%97%E6%B1%89%E5%9B%BD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.xinhuanet.com%2Flocal%2F2017-01%2F04%2Fc_129431196.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName10-123"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName10_123-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuSong2008" class="citation book cs1">Hu, Axiang; Song, Yanmei (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kDUzAQAAIAAJ&q=国号加大字,始于胡元%E3%80%82">中国国号的故事</a>. 山东画报出版社. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787807135999" title="Special:BookSources/9787807135999"><bdi>9787807135999</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E7%9A%84%E6%95%85%E4%BA%8B&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=%E5%B1%B1%E4%B8%9C%E7%94%BB%E6%8A%A5%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9787807135999&rft.aulast=Hu&rft.aufirst=Axiang&rft.au=Song%2C+Yanmei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkDUzAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E5%8A%A0%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97%2C%E5%A7%8B%E4%BA%8E%E8%83%A1%E5%85%83%25E3%2580%2582&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName11-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName11_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName11_124-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jianshu.com/p/a6fffb05cb05">"明朝为何定国号为"大明"，绝大部分人只知道五个原因中的一个"</a>. Retrieved 6 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%98%8E%E6%9C%9D%E4%B8%BA%E4%BD%95%E5%AE%9A%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E4%B8%BA%22%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E%22%EF%BC%8C%E7%BB%9D%E5%A4%A7%E9%83%A8%E5%88%86%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%AA%E7%9F%A5%E9%81%93%E4%BA%94%E4%B8%AA%E5%8E%9F%E5%9B%A0%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jianshu.com%2Fp%2Fa6fffb05cb05&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName12-125"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName12_125-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200731132305/http://www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=478">"辽朝国号考释"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=478">the original</a> on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E8%BE%BD%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E8%80%83%E9%87%8A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iqh.net.cn%2Finfo.asp%3Fcolumn_id%3D478&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName13-126"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName13_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2003" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Hok-lam (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t21yghJHIpEC&q=大金+金史&pg=PA4">金宋史論叢</a>. Chinese University Press. pp. 4–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789629960971" title="Special:BookSources/9789629960971"><bdi>9789629960971</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E9%87%91%E5%AE%8B%E5%8F%B2%E8%AB%96%E5%8F%A2&rft.pages=4-5&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9789629960971&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Hok-lam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt21yghJHIpEC%26q%3D%E5%A4%A7%E9%87%91%2B%E9%87%91%E5%8F%B2%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhongguo1-127"><a href="#cite_ref-Zhongguo1_127-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFogel2015" class="citation book cs1">Fogel, Joshua (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=krq5CAAAQBAJ&q=It+was+the+ideal+of+every+dynasty+throughout+Chinese+history%2C+even+when+the+leaders+may+not+have+been+conscious+of+it%2C+to+make+their+dynastic+name+completely+identifiable+with+%E2%80%9CChina.%E2%80%9D&pg=PA66">The Cultural Dimensions of Sino-Japanese Relations: Essays on the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries</a>. Routledge. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317457671" title="Special:BookSources/9781317457671"><bdi>9781317457671</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cultural+Dimensions+of+Sino-Japanese+Relations%3A+Essays+on+the+Nineteenth+and+Twentieth+Centuries&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781317457671&rft.aulast=Fogel&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkrq5CAAAQBAJ%26q%3DIt%2Bwas%2Bthe%2Bideal%2Bof%2Bevery%2Bdynasty%2Bthroughout%2BChinese%2Bhistory%252C%2Beven%2Bwhen%2Bthe%2Bleaders%2Bmay%2Bnot%2Bhave%2Bbeen%2Bconscious%2Bof%2Bit%252C%2Bto%2Bmake%2Btheir%2Bdynastic%2Bname%2Bcompletely%2Bidentifiable%2Bwith%2B%25E2%2580%259CChina.%25E2%2580%259D%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhongguo2-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Zhongguo2_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXie2016" class="citation book cs1">Xie, Xuanjun (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o-OPDAAAQBAJ&q=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%8D%E6%98%AF%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E6%A6%82%E5%BF%B5&pg=PA379">士商工农──等级制度构建文明社会</a>. Lulu.com. p. 379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781329980136" title="Special:BookSources/9781329980136"><bdi>9781329980136</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%A3%AB%E5%95%86%E5%B7%A5%E5%86%9C%E2%94%80%E2%94%80%E7%AD%89%E7%BA%A7%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6%E6%9E%84%E5%BB%BA%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A&rft.pages=379&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781329980136&rft.aulast=Xie&rft.aufirst=Xuanjun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do-OPDAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E5%259B%25BD%25E4%25B8%258D%25E6%2598%25AF%25E5%259B%25BD%25E5%258F%25B7%25E6%25A6%2582%25E5%25BF%25B5%26pg%3DPA379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhongguo3-129"><a href="#cite_ref-Zhongguo3_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2018" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Yuanchong (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QF9oCgAAQBAJ&q=zhongguo+geographical+political+cultural+concept&pg=PA71">Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911</a>. Lexington Books. pp. 52–53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781501730511" title="Special:BookSources/9781501730511"><bdi>9781501730511</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Remaking+the+Chinese+Empire%3A+Manchu-Korean+Relations%2C+1616%E2%80%931911&rft.pages=52-53&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781501730511&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Yuanchong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQF9oCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dzhongguo%2Bgeographical%2Bpolitical%2Bcultural%2Bconcept%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhongguo4-130"><a href="#cite_ref-Zhongguo4_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2017" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Fei-Ling (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=chUwDwAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+zhongguo+dulimbai+gurun+international+treaties&pg=PA11">The China Order: Centralia, World Empire, and the Nature of Chinese Power</a>. State University of New York Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438467504" title="Special:BookSources/9781438467504"><bdi>9781438467504</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+China+Order%3A+Centralia%2C+World+Empire%2C+and+the+Nature+of+Chinese+Power&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781438467504&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Fei-Ling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DchUwDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dqing%2Bdynasty%2Bzhongguo%2Bdulimbai%2Bgurun%2Binternational%2Btreaties%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhongguo5-131"><a href="#cite_ref-Zhongguo5_131-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKang2015" class="citation book cs1">Kang, Jung In (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QF9oCgAAQBAJ&q=zhongguo+geographical+political+cultural+concept&pg=PA71">Western-Centrism and Contemporary Korean Political Thought</a>. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780739180990" title="Special:BookSources/9780739180990"><bdi>9780739180990</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western-Centrism+and+Contemporary+Korean+Political+Thought&rft.pages=71&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780739180990&rft.aulast=Kang&rft.aufirst=Jung+In&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQF9oCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dzhongguo%2Bgeographical%2Bpolitical%2Bcultural%2Bconcept%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName14-132"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName14_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kknews.cc/history/bb4gb6.html">"为何中国古代的一些朝代前要加上"东西南北"，比如"西汉"呢？"</a>. 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Art Media Resources. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781588860279" title="Special:BookSources/9781588860279"><bdi>9781588860279</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Painted+Buddhas+of+Xinjiang%3A+Hidden+Treasures+from+the+Silk+Road&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Art+Media+Resources&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781588860279&rft.aulast=Deghati&rft.aufirst=Reza&rft.au=Gi%C3%A8s%2C+Jacques&rft.au=Feug%C3%A8re%2C+Laure&rft.au=Coutin%2C+Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIS7rAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Danterior%2Bqin%2Bdynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prefix3-136"><a href="#cite_ref-Prefix3_136-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang2007" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Chun-shu (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IpP5uMHSQ0AC&q=latter+dynasty&pg=PA180">The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Frontier, immigration, and empire in Han China, 130 B.C.–A.D. 157</a>. University of Michigan Press. pp. 179–180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780472115341" title="Special:BookSources/9780472115341"><bdi>9780472115341</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Chinese+Empire%3A+Frontier%2C+immigration%2C+and+empire+in+Han+China%2C+130+B.C.%E2%80%93A.D.+157&rft.pages=179-180&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780472115341&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Chun-shu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIpP5uMHSQ0AC%26q%3Dlatter%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prefix4-137"><a href="#cite_ref-Prefix4_137-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwope2014" class="citation book cs1">Swope, Kenneth (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WRaoAgAAQBAJ&q=latter+jin+dynasty&pg=PA223">The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44</a>. Routledge. p. 223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134462094" title="Special:BookSources/9781134462094"><bdi>9781134462094</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Military+Collapse+of+China%27s+Ming+Dynasty%2C+1618%E2%80%9344&rft.pages=223&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781134462094&rft.aulast=Swope&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWRaoAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlatter%2Bjin%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prefix5-138"><a href="#cite_ref-Prefix5_138-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDardess2019" class="citation book cs1">Dardess, John (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t8y4DwAAQBAJ&q=latter+jin+dynasty&pg=PA512">More Than the Great Wall: The Northern Frontier and Ming National Security, 1368–1644</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 512. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781538135112" title="Special:BookSources/9781538135112"><bdi>9781538135112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=More+Than+the+Great+Wall%3A+The+Northern+Frontier+and+Ming+National+Security%2C+1368%E2%80%931644&rft.pages=512&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781538135112&rft.aulast=Dardess&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt8y4DwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlatter%2Bjin%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA512&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prefix6-139"><a href="#cite_ref-Prefix6_139-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2007" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Guo'an (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c9NNC3UjRTwC&q=posterior+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA828">A Handbook for 1,000 Basic Chinese Characters</a>. Chinese University Press. p. 828. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789629962838" title="Special:BookSources/9789629962838"><bdi>9789629962838</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+for+1%2C000+Basic+Chinese+Characters&rft.pages=828&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789629962838&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Guo%27an&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc9NNC3UjRTwC%26q%3Dposterior%2Bzhou%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA828&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prefix7-140"><a href="#cite_ref-Prefix7_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2001" class="citation book cs1">Zhao, Ziqiang (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YsbQaTDWseYC&q=posterior+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA7">私家藏宝：粤桂港澳台私人藏品珍集</a>. 广西美术出版社. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787806740989" title="Special:BookSources/9787806740989"><bdi>9787806740989</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%A7%81%E5%AE%B6%E8%97%8F%E5%AE%9D%EF%BC%9A%E7%B2%A4%E6%A1%82%E6%B8%AF%E6%BE%B3%E5%8F%B0%E7%A7%81%E4%BA%BA%E8%97%8F%E5%93%81%E7%8F%8D%E9%9B%86&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=%E5%B9%BF%E8%A5%BF%E7%BE%8E%E6%9C%AF%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9787806740989&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Ziqiang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYsbQaTDWseYC%26q%3Dposterior%2Bzhou%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName15-142"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName15_142-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoewe2006" class="citation book cs1">Loewe, Michael (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wcpgDwAAQBAJ&q=western+han+former+han&pg=PR6">The Government of the Qin and Han Empires: 221 BCE – 220 CE</a>. Hackett. p. vi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781603840576" title="Special:BookSources/9781603840576"><bdi>9781603840576</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Government+of+the+Qin+and+Han+Empires%3A+221+BCE+%E2%80%93+220+CE&rft.pages=vi&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781603840576&rft.aulast=Loewe&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwcpgDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dwestern%2Bhan%2Bformer%2Bhan%26pg%3DPR6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName16-143"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName16_143-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qulishi.com/article/201903/324855.html">"五代十国时期的十国政权之一：南吴的发展史"</a>. 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Springer. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789811334863" title="Special:BookSources/9789811334863"><bdi>9789811334863</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Chinese+Gambling%3A+A+Cultural+and+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9789811334863&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Chi+Chuen&rft.au=Li%2C+William&rft.au=Chiu%2C+Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCpuHDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Djingkang%2Bincident%2Bnorthern%2Bsong%2Bsouthern%2Bsong%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName18-145"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName18_145-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xixik.com/content/ef840f0c74a814ec">"先秦、秦国、秦朝、前秦、后秦、西秦是什么关系？"</a>. 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Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787999131410" title="Special:BookSources/9787999131410"><bdi>9787999131410</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%A4%E6%99%8B%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E5%8F%B2%EF%BC%88%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E5%86%8C%EF%BC%89&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9787999131410&rft.aulast=L%C3%BC&rft.aufirst=Simian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX-8LEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D404%25E5%25B9%25B4%2B%25E5%2582%2589%25E6%25AA%2580%25E5%258E%25BB%25E5%25B9%25B4%25E5%258F%25B7%25E3%2580%2581%25E7%25BD%25A2%25E5%25B0%259A%25E4%25B9%25A6%25E4%25B8%259E%25E9%2583%258E%25E5%25AE%2598%2B%25E9%2599%258D%25E4%25BA%258E%25E5%2590%258E%25E7%25A7%25A6%26pg%3DPT228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName20-147"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName20_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kknews.cc/history/bz3g6z6.html">"汉分东西汉因为中间有新莽为什么唐朝中间有武周却不分东西唐"</a>. Retrieved 4 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%B1%89%E5%88%86%E4%B8%9C%E8%A5%BF%E6%B1%89%E5%9B%A0%E4%B8%BA%E4%B8%AD%E9%97%B4%E6%9C%89%E6%96%B0%E8%8E%BD%E4%B8%BA%E4%BB%80%E4%B9%88%E5%94%90%E6%9C%9D%E4%B8%AD%E9%97%B4%E6%9C%89%E6%AD%A6%E5%91%A8%E5%8D%B4%E4%B8%8D%E5%88%86%E4%B8%9C%E8%A5%BF%E5%94%90&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkknews.cc%2Fhistory%2Fbz3g6z6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName21-148"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName21_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuan2010" class="citation book cs1">Yuan, Haiwang (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8GpQEIU0PGkC&q=northern+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA40">This is China: The First 5,000 Years</a>. Berkshire. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781933782768" title="Special:BookSources/9781933782768"><bdi>9781933782768</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=This+is+China%3A+The+First+5%2C000+Years&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Berkshire&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781933782768&rft.aulast=Yuan&rft.aufirst=Haiwang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8GpQEIU0PGkC%26q%3Dnorthern%2Bzhou%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DynasticName22-149"><a href="#cite_ref-DynasticName22_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammondBeezleyDeBlasiMacLachlan2002" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, Kenneth; Beezley, William; DeBlasi, Anthony; MacLachlan, Colin (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hXgKLvo1LicC&q=tang+china&pg=PA77">The Human Tradition in Premodern China</a>. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780842029599" title="Special:BookSources/9780842029599"><bdi>9780842029599</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Human+Tradition+in+Premodern+China&rft.pages=77&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780842029599&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft.au=Beezley%2C+William&rft.au=DeBlasi%2C+Anthony&rft.au=MacLachlan%2C+Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhXgKLvo1LicC%26q%3Dtang%2Bchina%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Territory1-150">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Territory1_150-0">a</a> <a 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hainan+%E2%80%93+State%2C+Society%2C+and+Business+in+a+Chinese+Province&rft.pages=11&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781134045471&rft.aulast=Br%C3%B8dsgaard&rft.aufirst=Kjeld&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt6t9AgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dhainan%2Bhan%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Territory2-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Territory2_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory2_151-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWong2009" class="citation book cs1">Wong, Koon-kwai (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NR4qAwAAQBAJ&q=chinese+dynasty+macau&pg=PA242">Hong Kong, Macau and the Pearl River Delta: A Geographical Survey</a>. pp. 241–242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789882004757" title="Special:BookSources/9789882004757"><bdi>9789882004757</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hong+Kong%2C+Macau+and+the+Pearl+River+Delta%3A+A+Geographical+Survey&rft.pages=241-242&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9789882004757&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=Koon-kwai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNR4qAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dchinese%2Bdynasty%2Bmacau%26pg%3DPA242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Territory3-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Territory3_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory3_152-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2006" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Wei Bin (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hwPUGWBTsX4C&q=chinese+dynasty+hong+kong&pg=PA3">Hong Kong: The Pearl Made of British Mastery and Chinese Docile-diligence</a>. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594546006" title="Special:BookSources/9781594546006"><bdi>9781594546006</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hong+Kong%3A+The+Pearl+Made+of+British+Mastery+and+Chinese+Docile-diligence&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781594546006&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Wei+Bin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhwPUGWBTsX4C%26q%3Dchinese%2Bdynasty%2Bhong%2Bkong%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Territory4-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Territory4_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory4_153-1">b</a> <link 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taiwan+and+Chinese+Nationalism%3A+National+Identity+and+Status+in+International+Society&rft.pages=21&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781134727551&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfVX2aAuOt1EC%26q%3Dtaiwan%2Bqing%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Territory5-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Territory5_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory5_154-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory5_154-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsu2012" class="citation book cs1">Hsu, Cho-yun (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a2_GQpLPPl8C&q=Manchuria+qing+dynasty&pg=PA421">China: A New Cultural History</a>. p. 421. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231528184" title="Special:BookSources/9780231528184"><bdi>9780231528184</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+A+New+Cultural+History&rft.pages=421&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780231528184&rft.aulast=Hsu&rft.aufirst=Cho-yun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da2_GQpLPPl8C%26q%3DManchuria%2Bqing%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA421&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Territory6-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Territory6_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory6_155-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory6_155-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory6_155-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory6_155-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory6_155-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLockard2020" class="citation book cs1">Lockard, Craig (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xW7LDwAAQBAJ&q=tang+dynasty+rule+siberia&pg=PA260">Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History</a>. p. 260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780357365472" title="Special:BookSources/9780357365472"><bdi>9780357365472</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Societies%2C+Networks%2C+and+Transitions%3A+A+Global+History&rft.pages=260&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780357365472&rft.aulast=Lockard&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxW7LDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dtang%2Bdynasty%2Brule%2Bsiberia%26pg%3DPA260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Territory7-156">^ <a 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Reader+of+Chinese+Culture&rft.pages=24&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9789811388675&rft.aulast=Gan&rft.aufirst=Chunsong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRR2nDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dtang%2Bdynasty%2Baral%2Bsea%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Territory8-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Territory8_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory8_157-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestad2012" class="citation book cs1">Westad, Odd (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uL8NoXZtyxMC&q=sakhalin">Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750</a>. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465029365" 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(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810866010" title="Special:BookSources/9780810866010"><bdi>9780810866010</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Mongolia&rft.pages=v&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780810866010&rft.aulast=Sanders&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ5umNthHltQC%26q%3Dmongolia%2Bqing%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPR55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Territory10-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Territory10_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Territory10_159-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaige1978" class="citation book cs1">Paige, Jeffrey (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iuROQYHKmL8C&q=vietnam+chinese+rule&pg=PA278">Agrarian 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Kayali, Hasan; Van Young, Eric (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=reKxAAAAQBAJ&q=complete+territories+of+manchu,+han,+mongol,+hui,+tibetan&pg=PA245">Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World</a>. p. 245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780742578159" title="Special:BookSources/9780742578159"><bdi>9780742578159</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+to+Nation%3A+Historical+Perspectives+on+the+Making+of+the+Modern+World&rft.pages=245&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780742578159&rft.aulast=Esherick&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Kayali%2C+Hasan&rft.au=Van+Young%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DreKxAAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dcomplete%2Bterritories%2Bof%2Bmanchu%2C%2Bhan%2C%2Bmongol%2C%2Bhui%2C%2Btibetan%26pg%3DPA245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ModernTerritory3-173"><a href="#cite_ref-ModernTerritory3_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhai2017" class="citation book cs1">Zhai, Zhiyong (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ziEwDwAAQBAJ&q=仍合滿、漢、蒙、回、藏五族完全領土為一大中華民國&pg=PA190">憲法何以中國</a>. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789629373214" title="Special:BookSources/9789629373214"><bdi>9789629373214</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E4%BD%95%E4%BB%A5%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B&rft.pages=190&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9789629373214&rft.aulast=Zhai&rft.aufirst=Zhiyong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DziEwDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E4%BB%8D%E5%90%88%E6%BB%BF%E3%80%81%E6%BC%A2%E3%80%81%E8%92%99%E3%80%81%E5%9B%9E%E3%80%81%E8%97%8F%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%AE%8C%E5%85%A8%E9%A0%98%E5%9C%9F%E7%82%BA%E4%B8%80%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%26pg%3DPA190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ModernTerritory4-174"><a href="#cite_ref-ModernTerritory4_174-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGao2016" class="citation book cs1">Gao, Quanxi (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P46rDAAAQBAJ&q=仍合滿、漢、蒙、回、藏五族完全領土為一大中華民國&pg=PA273">政治憲法與未來憲制</a>. p. 273. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789629372910" title="Special:BookSources/9789629372910"><bdi>9789629372910</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E8%88%87%E6%9C%AA%E4%BE%86%E6%86%B2%E5%88%B6&rft.pages=273&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9789629372910&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=Quanxi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP46rDAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E4%BB%8D%E5%90%88%E6%BB%BF%E3%80%81%E6%BC%A2%E3%80%81%E8%92%99%E3%80%81%E5%9B%9E%E3%80%81%E8%97%8F%E4%BA%94%E6%97%8F%E5%AE%8C%E5%85%A8%E9%A0%98%E5%9C%9F%E7%82%BA%E4%B8%80%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%26pg%3DPA273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wade–Giles-176"><a href="#cite_ref-Wade–Giles_176-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Qing-dynasty">"Qing dynasty"</a>. Retrieved 18 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Qing+dynasty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FQing-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ethnicity1-179"><a href="#cite_ref-Ethnicity1_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kknews.cc/history/yp5kj2n.html">"中国历史上的十大混血皇帝，有人居然有黑人血统"</a>. Retrieved 5 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E6%B7%B7%E8%A1%80%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%EF%BC%8C%E6%9C%89%E4%BA%BA%E5%B1%85%E7%84%B6%E6%9C%89%E9%BB%91%E4%BA%BA%E8%A1%80%E7%BB%9F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkknews.cc%2Fhistory%2Fyp5kj2n.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ethnicity2-180"><a href="#cite_ref-Ethnicity2_180-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhu2015" class="citation book cs1">Zhu, Weizheng (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fTu2CAAAQBAJ&q=Jiaqing+Emperor+mixed+blood&pg=PA301">Rereading Modern Chinese History</a>. p. 301. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004293311" title="Special:BookSources/9789004293311"><bdi>9789004293311</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rereading+Modern+Chinese+History&rft.pages=301&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9789004293311&rft.aulast=Zhu&rft.aufirst=Weizheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfTu2CAAAQBAJ%26q%3DJiaqing%2BEmperor%2Bmixed%2Bblood%26pg%3DPA301&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Si-184"><a href="#cite_ref-Si_184-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2004" class="citation book cs1">Li, Xueqin (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtKQ6wVo-k4C&q=%E5%A4%8F%E6%9C%9D+%E5%A7%92%E5%A7%93+%E5%A4%8F%E5%90%8E%E6%B0%8F&pg=PA358">中國古代文明與國家形成硏究</a>. p. 358. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789867938251" title="Special:BookSources/9789867938251"><bdi>9789867938251</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E%E8%88%87%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E7%A1%8F%E7%A9%B6&rft.pages=358&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9789867938251&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Xueqin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZtKQ6wVo-k4C%26q%3D%25E5%25A4%258F%25E6%259C%259D%2B%25E5%25A7%2592%25E5%25A7%2593%2B%25E5%25A4%258F%25E5%2590%258E%25E6%25B0%258F%26pg%3DPA358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yi-186"><a href="#cite_ref-Yi_186-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2020" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Manli (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xUg5EAAAQBAJ&dq=%E5%90%8E%E7%BE%BF+%E6%9C%89%E7%AA%AE%E6%B0%8F+%E5%A4%8F%E6%9C%9D&pg=PT23">一本書讀懂史記故事</a>. 海鴿. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789863923237" title="Special:BookSources/9789863923237"><bdi>9789863923237</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%80%E6%9C%AC%E6%9B%B8%E8%AE%80%E6%87%82%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98%E6%95%85%E4%BA%8B&rft.pub=%E6%B5%B7%E9%B4%BF&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9789863923237&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Manli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxUg5EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%25E5%2590%258E%25E7%25BE%25BF%2B%25E6%259C%2589%25E7%25AA%25AE%25E6%25B0%258F%2B%25E5%25A4%258F%25E6%259C%259D%26pg%3DPT23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-YunZhuo-188"><a href="#cite_ref-YunZhuo_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaoSong2017" class="citation book cs1">Yao, Weijun; Song, Chuanyin (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eugEEAAAQBAJ&dq=%E5%AF%92%E6%B5%9E+%E4%BC%AF%E6%98%8E%E6%B0%8F+%E5%A4%8F%E6%9C%9D&pg=PT13">中国亡国帝王全传</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787568033213" title="Special:BookSources/9787568033213"><bdi>9787568033213</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%BA%A1%E5%9B%BD%E5%B8%9D%E7%8E%8B%E5%85%A8%E4%BC%A0&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9787568033213&rft.aulast=Yao&rft.aufirst=Weijun&rft.au=Song%2C+Chuanyin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeugEEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%25E5%25AF%2592%25E6%25B5%259E%2B%25E4%25BC%25AF%25E6%2598%258E%25E6%25B0%258F%2B%25E5%25A4%258F%25E6%259C%259D%26pg%3DPT13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year1-190"><a href="#cite_ref-Year1_190-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZheng2012" class="citation book cs1">Zheng, Wang (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-lbStS1LOXUC&q=xia+dynasty+2070-1600+bc&pg=PA44">Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231520164" title="Special:BookSources/9780231520164"><bdi>9780231520164</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Never+Forget+National+Humiliation%3A+Historical+Memory+in+Chinese+Politics+and+Foreign+Relations&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780231520164&rft.aulast=Zheng&rft.aufirst=Wang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-lbStS1LOXUC%26q%3Dxia%2Bdynasty%2B2070-1600%2Bbc%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TraditionalXiaShangZhou-192">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalXiaShangZhou_192-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalXiaShangZhou_192-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalXiaShangZhou_192-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvanhoeVan_Norden2005" class="citation book cs1">Ivanhoe, Philip; Van Norden, Bryan (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8tgDwAAQBAJ&q=zhou+dynasty+1122-256&pg=PA385">Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy</a>. Hackett. p. 385. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781603844901" title="Special:BookSources/9781603844901"><bdi>9781603844901</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+Classical+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.pages=385&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781603844901&rft.aulast=Ivanhoe&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Van+Norden%2C+Bryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY8tgDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dzhou%2Bdynasty%2B1122-256%26pg%3DPA385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TraditionalXia-193"><a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalXia_193-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTan2014" class="citation book cs1">Tan, Koon San (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bnCMBAAAQBAJ&q=Xia+dynasty+liu+xin&pg=PA8">Dynastic China: An Elementary History</a>. The Other Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789839541885" title="Special:BookSources/9789839541885"><bdi>9789839541885</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dynastic+China%3A+An+Elementary+History&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=The+Other+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789839541885&rft.aulast=Tan&rft.aufirst=Koon+San&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbnCMBAAAQBAJ%26q%3DXia%2Bdynasty%2Bliu%2Bxin%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year2-195"><a href="#cite_ref-Year2_195-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestmoreland2019" class="citation book cs1">Westmoreland, Perry (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cdbHDwAAQBAJ&q=shang+dynasty+1600-1046+bc&pg=PT89">Life's Wonders</a>. Dorrance. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781644268346" title="Special:BookSources/9781644268346"><bdi>9781644268346</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life%27s+Wonders&rft.pub=Dorrance&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781644268346&rft.aulast=Westmoreland&rft.aufirst=Perry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcdbHDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dshang%2Bdynasty%2B1600-1046%2Bbc%26pg%3DPT89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TraditionalShangZhou-196">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalShangZhou_196-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TraditionalShangZhou_196-1">b</a> Tan (2014). p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-Year3-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Year3_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year3_199-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoh2019" class="citation book cs1">Loh, Shen Yeow (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rRXGDwAAQBAJ&q=western+zhou+1046-771+bc&pg=PT170">Descendants of the Bird Hunters of Old China</a>. Partridge Publishing Singapore. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781543755633" title="Special:BookSources/9781543755633"><bdi>9781543755633</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Descendants+of+the+Bird+Hunters+of+Old+China&rft.pub=Partridge+Publishing+Singapore&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781543755633&rft.aulast=Loh&rft.aufirst=Shen+Yeow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrRXGDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dwestern%2Bzhou%2B1046-771%2Bbc%26pg%3DPT170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ying-202"><a href="#cite_ref-Ying_202-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2013" class="citation book cs1">Wu, Dongping (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hE3WDwAAQBAJ&q=%E7%A7%A6%E5%A7%8B%E7%9A%87+%E5%AC%B4%E5%A7%93+%E8%B5%B5%E6%B0%8F&pg=PT14">名人取名的故事</a>. 湖北人民出版社. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787216072298" title="Special:BookSources/9787216072298"><bdi>9787216072298</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%90%8D%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%96%E5%90%8D%E7%9A%84%E6%95%85%E4%BA%8B&rft.pub=%E6%B9%96%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9787216072298&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Dongping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhE3WDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%25E7%25A7%25A6%25E5%25A7%258B%25E7%259A%2587%2B%25E5%25AC%25B4%25E5%25A7%2593%2B%25E8%25B5%25B5%25E6%25B0%258F%26pg%3DPT14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year4-204"><a href="#cite_ref-Year4_204-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaughnessy2014" class="citation book cs1">Shaughnessy, Edward (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DcuJAwAAQBAJ&q=qin+dynasty+221-207+bc&pg=PA19">Unearthing the Changes: Recently Discovered Manuscripts of the Yi Jing (I Ching) and Related Texts</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231533300" title="Special:BookSources/9780231533300"><bdi>9780231533300</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unearthing+the+Changes%3A+Recently+Discovered+Manuscripts+of+the+Yi+Jing+%28I+Ching%29+and+Related+Texts&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780231533300&rft.aulast=Shaughnessy&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDcuJAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dqin%2Bdynasty%2B221-207%2Bbc%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year5-206"><a href="#cite_ref-Year5_206-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2015" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Qizhi (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1QhJCAAAQBAJ&q=western+han+dynasty+202+bc-9+ad&pg=PA92">An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture</a>. Springer. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783662464823" title="Special:BookSources/9783662464823"><bdi>9783662464823</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Chinese+History+and+Culture&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9783662464823&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Qizhi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1QhJCAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dwestern%2Bhan%2Bdynasty%2B202%2Bbc-9%2Bad%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeWesternHan-207"><a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeWesternHan_207-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEarnshaw2004" class="citation book cs1">Earnshaw, Graham (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yHDqMz0zPjgC&q=western+han+206+bc+-+9+ad&pg=PA30">China Economic Review's China Business Guide 2005</a>. SinoMedia (Holdings) Co. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781933782768" title="Special:BookSources/9781933782768"><bdi>9781933782768</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Economic+Review%27s+China+Business+Guide+2005&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=SinoMedia+%28Holdings%29+Co.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781933782768&rft.aulast=Earnshaw&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyHDqMz0zPjgC%26q%3Dwestern%2Bhan%2B206%2Bbc%2B-%2B9%2Bad%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LiuYing-209"><a href="#cite_ref-LiuYing_209-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang1999" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Jiafan (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wQoWAQAAIAAJ&q=刘婴+皇太子">中华古文明史辞典</a>. 浙江古籍出版社. p. 490. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787805182773" title="Special:BookSources/9787805182773"><bdi>9787805182773</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E%E5%8F%B2%E8%BE%9E%E5%85%B8&rft.pages=490&rft.pub=%E6%B5%99%E6%B1%9F%E5%8F%A4%E7%B1%8D%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9787805182773&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Jiafan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwQoWAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%E5%88%98%E5%A9%B4%2B%E7%9A%87%E5%A4%AA%E5%AD%90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year6-211"><a href="#cite_ref-Year6_211-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLeod2016" class="citation book cs1">McLeod, Alexus (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NuJ6DAAAQBAJ&q=xin+dynasty+9-23&pg=PA85">Astronomy in the Ancient World: Early and Modern Views on Celestial Events</a>. Springer. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319236001" title="Special:BookSources/9783319236001"><bdi>9783319236001</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astronomy+in+the+Ancient+World%3A+Early+and+Modern+Views+on+Celestial+Events&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9783319236001&rft.aulast=McLeod&rft.aufirst=Alexus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNuJ6DAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dxin%2Bdynasty%2B9-23%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year7-212"><a href="#cite_ref-Year7_212-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTse2018" class="citation book cs1">Tse, Wicky (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-y9iDwAAQBAJ&q=eastern+han+25-220&pg=PT18">The Collapse of China's Later Han Dynasty, 25-220 AD: The Northwest Borderlands and the Edge of Empire</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315532318" title="Special:BookSources/9781315532318"><bdi>9781315532318</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collapse+of+China%27s+Later+Han+Dynasty%2C+25-220+AD%3A+The+Northwest+Borderlands+and+the+Edge+of+Empire&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781315532318&rft.aulast=Tse&rft.aufirst=Wicky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-y9iDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Deastern%2Bhan%2B25-220%26pg%3DPT18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year8-213"><a href="#cite_ref-Year8_213-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPei2018" class="citation book cs1">Pei, Kuangyi (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PfN1DwAAQBAJ&q=three+kingdoms+220-280&pg=PP4">Gale Researcher Guide for: The Three Kingdoms and the Jin</a>. Gale, Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781535865692" title="Special:BookSources/9781535865692"><bdi>9781535865692</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gale+Researcher+Guide+for%3A+The+Three+Kingdoms+and+the+Jin&rft.pub=Gale%2C+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781535865692&rft.aulast=Pei&rft.aufirst=Kuangyi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPfN1DwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dthree%2Bkingdoms%2B220-280%26pg%3DPP4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year9-214"><a href="#cite_ref-Year9_214-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaiWei2016" class="citation book cs1">Dai, Meike; Wei, Weisen (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UuoqDwAAQBAJ&q=曹魏+220-266&pg=PA122">幻化之龍：兩千年中國歷史變遷中的孔子</a>. 香港中文大學出版社. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789629966485" title="Special:BookSources/9789629966485"><bdi>9789629966485</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%B9%BB%E5%8C%96%E4%B9%8B%E9%BE%8D%EF%BC%9A%E5%85%A9%E5%8D%83%E5%B9%B4%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E8%AE%8A%E9%81%B7%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E5%AD%94%E5%AD%90&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9789629966485&rft.aulast=Dai&rft.aufirst=Meike&rft.au=Wei%2C+Weisen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUuoqDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E6%9B%B9%E9%AD%8F%2B220-266%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year10-215"><a href="#cite_ref-Year10_215-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuCao2019" class="citation book cs1">Fu, Chonglan; Cao, Wenming (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YjulDwAAQBAJ&q=shu+han+221-263&pg=PA123">Introduction to the Urban History of China</a>. Springer. p. 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789811382079" title="Special:BookSources/9789811382079"><bdi>9789811382079</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Urban+History+of+China&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9789811382079&rft.aulast=Fu&rft.aufirst=Chonglan&rft.au=Cao%2C+Wenming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYjulDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dshu%2Bhan%2B221-263%26pg%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year11-216"><a href="#cite_ref-Year11_216-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhou2017" class="citation book cs1">Zhou, Jiarong (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wYKgDwAAQBAJ&q=东吴+222-280&pg=PA39">香港通史：遠古至清代</a>. 三聯書店(香港)有限公司. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789620441660" title="Special:BookSources/9789620441660"><bdi>9789620441660</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E9%80%9A%E5%8F%B2%EF%BC%9A%E9%81%A0%E5%8F%A4%E8%87%B3%E6%B8%85%E4%BB%A3&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=%E4%B8%89%E8%81%AF%E6%9B%B8%E5%BA%97%28%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%29%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9789620441660&rft.aulast=Zhou&rft.aufirst=Jiarong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwYKgDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E4%B8%9C%E5%90%B4%2B222-280%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year12-219"><a href="#cite_ref-Year12_219-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMai2017" class="citation book cs1">Mai, Jinsheng (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j-GnDgAAQBAJ&q=西晋+266-316&pg=PT265">近代中國海防史新論</a>. 三聯書店(香港)有限公司. p. 254. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789620440472" title="Special:BookSources/9789620440472"><bdi>9789620440472</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%B5%B7%E9%98%B2%E5%8F%B2%E6%96%B0%E8%AB%96&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=%E4%B8%89%E8%81%AF%E6%9B%B8%E5%BA%97%28%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%29%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9789620440472&rft.aulast=Mai&rft.aufirst=Jinsheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj-GnDgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E8%A5%BF%E6%99%8B%2B266-316%26pg%3DPT265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year13-220"><a href="#cite_ref-Year13_220-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2005" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Eugene (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8X2bNasjuW4C&q=eastern+jin+317-420&pg=PA13">Shaping the Lotus Sutra: Buddhist Visual Culture in Medieval China</a>. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780295984629" title="Special:BookSources/9780295984629"><bdi>9780295984629</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaping+the+Lotus+Sutra%3A+Buddhist+Visual+Culture+in+Medieval+China&rft.pages=13&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780295984629&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8X2bNasjuW4C%26q%3Deastern%2Bjin%2B317-420%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SixteenKingdoms-221"><a href="#cite_ref-SixteenKingdoms_221-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGernet1996" class="citation book cs1">Gernet, Jacques (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqb7L-pKCV8C&q=Sixteen+Kingdoms+of+the+Five+Barbarians&pg=PA186">A History of Chinese Civilization</a>. p. 186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521497817" title="Special:BookSources/9780521497817"><bdi>9780521497817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=186&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780521497817&rft.aulast=Gernet&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Djqb7L-pKCV8C%26q%3DSixteen%2BKingdoms%2Bof%2Bthe%2BFive%2BBarbarians%26pg%3DPA186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year14-223"><a href="#cite_ref-Year14_223-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShen2016" class="citation book cs1">Shen, Songying (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Vp_DwAAQBAJ&q=十六国+304-439&pg=PT79">闲读中国史</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787210081692" title="Special:BookSources/9787210081692"><bdi>9787210081692</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E9%97%B2%E8%AF%BB%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B2&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9787210081692&rft.aulast=Shen&rft.aufirst=Songying&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_Vp_DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%8D%81%E5%85%AD%E5%9B%BD%2B304-439%26pg%3DPT79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luandi1-224"><a href="#cite_ref-Luandi1_224-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite 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class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cjZFDwAAQBAJ&dq=%E9%9D%B3%E5%87%86%E8%87%AA%E7%AB%8B&pg=PA169">一次讀完二十五史故事</a>. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789865951610" title="Special:BookSources/9789865951610"><bdi>9789865951610</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E8%AE%80%E5%AE%8C%E4%BA%8C%E5%8D%81%E4%BA%94%E5%8F%B2%E6%95%85%E4%BA%8B&rft.pages=169&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9789865951610&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Chengwang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcjZFDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%25E9%259D%25B3%25E5%2587%2586%25E8%2587%25AA%25E7%25AB%258B%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year15-229"><a href="#cite_ref-Year15_229-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMahon2013" class="citation book cs1">McMahon, Keith (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gc_3IXkwG3QC&q=han+Zhao+304-329&pg=PA123">Women Shall Not Rule: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Han to Liao</a>. p. 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442222908" title="Special:BookSources/9781442222908"><bdi>9781442222908</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+Shall+Not+Rule%3A+Imperial+Wives+and+Concubines+in+China+from+Han+to+Liao&rft.pages=123&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781442222908&rft.aulast=McMahon&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgc_3IXkwG3QC%26q%3Dhan%2BZhao%2B304-329%26pg%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year16-230"><a href="#cite_ref-Year16_230-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFanPan2010" class="citation book cs1">Fan, Ru; Pan, Xinghui (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZSTAgAAQBAJ&q=成汉+304-347&pg=PA213">中外歷史大事年表</a>. 中華書局(香港)出版有限公司. p. 213. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789628931736" title="Special:BookSources/9789628931736"><bdi>9789628931736</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%96%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E5%A4%A7%E4%BA%8B%E5%B9%B4%E8%A1%A8&rft.pages=213&rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%9B%B8%E5%B1%80%28%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%29%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9789628931736&rft.aulast=Fan&rft.aufirst=Ru&rft.au=Pan%2C+Xinghui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZZSTAgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E6%88%90%E6%B1%89%2B304-347%26pg%3DPA213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeChengHan-231"><a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeChengHan_231-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWong2004" class="citation book cs1">Wong, Dorothy (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4gNk5HzIIKgC&q=cheng+han+303-347&pg=PP25">Chinese Steles: Pre-Buddhist and Buddhist Use of a Symbolic Form</a>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824827830" title="Special:BookSources/9780824827830"><bdi>9780824827830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Steles%3A+Pre-Buddhist+and+Buddhist+Use+of+a+Symbolic+Form&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780824827830&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=Dorothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4gNk5HzIIKgC%26q%3Dcheng%2Bhan%2B303-347%26pg%3DPP25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year17-233"><a href="#cite_ref-Year17_233-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwartzYangJessy2014" class="citation book cs1">Swartz, Wendy; Yang, Lu; Jessy, Choo (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AeiIl2y6vJQC&q=later+Zhao+319-351&pg=PA30">Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231531009" title="Special:BookSources/9780231531009"><bdi>9780231531009</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+China%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780231531009&rft.aulast=Swartz&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft.au=Yang%2C+Lu&rft.au=Jessy%2C+Choo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAeiIl2y6vJQC%26q%3Dlater%2BZhao%2B319-351%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year18-234"><a href="#cite_ref-Year18_234-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiteman2019" class="citation book cs1">Whiteman, Stephen (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jtTHDwAAQBAJ&q=former+liang+320-376&pg=PA225">Where Dragon Veins Meet: The Kangxi Emperor and His Estate at Rehe</a>. University of Washington Press. p. 225. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780295745817" title="Special:BookSources/9780295745817"><bdi>9780295745817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Where+Dragon+Veins+Meet%3A+The+Kangxi+Emperor+and+His+Estate+at+Rehe&rft.pages=225&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780295745817&rft.aulast=Whiteman&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjtTHDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dformer%2Bliang%2B320-376%26pg%3DPA225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year19-235">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Year19_235-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year19_235-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuthie2014" class="citation book cs1">Duthie, Torquil (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xa62AgAAQBAJ&q=former+yan+337-370&pg=PA27">Man'yōshū and the Imperial Imagination in Early Japan</a>. BRILL. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004264540" title="Special:BookSources/9789004264540"><bdi>9789004264540</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Man%27y%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB+and+the+Imperial+Imagination+in+Early+Japan&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004264540&rft.aulast=Duthie&rft.aufirst=Torquil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxa62AgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dformer%2Byan%2B337-370%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pu-236">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pu_236-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pu_236-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2004" class="citation book cs1">Chen, Zaiming (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ybe2AAAAQBAJ&q=前秦+蒲姓&pg=PT115">人物評話：古今人物逍遙遊</a>. 遠流出版. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789573253327" title="Special:BookSources/9789573253327"><bdi>9789573253327</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%BA%BA%E7%89%A9%E8%A9%95%E8%A9%B1%EF%BC%9A%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%8A%E4%BA%BA%E7%89%A9%E9%80%8D%E9%81%99%E9%81%8A&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=%E9%81%A0%E6%B5%81%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9789573253327&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Zaiming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dybe2AAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%89%8D%E7%A7%A6%2B%E8%92%B2%E5%A7%93%26pg%3DPT115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeFormerQin-238"><a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeFormerQin_238-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilk2013" class="citation book cs1">Silk, Jonathan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xP0QBQAAQBAJ&q=former+qin+350-394&pg=PA589">Buddhism in China: Collected Papers of Erik Zürcher</a>. BRILL. p. 589. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004263291" title="Special:BookSources/9789004263291"><bdi>9789004263291</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+China%3A+Collected+Papers+of+Erik+Z%C3%BCrcher&rft.pages=589&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9789004263291&rft.aulast=Silk&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxP0QBQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dformer%2Bqin%2B350-394%26pg%3DPA589&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LanHan-240"><a href="#cite_ref-LanHan_240-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2005" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Xueyao (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy_bvJCtRrkC&q=蘭汗自立&pg=PA41">歷代胡族王朝之民族政策</a>. 知書房出版集團. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789867151018" title="Special:BookSources/9789867151018"><bdi>9789867151018</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%AD%B7%E4%BB%A3%E8%83%A1%E6%97%8F%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E4%B9%8B%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=%E7%9F%A5%E6%9B%B8%E6%88%BF%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E9%9B%86%E5%9C%98&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9789867151018&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Xueyao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSy_bvJCtRrkC%26q%3D%E8%98%AD%E6%B1%97%E8%87%AA%E7%AB%8B%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GaoYun-242">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GaoYun_242-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GaoYun_242-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GaoYun_242-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2012" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Xueyao (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FadeDwAAQBAJ&q=高云+后燕末代&pg=PT90">鮮卑列國：大興安嶺傳奇</a>. 三聯書店(香港)有限公司. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789628904327" title="Special:BookSources/9789628904327"><bdi>9789628904327</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E9%AE%AE%E5%8D%91%E5%88%97%E5%9C%8B%EF%BC%9A%E5%A4%A7%E8%88%88%E5%AE%89%E5%B6%BA%E5%82%B3%E5%A5%87&rft.pub=%E4%B8%89%E8%81%AF%E6%9B%B8%E5%BA%97%28%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%29%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789628904327&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Xueyao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFadeDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E9%AB%98%E4%BA%91%2B%E5%90%8E%E7%87%95%E6%9C%AB%E4%BB%A3%26pg%3DPT90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year20-244"><a href="#cite_ref-Year20_244-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinhardt2014" class="citation book cs1">Steinhardt, Nancy (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZB_HDwAAQBAJ&q=later+384-409&pg=PA28">Chinese Architecture in an Age of Turmoil, 200-600</a>. University of Hawaii Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824838232" title="Special:BookSources/9780824838232"><bdi>9780824838232</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Architecture+in+an+Age+of+Turmoil%2C+200-600&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780824838232&rft.aulast=Steinhardt&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZB_HDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlater%2B384-409%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year21-247"><a href="#cite_ref-Year21_247-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiao2013" class="citation book cs1">Xiao, Shiyou (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dztIBAAAQBAJ&q=后秦+384-417&pg=PA69">後秦政治外交史簡論五篇</a>. Saddharma Publishing House 正法文庫. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789881278982" title="Special:BookSources/9789881278982"><bdi>9789881278982</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%BE%8C%E7%A7%A6%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%A4%96%E4%BA%A4%E5%8F%B2%E7%B0%A1%E8%AB%96%E4%BA%94%E7%AF%87&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Saddharma+Publishing+House+%E6%AD%A3%E6%B3%95%E6%96%87%E5%BA%AB&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9789881278982&rft.aulast=Xiao&rft.aufirst=Shiyou&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdztIBAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%90%8E%E7%A7%A6%2B384-417%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year22-248"><a href="#cite_ref-Year22_248-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamek2017" class="citation book cs1">Adamek, Piotr (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzQrDwAAQBAJ&q=Western+Qin+385-400+409-431&pg=PA344">Good Son is Sad If He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values</a>. Routledge. p. 344. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351565219" title="Special:BookSources/9781351565219"><bdi>9781351565219</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Good+Son+is+Sad+If+He+Hears+the+Name+of+His+Father%3A+The+Tabooing+of+Names+in+China+as+a+Way+of+Implementing+Social+Values&rft.pages=344&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781351565219&rft.aulast=Adamek&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWzQrDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DWestern%2BQin%2B385-400%2B409-431%26pg%3DPA344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year23-251"><a href="#cite_ref-Year23_251-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2010" class="citation book cs1">Zhao, Yonghong (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bsSpDwAAQBAJ&q=后凉+386-403&pg=PT25">河西走廊藏文化史要</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787542117083" title="Special:BookSources/9787542117083"><bdi>9787542117083</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%B2%B3%E8%A5%BF%E8%B5%B0%E5%BB%8A%E8%97%8F%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E5%8F%B2%E8%A6%81&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9787542117083&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Yonghong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbsSpDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%90%8E%E5%87%89%2B386-403%26pg%3DPT25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year24-253"><a href="#cite_ref-Year24_253-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodrich2002" class="citation book cs1">Goodrich, Luther (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BZf_L1V7NLUC&dq=southern+liang+397-404+408-414&pg=PA85">A Short History of the Chinese People</a>. Courier Corporation. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486424880" title="Special:BookSources/9780486424880"><bdi>9780486424880</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Chinese+People&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Courier+Corporation&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780486424880&rft.aulast=Goodrich&rft.aufirst=Luther&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBZf_L1V7NLUC%26dq%3Dsouthern%2Bliang%2B397-404%2B408-414%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DuanYe-255"><a href="#cite_ref-DuanYe_255-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLü2017" class="citation book cs1">Lü, Fu (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vYklDwAAQBAJ&q=段业+沮渠蒙逊+北凉&pg=PT161">历代兴衰演义</a>. p. 154.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%8E%86%E4%BB%A3%E5%85%B4%E8%A1%B0%E6%BC%94%E4%B9%89&rft.pages=154&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=L%C3%BC&rft.aufirst=Fu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvYklDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E6%AE%B5%E4%B8%9A%2B%E6%B2%AE%E6%B8%A0%E8%92%99%E9%80%8A%2B%E5%8C%97%E5%87%89%26pg%3DPT161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year25-257"><a href="#cite_ref-Year25_257-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQinYuan2013" class="citation book cs1">Qin, Dashu; Yuan, Jian (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7SJYDwAAQBAJ&q=北凉+397-439&pg=PA153">2011：古丝绸之路</a>. Global. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789813206076" title="Special:BookSources/9789813206076"><bdi>9789813206076</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=2011%EF%BC%9A%E5%8F%A4%E4%B8%9D%E7%BB%B8%E4%B9%8B%E8%B7%AF&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Global&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9789813206076&rft.aulast=Qin&rft.aufirst=Dashu&rft.au=Yuan%2C+Jian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7SJYDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%8C%97%E5%87%89%2B397-439%26pg%3DPA153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year26-258"><a href="#cite_ref-Year26_258-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWanWanChen2018" class="citation book cs1">Wan, Guoding; Wan, Sinian; Chen, Mengjia (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4g61DwAAQBAJ&q=南燕+398-410&pg=PA102">中国历史纪年表（精）</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787101133172" title="Special:BookSources/9787101133172"><bdi>9787101133172</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E7%BA%AA%E5%B9%B4%E8%A1%A8%EF%BC%88%E7%B2%BE%EF%BC%89&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9787101133172&rft.aulast=Wan&rft.aufirst=Guoding&rft.au=Wan%2C+Sinian&rft.au=Chen%2C+Mengjia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4g61DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%8D%97%E7%87%95%2B398-410%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year27-259"><a href="#cite_ref-Year27_259-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangWangFang2002" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Qizhi; Wang, Zijin; Fang, Guanghua (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RIBttwx-v8IC&q=西凉+400-421&pg=PA335">秦汉魏晋南北朝史</a>. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. p. 335. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789571128702" title="Special:BookSources/9789571128702"><bdi>9789571128702</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%A7%A6%E6%B1%89%E9%AD%8F%E6%99%8B%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E5%8F%B2&rft.pages=335&rft.pub=%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%97%E5%9C%96%E6%9B%B8%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E8%82%A1%E4%BB%BD%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9789571128702&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Qizhi&rft.au=Wang%2C+Zijin&rft.au=Fang%2C+Guanghua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRIBttwx-v8IC%26q%3D%E8%A5%BF%E5%87%89%2B400-421%26pg%3DPA335&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Helian1-260"><a href="#cite_ref-Helian1_260-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kknews.cc/history/znrxjja.html">"匈奴嬌子的赫連大夏國"</a>. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317340911" title="Special:BookSources/9781317340911"><bdi>9781317340911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Huns&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781317340911&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Hyun+Jin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbnv4CgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dhelian%2Bbobo%2Bsurname%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year28-263"><a href="#cite_ref-Year28_263-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHong2018" class="citation book cs1">Hong, Yuan (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P1h7DwAAQBAJ&q=hu+xia+407-431&pg=PT610">The Sinitic Civilization Book II: A Factual History Through the Lens of Archaeology, Bronzeware, Astronomy, Divination, Calendar and the Annals</a>. iUniverse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781532058318" title="Special:BookSources/9781532058318"><bdi>9781532058318</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sinitic+Civilization+Book+II%3A+A+Factual+History+Through+the+Lens+of+Archaeology%2C+Bronzeware%2C+Astronomy%2C+Divination%2C+Calendar+and+the+Annals&rft.pub=iUniverse&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781532058318&rft.aulast=Hong&rft.aufirst=Yuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP1h7DwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dhu%2Bxia%2B407-431%26pg%3DPT610&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year29-265"><a href="#cite_ref-Year29_265-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTian2018" class="citation book cs1">Tian, Hengyu (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DJF5DwAAQBAJ&q=northern+Yan+407-436&pg=PA180">Infamous Chinese Emperors: Tales of Tyranny and Misrule</a>. Asiapac Books Pte. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789812299314" title="Special:BookSources/9789812299314"><bdi>9789812299314</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Infamous+Chinese+Emperors%3A+Tales+of+Tyranny+and+Misrule&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Asiapac+Books+Pte&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9789812299314&rft.aulast=Tian&rft.aufirst=Hengyu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDJF5DwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dnorthern%2BYan%2B407-436%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year30-267"><a href="#cite_ref-Year30_267-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangChenXie1999" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Zhen'guo; Chen, Ping; Xie, Peiping (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F5qDqKBsrLwC&q=northern+dynasties+386-581&pg=PA94">History and Development of Traditional Chinese Medicine</a>. IOS Press. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787030065674" title="Special:BookSources/9787030065674"><bdi>9787030065674</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+and+Development+of+Traditional+Chinese+Medicine&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=IOS+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9787030065674&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Zhen%27guo&rft.au=Chen%2C+Ping&rft.au=Xie%2C+Peiping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF5qDqKBsrLwC%26q%3Dnorthern%2Bdynasties%2B386-581%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tuoba1-268">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tuoba1_268-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuoba1_268-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuoba1_268-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuoba1_268-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuoba1_268-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tuoba1_268-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiong2017" class="citation book cs1">Xiong, Victor (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fCdCDgAAQBAJ&q=northern+wei+tuoba+surname&pg=PA613">Historical Dictionary of Medieval China</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 613. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442276161" title="Special:BookSources/9781442276161"><bdi>9781442276161</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Medieval+China&rft.pages=613&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781442276161&rft.aulast=Xiong&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfCdCDgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dnorthern%2Bwei%2Btuoba%2Bsurname%26pg%3DPA613&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year31-270"><a href="#cite_ref-Year31_270-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbankGoldman2006" class="citation book cs1">Fairbank, John; Goldman, Merle (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nBDC2cqb6I0C&q=Northern+Wei+386-535&pg=PA73">China: A New History</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674018280" title="Special:BookSources/9780674018280"><bdi>9780674018280</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780674018280&rft.aulast=Fairbank&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Goldman%2C+Merle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnBDC2cqb6I0C%26q%3DNorthern%2BWei%2B386-535%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year32-272">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Year32_272-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year32_272-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year32_272-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year32_272-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpring2015" class="citation book cs1">Spring, Peter (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OfmxBgAAQBAJ&q=eastern+Wei+534-550&pg=PA211">Great Walls and Linear Barriers</a>. Pen & Sword Books Limited. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781473854048" title="Special:BookSources/9781473854048"><bdi>9781473854048</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Walls+and+Linear+Barriers&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword+Books+Limited&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781473854048&rft.aulast=Spring&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOfmxBgAAQBAJ%26q%3Deastern%2BWei%2B534-550%26pg%3DPA211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tuoba2-273"><a href="#cite_ref-Tuoba2_273-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolcombe2001" class="citation book cs1">Holcombe, Charles (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XT5pvPZ4vroC&q=western+wei+tuoba+restored&pg=PA140">The Genesis of East Asia: 221 B.C.–A.D. 907</a>. University of Hawaii Press. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824824655" title="Special:BookSources/9780824824655"><bdi>9780824824655</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genesis+of+East+Asia%3A+221+B.C.%E2%80%93A.D.+907&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780824824655&rft.aulast=Holcombe&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXT5pvPZ4vroC%26q%3Dwestern%2Bwei%2Btuoba%2Brestored%26pg%3DPA140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year33-275"><a href="#cite_ref-Year33_275-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTan2013" class="citation book cs1">Tan, Zhongchi (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p2J6DwAAQBAJ&q=南朝+420-589&pg=PT140">长沙通史（古代卷）</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787999009009" title="Special:BookSources/9787999009009"><bdi>9787999009009</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E9%95%BF%E6%B2%99%E9%80%9A%E5%8F%B2%EF%BC%88%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E5%8D%B7%EF%BC%89&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9787999009009&rft.aulast=Tan&rft.aufirst=Zhongchi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp2J6DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%8D%97%E6%9C%9D%2B420-589%26pg%3DPT140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year34-276"><a href="#cite_ref-Year34_276-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroll2014" class="citation book cs1">Kroll, Paul (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NyieBQAAQBAJ&q=Liu+Song+420-479&pg=PA36">Reading Medieval Chinese Poetry: Text, Context, and Culture</a>. BRILL. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004282063" title="Special:BookSources/9789004282063"><bdi>9789004282063</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+Medieval+Chinese+Poetry%3A+Text%2C+Context%2C+and+Culture&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004282063&rft.aulast=Kroll&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNyieBQAAQBAJ%26q%3DLiu%2BSong%2B420-479%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year35-277"><a href="#cite_ref-Year35_277-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadeau2012" class="citation book cs1">Nadeau, Randall (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FmnKSfAS4PcC&q=southern+qi+479-502&pg=PA147">The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444361971" title="Special:BookSources/9781444361971"><bdi>9781444361971</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wiley-Blackwell+Companion+to+Chinese+Religions&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781444361971&rft.aulast=Nadeau&rft.aufirst=Randall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFmnKSfAS4PcC%26q%3Dsouthern%2Bqi%2B479-502%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year36-278"><a href="#cite_ref-Year36_278-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz1995" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Paul (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E71J2KpGt_IC&q=liang+dynasty+502-557&pg=PA79">Demon Hordes and Burning Boats: The Cult of Marshal Wen in Late Imperial Chekiang</a>. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438408484" title="Special:BookSources/9781438408484"><bdi>9781438408484</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Demon+Hordes+and+Burning+Boats%3A+The+Cult+of+Marshal+Wen+in+Late+Imperial+Chekiang&rft.pages=79&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781438408484&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE71J2KpGt_IC%26q%3Dliang%2Bdynasty%2B502-557%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year37-279"><a href="#cite_ref-Year37_279-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+Chinese+Literature%3A+A+Reference+Guide&rft.pages=1818&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004271852&rft.aulast=Knechtges&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Chang%2C+Taiping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOWLPBAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dpuliuru%2Byang%2Bjian%26pg%3DPA1818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year38-282"><a href="#cite_ref-Year38_282-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2013" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Mosol (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DyN-AwAAQBAJ&q=sui+dynasty+581-619&pg=PA115">Ancient History of the Manchuria</a>. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a 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href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzQrDwAAQBAJ&q=tang+dynasty+family+name+li+618-690+705-907&pg=PA348">A Good Son is Sad if He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values</a>. p. 348. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351565219" title="Special:BookSources/9781351565219"><bdi>9781351565219</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Good+Son+is+Sad+if+He+Hears+the+Name+of+His+Father%3A+The+Tabooing+of+Names+in+China+as+a+Way+of+Implementing+Social+Values&rft.pages=348&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781351565219&rft.aulast=Adamek&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWzQrDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dtang%2Bdynasty%2Bfamily%2Bname%2Bli%2B618-690%2B705-907%26pg%3DPA348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year40-287"><a href="#cite_ref-Year40_287-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSu2006" class="citation book cs1">Su, Muzi (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1d4rAwAAQBAJ&q=武周+690-705&pg=PT38">那些顛覆時代的女人</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E9%82%A3%E4%BA%9B%E9%A1%9B%E8%A6%86%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%B3%E4%BA%BA&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Su&rft.aufirst=Muzi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1d4rAwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E6%AD%A6%E5%91%A8%2B690-705%26pg%3DPT38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year41-288"><a href="#cite_ref-Year41_288-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanden2007" class="citation book 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University of Hawaii Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824829834" title="Special:BookSources/9780824829834"><bdi>9780824829834</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unbounded+Loyalty%3A+Frontier+Crossings+in+Liao+China&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780824829834&rft.aulast=Standen&rft.aufirst=Naomi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNAFLxMAbdGgC%26q%3Dfive%2Bdynasties%2B907-960%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year42-289"><a href="#cite_ref-Year42_289-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaefferKapsteinTuttle2013" class="citation book cs1">Schaeffer, Kurtis; Kapstein, Matthew; Tuttle, Gray (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VmkMBcsXxdkC&q=later+liang+907-923&pg=PA338">Sources of Tibetan Tradition</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 338. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231509787" title="Special:BookSources/9780231509787"><bdi>9780231509787</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sources+of+Tibetan+Tradition&rft.pages=338&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780231509787&rft.aulast=Schaeffer&rft.aufirst=Kurtis&rft.au=Kapstein%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Tuttle%2C+Gray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVmkMBcsXxdkC%26q%3Dlater%2Bliang%2B907-923%26pg%3DPA338&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhuye-290">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zhuye_290-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zhuye_290-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXu2017" class="citation book cs1">Xu, Tiesheng (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X2Z0DwAAQBAJ&q=朱邪赤心+赐姓李&pg=PT31">《百家姓》新解</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787101125337" title="Special:BookSources/9787101125337"><bdi>9787101125337</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E7%99%BE%E5%AE%B6%E5%A7%93%E3%80%8B%E6%96%B0%E8%A7%A3&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9787101125337&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Tiesheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX2Z0DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E6%9C%B1%E9%82%AA%E8%B5%A4%E5%BF%83%2B%E8%B5%90%E5%A7%93%E6%9D%8E%26pg%3DPT31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LiSiyuan-292"><a href="#cite_ref-LiSiyuan_292-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZang2012" class="citation book cs1">Zang, Fengyu (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MS50DwAAQBAJ&q=李嗣源+邈佶烈+李克用养子&pg=PA154">中國歷史人物的讀心術</a>. 華志文化. p. 154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789868825895" title="Special:BookSources/9789868825895"><bdi>9789868825895</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E4%BA%BA%E7%89%A9%E7%9A%84%E8%AE%80%E5%BF%83%E8%A1%93&rft.pages=154&rft.pub=%E8%8F%AF%E5%BF%97%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789868825895&rft.aulast=Zang&rft.aufirst=Fengyu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMS50DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E6%9D%8E%E5%97%A3%E6%BA%90%2B%E9%82%88%E4%BD%B6%E7%83%88%2B%E6%9D%8E%E5%85%8B%E7%94%A8%E5%85%BB%E5%AD%90%26pg%3DPA154&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LiCongke-294"><a href="#cite_ref-LiCongke_294-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiangYang1998" class="citation book cs1">Liang, De; Yang, Yang (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v9lzAAAAIAAJ&q=李從珂+王姓">皇权兴衰通鉴</a>. 吉林教育出版社. p. 652. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787538334289" title="Special:BookSources/9787538334289"><bdi>9787538334289</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%9A%87%E6%9D%83%E5%85%B4%E8%A1%B0%E9%80%9A%E9%89%B4&rft.pages=652&rft.pub=%E5%90%89%E6%9E%97%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9787538334289&rft.aulast=Liang&rft.aufirst=De&rft.au=Yang%2C+Yang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv9lzAAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%E6%9D%8E%E5%BE%9E%E7%8F%82%2B%E7%8E%8B%E5%A7%93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year43-296"><a href="#cite_ref-Year43_296-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiuKarlKo2013" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Lydia; Karl, Rebecca; Ko, Dorothy (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3FmImaQfyDIC&q=later+tang+923-937&pg=PA164">The Birth of Chinese Feminism: Essential Texts in Transnational Theory</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231533263" title="Special:BookSources/9780231533263"><bdi>9780231533263</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Chinese+Feminism%3A+Essential+Texts+in+Transnational+Theory&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780231533263&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Lydia&rft.au=Karl%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=Ko%2C+Dorothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3FmImaQfyDIC%26q%3Dlater%2Btang%2B923-937%26pg%3DPA164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year44-298">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Year44_298-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year44_298-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year44_298-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn2011" class="citation book cs1">Kuhn, Dieter (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=krK8DwAAQBAJ&q=later+jin+936-947&pg=PT24">The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of China</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674244344" title="Special:BookSources/9780674244344"><bdi>9780674244344</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Confucian+Rule%3A+The+Song+Transformation+of+China&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780674244344&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Dieter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkrK8DwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlater%2Bjin%2B936-947%26pg%3DPT24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChaiRong-299"><a href="#cite_ref-ChaiRong_299-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLorge2015" class="citation book cs1">Lorge, Peter (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9UTjCgAAQBAJ&q=shizong+of+later+zhou+adopted&pg=PA45">The Reunification of China: Peace through War under the Song Dynasty</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107084759" title="Special:BookSources/9781107084759"><bdi>9781107084759</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reunification+of+China%3A+Peace+through+War+under+the+Song+Dynasty&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781107084759&rft.aulast=Lorge&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9UTjCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dshizong%2Bof%2Blater%2Bzhou%2Badopted%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year45-301"><a href="#cite_ref-Year45_301-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinchester2008" class="citation book cs1">Winchester, Simon (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XAeb6KVhoCMC&q=ten+kingdoms+907-979&pg=PT246">Bomb, Book and Compass: Joseph Needham and the Great Secrets of China</a>. Penguin UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780141889894" title="Special:BookSources/9780141889894"><bdi>9780141889894</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bomb%2C+Book+and+Compass%3A+Joseph+Needham+and+the+Great+Secrets+of+China&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780141889894&rft.aulast=Winchester&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXAeb6KVhoCMC%26q%3Dten%2Bkingdoms%2B907-979%26pg%3DPT246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year46-302"><a href="#cite_ref-Year46_302-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBai2017" class="citation book cs1">Bai, Zhide (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tku8DwAAQBAJ&q=前蜀+907-925&pg=PT214">大动乱：中古时代：五代辽宋夏金</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787505141254" title="Special:BookSources/9787505141254"><bdi>9787505141254</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%A4%A7%E5%8A%A8%E4%B9%B1%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%AD%E5%8F%A4%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%EF%BC%9A%E4%BA%94%E4%BB%A3%E8%BE%BD%E5%AE%8B%E5%A4%8F%E9%87%91&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9787505141254&rft.aulast=Bai&rft.aufirst=Zhide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTku8DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%89%8D%E8%9C%80%2B907-925%26pg%3DPT214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year47-303"><a href="#cite_ref-Year47_303-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite 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id="cite_note-AlternativeYangWu-304"><a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeYangWu_304-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu1989" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Daochun (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iavATHwhF6MC&q=yang+wu+902-937&pg=PA34">Evaluations of Sung Dynasty Painters of Renown</a>. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004089662" title="Special:BookSources/9789004089662"><bdi>9789004089662</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evaluations+of+Sung+Dynasty+Painters+of+Renown&rft.pages=34&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9789004089662&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Daochun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiavATHwhF6MC%26q%3Dyang%2Bwu%2B902-937%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year48-306">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Year48_306-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year48_306-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year48_306-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year48_306-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year48_306-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Year48_306-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGong2014" class="citation book cs1">Gong, Xianzong (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tXxCDwAAQBAJ&q=楚+907-951&pg=PA172">臺灣文學與中國童謠</a>. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789577398598" title="Special:BookSources/9789577398598"><bdi>9789577398598</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8%E8%88%87%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E7%AB%A5%E8%AC%A0&rft.pages=172&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789577398598&rft.aulast=Gong&rft.aufirst=Xianzong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtXxCDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E6%A5%9A%2B907-951%26pg%3DPA172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ZhuWenjin-307"><a href="#cite_ref-ZhuWenjin_307-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2018" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Huicheng (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W-NIDwAAQBAJ&q=朱文進+闽&pg=PT309">天变：中国历代宫廷政变全景</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787801757135" title="Special:BookSources/9787801757135"><bdi>9787801757135</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%A4%A9%E5%8F%98%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E4%BB%A3%E5%AE%AB%E5%BB%B7%E6%94%BF%E5%8F%98%E5%85%A8%E6%99%AF&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9787801757135&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Huicheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW-NIDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E6%9C%B1%E6%96%87%E9%80%B2%2B%E9%97%BD%26pg%3DPT309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gao-309"><a href="#cite_ref-Gao_309-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGao2015" class="citation book cs1">Gao, Lujia (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Vp_DwAAQBAJ&q=%E9%AB%98%E5%AD%A3%E5%85%B4+%E6%9C%B1%E5%A7%93&pg=PT136">高姓简史</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787210077862" title="Special:BookSources/9787210077862"><bdi>9787210077862</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E9%AB%98%E5%A7%93%E7%AE%80%E5%8F%B2&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9787210077862&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=Lujia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4Vp_DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%25E9%25AB%2598%25E5%25AD%25A3%25E5%2585%25B4%2B%25E6%259C%25B1%25E5%25A7%2593%26pg%3DPT136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xu-311"><a href="#cite_ref-Xu_311-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanWan2006" class="citation book cs1">Tan, Zuowen; Wan, Xi (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=96kpK22u-MgC&q=南唐+徐+李&pg=PA7">李煜</a>. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787508510231" title="Special:BookSources/9787508510231"><bdi>9787508510231</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%9D%8E%E7%85%9C&rft.pages=7&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9787508510231&rft.aulast=Tan&rft.aufirst=Zuowen&rft.au=Wan%2C+Xi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D96kpK22u-MgC%26q%3D%E5%8D%97%E5%94%90%2B%E5%BE%90%2B%E6%9D%8E%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year49-313"><a href="#cite_ref-Year49_313-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWuChia2015" class="citation book cs1">Wu, Jiang; Chia, Lucille (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IX7ICgAAQBAJ&q=southern+tang+937-976&pg=PA175">Spreading Buddha's Word in East Asia: The Formation and Transformation of the Chinese Buddhist Canon</a>. p. 175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231540193" title="Special:BookSources/9780231540193"><bdi>9780231540193</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spreading+Buddha%27s+Word+in+East+Asia%3A+The+Formation+and+Transformation+of+the+Chinese+Buddhist+Canon&rft.pages=175&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780231540193&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Jiang&rft.au=Chia%2C+Lucille&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIX7ICgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsouthern%2Btang%2B937-976%26pg%3DPA175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liu_Ji'en-314"><a href="#cite_ref-Liu_Ji'en_314-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChe1991" class="citation book cs1">Che, Dun'an (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GYVFgedgXmoC&q=刘继恩+姓薛">中國歴代帝王辭典</a>. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787540202590" title="Special:BookSources/9787540202590"><bdi>9787540202590</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%AD%B4%E4%BB%A3%E5%B8%9D%E7%8E%8B%E8%BE%AD%E5%85%B8&rft.pages=237&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9787540202590&rft.aulast=Che&rft.aufirst=Dun%27an&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGYVFgedgXmoC%26q%3D%E5%88%98%E7%BB%A7%E6%81%A9%2B%E5%A7%93%E8%96%9B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LiuJiyuan-316"><a href="#cite_ref-LiuJiyuan_316-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen1990" class="citation book cs1">Chen, Huaxin (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k6MLAQAAMAAJ&q=劉繼元+何氏">中國歷代帝王大觀</a>. p. 379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787218003474" title="Special:BookSources/9787218003474"><bdi>9787218003474</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E6%AD%B7%E4%BB%A3%E5%B8%9D%E7%8E%8B%E5%A4%A7%E8%A7%80&rft.pages=379&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9787218003474&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Huaxin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk6MLAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%E5%8A%89%E7%B9%BC%E5%85%83%2B%E4%BD%95%E6%B0%8F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year50-318"><a href="#cite_ref-Year50_318-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeng2006" class="citation book cs1">Feng, Xianzhi (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c4yEDwAAQBAJ&q=北汉+951-979&pg=PT222">中国历代重大战争详解：隋唐战争史</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787999031499" title="Special:BookSources/9787999031499"><bdi>9787999031499</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E4%BB%A3%E9%87%8D%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89%E8%AF%A6%E8%A7%A3%EF%BC%9A%E9%9A%8B%E5%94%90%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89%E5%8F%B2&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9787999031499&rft.aulast=Feng&rft.aufirst=Xianzhi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc4yEDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%8C%97%E6%B1%89%2B951-979%26pg%3DPT222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year51-319"><a href="#cite_ref-Year51_319-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurgoodLaPolla2003" class="citation book cs1">Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5MeWSTQ7F44C&q=liao+dynasty+916-1125&pg=PA7">The Sino-Tibetan Languages</a>. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780700711291" title="Special:BookSources/9780700711291"><bdi>9780700711291</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sino-Tibetan+Languages&rft.pages=7&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780700711291&rft.aulast=Thurgood&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft.au=LaPolla%2C+Randy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5MeWSTQ7F44C%26q%3Dliao%2Bdynasty%2B916-1125%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeLiao-320"><a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeLiao_320-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeidy2008" class="citation book cs1">Leidy, Denise (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eTCI03Dp3NsC&q=liao+dynasty+907-1125&pg=PA189">The Art of Buddhism: An Introduction to Its History & Meaning</a>. Shambhala Publications. p. 189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781590306703" title="Special:BookSources/9781590306703"><bdi>9781590306703</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Buddhism%3A+An+Introduction+to+Its+History+%26+Meaning&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=Shambhala+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781590306703&rft.aulast=Leidy&rft.aufirst=Denise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeTCI03Dp3NsC%26q%3Dliao%2Bdynasty%2B907-1125%26pg%3DPA189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuchlug1-322"><a href="#cite_ref-Kuchlug1_322-0">^</a> Hsu (2012). p. 272. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuchlug2-323"><a href="#cite_ref-Kuchlug2_323-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2017" class="citation book cs1">Stone, Zofia (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aFw1DgAAQBAJ&q=kuchlug+usurpation&pg=PT12">Genghis Khan: A Biography</a>. Vij Books India Private Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789386367112" title="Special:BookSources/9789386367112"><bdi>9789386367112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genghis+Khan%3A+A+Biography&rft.pub=Vij+Books+India+Private+Limited&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9789386367112&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Zofia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaFw1DgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dkuchlug%2Busurpation%26pg%3DPT12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year52-325"><a href="#cite_ref-Year52_325-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzonyi2017" class="citation book cs1">Szonyi, Michael (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VHmxDQAAQBAJ&q=western+liao+1124-1218&pg=PA130">A Companion to Chinese History</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118624609" title="Special:BookSources/9781118624609"><bdi>9781118624609</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Chinese+History&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781118624609&rft.aulast=Szonyi&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVHmxDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dwestern%2Bliao%2B1124-1218%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeWesternLiao-326"><a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeWesternLiao_326-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2015" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Joo-Yup (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PkUpCwAAQBAJ&dq=qara+khitai+1132-1218&pg=PA59">Qazaqlïq, or Ambitious Brigandage, and the Formation of the Qazaqs: State and Identity in Post-Mongol Central Eurasia</a>. BRILL. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004306493" title="Special:BookSources/9789004306493"><bdi>9789004306493</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Qazaql%C3%AFq%2C+or+Ambitious+Brigandage%2C+and+the+Formation+of+the+Qazaqs%3A+State+and+Identity+in+Post-Mongol+Central+Eurasia&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9789004306493&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Joo-Yup&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPkUpCwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dqara%2Bkhitai%2B1132-1218%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year53-329"><a href="#cite_ref-Year53_329-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuang2016" class="citation book cs1">Huang, Chunyi (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C35CDwAAQBAJ&q=北宋+960-1127&pg=PA3">北宋的外戚與政治</a>. 萬卷樓. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789577399953" title="Special:BookSources/9789577399953"><bdi>9789577399953</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B%E7%9A%84%E5%A4%96%E6%88%9A%E8%88%87%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=%E8%90%AC%E5%8D%B7%E6%A8%93&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9789577399953&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Chunyi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC35CDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B%2B960-1127%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year54-330"><a href="#cite_ref-Year54_330-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMahon2016" class="citation book cs1">McMahon, Keith (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aPbnCwAAQBAJ&q=southern+song+1127-1279&pg=PA24">Celestial Women: Imperial Wives and Concubines in China from Song to Qing</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442255029" title="Special:BookSources/9781442255029"><bdi>9781442255029</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celestial+Women%3A+Imperial+Wives+and+Concubines+in+China+from+Song+to+Qing&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781442255029&rft.aulast=McMahon&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaPbnCwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsouthern%2Bsong%2B1127-1279%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weiming-331"><a href="#cite_ref-Weiming_331-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanver2015" class="citation book cs1">Danver, Steven (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vf4TBwAAQBAJ&q=Western+Xia+weiming&pg=PA244">Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues</a>. Routledge. p. 244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317464006" title="Special:BookSources/9781317464006"><bdi>9781317464006</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Native+Peoples+of+the+World%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Groups%2C+Cultures+and+Contemporary+Issues&rft.pages=244&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781317464006&rft.aulast=Danver&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvf4TBwAAQBAJ%26q%3DWestern%2BXia%2Bweiming%26pg%3DPA244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year55-333"><a href="#cite_ref-Year55_333-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuttleSchaeffer2013" class="citation book cs1">Tuttle, Gray; Schaeffer, Kurtis (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=REweJ02Xel8C&q=western+Xia+1038-1227&pg=PA562">The Tibetan History Reader</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 562. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231513548" title="Special:BookSources/9780231513548"><bdi>9780231513548</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tibetan+History+Reader&rft.pages=562&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780231513548&rft.aulast=Tuttle&rft.aufirst=Gray&rft.au=Schaeffer%2C+Kurtis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DREweJ02Xel8C%26q%3Dwestern%2BXia%2B1038-1227%26pg%3DPA562&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year56-334"><a href="#cite_ref-Year56_334-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler2012" class="citation book cs1">Kessler, Adam (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iABEQXUfmhIC&q=jin+dynasty+1115-1234&pg=PA77">Song Blue and White Porcelain on the Silk Road</a>. BRILL. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004218598" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004218598"><bdi>978-9004218598</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Song+Blue+and+White+Porcelain+on+the+Silk+Road&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-9004218598&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiABEQXUfmhIC%26q%3Djin%2Bdynasty%2B1115-1234%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year57-336"><a href="#cite_ref-Year57_336-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon2013" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Karla (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2x-aCAAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+1271-1368&pg=PA40">Civil Society in China: The Legal Framework from Ancient Times to the "New Reform Era"</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190297640" title="Special:BookSources/9780190297640"><bdi>9780190297640</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+Society+in+China%3A+The+Legal+Framework+from+Ancient+Times+to+the+%22New+Reform+Era%22&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780190297640&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Karla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2x-aCAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dyuan%2Bdynasty%2B1271-1368%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeYuan-337"><a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeYuan_337-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestIdema2014" class="citation book cs1">West, Stephen; Idema, Wilt (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bG8kBQAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+1260-1368&pg=PR9">The Orphan of Zhao and Other Yuan Plays: The Earliest Known Versions</a>. Columbia University Press. p. ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231538107" title="Special:BookSources/9780231538107"><bdi>9780231538107</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Orphan+of+Zhao+and+Other+Yuan+Plays%3A+The+Earliest+Known+Versions&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780231538107&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Idema%2C+Wilt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbG8kBQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dyuan%2Bdynasty%2B1260-1368%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChorosEsen1-340"><a href="#cite_ref-ChorosEsen1_340-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuang2017" class="citation book cs1">Huang, Ruyi (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tBW1DwAAQBAJ&q=也先+绰罗斯&pg=PT40">帝国的慢性病：冰火大明</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787540780319" title="Special:BookSources/9787540780319"><bdi>9787540780319</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E7%9A%84%E6%85%A2%E6%80%A7%E7%97%85%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%B0%E7%81%AB%E5%A4%A7%E6%98%8E&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9787540780319&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Ruyi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtBW1DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E4%B9%9F%E5%85%88%2B%E7%BB%B0%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%26pg%3DPT40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChorosEsen2-341"><a href="#cite_ref-ChorosEsen2_341-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXingLiJieLiu2007" class="citation book cs1">Xing, Chunru; Li, Munan; Jie, Baofeng; Liu, Xinlian (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ch3IDwAAQBAJ&q=也先+绰罗斯&pg=PT7">古代民族史（下）</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%8F%B2%EF%BC%88%E4%B8%8B%EF%BC%89&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Xing&rft.aufirst=Chunru&rft.au=Li%2C+Munan&rft.au=Jie%2C+Baofeng&rft.au=Liu%2C+Xinlian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCh3IDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E4%B9%9F%E5%85%88%2B%E7%BB%B0%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%26pg%3DPT7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year58-343"><a href="#cite_ref-Year58_343-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumer2016" class="citation book cs1">Baumer, Christoph (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7eiWDwAAQBAJ&q=northern+yuan+1368-1635&pg=PT437">The History of Central Asia: The Age of Islam and the Mongols</a>. Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781838609399" title="Special:BookSources/9781838609399"><bdi>9781838609399</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Central+Asia%3A+The+Age+of+Islam+and+the+Mongols&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781838609399&rft.aulast=Baumer&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7eiWDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dnorthern%2Byuan%2B1368-1635%26pg%3DPT437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeNorthernYuan1-344"><a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeNorthernYuan1_344-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2009" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Xingchu (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UY-EDwAAQBAJ&q=北元鞑靼&pg=PT160">甘肃文史精萃2：学术卷</a>. Beijing Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787999033424" title="Special:BookSources/9787999033424"><bdi>9787999033424</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%94%98%E8%82%83%E6%96%87%E5%8F%B2%E7%B2%BE%E8%90%832%EF%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6%E6%9C%AF%E5%8D%B7&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9787999033424&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Xingchu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUY-EDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%8C%97%E5%85%83%E9%9E%91%E9%9D%BC%26pg%3DPT160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeNorthernYuan2-345"><a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeNorthernYuan2_345-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXie2017" class="citation book cs1">Xie, Xuanjun (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jhE6DwAAQBAJ&q=北元1402&pg=PA223">少数民族入主中国史略</a>. Lulu.com. p. 223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781387255351" title="Special:BookSources/9781387255351"><bdi>9781387255351</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%B0%91%E6%95%B0%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%85%A5%E4%B8%BB%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B2%E7%95%A5&rft.pages=223&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781387255351&rft.aulast=Xie&rft.aufirst=Xuanjun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjhE6DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%8C%97%E5%85%831402%26pg%3DPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeNorthernYuan3-346"><a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeNorthernYuan3_346-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay2016" class="citation book cs1">May, Timothy (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4gB9DQAAQBAJ&q=northern+yuan+1635&pg=PA28">The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia</a>. Abc-Clio. pp. 26–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610693400" title="Special:BookSources/9781610693400"><bdi>9781610693400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mongol+Empire%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=26-28&rft.pub=Abc-Clio&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781610693400&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4gB9DQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dnorthern%2Byuan%2B1635%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year59-348"><a href="#cite_ref-Year59_348-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2014" class="citation book cs1">Chen, Anfeng (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n_-xBQAAQBAJ&q=明朝+1368-1644&pg=PA2">甲申詩史：吳梅村書寫的一六四四</a>. 中華書局(香港)出版有限公司. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789888310111" title="Special:BookSources/9789888310111"><bdi>9789888310111</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%94%B2%E7%94%B3%E8%A9%A9%E5%8F%B2%EF%BC%9A%E5%90%B3%E6%A2%85%E6%9D%91%E6%9B%B8%E5%AF%AB%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%80%E5%85%AD%E5%9B%9B%E5%9B%9B&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%9B%B8%E5%B1%80%28%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%29%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789888310111&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Anfeng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn_-xBQAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E6%98%8E%E6%9C%9D%2B1368-1644%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year60-349"><a href="#cite_ref-Year60_349-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhong2019" class="citation book cs1">Zhong, Guochang (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x2i1DwAAQBAJ&q=南明+1644-1662&pg=PA2">天崩地裂時代下的皇族</a>. 商務印書館(香港)有限公司. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789620773419" title="Special:BookSources/9789620773419"><bdi>9789620773419</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%A4%A9%E5%B4%A9%E5%9C%B0%E8%A3%82%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%E4%B8%8B%E7%9A%84%E7%9A%87%E6%97%8F&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=%E5%95%86%E5%8B%99%E5%8D%B0%E6%9B%B8%E9%A4%A8%28%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%29%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9789620773419&rft.aulast=Zhong&rft.aufirst=Guochang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx2i1DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E5%8D%97%E6%98%8E%2B1644-1662%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlternativeSouthernMing-350"><a href="#cite_ref-AlternativeSouthernMing_350-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJencoIdrisThomas2019" class="citation book cs1">Jenco, Leigh; Idris, Murad; Thomas, Megan (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aMHADwAAQBAJ&q=southern+ming+1644-1664&pg=PA96">The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Political Theory</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190086244" title="Special:BookSources/9780190086244"><bdi>9780190086244</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Comparative+Political+Theory&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780190086244&rft.aulast=Jenco&rft.aufirst=Leigh&rft.au=Idris%2C+Murad&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Megan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaMHADwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsouthern%2Bming%2B1644-1664%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jurchen1-352"><a href="#cite_ref-Jurchen1_352-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2001" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, Mark (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&q=Jurchen+Manchu+1635&pg=PA71">The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China</a>. Stanford University Press. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804746847" title="Special:BookSources/9780804746847"><bdi>9780804746847</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchu+Way%3A+The+Eight+Banners+and+Ethnic+Identity+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780804746847&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qtgoTIAiKUC%26q%3DJurchen%2BManchu%2B1635%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jurchen2-353"><a href="#cite_ref-Jurchen2_353-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossley2002" class="citation book cs1">Crossley, Pamela (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hbEwDwAAQBAJ&q=Jurchen+Manchu+1635&pg=PA193">A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology</a>. University of California Press. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520234246" title="Special:BookSources/9780520234246"><bdi>9780520234246</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Translucent+Mirror%3A+History+and+Identity+in+Qing+Imperial+Ideology&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780520234246&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhbEwDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DJurchen%2BManchu%2B1635%26pg%3DPA193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year61-355"><a href="#cite_ref-Year61_355-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2016" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Ji-young (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eAwmDQAAQBAJ&q=later+jin+1616-1636&pg=PA236">China's Hegemony: Four Hundred Years of East Asian Domination</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231542173" title="Special:BookSources/9780231542173"><bdi>9780231542173</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Hegemony%3A+Four+Hundred+Years+of+East+Asian+Domination&rft.pages=236&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780231542173&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Ji-young&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeAwmDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlater%2Bjin%2B1616-1636%26pg%3DPA236&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Year62-356"><a href="#cite_ref-Year62_356-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForêt2000" class="citation book cs1">Forêt, Philippe (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tAfF7d-7ysEC&q=qing+dynasty+1636-1912&pg=PA13">Mapping Chengde: The Qing Landscape Enterprise</a>. University of Hawaii Press. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780824822934" title="Special:BookSources/9780824822934"><bdi>9780824822934</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mapping+Chengde%3A+The+Qing+Landscape+Enterprise&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780824822934&rft.aulast=For%C3%AAt&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtAfF7d-7ysEC%26q%3Dqing%2Bdynasty%2B1636-1912%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FavorableTreatment-357">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FavorableTreatment_357-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FavorableTreatment_357-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHao2019" class="citation book cs1">Hao, Shiyuan (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qcm1DwAAQBAJ&q=Articles+of+Favorable+Treatment+of+the+Great+Qing+Emperor+After+His+Abdication&pg=PA51">China's Solution to Its Ethno-national Issues</a>. Springer. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789813295193" title="Special:BookSources/9789813295193"><bdi>9789813295193</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Solution+to+Its+Ethno-national+Issues&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9789813295193&rft.aulast=Hao&rft.aufirst=Shiyuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQcm1DwAAQBAJ%26q%3DArticles%2Bof%2BFavorable%2BTreatment%2Bof%2Bthe%2BGreat%2BQing%2BEmperor%2BAfter%2BHis%2BAbdication%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography1-360"><a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography1_360-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2016" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Hongying (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KolVDwAAQBAJ&q=中国历史地理学+地域范围+谭其骧+清朝&pg=PT202">中国式民主的类型学意义——一种宪法学视角的阐释</a>. 中国社会科学出版社. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787516181829" title="Special:BookSources/9787516181829"><bdi>9787516181829</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%BC%8F%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E7%9A%84%E7%B1%BB%E5%9E%8B%E5%AD%A6%E6%84%8F%E4%B9%89%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E4%B8%80%E7%A7%8D%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6%E8%A7%86%E8%A7%92%E7%9A%84%E9%98%90%E9%87%8A&rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9787516181829&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Hongying&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKolVDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6%2B%E5%9C%B0%E5%9F%9F%E8%8C%83%E5%9B%B4%2B%E8%B0%AD%E5%85%B6%E9%AA%A7%2B%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D%26pg%3DPT202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography2-361"><a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography2_361-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2017" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Fei-ling (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=chUwDwAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+13+million+square+km&pg=PA68">The China Order: Centralia, World Empire, and the Nature of Chinese Power</a>. State University of New York Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438467504" title="Special:BookSources/9781438467504"><bdi>9781438467504</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+China+Order%3A+Centralia%2C+World+Empire%2C+and+the+Nature+of+Chinese+Power&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781438467504&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Fei-ling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DchUwDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dqing%2Bdynasty%2B13%2Bmillion%2Bsquare%2Bkm%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography3-362"><a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography3_362-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGao2009" class="citation book cs1">Gao, James (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wJrLhcgog8oC&q=qing+dynasty+13+million+sq+km&pg=PR36">Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800–1949)</a>. Scarecrow Press. p. xxxvi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810863088" title="Special:BookSources/9780810863088"><bdi>9780810863088</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Modern+China+%281800%E2%80%931949%29&rft.pages=xxxvi&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780810863088&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwJrLhcgog8oC%26q%3Dqing%2Bdynasty%2B13%2Bmillion%2Bsq%2Bkm%26pg%3DPR36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography4-363"><a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography4_363-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang2018" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Yi (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ev2FDwAAQBAJ&q=1300%E8%90%AC%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E5%85%AC%E9%87%8C+%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D&pg=PT148">一本書讀懂亞洲史</a>. 海鴿. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789863921165" title="Special:BookSources/9789863921165"><bdi>9789863921165</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%80%E6%9C%AC%E6%9B%B8%E8%AE%80%E6%87%82%E4%BA%9E%E6%B4%B2%E5%8F%B2&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=%E6%B5%B7%E9%B4%BF&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9789863921165&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Yi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dev2FDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D1300%25E8%2590%25AC%25E5%25B9%25B3%25E6%2596%25B9%25E5%2585%25AC%25E9%2587%258C%2B%25E6%25B8%2585%25E6%259C%259D%26pg%3DPT148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography5-364"><a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography5_364-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2018" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Zhenmin (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f3dvDwAAQBAJ&q=Tannu+Uriankhai+qing+dynasty&pg=PA35">Relationship Between the Chinese Central Authorities and Regional Governments of Hong Kong and Macao: A Legal Perspective</a>. Springer. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789811323225" title="Special:BookSources/9789811323225"><bdi>9789811323225</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relationship+Between+the+Chinese+Central+Authorities+and+Regional+Governments+of+Hong+Kong+and+Macao%3A+A+Legal+Perspective&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9789811323225&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Zhenmin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df3dvDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DTannu%2BUriankhai%2Bqing%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography6-365">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography6_365-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography6_365-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography6_365-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography6_365-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&q=Outer+Khingan+Range+qing+dynasty&pg=PA107">China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization</a>. 2007. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789629371401" title="Special:BookSources/9789629371401"><bdi>9789629371401</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+Five+Thousand+Years+of+History+and+Civilization&rft.pages=107&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789629371401&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz-fAxn_9f8wC%26q%3DOuter%2BKhingan%2BRange%2Bqing%2Bdynasty%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography7-366">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography7_366-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography7_366-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography7_366-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography7_366-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography7_366-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangWangCheng2002" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Qizhi; Wang, Tianyou; Cheng, Chongde (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YXR8oHuHgZsC&q=%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D%E7%96%86%E5%9F%9F%E5%9B%9B%E8%87%B3%E8%8C%83%E5%9B%B4&pg=PA381">元明清史</a>. p. 381. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789571128696" title="Special:BookSources/9789571128696"><bdi>9789571128696</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%85%83%E6%98%8E%E6%B8%85%E5%8F%B2&rft.pages=381&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9789571128696&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Qizhi&rft.au=Wang%2C+Tianyou&rft.au=Cheng%2C+Chongde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYXR8oHuHgZsC%26q%3D%25E6%25B8%2585%25E6%259C%259D%25E7%2596%2586%25E5%259F%259F%25E5%259B%259B%25E8%2587%25B3%25E8%258C%2583%25E5%259B%25B4%26pg%3DPA381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography8-367">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography8_367-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography8_367-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography8_367-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography8_367-3">d</a> Gan (2019). p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography9-368"><a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography9_368-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalmonJia2014" class="citation book cs1">Talmon, Stefan; Jia, Bing Bing (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TzTaBAAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+south+china+sea&pg=PA186">The South China Sea Arbitration: A Chinese Perspective</a>. p. 186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781782253754" title="Special:BookSources/9781782253754"><bdi>9781782253754</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+South+China+Sea+Arbitration%3A+A+Chinese+Perspective&rft.pages=186&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781782253754&rft.aulast=Talmon&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Jia%2C+Bing+Bing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTzTaBAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dqing%2Bdynasty%2Bsouth%2Bchina%2Bsea%26pg%3DPA186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography10-369">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography10_369-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography10_369-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy2014" class="citation book cs1">Roy, Kaushik (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KyVnAwAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+lake+balkhash+Pamir+Mountains&pg=PA87">Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400–1750: Cavalry, Guns, Government and Ships</a>. pp. 86–87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780938004" title="Special:BookSources/9781780938004"><bdi>9781780938004</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Military+Transition+in+Early+Modern+Asia%2C+1400%E2%80%931750%3A+Cavalry%2C+Guns%2C+Government+and+Ships&rft.pages=86-87&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781780938004&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Kaushik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKyVnAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dqing%2Bdynasty%2Blake%2Bbalkhash%2BPamir%2BMountains%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography11-370">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography11_370-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography11_370-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin2006" class="citation book cs1">Lin, Fu (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bLltAAAAIAAJ&q=中国历史地理学+曾经在这个范围内活动的民族都是中国历史上的民族">中国历史地理学研究</a>. pp. 142–143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787211050840" title="Special:BookSources/9787211050840"><bdi>9787211050840</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&rft.pages=142-143&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9787211050840&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Fu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbLltAAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6%2B%E6%9B%BE%E7%BB%8F%E5%9C%A8%E8%BF%99%E4%B8%AA%E8%8C%83%E5%9B%B4%E5%86%85%E6%B4%BB%E5%8A%A8%E7%9A%84%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E9%83%BD%E6%98%AF%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography12-371">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography12_371-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography12_371-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWuYangLu2002" class="citation book cs1">Wu, Chuanjun; Yang, Qinye; Lu, Qi (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=erzI3apM1iUC&q=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6+%E6%9B%BE%E7%BB%8F%E5%9C%A8%E8%BF%99%E4%B8%AA%E8%8C%83%E5%9B%B4%E5%86%85%E6%B4%BB%E5%8A%A8%E7%9A%84%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E9%83%BD%E6%98%AF%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F&pg=PA297">20世纪中国学术大典：地理学</a>. p. 297. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787533430221" title="Special:BookSources/9787533430221"><bdi>9787533430221</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=20%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%AD%A6%E6%9C%AF%E5%A4%A7%E5%85%B8%EF%BC%9A%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6&rft.pages=297&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9787533430221&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Chuanjun&rft.au=Yang%2C+Qinye&rft.au=Lu%2C+Qi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DerzI3apM1iUC%26q%3D%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E5%259B%25BD%25E5%258E%2586%25E5%258F%25B2%25E5%259C%25B0%25E7%2590%2586%25E5%25AD%25A6%2B%25E6%259B%25BE%25E7%25BB%258F%25E5%259C%25A8%25E8%25BF%2599%25E4%25B8%25AA%25E8%258C%2583%25E5%259B%25B4%25E5%2586%2585%25E6%25B4%25BB%25E5%258A%25A8%25E7%259A%2584%25E6%25B0%2591%25E6%2597%258F%25E9%2583%25BD%25E6%2598%25AF%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E5%259B%25BD%25E5%258E%2586%25E5%258F%25B2%25E4%25B8%258A%25E7%259A%2584%25E6%25B0%2591%25E6%2597%258F%26pg%3DPA297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalGeography13-373"><a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalGeography13_373-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeHua2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ge, Jianxiong; Hua, Linfu (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccs.ncl.edu.tw/newsletter_84/016_027.pdf">"The Development of Chinese Historical Geography over the Last 50 Years (1950–2000)"</a> (PDF). Newsletter for Research in Chinese Studies. 21 (4): 20. Retrieved 24 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsletter+for+Research+in+Chinese+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+Chinese+Historical+Geography+over+the+Last+50+Years+%281950%E2%80%932000%29&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=20&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Ge&rft.aufirst=Jianxiong&rft.au=Hua%2C+Linfu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccs.ncl.edu.tw%2Fnewsletter_84%2F016_027.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EarlyLý1-374"><a href="#cite_ref-EarlyLý1_374-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVuSharrock2014" class="citation book cs1">Vu, Hong Lien; Sharrock, Peter (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PuBXBQAAQBAJ&q=Lý+Bôn+China&pg=PT43">Descending Dragon, Rising Tiger: A History of Vietnam</a>. Reaktion Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780233888" title="Special:BookSources/9781780233888"><bdi>9781780233888</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Descending+Dragon%2C+Rising+Tiger%3A+A+History+of+Vietnam&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781780233888&rft.aulast=Vu&rft.aufirst=Hong+Lien&rft.au=Sharrock%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPuBXBQAAQBAJ%26q%3DL%C3%BD%2BB%C3%B4n%2BChina%26pg%3DPT43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EarlyLý2-375"><a href="#cite_ref-EarlyLý2_375-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2012" class="citation book cs1">Walker, Hugh (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GBvRs-za0CIC&q=Ly+Bon+Chinese&pg=PA134">East Asia: A New History</a>. AuthorHouse. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781477265178" title="Special:BookSources/9781477265178"><bdi>9781477265178</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781477265178&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGBvRs-za0CIC%26q%3DLy%2BBon%2BChinese%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thonburi1-376"><a href="#cite_ref-Thonburi1_376-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChansiri2008" class="citation book cs1">Chansiri, Disaphol (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xEMsg-FkbJIC&q=Thonburi+dynasty+Chinese&pg=PA47">The Chinese Émigrés of Thailand in the Twentieth Century</a>. Cambria Press. pp. 46–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781934043745" title="Special:BookSources/9781934043745"><bdi>9781934043745</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+%C3%89migr%C3%A9s+of+Thailand+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=46-47&rft.pub=Cambria+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781934043745&rft.aulast=Chansiri&rft.aufirst=Disaphol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxEMsg-FkbJIC%26q%3DThonburi%2Bdynasty%2BChinese%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thonburi2-377"><a href="#cite_ref-Thonburi2_377-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZheng2011" class="citation book cs1">Zheng, Yangwen (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5bAyAQAAQBAJ&q=Thonburi+dynasty+Chinese&pg=PA112">China on the Sea: How the Maritime World Shaped Modern China</a>. BRILL. p. 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004194786" title="Special:BookSources/9789004194786"><bdi>9789004194786</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+on+the+Sea%3A+How+the+Maritime+World+Shaped+Modern+China&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9789004194786&rft.aulast=Zheng&rft.aufirst=Yangwen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5bAyAQAAQBAJ%26q%3DThonburi%2Bdynasty%2BChinese%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Đinh-378"><a href="#cite_ref-Đinh_378-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutherford2002" class="citation book cs1">Rutherford, Scott (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kRi_BKq60OgC&dq=dinh+dynasty+chinese+tributary&pg=PA20">Vietnam</a>. Langenscheidt Publishing. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789812349842" title="Special:BookSources/9789812349842"><bdi>9789812349842</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnam&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Langenscheidt+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9789812349842&rft.aulast=Rutherford&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkRi_BKq60OgC%26dq%3Ddinh%2Bdynasty%2Bchinese%2Btributary%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FirstShō-379"><a href="#cite_ref-FirstShō_379-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinahan2014" class="citation book cs1">Minahan, James (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oZCOAwAAQBAJ&q=first+sho+dynasty+tributary+china&pg=PA231">Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia</a>. Abc-Clio. p. 231. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610690188" title="Special:BookSources/9781610690188"><bdi>9781610690188</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Groups+of+North%2C+East%2C+and+Central+Asia%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=231&rft.pub=Abc-Clio&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781610690188&rft.aulast=Minahan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoZCOAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dfirst%2Bsho%2Bdynasty%2Btributary%2Bchina%26pg%3DPA231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joseon1-380"><a href="#cite_ref-Joseon1_380-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElmanLiu2017" class="citation book cs1">Elman, Benjamin; Liu, Jenny (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vt3zDQAAQBAJ&q=little+china+%E5%B0%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E&pg=PA175">The 'Global' and the 'Local' in Early Modern and Modern East Asia</a>. BRILL. p. 175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004338128" title="Special:BookSources/9789004338128"><bdi>9789004338128</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%27Global%27+and+the+%27Local%27+in+Early+Modern+and+Modern+East+Asia&rft.pages=175&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9789004338128&rft.aulast=Elman&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft.au=Liu%2C+Jenny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVt3zDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlittle%2Bchina%2B%25E5%25B0%258F%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E5%258D%258E%26pg%3DPA175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joseon2-381"><a href="#cite_ref-Joseon2_381-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2017" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Robert (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_XIzDwAAQBAJ&q=little+china+%E5%B0%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E&pg=PA10">Korea-China Relations in History and Contemporary Implications</a>. Springer. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319622651" title="Special:BookSources/9783319622651"><bdi>9783319622651</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korea-China+Relations+in+History+and+Contemporary+Implications&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9783319622651&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_XIzDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlittle%2Bchina%2B%25E5%25B0%258F%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E5%258D%258E%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nguyễn1-382"><a href="#cite_ref-Nguyễn1_382-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXie2016" class="citation book cs1">Xie, Xuanjun (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3gh2CwAAQBAJ&q=%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97+%E9%98%AE%E6%9C%9D+%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E8%87%AA%E5%B1%85&pg=PA202">第三中国论</a>. Lulu.com. p. 202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781329800250" title="Special:BookSources/9781329800250"><bdi>9781329800250</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E8%AE%BA&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781329800250&rft.aulast=Xie&rft.aufirst=Xuanjun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3gh2CwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%25E8%25B6%258A%25E5%258D%2597%2B%25E9%2598%25AE%25E6%259C%259D%2B%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E5%258D%258E%25E8%2587%25AA%25E5%25B1%2585%26pg%3DPA202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nguyễn2-383"><a href="#cite_ref-Nguyễn2_383-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2017" class="citation book cs1">Wu, Weiming (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iXU3DwAAQBAJ&q=%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97+%E9%98%AE%E6%9C%9D+%E5%B0%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E&pg=PA161">東亞易學史論：《周易》在日韓越琉的傳播與影響</a>. 國立臺灣大學出版中心. p. 161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789863502500" title="Special:BookSources/9789863502500"><bdi>9789863502500</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%9E%E6%98%93%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2%E8%AB%96%EF%BC%9A%E3%80%8A%E5%91%A8%E6%98%93%E3%80%8B%E5%9C%A8%E6%97%A5%E9%9F%93%E8%B6%8A%E7%90%89%E7%9A%84%E5%82%B3%E6%92%AD%E8%88%87%E5%BD%B1%E9%9F%BF&rft.pages=161&rft.pub=%E5%9C%8B%E7%AB%8B%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9789863502500&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Weiming&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiXU3DwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%25E8%25B6%258A%25E5%258D%2597%2B%25E9%2598%25AE%25E6%259C%259D%2B%25E5%25B0%258F%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E5%258D%258E%26pg%3DPA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baekje-384"><a href="#cite_ref-Baekje_384-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinduffRubinson2008" class="citation book cs1">Linduff, Katheryn; Rubinson, Karen (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xd5bAAAAQBAJ&dq=sinicized+baekje&pg=PA126">Are All Warriors Male?: Gender Roles on the Ancient Eurasian Steppe</a>. AltaMira Press. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781461647508" title="Special:BookSources/9781461647508"><bdi>9781461647508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Are+All+Warriors+Male%3F%3A+Gender+Roles+on+the+Ancient+Eurasian+Steppe&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781461647508&rft.aulast=Linduff&rft.aufirst=Katheryn&rft.au=Rubinson%2C+Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXd5bAAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dsinicized%2Bbaekje%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LaterLê-385"><a href="#cite_ref-LaterLê_385-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2013" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Yuk Wah (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cjoVAgAAQBAJ&dq=le+dynasty+sinicization&pg=PA28">Vietnamese-Chinese Relationships at the Borderlands: Trade, Tourism and Cultural Politics</a>. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134494576" title="Special:BookSources/9781134494576"><bdi>9781134494576</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnamese-Chinese+Relationships+at+the+Borderlands%3A+Trade%2C+Tourism+and+Cultural+Politics&rft.pages=28&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781134494576&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Yuk+Wah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcjoVAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dle%2Bdynasty%2Bsinicization%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>China Handbook Editorial Committee, China Handbook Series: History (trans., Dun J. Li), Beijing, 1982, pp. 188–189; and Shao Chang Lee, "China Cultural Development" (wall chart), East Lansing, 1984.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2018" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2018). Chinese History: A New Manual (5th ed.). Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Asia_Center" title="Harvard University Asia Center">Harvard University Asia Center</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780998888309" title="Special:BookSources/9780998888309"><bdi>9780998888309</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+History%3A+A+New+Manual&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780998888309&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Endymion+Porter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADynasties+of+China" class="Z3988"> Specifically Section A.2 "Dynasties", in this and earlier editions, which includes subsections on "Naming the Dynasties", "Sets of Dynasties", "The Dynastic Cycle", "Legitimate Succession", "Grade School History" (the effect on common understanding of China's history).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dynasties_of_China&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dynasties_of_China" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Dynasties of China">Dynasties of China</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/china_timeline.htm#song">The Dynasties Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tan_Qixiang" title="Tan Qixiang">Tan Qixiang</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guoxue123.com/other/map/zgmap/">The Historical Atlas of China</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Government_of_Imperial_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_Imperial_Government" title="Template:Chinese Imperial Government"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li 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href="/wiki/Dynastic_cycle" title="Dynastic cycle">Cycle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_sovereign" title="Chinese sovereign">Titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_Heaven" title="Son of Heaven">Son of Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heirloom_Seal_of_the_Realm" title="Heirloom Seal of the Realm">Heirloom Seal of the Realm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_empresses_and_queens" title="List of Chinese empresses and queens">Empress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consort_kin" title="Consort kin">Consort kin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_harem_system" title="Imperial Chinese harem system">Harem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_chancellor_(China)" title="Grand chancellor (China)">Grand Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(bureaucrat)" title="Mandarin (bureaucrat)">Mandarin (bureaucrat)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">Scholar-official</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine-rank_system" title="Nine-rank system">Nine-rank system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Courts" title="Nine Courts">Nine Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Directorates" title="Five Directorates">Five Directorates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_examinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial examinations">Imperial examinations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taixue" title="Taixue">Taixue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guozijian" title="Guozijian">Guozijian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanlin_Academy" title="Hanlin Academy">Hanlin Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academies_(Shuyuan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Academies (Shuyuan)">Academies (Shuyuan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorate" title="Censorate">Censorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">Tributary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_capitals_of_China" title="Historical capitals of China">Historical capitals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_territory_in_dynastic_China" title="Administration of territory in dynastic China">Territorial administration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamen" title="Yamen">Yamen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusi" title="Tusi">Tusi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early Imperial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Kings of the Han dynasty">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Lords_and_Nine_Ministers" title="Three Lords and Nine Ministers">Three Lords and Nine Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ducal_Ministers" title="Three Ducal Ministers">Three Ducal Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Ministers" title="Nine Ministers">Nine Ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_of_Han_dynasty_titles" title="Translation of Han dynasty titles">Translated titles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Middle Imperial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jiedushi" title="Jiedushi">Jiedushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_system" title="Jimi system">Jimi system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Military_Affairs" title="Bureau of Military Affairs">Bureau of Military Affairs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shumishi" title="Shumishi">Shumishi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Three_Departments_and_Six_Ministries#Three_Departments" title="Three Departments and Six Ministries">Three Departments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shangshu_Sheng" title="Shangshu Sheng">Shangshu Sheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshu_Sheng" title="Zhongshu Sheng">Zhongshu Sheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menxia_Sheng" title="Menxia Sheng">Menxia Sheng</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Secretariat-Chancellery" title="Secretariat-Chancellery">Secretariat-Chancellery</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Three_Departments_and_Six_Ministries#Six_Ministries" title="Three Departments and Six Ministries">Six Ministries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Personnel" title="Ministry of Personnel">Ministry of Personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Revenue_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)">Ministry of Revenue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Rites" title="Ministry of Rites">Ministry of Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of War (imperial China)">Ministry of War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Justice (imperial China)">Ministry of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Works_(imperial_China)" title="Ministry of Works (imperial China)">Ministry of Works</a></li></ol> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Late Imperial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Bureaus" title="Three Bureaus">Three Bureaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remonstrance_Bureau" title="Remonstrance Bureau">Remonstrance Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Secretariat" title="Grand Secretariat">Grand Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Grand coordinator and provincial governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">Viceroys in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_square" title="Mandarin square">Mandarin square</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Qing" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Qing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_Council_of_Princes_and_Ministers" title="Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers">Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Gates_Infantry_Commander" title="Nine Gates Infantry Commander">Nine Gates Infantry Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Imperial guards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Tang_dynasty)" title="Imperial Guards (Tang dynasty)">Tang Imperial Guards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shence_Army" title="Shence Army">Shence Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embroidered_Uniform_Guard" title="Embroidered Uniform Guard">Embroidered Uniform Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Imperial Guards (Qing dynasty)">Qing Imperial Guards</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dynasties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Government of the Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Tang_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Liao_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Government of the Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li></ul> 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