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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Steam_propulsion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steam_propulsion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Steam propulsion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steam_propulsion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explosive_shells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explosive_shells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Explosive shells</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explosive_shells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_armor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_armor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Iron armor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_armor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_ironclad_ships_and_battles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_ironclad_ships_and_battles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Early ironclad ships and battles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_ironclad_ships_and_battles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early ironclad ships and battles subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_ironclad_ships_and_battles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_battles_between_ironclads:_the_U.S._Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_battles_between_ironclads:_the_U.S._Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>First battles between ironclads: the U.S. Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_battles_between_ironclads:_the_U.S._Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lissa:_first_fleet_battle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lissa:_first_fleet_battle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Lissa: first fleet battle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lissa:_first_fleet_battle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armament_and_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armament_and_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Armament and tactics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Armament_and_tactics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Armament and tactics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Armament_and_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ram_craze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ram_craze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Ram craze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ram_craze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_naval_guns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_naval_guns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Development of naval guns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_naval_guns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Positioning_of_armament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positioning_of_armament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Positioning of armament</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positioning_of_armament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Broadside_ironclads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broadside_ironclads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Broadside ironclads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broadside_ironclads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turrets,_batteries,_and_barbettes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turrets,_batteries,_and_barbettes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Turrets, batteries, and barbettes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turrets,_batteries,_and_barbettes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torpedoes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torpedoes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Torpedoes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torpedoes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armor_and_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armor_and_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Armor and construction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Armor_and_construction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Armor and construction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Armor_and_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hulls:_iron,_wood,_and_steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hulls:_iron,_wood,_and_steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Hulls: iron, wood, and steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hulls:_iron,_wood,_and_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armor_and_protection_schemes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armor_and_protection_schemes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Armor and protection schemes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armor_and_protection_schemes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Propulsion:_steam_and_sail" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Propulsion:_steam_and_sail"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Propulsion: steam and sail</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Propulsion:_steam_and_sail-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fleets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fleets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Fleets</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fleets-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Fleets subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Fleets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Navies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Navies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_ironclad_warship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_ironclad_warship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>End of the ironclad warship</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-End_of_the_ironclad_warship-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle End of the ironclad warship subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_ironclad_warship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B9%D8%A9" title="سفينة مدرعة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سفينة مدرعة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%86" title="Браняносец – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Браняносец" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%86" title="Броненосец – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Броненосец" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklopnja%C4%8Da" title="Oklopnjača – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Oklopnjača" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironclad" title="Ironclad – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ironclad" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obrn%C4%9Bn%C3%A1_lo%C4%8F" title="Obrněná loď – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Obrněná loď" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panserskib" title="Panserskib – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Panserskib" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzerschiff" title="Panzerschiff – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Panzerschiff" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soomuslaev" title="Soomuslaev – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Soomuslaev" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CF%89%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%82" title="Θωρακοβάρις – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θωρακοβάρις" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buque_blindado" title="Buque blindado – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Buque blindado" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B4" title="کشتی زره‌پوش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کشتی زره‌پوش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navire_cuirass%C3%A9" title="Navire cuirassé – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Navire cuirassé" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_phl%C3%A1t%C3%A1ilte" title="Long phlátáilte – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Long phlátáilte" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%A0%EA%B0%91%ED%95%A8" title="철갑함 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="철갑함" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%AB%D6%80_(%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3)" title="Զրահակիր (մարտանավերի կարգ) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Զրահակիր (մարտանավերի կարգ)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklopnja%C4%8Da" title="Oklopnjača – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Oklopnjača" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapal_perang_Ironclad" title="Kapal perang Ironclad – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kapal perang Ironclad" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nave_corazzata" title="Nave corazzata – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nave corazzata" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F" title="אונייה מחופת שריון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אונייה מחופת שריון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loricata_navis" title="Loricata navis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Loricata navis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapal_perang_Ironclad" title="Kapal perang Ironclad – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kapal perang Ironclad" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironclad_(schip)" title="Ironclad (schip) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ironclad (schip)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A3%85%E7%94%B2%E8%89%A6" 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title="Броненосец – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Броненосец" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D2%95%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Халҕан аал – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Халҕан аал" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironclad_warship" title="Ironclad warship – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ironclad warship" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl 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title="Ironclads">Ironclads</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Steam-propelled warship protected by armor plates</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Ironclad" and "Broadside ironclad" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ironclad_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ironclad (disambiguation)">Ironclad (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For pre-modern armored ships, see <a href="/wiki/Naval_armour" title="Naval armour">naval armour</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Monitor_and_Merrimac.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/The_Monitor_and_Merrimac.jpg/300px-The_Monitor_and_Merrimac.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/The_Monitor_and_Merrimac.jpg/450px-The_Monitor_and_Merrimac.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/The_Monitor_and_Merrimac.jpg/600px-The_Monitor_and_Merrimac.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4460" data-file-height="3100" /></a><figcaption>The first battle between ironclads: <a href="/wiki/CSS_Virginia" title="CSS Virginia">CSS <i>Virginia</i></a> (left) vs. <a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a>, in the March 1862 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">Battle of Hampton Roads</a></figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>ironclad</b> was a <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam-propelled</a> <a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">warship</a> protected by <a href="/wiki/Iron_armour" title="Iron armour">steel or iron armor</a> constructed from 1859 to the early 1890s. The ironclad was developed as a result of the vulnerability of wooden warships to explosive or <a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">incendiary</a> <a href="/wiki/Shell_(projectile)" title="Shell (projectile)">shells</a>. The first ironclad battleship, <a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Gloire" title="French ironclad Gloire"><i>Gloire</i></a>, was launched by the <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> in November 1859, narrowly preempting the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>. However, Britain built the first completely iron-hulled warships. </p><p>They were first used in warfare in 1862 during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, when ironclads operated against wooden ships and, in a historic confrontation, against each other at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">Battle of Hampton Roads</a> in <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>. Their performance demonstrated that the ironclad had replaced the unarmored <a href="/wiki/Ship_of_the_line" title="Ship of the line">ship of the line</a> as the most powerful warship afloat. <a href="/wiki/City-class_ironclad" title="City-class ironclad">Ironclad gunboats</a> became very successful in the American Civil War. </p><p>Ironclads were designed for several uses, including as high-seas <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleships</a>, long-range <a href="/wiki/Cruiser" title="Cruiser">cruisers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Littoral_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Littoral (military)">coastal defense</a> ships. Rapid development of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel that carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships, and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns, more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in <a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">ferrous metallurgy</a> that made steel shipbuilding possible. </p><p>The quick pace of change meant that many ships were obsolete almost as soon as they were finished and that naval tactics were in a state of flux. Many ironclads were built to make use of the <a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">naval ram</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">torpedo</a>, or sometimes <a href="/wiki/Torpedo_ram" title="Torpedo ram">both</a> (as in the case with smaller ships and later torpedo boats), which several naval designers considered the important weapons of naval combat. There is no clear end to the ironclad period, but toward the end of the 1890s, the term <i>ironclad</i> dropped out of use. New ships were increasingly constructed to a standard pattern and designated as battleships or <a href="/wiki/Armored_cruiser" title="Armored cruiser">armored cruisers</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ironclad became technically feasible and tactically necessary because of developments in shipbuilding in the first half of the 19th century. According to naval historian <a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Hill" title="J. Richard Hill">J. Richard Hill</a>: "The (ironclad) had three chief characteristics: a metal-skinned hull, steam propulsion and a main armament of guns capable of firing explosive shells. It is only when all three characteristics are present that a fighting ship can properly be called an ironclad."<sup id="cite_ref-Hill_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of these developments was introduced separately in the decade before the first ironclads.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steam_propulsion">Steam propulsion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Steam propulsion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon(1850).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Napoleon%281850%29.jpg/220px-Napoleon%281850%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Napoleon%281850%29.jpg/330px-Napoleon%281850%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Napoleon%281850%29.jpg/440px-Napoleon%281850%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/French_ship_Napol%C3%A9on_(1850)" title="French ship Napoléon (1850)"><i>Napoléon</i> (1850)</a>, the first steam battleship</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 18th and early 19th centuries, fleets had relied on two types of major warship, the <a href="/wiki/Ship_of_the_line" title="Ship of the line">ship of the line</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Frigate" title="Frigate">frigate</a>. The first major change to these types was the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Steam_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam power">steam power</a> for <a href="/wiki/Marine_propulsion" title="Marine propulsion">propulsion</a>. While <a href="/wiki/Paddle_steamer" title="Paddle steamer">paddle steamer</a> warships had been used from the 1830s onward, steam propulsion only became suitable for major warships after the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Screw_propeller" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw propeller">screw propeller</a> in the 1840s.<sup id="cite_ref-Screw_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Screw-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Steam-powered screw frigates were built in the mid-1840s, and at the end of the decade the <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> introduced steam power to its <a href="/wiki/Line_of_battle" title="Line of battle">line of battle</a>. <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>'s ambition to gain greater influence in Europe required a sustained challenge to the British at sea.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hill_25_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill_25-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first purpose-built steam battleship was the 90-gun <a href="/wiki/French_ship_Napol%C3%A9on_(1850)" title="French ship Napoléon (1850)"><i>Napoléon</i></a> in 1850.<sup id="cite_ref-Screw_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Screw-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Napoléon</i> was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 <a href="/wiki/Knot_(unit)" title="Knot (unit)">knots</a> (22 km/h; 14 mph), regardless of the wind conditions: a potentially decisive advantage in a naval engagement.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The introduction of the steam ship-of-the-line led to a building competition between France and Britain. Eight sister ships to <i>Napoléon</i> were built in France over a period of ten years, but the United Kingdom soon managed to take the lead in production. Altogether, France built ten new wooden steam battleships and converted 28 from older ships of the line, while the United Kingdom built 18 and converted 41.<sup id="cite_ref-Screw_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Screw-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explosive_shells">Explosive shells</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Explosive shells"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Paixhans_gun" title="Paixhans gun">Paixhans gun</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PaixhansCanonImage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/PaixhansCanonImage.jpg/220px-PaixhansCanonImage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/PaixhansCanonImage.jpg/330px-PaixhansCanonImage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/PaixhansCanonImage.jpg/440px-PaixhansCanonImage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Paixhans_gun" title="Paixhans gun">Paixhans</a> naval <a href="/wiki/Shell_(projectile)" title="Shell (projectile)">shell</a> gun. 1860 engraving</figcaption></figure> <p>The era of the wooden steam ship-of-the-line was brief, because of new, more powerful naval guns. In the 1820s and 1830s, warships began to mount increasingly heavy guns, replacing <a href="/wiki/18-pounder_long_gun" title="18-pounder long gun">18-</a> and <a href="/wiki/24-pounder_long_gun" title="24-pounder long gun">24-pounder guns</a> with 32-pounders on sailing ships-of-the-line and introducing <a href="/wiki/68-pounder" class="mw-redirect" title="68-pounder">68-pounders</a> on steamers. Then, the first <a href="/wiki/Shell_(projectile)" title="Shell (projectile)">shell</a> guns firing explosive shells were introduced following their development by the French Général <a href="/wiki/Henri-Joseph_Paixhans" title="Henri-Joseph Paixhans">Henri-Joseph Paixhans</a>. By the 1840s they were part of the standard armament for naval powers including the <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy" title="Imperial Russian Navy">Imperial Russian Navy</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>It is often held that the power of explosive shells to smash wooden hulls, as demonstrated by the Russian destruction of an <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> squadron at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sinop" title="Battle of Sinop">Battle of Sinop</a>, spelled the end of the wooden-hulled warship.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more practical threat to wooden ships was from conventional cannon firing red-hot shot, which could lodge in the hull and cause a fire or ammunition explosion. Some navies even experimented with hollow shot filled with molten metal for extra incendiary power.<sup id="cite_ref-Lambert_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lambert-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron_armor">Iron armor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Iron armor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Floating_battery" title="Floating battery">Floating battery</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_floating_battery_Lave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/French_floating_battery_Lave.jpg/220px-French_floating_battery_Lave.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/French_floating_battery_Lave.jpg/330px-French_floating_battery_Lave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/French_floating_battery_Lave.jpg/440px-French_floating_battery_Lave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="565" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> ironclad <a href="/wiki/Floating_battery" title="Floating battery">floating battery</a> <a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_floating_battery_Lave" title="French ironclad floating battery Lave"><i>Lave</i></a>, 1854. This ironclad, together with the similar <i>Tonnante</i> and <i>Dévastation</i>, vanquished Russian land batteries at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kinburn_(1855)" title="Battle of Kinburn (1855)">Battle of Kinburn (1855)</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guadalupe_Frigate_1842_(Mexico).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Guadalupe_Frigate_1842_%28Mexico%29.jpg/220px-Guadalupe_Frigate_1842_%28Mexico%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Guadalupe_Frigate_1842_%28Mexico%29.jpg/330px-Guadalupe_Frigate_1842_%28Mexico%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Guadalupe_Frigate_1842_%28Mexico%29.jpg/440px-Guadalupe_Frigate_1842_%28Mexico%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="999" /></a><figcaption>Mexican frigate <i>Guadalupe</i> 1842</figcaption></figure> <p>The use of <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> instead of wood as the primary material of ships' hulls began in the 1830s; the first "warship" with an iron hull was the gunboat <a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(1839)" title="Nemesis (1839)"><i>Nemesis</i></a>, built by <a href="/wiki/John_Laird_(shipbuilder)" title="John Laird (shipbuilder)">Jonathan Laird of Birkenhead</a> for the East India Company in 1839. There followed, also from Laird, the first full-sized warship with a metal hull, the 1842 steam frigate <i><a href="/wiki/ARM_Guadalupe" class="mw-redirect" title="ARM Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></i> for the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Navy" title="Mexican Navy">Mexican Navy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sandler_2004_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandler_2004-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-threedecks_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-threedecks-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter ship performed well during the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Battle_of_Campeche" title="Naval Battle of Campeche">Naval Battle of Campeche</a>, with her <a href="/wiki/Captain_(nautical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Captain (nautical)">captain</a> reporting that he thought that there were fewer iron splinters from <i>Guadalupe</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s hull than from a wooden hull.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Encouraged by the positive reports of the iron hulls of those ships in combat, the <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_(United_Kingdom)" title="Admiralty (United Kingdom)">Admiralty</a> ordered a series of experiments to evaluate what happened when thin iron hulls were struck by projectiles, both solid shot and hollow shells, beginning in 1845 and lasting through 1851. Critics like <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant-general_(United_Kingdom)" title="Lieutenant-general (United Kingdom)">Lieutenant-general</a> Sir <a href="/wiki/Howard_Douglas" title="Howard Douglas">Howard Douglas</a> believed that the splinters from the hull were even more dangerous than those from wooden hulls and the tests partially confirmed this belief. What was ignored was that 14 inches (356 mm) of wood backing the iron would stop most of the splinters from penetrating and that relatively thin plates of iron backed by the same thickness of wood would generally cause shells to split open and fail to detonate. One factor in the performance of wrought iron during these tests that was not understood by metallurgists of the day was that wrought iron begins to become brittle at temperatures below 20 °C (68 °F). Many of the tests were conducted at temperatures below this while the battles were fought in tropical climates.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The early experimental results seemed to support the critics and party politics came into play as the <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whig</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Russell_ministry" title="First Russell ministry">First Russell ministry</a> replaced the <a href="/wiki/Tories_(British_political_party)" title="Tories (British political party)">Tory</a> <a href="/wiki/Second_Peel_Ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Peel Ministry">Second Peel Ministry</a> in 1846. The new administration sided with the critics and ordered that the four iron-hulled <a href="/wiki/Screw" title="Screw">propeller</a> <a href="/wiki/Frigate" title="Frigate">frigates</a> ordered by the Tories be converted into <a href="/wiki/Troopship" title="Troopship">troopships</a>. No iron warships would be ordered until the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> in 1854.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the demonstration of the power of explosive shells against wooden ships at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sinop" title="Battle of Sinop">Battle of Sinop</a>, and fearing that his own ships would be vulnerable to the <a href="/wiki/Paixhans_guns" class="mw-redirect" title="Paixhans guns">Paixhans guns</a> of Russian fortifications in the Crimean War, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor of France">Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> ordered the development of light-draft floating batteries, equipped with heavy guns and protected by heavy armor. Experiments made during the first half of 1854 proved highly satisfactory, and on 17 July 1854, the French communicated to the British Government that a solution had been found to make gun-proof vessels and that plans would be communicated. After tests in September 1854, the British Admiralty agreed to build five armored floating batteries on the French plans.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The French <a href="/wiki/Floating_battery" title="Floating battery">floating batteries</a> were deployed in 1855 as a supplement to the wooden steam battle fleet in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>. The role of the battery was to assist unarmored mortar and gunboats bombarding shore fortifications. The French used three of their ironclad batteries (<i>Lave</i>, <i>Tonnante</i> and <i>Dévastation</i>) in 1855 against the defenses at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kinburn_(1855)" title="Battle of Kinburn (1855)">Battle of Kinburn</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, where they were effective against Russian shore defences. They would later be used again during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Italian war</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriatic">Adriatic</a> in 1859. The British floating batteries <a href="/wiki/Aetna-class_ironclad_floating_battery" title="Aetna-class ironclad floating battery"><i>Glatton</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Aetna-class_ironclad_floating_battery" title="Aetna-class ironclad floating battery"><i>Meteor</i></a> arrived too late to participate to the action at Kinburn.<sup id="cite_ref-Baxter82_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baxter82-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British planned to use theirs in the Baltic Sea against the well-fortified Russian naval base at Kronstadt.<sup id="cite_ref-Iron_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iron-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The batteries have a claim to the title of the first ironclad warships<sup id="cite_ref-Hill_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they were capable of only 4 knots (7.4 km/h; 4.6 mph) under their own power: they operated under their own power at the Battle of Kinburn,<sup id="cite_ref-Baxter84_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baxter84-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but had to be towed for long-range transit.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were also arguably marginal to the work of the navy. The brief success of the floating ironclad batteries convinced France to begin work on armored warships for their battlefleet.<sup id="cite_ref-Iron_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iron-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_ironclad_ships_and_battles">Early ironclad ships and battles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early ironclad ships and battles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MuseeMarine-cuirasse1880-p1000463.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MuseeMarine-cuirasse1880-p1000463.jpg/220px-MuseeMarine-cuirasse1880-p1000463.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MuseeMarine-cuirasse1880-p1000463.jpg/330px-MuseeMarine-cuirasse1880-p1000463.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MuseeMarine-cuirasse1880-p1000463.jpg/440px-MuseeMarine-cuirasse1880-p1000463.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Model of the French <a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Gloire" title="French ironclad Gloire"><i>Gloire</i></a> (1858), the first ocean-going ironclad</figcaption></figure> <p>By the end of the 1850s it was clear that France was unable to match British building of steam warships, and to regain the strategic initiative a dramatic change was required. The result was the first ocean-going ironclad, <a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Gloire" title="French ironclad Gloire"><i>Gloire</i></a>, begun in 1857 and launched in 1859. <i>Gloire</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s wooden hull was modelled on that of a steam ship of the line, reduced to one deck, and sheathed in iron plates 4.5 inches (114 mm) thick. She was propelled by a steam engine, driving a single <a href="/wiki/Screw_propeller" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw propeller">screw propeller</a> for a speed of 13 <a href="/wiki/Knot_(unit)" title="Knot (unit)">knots</a> (24 km/h; 15 mph). She was armed with thirty-six 6.4-inch (160 mm) rifled guns. France proceeded to construct 16 ironclad warships, including two <a href="/wiki/Sister_ship" title="Sister ship">sister ships</a> to <i>Gloire</i>, and the only two-decked broadside ironclads ever built, <a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Magenta" title="French ironclad Magenta"><i>Magenta</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Solf%C3%A9rino" title="French ironclad Solférino"><i>Solférino</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sondhaus,_''Naval_Warfare_1815–1914'',_pp._73–74_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sondhaus,_''Naval_Warfare_1815–1914'',_pp._73–74-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMSWarrior.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/HMSWarrior.JPG/220px-HMSWarrior.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/HMSWarrior.JPG/330px-HMSWarrior.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/HMSWarrior.JPG/440px-HMSWarrior.JPG 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/HMS_Warrior_(1860)" title="HMS Warrior (1860)">HMS <i>Warrior</i></a> (1860), Britain's first seagoing ironclad warship</figcaption></figure> <p>The Royal Navy had not been keen to sacrifice its advantage in steam ships of the line, but was determined that the first British ironclad would outmatch the French ships in every respect, particularly speed. A fast ship would have the advantage of being able to choose a range of engagement that could make her invulnerable to enemy fire. The British specification was more a large, powerful <a href="/wiki/Frigate" title="Frigate">frigate</a> than a ship-of-the-line. The requirement for speed meant a very long vessel, which had to be built from iron. The result was the construction of two <a href="/wiki/Warrior-class_ironclad" title="Warrior-class ironclad"><i>Warrior</i>-class</a> ironclads; <a href="/wiki/HMS_Warrior_(1860)" title="HMS Warrior (1860)">HMS <i>Warrior</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Black_Prince_(1861)" title="HMS Black Prince (1861)">HMS <i>Black Prince</i></a>. The ships had a successful design, though there were necessarily compromises between 'sea-keeping', strategic range and armor protection. Their weapons were more effective than those of <i>Gloire</i>, and with the largest set of steam engines yet fitted to a ship, they could steam at 14.3 knots (26.5 km/h).<sup id="cite_ref-Iron_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iron-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet the <i>Gloire</i> and her sisters had full iron-armor protection along the waterline and the battery itself.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The British <i>Warrior</i> and <i>Black Prince</i> (but also the smaller <a href="/wiki/HMS_Defence_(1861)" title="HMS Defence (1861)"><i>Defence</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Resistance_(1861)" title="HMS Resistance (1861)"><i>Resistance</i></a>) were obliged to concentrate their armor in a central "citadel" or "armoured box", leaving many main deck guns and the fore and aft sections of the vessel unprotected. The use of iron in the construction of <i>Warrior </i>also came with some drawbacks; iron hulls required more regular and intensive repairs than wooden hulls, and iron was more susceptible to fouling by marine life.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By 1862, navies across Europe had adopted ironclads. Britain and France each had sixteen either completed or under construction, though the British vessels were larger. Austria, Italy, Russia, and Spain were also building ironclads.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the first battles using the new ironclad ships took place during the American Civil War, between Union and Confederate ships in 1862. These were markedly different from the broadside-firing, masted designs of <i>Gloire</i> and <i>Warrior</i>. The clash of the Italian and Austrian fleets at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lissa_(1866)" title="Battle of Lissa (1866)">Battle of Lissa</a> (1866), also had an important influence on the development of ironclad design.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_battles_between_ironclads:_the_U.S._Civil_War">First battles between ironclads: the U.S. Civil War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: First battles between ironclads: the U.S. Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monitor_%22Mahopac%22_on_the_Appomattox_River,_1864.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Monitor_%22Mahopac%22_on_the_Appomattox_River%2C_1864.jpg/220px-Monitor_%22Mahopac%22_on_the_Appomattox_River%2C_1864.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Monitor_%22Mahopac%22_on_the_Appomattox_River%2C_1864.jpg/330px-Monitor_%22Mahopac%22_on_the_Appomattox_River%2C_1864.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Monitor_%22Mahopac%22_on_the_Appomattox_River%2C_1864.jpg/440px-Monitor_%22Mahopac%22_on_the_Appomattox_River%2C_1864.jpg 2x" data-file-width="899" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Canonicus-class_monitor" title="Canonicus-class monitor"><i>Canonicus</i>-class</a> monitor <a href="/wiki/USS_Mahopac" title="USS Mahopac">USS <i>Mahopac</i></a> on the <a href="/wiki/Appomattox_River" title="Appomattox River">Appomattox River</a>, 1864</figcaption></figure> <p>The first use of ironclads in combat came in the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">U.S. Civil War</a>. The U.S. Navy at the time the war broke out had no ironclads, its most powerful ships being six unarmored steam-powered frigates.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the bulk of the Navy remained loyal to the Union, the Confederacy sought to gain advantage in the naval conflict by acquiring modern armored ships. In May 1861, the Confederate Congress appropriated $2 million dollars for the purchase of ironclads from overseas, and in July and August 1861 the Confederacy started work on construction and converting wooden ships.<sup id="cite_ref-ACW_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACW-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 12 October 1861, <a href="/wiki/CSS_Manassas" title="CSS Manassas">CSS <i>Manassas</i></a> became the first ironclad to enter combat, when she fought Union warships on the Mississippi during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Head_of_Passes" title="Battle of the Head of Passes">Battle of the Head of Passes</a>. She had been converted from a commercial vessel in New Orleans for river and coastal fighting. In February 1862, the larger <a href="/wiki/CSS_Virginia" title="CSS Virginia">CSS <i>Virginia</i></a> joined the Confederate Navy, having been rebuilt at <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Naval_Shipyard" title="Norfolk Naval Shipyard">Norfolk</a>. Constructed on the hull of <a href="/wiki/USS_Merrimack_(1855)" title="USS Merrimack (1855)">USS <i>Merrimack</i></a>, <i>Virginia</i> originally was a conventional warship made of wood, but she was converted into an iron-covered <a href="/wiki/Casemate_ironclad" title="Casemate ironclad">casemate ironclad</a> gunship, when she entered the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate Navy">Confederate Navy</a>. By this time, the Union had completed seven ironclad gunboats of the <a href="/wiki/City-class_ironclad" title="City-class ironclad">City class</a>, and was about to complete <a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a>, an innovative design proposed by the Swedish inventor <a href="/wiki/John_Ericsson" title="John Ericsson">John Ericsson</a>. The Union was also building a large armored frigate, <a href="/wiki/USS_New_Ironsides" title="USS New Ironsides">USS <i>New Ironsides</i></a>, and the smaller <a href="/wiki/USS_Galena_(1862)" title="USS Galena (1862)">USS <i>Galena</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Atlanta%22_(Confederate_Ram)_on_James_River_after_capture_-_NARA_-_527533.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/%22Atlanta%22_%28Confederate_Ram%29_on_James_River_after_capture_-_NARA_-_527533.jpg/220px-%22Atlanta%22_%28Confederate_Ram%29_on_James_River_after_capture_-_NARA_-_527533.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/%22Atlanta%22_%28Confederate_Ram%29_on_James_River_after_capture_-_NARA_-_527533.jpg/330px-%22Atlanta%22_%28Confederate_Ram%29_on_James_River_after_capture_-_NARA_-_527533.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/%22Atlanta%22_%28Confederate_Ram%29_on_James_River_after_capture_-_NARA_-_527533.jpg/440px-%22Atlanta%22_%28Confederate_Ram%29_on_James_River_after_capture_-_NARA_-_527533.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2928" data-file-height="1852" /></a><figcaption>The Confederate ironclad <i>Atlanta</i> on the <a href="/wiki/James_River" title="James River">James River</a> in 1864–1865 after her capture by Union forces</figcaption></figure> <p>The first battle between ironclads happened on 9 March 1862, as the armored <i>Monitor</i> was deployed to protect the Union's wooden fleet from the ironclad ram <i>Virginia</i> and other Confederate warships.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this engagement, the second day of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">Battle of Hampton Roads</a>, the two ironclads tried to ram one another while shells bounced off their armor. The battle attracted attention worldwide, making it clear that the wooden warship was now out of date, with the ironclads destroying them easily.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Civil War saw more ironclads built by both sides, and they played an increasing role in the naval war alongside the unarmored warships, commerce raiders and blockade runners. The Union built a large fleet of fifty <a href="/wiki/Monitor_(warship)" title="Monitor (warship)">monitors</a> modeled on their namesake. The Confederacy built ships designed as smaller versions of <i>Virginia</i>, many of which saw action,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but their attempts to buy ironclads overseas were frustrated as European nations confiscated ships being built for the Confederacy – especially in Russia, the only country to openly support the Union through the war. Only <a href="/wiki/Japanese_ironclad_K%C5%8Dtetsu" title="Japanese ironclad Kōtetsu">CSS <i>Stonewall</i></a> was completed, and she arrived in Cuban waters just in time for the end of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through the remainder of the war, ironclads saw action in the Union's attacks on Confederate ports. Seven Union monitors, including <a href="/wiki/USS_Montauk_(1862)" title="USS Montauk (1862)">USS <i>Montauk</i></a>, as well as two other ironclads, the armored frigate <i>New Ironsides</i> and a light-draft <a href="/wiki/USS_Keokuk_(1862)" title="USS Keokuk (1862)">USS <i>Keokuk</i></a>, participated in the failed <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Charleston_Harbor" title="First Battle of Charleston Harbor">attack on Charleston</a>; one was sunk. Two small ironclads, <a href="/wiki/CSS_Palmetto_State" title="CSS Palmetto State">CSS <i>Palmetto State</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/CSS_Chicora" title="CSS Chicora">CSS <i>Chicora</i></a> participated in the defense of the harbor. For the later attack at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mobile_Bay" title="Battle of Mobile Bay">Mobile Bay</a>, the Union assembled four monitors as well as 11 wooden ships, facing the <a href="/wiki/CSS_Tennessee_(1863)" title="CSS Tennessee (1863)">CSS <i>Tennessee</i></a>, the Confederacy's most powerful ironclad, and three <a href="/wiki/Gunboat" title="Gunboat">gunboats</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ironclads_off_Cairo,_Illinois.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ironclads_off_Cairo%2C_Illinois.jpg/220px-Ironclads_off_Cairo%2C_Illinois.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ironclads_off_Cairo%2C_Illinois.jpg/330px-Ironclads_off_Cairo%2C_Illinois.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Ironclads_off_Cairo%2C_Illinois.jpg/440px-Ironclads_off_Cairo%2C_Illinois.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/City-class_ironclad" title="City-class ironclad">City-class</a> <a href="/wiki/Ironclad" class="mw-redirect" title="Ironclad">ironclads</a> off <a href="/wiki/Cairo,_Illinois" title="Cairo, Illinois">Cairo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>On the western front, the Union built a formidable force of river ironclads, beginning with several converted riverboats and then contracting engineer <a href="/wiki/James_Eads" class="mw-redirect" title="James Eads">James Eads</a> of <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> to build the City-class ironclads. These excellent ships were built with twin engines and a central paddle wheel, all protected by an armored casemate. They had a shallow draft, allowing them to journey up smaller tributaries, and were very well suited for river operations. Eads also produced monitors for use on the rivers, the first two of which differed from the ocean-going monitors in that they contained a paddle wheel (<a href="/wiki/USS_Neosho_(1863)" title="USS Neosho (1863)">USS <i>Neosho</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/USS_Osage_(1863)" title="USS Osage (1863)">USS <i>Osage</i></a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Union ironclads played an important role in the Mississippi and tributaries by providing tremendous fire upon Confederate forts, installations and vessels with relative impunity to enemy fire. They were not as heavily armored as the ocean-going monitors of the Union, but they were adequate for their intended use. More Western Flotilla Union ironclads were sunk by <a href="/wiki/Torpedo_(mine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Torpedo (mine)">torpedoes (mines)</a> than by enemy fire, and the most damaging fire for the Union ironclads was from shore installations, not Confederate vessels.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lissa:_first_fleet_battle">Lissa: first fleet battle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lissa: first fleet battle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lissa_-_1866_-_Initial_Situation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Battle_of_Lissa_-_1866_-_Initial_Situation.svg/220px-Battle_of_Lissa_-_1866_-_Initial_Situation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Battle_of_Lissa_-_1866_-_Initial_Situation.svg/330px-Battle_of_Lissa_-_1866_-_Initial_Situation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Battle_of_Lissa_-_1866_-_Initial_Situation.svg/440px-Battle_of_Lissa_-_1866_-_Initial_Situation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>The fleets engaging for the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lissa_(1866)" title="Battle of Lissa (1866)">Battle of Lissa</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first fleet battle, and the first ocean battle, involving ironclad warships was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lissa_(1866)" title="Battle of Lissa (1866)">Battle of Lissa</a> in 1866. Waged between the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regia_Marina" title="Regia Marina">Italian</a> navies, the battle pitted combined fleets of wooden <a href="/wiki/Frigate" title="Frigate">frigates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corvette" title="Corvette">corvettes</a> and ironclad warships on both sides in the largest naval battle between the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Navarino" title="Battle of Navarino">Navarino</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tsushima" title="Battle of Tsushima">Tsushima</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sondhaus_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sondhaus-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Italian fleet consisted of 12 ironclads and a similar number of wooden warships, escorting transports which carried troops intending to land on the Adriatic island of Lissa. Among the Italian ironclads were seven broadside ironclad frigates, four smaller ironclads, and the newly built <a href="/wiki/Italian_ironclad_Affondatore" title="Italian ironclad Affondatore"><i>Affondatore</i></a> – a double-turreted ram. Opposing them, the Austrian navy had seven ironclad frigates.<sup id="cite_ref-Sondhaus_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sondhaus-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Austrians believed their ships to have less effective guns than their enemy, so decided to engage the Italians at close range and ram them. The Austrian fleet formed into an arrowhead formation with the ironclads in the first line, charging at the Italian ironclad squadron. In the melée which followed both sides were frustrated by the lack of damage inflicted by guns, and by the difficulty of ramming—nonetheless, the effective ramming attack being made by the Austrian flagship against the Italian attracted great attention in following years.<sup id="cite_ref-Sondhaus_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sondhaus-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The superior Italian fleet lost its two ironclads, <a href="/wiki/Italian_ironclad_Re_d%27Italia" title="Italian ironclad Re d'Italia"><i>Re d'Italia</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_ironclad_Palestro" title="Italian ironclad Palestro"><i>Palestro</i></a>, while the Austrian unarmored screw two-decker <a href="/wiki/SMS_Kaiser_(1858)" title="SMS Kaiser (1858)">SMS <i>Kaiser</i></a> remarkably survived close actions with four Italian ironclads. The battle ensured the popularity of the ram as a weapon in European ironclads for many years, and the victory won by Austria established it as the predominant naval power in the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriatic">Adriatic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sondhaus_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sondhaus-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The battles of the American Civil War and at Lissa were very influential on the designs and tactics of the ironclad fleets that followed. In particular, it taught a generation of naval officers the (ultimately erroneous) lesson that ramming was the best way to sink enemy ironclads.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Armament_and_tactics">Armament and tactics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Armament and tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The adoption of iron armor meant that the traditional naval armament of dozens of light cannon became useless, since their shot would bounce off an armored hull. To penetrate armor, increasingly heavy guns were mounted on ships; nevertheless, the view that <a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">ramming</a> was the only way to sink an ironclad became widespread. The increasing size and weight of guns also meant a movement away from the ships mounting many guns broadside, in the manner of a ship-of-the-line, towards a handful of guns in turrets for all-round fire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ram_craze">Ram craze</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ram craze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punch_-_Over-Weighted.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Punch_-_Over-Weighted.png/220px-Punch_-_Over-Weighted.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Punch_-_Over-Weighted.png/330px-Punch_-_Over-Weighted.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Punch_-_Over-Weighted.png/440px-Punch_-_Over-Weighted.png 2x" data-file-width="2901" data-file-height="4042" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Punch_(magazine)" title="Punch (magazine)">Punch</a></i> cartoon from May 1876 showing <a href="/wiki/Britannia" title="Britannia">Britannia</a> dressed in the armor of an ironclad with the word <i>Inflexible</i> around her collar and addressing the sea god Neptune. Note the ram sticking out of Britannia's breast plate. The caption reads: OVER-WEIGHTED. Britannia. "Look here, Father Nep! I can't stand it much longer! Who's to 'rule the waves' in <i>this</i> sort of thing?"</figcaption></figure> <p>From the 1860s to the 1880s many naval designers believed that the <a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">ram</a> was again a vital weapon in naval warfare. With steam power freeing ships from the wind, iron construction increasing their structural strength, and armor making them invulnerable to shellfire, the ram seemed to offer the opportunity to strike a decisive blow.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_WtD_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown_WtD-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The scant damage inflicted by the guns of <i>Monitor</i> and <i>Virginia</i> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">Hampton Roads</a> and the spectacular but lucky success of the Austrian flagship <a href="/wiki/SMS_Erzherzog_Ferdinand_Max_(1865)" title="SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max (1865)">SMS <i>Erzherzog Ferdinand Max</i></a> sinking the Italian <a href="/wiki/Italian_ironclad_Re_d%27Italia" title="Italian ironclad Re d'Italia"><i>Re d'Italia</i></a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lissa_(1866)" title="Battle of Lissa (1866)">Lissa</a> gave strength to the ramming craze.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the early 1870s to early 1880s most British naval officers thought that guns were about to be replaced as the main naval armament by the ram. Those who noted the tiny number of ships that had actually been sunk by ramming struggled to be heard.<sup id="cite_ref-Beeler_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beeler-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The revival of ramming had a significant effect on naval tactics. Since the 17th century the predominant tactic of naval warfare had been the <a href="/wiki/Line_of_battle" title="Line of battle">line of battle</a>, where a fleet formed a long line to give it the best fire from its <a href="/wiki/Broadside_(naval)" title="Broadside (naval)">broadside</a> guns. This tactic was totally unsuited to ramming, and the ram threw fleet tactics into disarray. The question of how an ironclad fleet should deploy in battle to make best use of the ram was never tested in battle, and if it had been, combat might have shown that rams could only be used against ships which were already stopped dead in the water.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ram finally fell out of favor in the 1880s, as the same effect could be achieved with a <a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">torpedo</a>, with less vulnerability to quick-firing guns.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_naval_guns">Development of naval guns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Development of naval guns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Warrior_110lb_BL.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/HMS_Warrior_110lb_BL.png/170px-HMS_Warrior_110lb_BL.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/HMS_Warrior_110lb_BL.png/255px-HMS_Warrior_110lb_BL.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/HMS_Warrior_110lb_BL.png/340px-HMS_Warrior_110lb_BL.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Breech-loading 110-pounder <a href="/wiki/Armstrong_gun" title="Armstrong gun">Armstrong gun</a> on HMS <i>Warrior</i></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RML_16_inch_gun_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/RML_16_inch_gun_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg/220px-RML_16_inch_gun_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/RML_16_inch_gun_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg/330px-RML_16_inch_gun_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/RML_16_inch_gun_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg/440px-RML_16_inch_gun_Clowes_Vol_VII.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1194" data-file-height="606" /></a><figcaption>The reloading mechanism onboard HMS <i>Inflexible</i></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Culasse_systeme_De_Bange_before_1923.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Culasse_systeme_De_Bange_before_1923.jpg/220px-Culasse_systeme_De_Bange_before_1923.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Culasse_systeme_De_Bange_before_1923.jpg/330px-Culasse_systeme_De_Bange_before_1923.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Culasse_systeme_De_Bange_before_1923.jpg/440px-Culasse_systeme_De_Bange_before_1923.jpg 2x" data-file-width="948" data-file-height="991" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Obturating_ring" title="Obturating ring">obturator</a> invented by de Bange allowed the effective sealing of breeches in breech-loading guns</figcaption></figure> <p>The armament of ironclads tended to become concentrated in a small number of powerful guns capable of penetrating the armor of enemy ships at range; <a href="/wiki/Caliber" title="Caliber">calibre</a> and weight of guns increased markedly to achieve greater penetration. Throughout the ironclad era navies also grappled with the complexities of <a href="/wiki/Rifling" title="Rifling">rifled</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Smoothbore" title="Smoothbore">smoothbore</a> guns and <a href="/wiki/Breech-loading" class="mw-redirect" title="Breech-loading">breech-loading</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Muzzle-loading" class="mw-redirect" title="Muzzle-loading">muzzle-loading</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/HMS_Warrior_(1860)" title="HMS Warrior (1860)">HMS <i>Warrior</i></a> carried a mixture of <a href="/wiki/RBL_7_inch_Armstrong_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="RBL 7 inch Armstrong gun">110-pounder 7-inch (178 mm) breech-loading rifles</a> and more traditional <a href="/wiki/68-pounder" class="mw-redirect" title="68-pounder">68-pounder</a> smoothbore guns. <i>Warrior</i> highlighted the challenges of picking the right armament; the breech-loaders she carried, designed by <a href="/wiki/William_George_Armstrong,_1st_Baron_Armstrong" class="mw-redirect" title="William George Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong">Sir William Armstrong</a>, were intended to be the next generation of heavy armament for the Royal Navy, but were shortly withdrawn from service.<sup id="cite_ref-Beeler-71_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beeler-71-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Breech-loading guns seemed to offer important advantages. A breech-loader could be reloaded without moving the gun, a lengthy process particularly if the gun then needed to be re-aimed. <i>Warrior</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s <a href="/wiki/Armstrong_gun" title="Armstrong gun">Armstrong guns</a> also had the virtue of being lighter than an equivalent smoothbore and, because of their rifling, more accurate.<sup id="cite_ref-Beeler-71_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beeler-71-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, the design was rejected because of problems which plagued breech-loaders for decades.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The weakness of the breech-loader was the obvious problem of sealing the breech. All guns are powered by the explosive conversion of a solid <a href="/wiki/Propellant" title="Propellant">propellant</a> into gas. This explosion propels the shot or shell out of the front of the gun, but also imposes great stresses on the gun-barrel. If the breech—which experiences some of the greatest forces in the gun—is not entirely secure, then there is a risk that either gas will discharge through the breech or that the breech will break. This in turn reduces the <a href="/wiki/Muzzle_velocity" title="Muzzle velocity">muzzle velocity</a> of the weapon and can also endanger the gun crew. <i>Warrior</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s Armstrong guns suffered from both problems; the shells were unable to penetrate the 4.5-inch (114 mm) armor of <i>Gloire</i>, while sometimes the screw which closed the breech flew backwards out of the gun on firing. Similar problems were experienced with the breech-loading guns which became standard in the French and German navies.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These problems influenced the British to equip ships with muzzle-loading weapons of increasing power until the 1880s. After a brief introduction of the 100-pounder or 9.2-inch (230 mm) smoothbore <a href="/wiki/Somerset_cannon" title="Somerset cannon">Somerset Gun</a>, which weighed 6.5 long tons (6.6 t), the Admiralty introduced 7-inch (178 mm) rifled guns, weighing 7 long tons (7 t). These were followed by a series of increasingly mammoth weapons—guns weighing 12 long tons (12 t), 18 long tons (18 t), 25 long tons (25 t), 38 long tons (39 t) and finally 81 long tons (82 t), with <a href="/wiki/Caliber" title="Caliber">caliber</a> increasing from 8 inches (203 mm) to 16 inches (406 mm).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The decision to retain muzzle-loaders until the 1880s has been criticized by historians. However, at least until the late 1870s, the British muzzle-loaders had superior performance in terms of both range and rate of fire than the French and Prussian breech-loaders, which suffered from the same problems as the first Armstrong guns.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1875 onwards, the balance between breech- and muzzle-loading changed. Captain <a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9rand_de_Bange" class="mw-redirect" title="Valérand de Bange">de Bange</a> invented a method of reliably sealing a breech, adopted by the French in 1873. Just as compellingly, the growing size of naval guns and consequently, their ammunition, made muzzle-loading much more complicated. With guns of such size there was no prospect of hauling in the gun for reloading, or even reloading by hand, and complicated hydraulic systems were required for reloading the gun outside the turret without exposing the crew to enemy fire. In 1882, the 81-ton, 16-inch guns of <a href="/wiki/HMS_Inflexible_(1876)" title="HMS Inflexible (1876)">HMS <i>Inflexible</i></a> fired only once every 11 minutes while bombarding <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Urabi_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Urabi Revolt">Urabi Revolt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 102-long-ton (104 t), 450 mm (17.72 inch) guns of the <a href="/wiki/Duilio-class_ironclad" title="Duilio-class ironclad"><i>Duilio</i> class</a> could each fire a round every 15 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Royal Navy, the switch to breech-loaders was finally made in 1879; as well as the significant advantages in terms of performance, opinion was swayed by an explosion on board <a href="/wiki/HMS_Thunderer_(1872)" title="HMS Thunderer (1872)">HMS <i>Thunderer</i></a> caused by a gun being double-loaded, a problem which could only happen with a muzzle-loading gun.<sup id="cite_ref-Roberts_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roberts-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The caliber and weight of guns could only increase so far. The larger the gun, the slower it would be to load, the greater the stresses on the ship's hull, and the less the stability of the ship. The size of the gun peaked in the 1880s, with some of the heaviest calibers of gun ever used at sea. <a href="/wiki/HMS_Benbow_(1885)" title="HMS Benbow (1885)">HMS <i>Benbow</i></a> carried two <a href="/wiki/BL_16.25_inch_Mk_I_naval_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="BL 16.25 inch Mk I naval gun">16.25-inch (413 mm) breech-loading guns</a>, each weighing 110 long tons (112 t). A few years afterwards, the Italians used 450 mm (17.72 inch) muzzle-loading guns on the <i>Duilio</i> class ships.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One consideration which became more acute was that even from the original Armstrong models, following the Crimean War, range and hitting power far exceeded simple accuracy, especially at sea where the slightest roll or pitch of the vessel as 'floating weapons-platform' could negate the advantage of rifling. American ordnance experts accordingly preferred smoothbore monsters whose round shot could at least 'skip' along the surface of the water. Actual effective combat ranges, they had learned during the Civil War, were comparable to those in the Age of Sail—though a vessel could now be smashed to pieces in only a few rounds. Smoke and the general chaos of battle only added to the problem. As a result, many naval engagements in the 'Age of the Ironclad' were still fought at ranges within easy eyesight of their targets, and well below the maximum reach of their ships' guns.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Another method of increasing firepower was to vary the projectile fired or the nature of the propellant. Early ironclads used <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">black powder</a>, which expanded rapidly after combustion; this meant <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a> had relatively short barrels, to prevent the barrel itself slowing the shell. The sharpness of the black powder explosion also meant that guns were subjected to extreme stress. One important step was to press the powder into pellets, allowing a slower, more controlled explosion and a longer barrel. A further step forward was the introduction of chemically different <a href="/wiki/Brown_powder" title="Brown powder">brown powder</a> which combusted more slowly again. It also put less stress on the insides of the barrel, allowing guns to last longer and to be manufactured to tighter tolerances.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The development of <a href="/wiki/Smokeless_powder" title="Smokeless powder">smokeless powder</a>, based on nitroglycerine or nitrocellulose, by the French inventor <a href="/wiki/Paul_Marie_Eug%C3%A8ne_Vieille" title="Paul Marie Eugène Vieille">Paul Vielle</a> in 1884 was a further step allowing smaller charges of propellant with longer barrels. The guns of the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Dreadnought_battleship" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Dreadnought battleship">pre-Dreadnought battleships</a> of the 1890s tended to be smaller in caliber compared to the ships of the 1880s, most often 12 in (305 mm), but progressively grew in length of barrel, making use of improved propellants to gain greater muzzle velocity.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The nature of the projectiles also changed during the ironclad period. Initially, the best armor-piercing projectile was a solid cast-iron shot. Later, shot of <a href="/wiki/Chill_(foundry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chill (foundry)">chilled iron</a>, a harder iron alloy, gave better armor-piercing qualities. Eventually the <a href="/wiki/Armor-piercing_shot_and_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Armor-piercing shot and shell">armor-piercing shell</a> was developed.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positioning_of_armament">Positioning of armament</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Positioning of armament"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Broadside_ironclads">Broadside ironclads</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Broadside ironclads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Broadside"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMs_warrior1860gundeck.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/HMs_warrior1860gundeck.JPG/220px-HMs_warrior1860gundeck.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/HMs_warrior1860gundeck.JPG/330px-HMs_warrior1860gundeck.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/HMs_warrior1860gundeck.JPG/440px-HMs_warrior1860gundeck.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>The conventional <a href="/wiki/Broadside_(naval)" title="Broadside (naval)">broadside</a> of <a href="/wiki/68-pounder" class="mw-redirect" title="68-pounder">68-pounders</a> on <a href="/wiki/HMS_Warrior_(1860)" title="HMS Warrior (1860)">HMS <i>Warrior</i></a> of 1860</figcaption></figure> <p>The first British, French and Russian ironclads, in a logical development of warship design from the long preceding era of wooden <a href="/wiki/Ship_of_the_line" title="Ship of the line">ships of the line</a>, carried their weapons in a single line along their sides and so were called "<a href="/wiki/Broadside_(naval)" title="Broadside (naval)">broadside</a> ironclads".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ConwaysBroadside_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ConwaysBroadside-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both <a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Gloire" title="French ironclad Gloire"><i>Gloire</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Warrior_(1860)" title="HMS Warrior (1860)">HMS <i>Warrior</i></a> were examples of this type. Because their armor was so heavy, they could only carry a single row of guns along the main deck on each side rather than a row on each deck.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A significant number of broadside ironclads were built in the 1860s, principally in Britain and France, but in smaller numbers by other powers including Italy, Austria, Russia and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-ConwaysBroadside_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ConwaysBroadside-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advantages of mounting guns on both broadsides was that the ship could engage more than one adversary at a time, and the rigging did not impede the field of fire.<sup id="cite_ref-Beeler-91_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beeler-91-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Broadside armament also had disadvantages, which became more serious as ironclad technology developed. Heavier guns to penetrate ever-thicker armor meant that fewer guns could be carried. Furthermore, the adoption of ramming as an important tactic meant the need for ahead and all-round fire.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These problems led to broadside designs being superseded by designs that gave greater all-round fire, which included central-battery, turret, and barbette designs.<sup id="cite_ref-Beeler-91_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beeler-91-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Turrets,_batteries,_and_barbettes"><span id="Turrets.2C_batteries.2C_and_barbettes"></span>Turrets, batteries, and barbettes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Turrets, batteries, and barbettes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Redoutable-barbette.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Redoutable-barbette.jpg/220px-Redoutable-barbette.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Redoutable-barbette.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="253" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Barbette" title="Barbette">barbette</a> of <a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Redoutable" title="French ironclad Redoutable"><i>Redoutable</i></a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Vauban_(cuirass%C3%A9).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Le_Vauban_%28cuirass%C3%A9%29.jpg/220px-Le_Vauban_%28cuirass%C3%A9%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Le_Vauban_%28cuirass%C3%A9%29.jpg/330px-Le_Vauban_%28cuirass%C3%A9%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Le_Vauban_%28cuirass%C3%A9%29.jpg/440px-Le_Vauban_%28cuirass%C3%A9%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2607" data-file-height="1853" /></a><figcaption>Barbette of the <a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Vauban" title="French ironclad Vauban"><i>Vauban</i></a></figcaption></figure> <p>There were two main design alternatives to the broadside. In one design, the guns were placed in an armored casemate amidships: this arrangement was called the 'box-battery' or 'center-battery'. In the other, the guns could be placed on a rotating platform to give them a broad field of fire; when fully armored, this arrangement was called a <a href="/wiki/Gun_turret" title="Gun turret">turret</a> and when partially armored or unarmored, a <a href="/wiki/Barbette" title="Barbette">barbette</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Central_battery_ship" title="Central battery ship">centre-battery</a> was the simpler and, during the 1860s and 1870s, the more popular method. Concentrating guns amidships meant the ship could be shorter and handier than a broadside type. The first full-scale center-battery ship was <a href="/wiki/HMS_Bellerophon_(1865)" title="HMS Bellerophon (1865)">HMS <i>Bellerophon</i></a> of 1865; the French laid down centre-battery ironclads in 1865 which were not completed until 1870. Centre-battery ships often, but not always, had a recessed freeboard enabling some of their guns to fire directly ahead.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The turret was first used in naval combat on <a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a> in 1862, with a type of turret designed by the Swedish engineer <a href="/wiki/John_Ericsson" title="John Ericsson">John Ericsson</a>. A competing turret design was proposed by the British inventor <a href="/wiki/Cowper_Coles" class="mw-redirect" title="Cowper Coles">Cowper Coles</a> with a prototype of this installed on <a href="/wiki/Aetna-class_ironclad_floating_battery" title="Aetna-class ironclad floating battery">HMS <i>Trusty</i></a> in 1861 for testing and evaluation purposes. Ericsson's turret turned on a central spindle, and Coles's turned on a ring of bearings.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turrets offered the maximum arc of fire from the guns, but there were significant problems with their use in the 1860s. The fire arc of a turret would be considerably limited by masts and rigging, so they were unsuited to use on the earlier ocean-going ironclads. The second problem was that turrets were extremely heavy. Ericsson was able to offer the heaviest possible turret (guns and armor protection) by deliberately designing a ship with very low <a href="/wiki/Freeboard" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeboard">freeboard</a>. The weight thus saved from having a high broadside above the waterline was diverted to actual guns and armor. Low freeboard, however, also meant a smaller hull and therefore a smaller capacity for coal storage—and therefore range of the vessel. In many respects, the turreted, low-freeboard <i>Monitor</i> and the broadside sailor HMS <i>Warrior</i> represented two opposite extremes in what an 'Ironclad' was all about. The most dramatic attempt to compromise these two extremes, or 'squaring this circle', was designed by Captain Cowper Phipps Coles: <a href="/wiki/HMS_Captain_(1869)" title="HMS Captain (1869)">HMS <i>Captain</i></a>. It was a dangerously low freeboard turret ship, which nevertheless carried a full rig of sail and subsequently capsized not long after her launch in 1870. Her half-sister <a href="/wiki/HMS_Monarch_(1868)" title="HMS Monarch (1868)">HMS <i>Monarch</i></a> was restricted to firing from her turrets only on the port and starboard beams. The third Royal Navy ship to combine turrets and masts was <a href="/wiki/HMS_Inflexible_(1876)" title="HMS Inflexible (1876)">HMS <i>Inflexible</i></a> of 1876, which carried two turrets on either side of the center-line, allowing both to fire fore, aft and broadside.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A lighter alternative to the turret, particularly popular with the French navy, was the barbette. These were fixed armored towers which held a gun on a turntable. The crew was sheltered from direct fire, but vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Plunging_fire" title="Plunging fire">plunging fire</a>, for instance from shore emplacements. The barbette was lighter than the turret, needing less machinery and no roof armor. Some barbettes were stripped of their armor plate to reduce the top-weight of their ships. The barbette became widely adopted in the 1880s, and with the addition of an armored 'gun-house', transformed into the turrets of the pre-dreadnought battleships.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Torpedoes">Torpedoes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Torpedoes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ironclad age saw the development of explosive <a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">torpedoes</a> as naval weapons, which helped complicate the design and tactics of ironclad fleets. The first torpedoes were static <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">mines</a>, used extensively in the American Civil War. That conflict also saw the development of the <a href="/wiki/Spar_torpedo" title="Spar torpedo">spar torpedo</a>, an explosive charge pushed against the hull of a warship by a small boat. For the first time, a large warship faced a serious threat from a smaller one—and given the relative inefficiency of shellfire against ironclads, the threat from the spar torpedo was taken seriously. The U.S. Navy converted four of its monitors to become turretless armored spar-torpedo vessels while under construction in 1864–1865, but these vessels never saw action.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another proposal, the towed or 'Harvey' torpedo, involved an explosive on a line or outrigger; either to deter a ship from ramming or to make a torpedo attack by a boat less suicidal.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A more practical and influential weapon was the self-propelled or <a href="/wiki/Whitehead_torpedo" title="Whitehead torpedo">Whitehead torpedo</a>. Invented in 1868 and deployed in the 1870s, it formed part of the armament of ironclads of the 1880s like HMS <i>Inflexible</i> and the Italian <a href="/wiki/Duilio-class_ironclad" title="Duilio-class ironclad"><i>Duilio</i> class</a>. The ironclad's vulnerability to the torpedo was a key part of the critique of armored warships made by the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Jeune_Ecole" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeune Ecole">Jeune Ecole</a></i></span> school of naval thought; it appeared that any ship armored enough to prevent destruction by gunfire would be slow enough to be easily caught by torpedo. In practice, however, the <i>Jeune Ecole</i> was only briefly influential and the torpedo formed part of the confusing mixture of weapons possessed by ironclads.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Armor_and_construction">Armor and construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Armor and construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LeRedoutablePhoto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/LeRedoutablePhoto.jpg/220px-LeRedoutablePhoto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/LeRedoutablePhoto.jpg/330px-LeRedoutablePhoto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/LeRedoutablePhoto.jpg/440px-LeRedoutablePhoto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="385" /></a><figcaption>The French <a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Redoutable" title="French ironclad Redoutable"><i>Redoutable</i></a> (1876), the first battleship to use steel as the main building material</figcaption></figure> <p>The first ironclads were built on wooden or iron hulls, and protected by wrought iron armor backed by thick wooden planking. Ironclads were still being built with wooden hulls into the 1870s.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hulls:_iron,_wood,_and_steel"><span id="Hulls:_iron.2C_wood.2C_and_steel"></span>Hulls: iron, wood, and steel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Hulls: iron, wood, and steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Using <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> construction for warships offered advantages for the engineering of the hull. However, unarmored iron had many military disadvantages, and offered technical problems which kept wooden hulls in use for many years, particularly for long-range cruising warships.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Iron ships had first been proposed for military use in the 1820s. In the 1830s and 1840s, France, Britain and the United States had all experimented with iron-hulled but unarmored gunboats and frigates. However, the iron-hulled frigate was abandoned by the end of the 1840s, because iron hulls were more vulnerable to solid shot; iron was more brittle than wood, and iron frames more likely to fall out of shape than wood.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The unsuitability of unarmored iron for warship hulls meant that iron was only adopted as a building material for battleships when protected by armor. However, iron gave the naval architect many advantages. Iron allowed larger ships and more flexible design, for instance the use of watertight bulkheads on the lower decks. <i>Warrior</i>, built of iron, was longer and faster than the wooden-hulled <i>Gloire</i>. Iron could be produced to order and used immediately, in contrast to the need to give wood a long period of <a href="/wiki/Seasoning_(wood)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasoning (wood)">seasoning</a>. And, given the large quantities of wood required to build a steam warship and the falling cost of iron, iron hulls were increasingly cost-effective. The main reason for the French use of wooden hulls for the ironclad fleet built in the 1860s was that the French iron industry could not supply enough, and the main reason why Britain built its handful of wooden-hulled ironclads was to make best use of hulls already started and wood already bought.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wooden hulls continued to be used for long-range and smaller ironclads, because iron nevertheless had a significant disadvantage. Iron hulls suffered quick <a href="/wiki/Fouling" title="Fouling">fouling</a> by marine life, slowing the ships down—manageable for a European battlefleet close to <a href="/wiki/Dry_dock" title="Dry dock">dry docks</a>, but a difficulty for long-range ships. The only solution was to sheath the iron hull first in wood and then in copper, a laborious and expensive process which made wooden construction remain attractive.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iron and wood were to some extent interchangeable: the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Japanese_ironclad_Kong%C5%8D" title="Japanese ironclad Kongō"><i>Kongō</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_ironclad_Hiei" title="Japanese ironclad Hiei"><i>Hiei</i></a> ordered in 1875 were <a href="/wiki/Sister_ship" title="Sister ship">sister-ships</a>, but one was built of iron and the other of composite construction.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After 1872, steel started to be introduced as a material for construction. Compared to iron, <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> allows for greater structural strength for a lower weight. The French Navy led the way with the use of steel in its fleet, starting with the <a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Redoutable" title="French ironclad Redoutable"><i>Redoutable</i></a>, laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Redoutable</i> nonetheless had wrought iron armor plate, and part of her exterior hull was iron rather than steel.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Even though Britain led the world in steel production, the Royal Navy was slow to adopt steel warships. The <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a> for steel manufacture produced too many imperfections for large-scale use on ships. French manufacturers used the <a href="/wiki/Siemens-Martin_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Siemens-Martin process">Siemens-Martin process</a> to produce adequate steel, but British technology lagged behind.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first all-steel warships built by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> were the dispatch vessels <a href="/wiki/Iris-class_cruiser" title="Iris-class cruiser"><i>Iris</i> and <i>Mercury</i></a>, laid down in 1875 and 1876.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armor_and_protection_schemes">Armor and protection schemes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Armor and protection schemes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Warrior_(1860)_bulkhead_armour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/HMS_Warrior_%281860%29_bulkhead_armour.jpg/220px-HMS_Warrior_%281860%29_bulkhead_armour.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/HMS_Warrior_%281860%29_bulkhead_armour.jpg/330px-HMS_Warrior_%281860%29_bulkhead_armour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/HMS_Warrior_%281860%29_bulkhead_armour.jpg/440px-HMS_Warrior_%281860%29_bulkhead_armour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2860" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>The iron-and-wood armor of <a href="/wiki/HMS_Warrior_(1860)" title="HMS Warrior (1860)"><i>Warrior</i></a></figcaption></figure> <p>Iron-built ships used wood as part of their protection scheme. HMS <i>Warrior</i> was protected by 4.5 in (114 mm) of <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> backed by 15 in (381 mm) of <a href="/wiki/Teak" title="Teak">teak</a>, the strongest shipbuilding wood. The wood played two roles, preventing <a href="/wiki/Spalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Spalling">spalling</a> and also preventing the shock of a hit damaging the structure of the ship. Later, wood and iron were combined in 'sandwich' armor, for instance in HMS <i>Inflexible</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Steel was also an obvious material for armor. It was tested in the 1860s, but the steel of the time was too <a href="/wiki/Brittle" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittle">brittle</a> and disintegrated when struck by shells. Steel became practical to use when a way was found to fuse steel onto wrought iron plates, giving a form of <a href="/wiki/Compound_armor" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound armor">compound armor</a>. This compound armor was used by the British in ships built from the late 1870s, first for turret armor (starting with HMS <i>Inflexible</i>) and then for all armor (starting with <a href="/wiki/HMS_Colossus_(1882)" title="HMS Colossus (1882)">HMS <i>Colossus</i></a> of 1882).<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French and German navies adopted the innovation almost immediately, with licenses being given for the use of the 'Wilson System' of producing fused armor.<sup id="cite_ref-Sondhaus_164-5_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sondhaus_164-5-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first ironclads to have all-steel armor were the two ships of the <i>Duilio</i> class. Though the ships were laid down in 1873 their armor was not purchased from France until 1877. The French navy decided in 1880 to adopt compound armor for its fleet, but found it limited in supply, so from 1884 the French navy was using steel armor.<sup id="cite_ref-Sondhaus_164-5_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sondhaus_164-5-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain stuck to compound armor until 1889.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The ultimate ironclad armor was <a href="/wiki/Case_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Case hardening">case hardened</a> nickel-steel. In 1890, the U.S. Navy tested steel armor hardened by the <a href="/wiki/Harvey_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvey process">Harvey process</a> and found it superior to compound armor. For several years 'Harvey steel' was the state of the art, produced in the U.S., France, Germany, Britain, Austria and Italy. In 1894, the German firm <a href="/wiki/Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Krupp_armour" title="Krupp armour">gas cementing</a>, which further hardened steel armor. The German <a href="/wiki/SMS_Kaiser_Friedrich_III" title="SMS Kaiser Friedrich III"><i>Kaiser Friedrich III</i></a>, laid down in 1895, was the first ship to benefit from the new 'Krupp armor' and the new armor was quickly adopted; the Royal Navy using it from <a href="/wiki/HMS_Canopus_(1897)" title="HMS Canopus (1897)">HMS <i>Canopus</i></a>, laid down in 1896. By 1901 almost all new battleships used Krupp armor, though the U.S. continued to use Harvey armor alongside until the end of the decade.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The equivalent strengths of the different armor plates was as follows: 15 in (381 mm) of wrought iron was equivalent to 12 in (305 mm) of either plain steel or compound iron and steel armor, and to 7.75 in (197 mm) of Harvey armor or 5.75 in (146 mm) of Krupp armor.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ironclad construction also prefigured the later debate in battleship design between tapering and 'all-or-nothing' armor design. <i>Warrior</i> was only semi-armored, and could have been disabled by hits on the bow and stern.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the thickness of armor grew to protect ships from the increasingly heavy guns, the area of the ship which could be fully protected diminished. <i>Inflexible</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s armor protection was largely limited to the central citadel amidships, protecting boilers and engines, turrets and magazines, and little else. An ingenious arrangement of cork-filled compartments and watertight bulkheads was intended to keep her stable and afloat in the event of damage to her un-armored sections.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Propulsion:_steam_and_sail">Propulsion: steam and sail</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Propulsion: steam and sail"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gloire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Gloire.jpg/220px-Gloire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Gloire.jpg/330px-Gloire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Gloire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="232" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Gloire" title="French ironclad Gloire"><i>Gloire</i></a> under sail</figcaption></figure> <p>The first ocean-going ironclads carried masts and sails like their wooden predecessors, and these features were only gradually abandoned. Early steam engines were inefficient; the wooden steam fleet of the Royal Navy could only carry "5 to 9 days coal",<sup id="cite_ref-Beeler-54_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beeler-54-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the situation was similar with the early ironclads. <i>Warrior</i> also illustrates two design features which aided hybrid propulsion; she had retractable screws to reduce drag while under sail (though in practice the steam engine was run at a low throttle), and a telescopic funnel which could be folded down to the deck level.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arrogante_1864.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Arrogante_1864.jpg/220px-Arrogante_1864.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Arrogante_1864.jpg/330px-Arrogante_1864.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Arrogante_1864.jpg/440px-Arrogante_1864.jpg 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="712" /></a><figcaption>French armored <a href="/wiki/Floating_battery" title="Floating battery">floating battery</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=French_ship_Arrogante_(1864)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French ship Arrogante (1864) (page does not exist)"><i>Arrogante</i> (1864)</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Ships designed for coastal warfare, like the floating batteries of the Crimea, or <a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a> and her sisters, dispensed with masts from the beginning. The British <a href="/wiki/HMS_Devastation_(1871)" title="HMS Devastation (1871)">HMS <i>Devastation</i></a>, started in 1869, was the first large, ocean-going ironclad to dispense with masts. Her principal role was for combat in the English Channel and other European waters; while her coal supplies gave her enough range to cross the Atlantic, she would have had little endurance on the other side of the ocean. The <i>Devastation</i> and the similar ships commissioned by the British and Russian navies in the 1870s were the exception rather than the rule. Most ironclads of the 1870s retained masts, and only the Italian navy, which during that decade was focused on short-range operations in the Adriatic,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> built consistently mastless ironclads.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1860s, steam engines improved with the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine#Compound_engines" title="Steam engine">double-expansion</a> steam engines, which used 30–40% less coal than earlier models. The Royal Navy decided to switch to the double-expansion engine in 1871, and by 1875 they were widespread. However, this development alone was not enough to herald the end of the mast. Whether this was due to a conservative desire to retain sails, or was a rational response to the operational and strategic situation, is a matter of debate. A steam-only fleet would require a network of coaling stations worldwide, which would need to be fortified at great expense to stop them falling into enemy hands. Just as significantly, because of unsolved problems with the technology of the boilers which provided steam for the engines, the performance of double-expansion engines was rarely as good in practice as it was in theory.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Inflexible_(1881).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/HMS_Inflexible_%281881%29.jpg/220px-HMS_Inflexible_%281881%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/HMS_Inflexible_%281881%29.jpg/330px-HMS_Inflexible_%281881%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/HMS_Inflexible_%281881%29.jpg/440px-HMS_Inflexible_%281881%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/HMS_Inflexible_(1876)" title="HMS Inflexible (1876)">HMS <i>Inflexible</i></a>, after the replacement of her sailing masts with <a href="/wiki/Military_mast" class="mw-redirect" title="Military mast">military masts</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the 1870s the distinction grew between 'first-class ironclads' or 'battleships' on the one hand, and 'cruising ironclads' designed for long-range work on the other. The demands on first-class ironclads for very heavy armor and armament meant increasing displacement, which reduced speed under sail; and the fashion for turrets and barbettes made a sailing rig increasingly inconvenient. <a href="/wiki/HMS_Inflexible_(1876)" title="HMS Inflexible (1876)">HMS <i>Inflexible</i></a>, launched in 1876 but not commissioned until 1881, was the last British battleship to carry masts, and these were widely seen as a mistake. The start of the 1880s saw the end of sailing rig on ironclad battleships.<sup id="cite_ref-Beeler-54_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beeler-54-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sails persisted on 'cruising ironclads' for much longer. During the 1860s, the French navy had produced the <a href="/wiki/Alma-class_ironclad" title="Alma-class ironclad"><i>Alma</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/La_Galissonni%C3%A8re-class_ironclad" title="La Galissonnière-class ironclad"><i>La Galissonnière</i> classes</a> as small, long-range ironclads as overseas cruisers<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the British had responded with ships like <a href="/wiki/HMS_Swiftsure_(1870)" title="HMS Swiftsure (1870)">HMS <i>Swiftsure</i></a> of 1870. The Russian ship <a href="/wiki/Russian_cruiser_General-Admiral" title="Russian cruiser General-Admiral"><i>General-Admiral</i></a>, laid down in 1870 and completed in 1875, was a model of a fast, long-range ironclad which was likely to be able to outrun and outfight ships like <i>Swiftsure</i>. Even the later <a href="/wiki/HMS_Shannon_(1875)" title="HMS Shannon (1875)">HMS <i>Shannon</i></a>, often described as the first British armored cruiser, would have been too slow to outrun <i>General-Admiral</i>. While <i>Shannon</i> was the last British ship with a retractable propeller, later armored cruisers of the 1870s retained sailing rig, sacrificing speed under steam in consequence. It took until 1881 for the Royal Navy to lay down a long-range armored warship capable of catching enemy commerce raiders, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Warspite_(1884)" title="HMS Warspite (1884)">HMS <i>Warspite</i></a>, which was completed in 1888.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While sailing rigs were obsolescent for all purposes by the end of the 1880s, rigged ships were in service until the early years of the 20th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The final evolution of ironclad propulsion was the adoption of the triple-expansion steam engine, a further refinement which was first adopted in <a href="/wiki/HMS_Sans_Pareil_(1887)" title="HMS Sans Pareil (1887)">HMS <i>Sans Pareil</i></a>, laid down in 1885 and commissioned in 1891. Many ships also used a <a href="/wiki/Forced_draught" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced draught">forced draught</a> to get additional power from their engines, and this system was widely used until the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> in the middle of the first decade of the Twentieth Century.<sup id="cite_ref-Machinery_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Machinery-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fleets">Fleets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Fleets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While ironclads spread rapidly in navies worldwide, there were few pitched naval battles involving ironclads. Most European nations settled differences on land, and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> struggled to maintain a deterrent parity with at least France, while providing suitable protection to Britain's commerce and colonial outposts worldwide. Ironclads remained, for the British Royal Navy, a matter of defending the British Isles first and projecting power abroad second. Those naval engagements of the latter half of the 19th century which involved ironclads normally involved colonial actions or clashes between second-rate naval powers. But these encounters were often enough to convince British policy-makers of the increasing hazards of strictly naval foreign intervention, from Hampton Roads in the American Civil War to the hardening combined defences of naval arsenals such as Kronstadt and Cherbourg.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There were many types of ironclads:<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Seagoing ships intended to "stand in the line of battle"; the precursors of the <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleship</a><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Coastal service and riverine vessels, including <a href="/wiki/Floating_battery" title="Floating battery">'floating batteries'</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monitor_(warship)" title="Monitor (warship)">'monitors'</a></li> <li>Vessels intended for <a href="/wiki/Commerce_raiding" title="Commerce raiding">commerce raiding</a> or protection of commerce, called <a href="/wiki/Armoured_cruiser" class="mw-redirect" title="Armoured cruiser">"armored cruisers"</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navies">Navies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Navies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United Kingdom possessed the largest navy in the world for the whole of the ironclad period. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> was the second to adopt ironclad warships, and it applied them worldwide in their whole range of roles. In the age of sail, the British strategy for war depended on the Royal Navy mounting a blockade of the ports of the enemy. Because of the limited endurance of steamships, this was no longer possible, so the British at times considered the risk-laden plan of engaging an enemy fleet in harbor as soon as war broke out. To this end, the Royal Navy developed a series of 'coast-defense battleships', starting with the <i>Devastation</i> class. These '<a href="/wiki/Monitor_(warship)" title="Monitor (warship)">breastwork monitors</a>' were markedly different from the other high-seas ironclads of the period and were an important precursor of the modern battleship.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As long-range monitors they could reach Bermuda unescorted, for example. However, they were still armed with only four heavy guns and were as vulnerable to mines and obstructions (and enemy monitors) as the original monitors of the Union Navy proved to be during the Civil War.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The British prepared for an overwhelming mortar bombardment of Kronstadt by the close of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War#Baltic_theatre" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, but never considered running the smoke-ridden, shallow-water gauntlet straight to St. Petersburg with ironclads. Likewise, monitors proved acutely unable to 'overwhelm' enemy fortifications single-handed during the American conflict, though their low-profile and heavy armor protection made them ideal for running artillery gauntlets. Mines and obstructions negated these advantages—a problem the British Admiralty frequently acknowledged but never countered throughout the period. The British never laid down enough <a href="/wiki/Devastation-class_ironclad" title="Devastation-class ironclad"><i>Devastation</i>-class</a> 'battleships' to instantly overwhelm Cherbourg, Kronstadt or even New York City with gunfire. Although throughout the 1860s and 1870s the Royal Navy was still in many respects superior to its potential rivals, by the early 1880s widespread concern about the threat from France and Germany culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Defence_Act_1889" title="Naval Defence Act 1889">Naval Defence Act</a>, which promulgated the idea of a 'two-power standard', that Britain should possess as many ships as the next two navies combined. This standard provoked aggressive shipbuilding in the 1880s and 1890s.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>British ships did not participate in any major wars in the ironclad period. The Royal Navy's ironclads only saw action as part of colonial battles or one-sided engagements like the <a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Alexandria" title="Bombardment of Alexandria">bombardment of Alexandria</a> in 1882. Defending British interests against <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_%27Urabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed 'Urabi">Ahmed 'Urabi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Urabi_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Urabi Revolt">Egyptian revolt</a>, a British fleet opened fire on the fortifications around the port of Alexandria. A mixture of centre-battery and turret ships bombarded Egyptian positions for most of a day, forcing the <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a> to retreat; return fire from Egyptian guns was heavy at first, but inflicted little damage, killing only five British sailors.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few Egyptian guns were actually dismounted, on the other hand, and the fortifications themselves were typically left intact. Had the Egyptians actually utilised the heavy mortars that were at their disposal, they might have quickly turned the tide, for the attacking British ironclads found it easy (for accuracy's sake) to simply anchor whilst firing—perfect targets for high-angle fire upon their thinly armored topdecks.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The French navy built the first ironclad to try to gain a strategic advantage over the British, but were consistently out-built by the British. Despite taking the lead with a number of innovations like <a href="/wiki/Breech-loading_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Breech-loading weapon">breech-loading weapons</a> and steel construction, the French navy could never match the size of the Royal Navy. In the 1870s, the construction of ironclads ceased for a while in France as the <a href="/wiki/Jeune_Ecole" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeune Ecole">Jeune Ecole</a> school of naval thought took prominence, suggesting that <a href="/wiki/Torpedo_boat" title="Torpedo boat">torpedo boats</a> and unarmored <a href="/wiki/Cruisers" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruisers">cruisers</a> would be the future of warships. Like the British, the French navy saw little action with its ironclads; the French blockade of Germany in the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> was ineffective, as the war was settled entirely on land.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russia built a number of ironclads, generally copies of British or French designs. Nonetheless, there were real innovations from Russia; the first true type of ironclad <a href="/wiki/Armored_cruiser" title="Armored cruiser">armored cruiser</a>, <i>General-Admiral</i> of the 1870s, and a set of unusual but moderately-successful <a href="/wiki/Russian_monitor_Novgorod" title="Russian monitor Novgorod">circular battleships</a> referred to as "popovkas" (for <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Alexandrovich_Popov" title="Andrei Alexandrovich Popov">Admiral Popov</a>, who conceived the design). The Russian Navy pioneered the wide-scale use of torpedo boats during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%9378)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)">Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878</a>, mainly out of necessity because of the superior numbers and quality of ironclads used by the Turkish navy.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia expanded her navy in the 1880s and 1890s with modern armored cruisers and battleships, but the ships were manned by inexperienced crews and politically appointed leadership, which enhanced their defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tsushima" title="Battle of Tsushima">Battle of Tsushima</a> on 27 May 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Combate_Naval_Iquique-Thomas_Somerscales.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Combate_Naval_Iquique-Thomas_Somerscales.jpg/220px-Combate_Naval_Iquique-Thomas_Somerscales.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Combate_Naval_Iquique-Thomas_Somerscales.jpg/330px-Combate_Naval_Iquique-Thomas_Somerscales.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Combate_Naval_Iquique-Thomas_Somerscales.jpg/440px-Combate_Naval_Iquique-Thomas_Somerscales.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3307" data-file-height="2226" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iquique" title="Battle of Iquique">Battle of Iquique</a>, where Peruvian ironclad <a href="/wiki/Hu%C3%A1scar_(ironclad)" title="Huáscar (ironclad)"><i>Huáscar</i></a> sunk the Chilean wooden corvette <a href="/wiki/Esmeralda_(1855)" class="mw-redirect" title="Esmeralda (1855)"><i>Esmeralda</i></a></figcaption></figure> <p>The US Navy ended the Civil War with about fifty <a href="/wiki/Monitor_(warship)" title="Monitor (warship)">monitor</a>-type coastal ironclads; by the 1870s most of these were laid up in reserve, leaving the United States virtually without an ironclad fleet. Another five large monitors were ordered in the 1870s. The limitations of the monitor type effectively prevented the US from projecting power overseas, and until the 1890s the United States would have come off badly in a conflict with even Spain or the Latin American powers. The 1890s saw the beginning of what became the <a href="/wiki/Great_White_Fleet" title="Great White Fleet">Great White Fleet</a>, and it was the modern pre-Dreadnoughts and armored cruisers built in the 1890s which defeated the Spanish fleet in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> of 1898. This started a new era of naval warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BAP_Loa_blindado.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/BAP_Loa_blindado.jpg/220px-BAP_Loa_blindado.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/BAP_Loa_blindado.jpg/330px-BAP_Loa_blindado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/BAP_Loa_blindado.jpg/440px-BAP_Loa_blindado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="898" data-file-height="582" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/List_of_Peruvian_Navy_ships#Minor_Warships" title="List of Peruvian Navy ships"><i>Loa</i></a> being fitted after its conversion in the Callao harbour, 1864</figcaption></figure> <p>Ironclads were widely used in South America. Both sides used ironclads in the <a href="/wiki/Chincha_Islands_War" title="Chincha Islands War">Chincha Islands War</a> between Spain and the combined forces of <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> in the early 1860s. The powerful Spanish <a href="/wiki/Spanish_ironclad_Numancia" title="Spanish ironclad Numancia"><i>Numancia</i></a> participated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Callao" title="Battle of Callao">Battle of Callao</a> but was unable to inflict significant damage upon the Callao defences. Besides, Peru was able to deploy two locally built ironclads based on American Civil War designs,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Loa</i> (a wooden ship converted into a casemate ironclad) and <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_ironclad_Victoria" title="Peruvian ironclad Victoria"><i>Victoria</i></a> (a small monitor armed with a single 68-pdr gun), as well as two British-built ironclads: <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_ironclad_Independencia" title="Peruvian ironclad Independencia"><i>Independencia</i></a>, a centre-battery ship, and the turret ship <a href="/wiki/Hu%C3%A1scar_(ironclad)" title="Huáscar (ironclad)"><i>Huáscar</i></a>. <i>Numancia</i>, was the first ironclad to circumnavigate the world under the command of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Juan_Bautista_Antequera_y_Bobadilla_de_Eslava&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Juan Bautista Antequera y Bobadilla de Eslava (page does not exist)">Juan Bautista Antequera y Bobadilla de Eslava</a>, arriving in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a> on 20 September 1867, and earning the motto: "Enloricata navis que primo terram circuivit" ["First ironclad ship to sail around the world"]).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Pacific" title="War of the Pacific">War of the Pacific</a> in 1879, both Peru and Chile had ironclad warships, including some of those used a few years previously against Spain. While <i>Independencia</i> ran aground early on, the Peruvian ironclad <a href="/wiki/Hu%C3%A1scar_(ironclad)" title="Huáscar (ironclad)"><i>Huáscar</i></a> made a great impact against Chilean shipping, delaying Chilean ground invasion by six months. She was eventually caught by two more modern Chilean centre-battery ironclads, <a href="/wiki/Chilean_ironclad_Blanco_Encalada" title="Chilean ironclad Blanco Encalada"><i>Blanco Encalada</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Chilean_ironclad_Almirante_Cochrane" title="Chilean ironclad Almirante Cochrane"><i>Almirante Cochrane</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Angamos" title="Battle of Angamos">Battle of Angamos</a> Point.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stonewall-Kotetsu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Stonewall-Kotetsu.jpg/220px-Stonewall-Kotetsu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Stonewall-Kotetsu.jpg/330px-Stonewall-Kotetsu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Stonewall-Kotetsu.jpg/440px-Stonewall-Kotetsu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="690" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption>The Confederacy's French-built last ironclad was also Japan's first: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_ironclad_K%C5%8Dtetsu" title="Japanese ironclad Kōtetsu"><i>Stonewall</i> was later renamed <i>Kōtetsu</i></a></figcaption></figure> <p>Ironclads were also used from the inception of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a> (IJN). <a href="/wiki/Japanese_ironclad_K%C5%8Dtetsu" title="Japanese ironclad Kōtetsu"><i>Kōtetsu</i></a> (Japanese: 甲鉄, literally "Ironclad", later renamed Azuma 東, "East") had a decisive role in the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Battle_of_Hakodate_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval Battle of Hakodate Bay">Naval Battle of Hakodate Bay</a> in May 1869, which marked the end of the <a href="/wiki/Boshin_War" title="Boshin War">Boshin War</a>, and the complete establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a>. The IJN continued to develop its strength and commissioned a number of warships from British and European shipyards, first ironclads and later <a href="/wiki/Armored_cruiser" title="Armored cruiser">armored cruisers</a>. These ships engaged the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiyang fleet">Beiyang fleet</a> which was superior on paper at least at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yalu_River_(1894)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Yalu River (1894)">Battle of the Yalu River</a>. Thanks to superior short-range firepower, the Japanese fleet came off better, sinking or severely damaging eight ships and receiving serious damage to only four. The naval war was concluded the next year at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Weihaiwei" title="Battle of Weihaiwei">Battle of Weihaiwei</a>, where the strongest remaining Chinese ships were surrendered to the Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="End_of_the_ironclad_warship">End of the ironclad warship</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: End of the ironclad warship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">Battleship</a></div> <p>There is no clearly defined end to the ironclad, besides the transition from wood hulls to all-metal. Ironclads continued to be used in World War I. Towards the end of the 19th century, the descriptions '<a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleship</a>' and '<a href="/wiki/Armored_cruiser" title="Armored cruiser">armored cruiser</a>' came to replace the term 'ironclad'.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The proliferation of ironclad battleship designs came to an end in the 1890s as navies reached a consensus on the design of battleships, producing the type known as the <a href="/wiki/Pre-dreadnought" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-dreadnought">pre-dreadnought</a>. These ships are sometimes covered in treatments of the ironclad warship. The next evolution of battleship design, the <a href="/wiki/Dreadnought" title="Dreadnought">dreadnought</a>, is never referred to as an 'ironclad'.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legacy">Legacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HG_Wells_Land_Ironclads_1904.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/HG_Wells_Land_Ironclads_1904.jpg/220px-HG_Wells_Land_Ironclads_1904.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/HG_Wells_Land_Ironclads_1904.jpg/330px-HG_Wells_Land_Ironclads_1904.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/HG_Wells_Land_Ironclads_1904.jpg/440px-HG_Wells_Land_Ironclads_1904.jpg 2x" data-file-width="708" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption>1904 illustration of <a href="/wiki/H.G._Wells" class="mw-redirect" title="H.G. Wells">H.G. Wells</a>' December 1903 <i><a href="/wiki/The_Land_Ironclads" title="The Land Ironclads">The Land Ironclads</a></i>, showing huge armored land vessels, equipped with Pedrail wheels.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a> coined the term <i><a href="/wiki/The_Land_Ironclads" title="The Land Ironclads">The Land Ironclads</a></i> in a short story published in 1903, to describe fictional large <a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">armored fighting vehicles</a> moving on <a href="/wiki/Pedrail_wheel" title="Pedrail wheel">pedrail wheels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of ironclads have been preserved or reconstructed as museum ships.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li>Parts of <a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a> have been recovered and are being conserved and displayed at the <a href="/wiki/Mariners%27_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariners' Museum">Mariners' Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Newport_News,_Virginia" title="Newport News, Virginia">Newport News, Virginia</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Warrior_(1860)" title="HMS Warrior (1860)">HMS <i>Warrior</i></a> is today a fully restored museum ship in <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a>, England</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu%C3%A1scar_(ironclad)" title="Huáscar (ironclad)"><i>Huáscar</i></a> is berthed at the port of Talcahuano, Chile, on display for visitors.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/City-class_ironclad" title="City-class ironclad">City-class</a> ironclad <a href="/wiki/USS_Cairo" title="USS Cairo">USS <i>Cairo</i></a> is currently on display in <a href="/wiki/Vicksburg,_Mississippi" title="Vicksburg, Mississippi">Vicksburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman" title="Northrop Grumman">Northrop Grumman</a> in Newport News constructed a full-scale replica of <a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a>. The replica was laid down in February 2005 and completed just two months later.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Dutch <i>Ramtorenschip</i> (coastal ram) <a href="/wiki/HNLMS_Buffel" title="HNLMS Buffel">HNLMS <i>Buffel</i></a> is currently under display in the <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Museum_Rotterdam" title="Maritime Museum Rotterdam">Maritime Museum Rotterdam</a>.</li> <li>The Dutch <i>Ramtorenschip</i> (coastal ram) <a href="/wiki/HNLMS_Schorpioen" title="HNLMS Schorpioen">HNLMS <i>Schorpioen</i></a> is a museum ship at <a href="/wiki/Den_Helder" title="Den Helder">Den Helder</a>.</li> <li>The complete, recovered wooden hull of <a href="/wiki/CSS_Neuse" title="CSS Neuse">CSS <i>Neuse</i></a>, a casemate ram ironclad, is on view in <a href="/wiki/Kinston,_North_Carolina" title="Kinston, North Carolina">Kinston, North Carolina</a>, and, in another part of town on the <a href="/wiki/Neuse_River" title="Neuse River">Neuse River</a>, the recreated ship, named CSS <i>Neuse II</i>, is nearly built and can be visited.</li> <li>The hull of the casemate ironclad <a href="/wiki/CSS_Jackson" title="CSS Jackson">CSS <i>Jackson</i></a> can be seen in the <a href="/wiki/National_Civil_War_Naval_Museum" title="National Civil War Naval Museum">National Civil War Naval Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Columbus,_Georgia" title="Columbus, Georgia">Columbus, Georgia</a>.</li> <li>A replica of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ironclad_Dingyuan" title="Chinese ironclad Dingyuan">Chinese ironclad <i>Dingyuan</i></a> was rebuilt in 2003 as a floating museum at Weihai.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMVS_Cerberus" title="HMVS Cerberus">HMVS <i>Cerberus</i></a>, built 1867, has been partially sunk as a breakwater in Victoria, Australia, but is not preserved and is deteriorating in the elements.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ironclads" title="List of ironclads">List of ironclads</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Royal Navy did build 18-inch (457 mm) guns for the light <a href="/wiki/Battlecruiser" title="Battlecruiser">battlecruiser</a> <a href="/wiki/HMS_Furious_(47)" title="HMS Furious (47)">HMS <i>Furious</i></a> though she was completed as an aircraft carrier and her guns were fitted to the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Clive-class_monitor" title="Lord Clive-class monitor"><i>Lord Clive</i>-class</a> monitors, seeing service in World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This term was still in use in the 1860s and 1870s for what we would now call 'battleships'.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hill-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hill_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hill_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Screw-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Screw_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Screw_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Screw_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lambert, "The Screw Propeller Warship", pp. 30–44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, pp. 37–41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hill_25-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hill_25_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill, p. 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lambert-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lambert_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lambert, <i>Battleships in Transition</i>, pp. 94–95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sandler_2004-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sandler_2004_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sandler, <i>Battleships: An Illustrated History of Their Impact</i>, p. 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-threedecks-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-threedecks_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://threedecks.org/index.php?display_type=show_ship&id=11583">"Mexican paddle steamer 'Guadalupe' (1842)"</a>. <i>threedecks.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=threedecks.org&rft.atitle=Mexican+paddle+steamer+%27Guadalupe%27+%281842%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthreedecks.org%2Findex.php%3Fdisplay_type%3Dshow_ship%26id%3D11583&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown 1990, p. 87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown 1990, pp. 92–101</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baxter, pp. 70, 72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baxter82-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baxter82_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baxter, p. 82</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iron-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iron_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iron_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iron_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lambert, "Iron Hulls and Armour Plate", pp. 47–55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baxter84-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baxter84_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baxter, p. 84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sondhaus,_''Naval_Warfare_1815–1914'',_pp._73–74-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sondhaus,_''Naval_Warfare_1815–1914'',_pp._73–74_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, pp. 73–74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ACW-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ACW_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Still, "The American Civil War", pp. 70–71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Preston, pp. 12–14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, pp. 78–81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 82</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sondhaus-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sondhaus_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sondhaus_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sondhaus_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sondhaus_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, pp. 94–96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown_WtD-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brown_WtD_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, <i>Warrior to Dreadnought: Warship Design and Development, 1860–1905</i>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill, p. 35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beeler-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beeler_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, pp. 106–107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, p. 107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, p. 146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beeler-71-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beeler-71_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beeler-71_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, p. 71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, pp. 72–73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, pp. 73–75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, pp. 77–78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, "The Era of Uncertainty", p. 85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roberts-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roberts, "Warships of Steel 1879–1889", p. 98</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parkes, p. 633</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Campbell-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_40-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_40-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Campbell, pp. 158–169</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reed, pp. 4, 45–50, 68, 139, 217–221, 224–226, 228, 233</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ConwaysBroadside-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ConwaysBroadside_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ConwaysBroadside_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Conways's All the World's Fighting Ships 1860–1905</i> pp. 7–11, 118–119, 173, 267–268, 286–287, 301, 337–339, 389</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beeler-91-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beeler-91_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beeler-91_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, pp. 91–93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Noel, <i>et al.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, p. 122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 156</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lambert, <i>Battleships in Transition</i>, p. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, pp. 30–36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, pp. 32–33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jenschura, Jung & Mickel, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roberts, "Warships of Steel 1879–1889", p. 96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, pp. 37–41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill, p. 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, p. 45</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sondhaus_164-5-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sondhaus_164-5_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sondhaus_164-5_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, pp. 164–165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reed, pp. 45–47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, pp. 133–134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beeler-54-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beeler-54_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beeler-54_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, p. 54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill, p. 44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, pp. 111–112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, pp. 63–64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, pp. 57–62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 88</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, p. 194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Machinery-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Machinery_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Griffiths, pp. 176–178</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conway, <i>All the World's Fighting Ships 1860–1905</i>, Conway Maritime Press, 1979. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8317-0302-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8317-0302-4">0-8317-0302-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Noel, <i>et al</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, p. 204</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, pp. 178–179</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill, p. 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, p. 78; Brook, <i>et al</i>, p. 332</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, p. 101</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, pp. 122–126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, pp. 187–191</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, pp. 126–128, 173–179</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Historia naval del Perú. Tomo IV, Valdizán Gamio, José.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntequera_Becerra2023" class="citation journal cs1">Antequera Becerra, Luis (October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://armada.defensa.gob.es/ArmadaPortal/page/Portal/ArmadaEspannola/mardigitalrevistas/prefLang-es/02revistaGenMarina--02catalogoRGM--2023--202310-es?_pageAction=selectItem&_selectedNodeID=5817220&paramNo=000000">"Juan Bautista Antequera y Boadila. El héroe de la Numancia que fundó la Revista General de Marina y previó el desastre del 98"</a>. <i>Revista General de Marina</i>: 321–336.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+General+de+Marina&rft.atitle=Juan+Bautista+Antequera+y+Boadila.+El+h%C3%A9roe+de+la+Numancia+que+fund%C3%B3+la+Revista+General+de+Marina+y+previ%C3%B3+el+desastre+del+98&rft.pages=321-336&rft.date=2023-10&rft.aulast=Antequera+Becerra&rft.aufirst=Luis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farmada.defensa.gob.es%2FArmadaPortal%2Fpage%2FPortal%2FArmadaEspannola%2Fmardigitalrevistas%2FprefLang-es%2F02revistaGenMarina--02catalogoRGM--2023--202310-es%3F_pageAction%3DselectItem%26_selectedNodeID%3D5817220%26paramNo%3D000000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sondhaus, pp. 97–99, 127–132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill, p. 191</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeler, p. 154, states that <a href="/wiki/HMS_Edinburgh_(1882)" title="HMS Edinburgh (1882)">HMS <i>Edinburgh</i></a> was the first British capital ship to be routinely called a battleship.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill, p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=whzXoavISBgC&pg=PA93"><i>War and the Future</i> by H.G. Wells, p. 93</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorthrop_Grumman_Newport_News" class="citation web cs1">Northrop Grumman Newport News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070219052656/http://www.nn.northropgrumman.com/news/2005/050226_news.html">"Northrop Grumman Employees Reconstruct History with USS Monitor Replica"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nn.northropgrumman.com/news/2005/050226_news.html">the original</a> on February 19, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-05-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Northrop+Grumman+Employees+Reconstruct+History+with+USS+Monitor+Replica&rft.au=Northrop+Grumman+Newport+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nn.northropgrumman.com%2Fnews%2F2005%2F050226_news.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Littell%27s_Living_Age/Volume_129/Issue_1661/Miscellany" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Littell's Living Age/Volume 129/Issue 1661/Miscellany">A description of defensive measures used by ironclads against torpedoes, from Littell's Living Age, 1876</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li>Archibald, E.H.H. (1984). <i>The Fighting Ship in the Royal Navy 1897–1984</i>. Blandford. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7137-1348-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7137-1348-8">0-7137-1348-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallard1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Alexander_Ballard" title="George Alexander Ballard">Ballard, G. A.</a> (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackbattlefleet00unse"><i>The Black Battlefleet</i></a></span>. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87021-924-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-87021-924-3"><bdi>0-87021-924-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Battlefleet&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-87021-924-3&rft.aulast=Ballard&rft.aufirst=G.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackbattlefleet00unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaxter2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Phinney_Baxter_III" title="James Phinney Baxter III">Baxter, James Phinney III</a> (2001) [1933]. <i>The Introduction of the Ironclad Warship</i>. Classics of Naval Literature. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-218-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-218-8"><bdi>1-55750-218-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Introduction+of+the+Ironclad+Warship&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+Maryland&rft.series=Classics+of+Naval+Literature&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-55750-218-8&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=James+Phinney+III&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Beeler, John (2003). <i>Birth of the Battleship: British Capital Ship Design 1870–1881</i>. London: Caxton. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84067-534-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-84067-534-9">1-84067-534-9</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52358324">52358324</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrookBeaseckerLeeMillar2001" class="citation journal cs1">Brook, Peter; Beasecker, Robert; Lee, Anthony J. & Millar, Steve (2001). "Question 39/00: British Bombardment of Alexandria". <i>Warship International</i>. <b>XXXVIII</b> (4): 331–332. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374">0043-0374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Warship+International&rft.atitle=Question+39%2F00%3A+British+Bombardment+of+Alexandria&rft.volume=XXXVIII&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=331-332&rft.date=2001&rft.issn=0043-0374&rft.aulast=Brook&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Beasecker%2C+Robert&rft.au=Lee%2C+Anthony+J.&rft.au=Millar%2C+Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_K._Brown" title="David K. Brown">Brown, David K.</a> (2015). <i>Before the Ironclad: Warship Design and Development 1815–1860</i>. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-605-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-605-6"><bdi>978-1-59114-605-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+the+Ironclad%3A+Warship+Design+and+Development+1815%E2%80%931860&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-59114-605-6&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=David+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1992" class="citation book cs1">Brown, David K. (1992). "The Era of Uncertainty". In Gardiner, Robert (ed.). <i>Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The Steam Warship 1815–1905</i>. Conway's History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 75–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0"><bdi>1-55750-774-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Era+of+Uncertainty&rft.btitle=Steam%2C+Steel+and+Shellfire%3A+The+Steam+Warship+1815%E2%80%931905&rft.place=London&rft.series=Conway%27s+History+of+the+Ship&rft.pages=75-94&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-55750-774-0&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=David+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1997" class="citation book cs1">Brown, David K. (1997). <i><span></span></i>Warrior<i> to </i>Dreadnought<i>: Warship Development, 1860–1905</i>. London: Chatham Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86176-022-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-86176-022-1"><bdi>1-86176-022-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warrior+to+Dreadnought%3A+Warship+Development%2C+1860%E2%80%931905&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Chatham+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-86176-022-1&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=David+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1992" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, John (1992). "Naval Armaments and Armour". In Gardiner, Robert (ed.). <i>Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The Steam Warship 1815–1905</i>. Conway's History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 158–169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0"><bdi>1-55750-774-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naval+Armaments+and+Armour&rft.btitle=Steam%2C+Steel+and+Shellfire%3A+The+Steam+Warship+1815%E2%80%931905&rft.place=London&rft.series=Conway%27s+History+of+the+Ship&rft.pages=158-169&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-55750-774-0&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanney2015" class="citation book cs1">Canney, Donald L. (2015). <i>The Confederate Steam Navy 1861–1865</i>. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7643-4824-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7643-4824-2"><bdi>978-0-7643-4824-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confederate+Steam+Navy+1861%E2%80%931865&rft.place=Atglen%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Schiffer+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-7643-4824-2&rft.aulast=Canney&rft.aufirst=Donald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanney1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Canney, Donald L. (1993). <i>The Old Steam Navy</i>. Vol. 2: The Ironclads, 1842–1885. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87021-586-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87021-586-8"><bdi>0-87021-586-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Old+Steam+Navy&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-87021-586-8&rft.aulast=Canney&rft.aufirst=Donald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fuller, Howard J. (2008). <i>Clad in Iron: The American Civil War and the Challenge of British Naval Power</i>. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Security International. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-34590-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-34590-2">0-313-34590-2</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/171549041">171549041</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuller2020" class="citation book cs1">Fuller, Howard J. (2020). <i>Turret Versus Broadside: An Anatomy of British Naval Prestige, Revolution and Disaster 1860–1870</i>. Wolverhampton Military Studies. Warwick, UK: Helion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-913336-22-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-913336-22-6"><bdi>978-1-913336-22-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turret+Versus+Broadside%3A+An+Anatomy+of+British+Naval+Prestige%2C+Revolution+and+Disaster+1860%E2%80%931870&rft.place=Warwick%2C+UK&rft.series=Wolverhampton+Military+Studies&rft.pub=Helion&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-913336-22-6&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=Howard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreeneMassignani1998" class="citation book cs1">Greene, Jack & Massignani, Alessandro (1998). <i>Ironclads at War: The Origin and Development of the Armored Warship, 1854–1891</i>. Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-938289-58-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-938289-58-6"><bdi>0-938289-58-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ironclads+at+War%3A+The+Origin+and+Development+of+the+Armored+Warship%2C+1854%E2%80%931891&rft.place=Conshohocken%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Combined+Publishing&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-938289-58-6&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft.au=Massignani%2C+Alessandro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffiths1992" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths, Denis (1992). "Warship Machinery". In Gardiner, Robert (ed.). <i>Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The Steam Warship 1815–1905</i>. Conway's History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 170–178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0"><bdi>1-55750-774-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Warship+Machinery&rft.btitle=Steam%2C+Steel+and+Shellfire%3A+The+Steam+Warship+1815%E2%80%931905&rft.place=London&rft.series=Conway%27s+History+of+the+Ship&rft.pages=170-178&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-55750-774-0&rft.aulast=Griffiths&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Hill" title="J. Richard Hill">Hill, J. Richard, Rear Admiral</a> (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780304352739"><i>War at Sea in the Ironclad age</i></a></span>. London: Cassell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-304-35273-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-304-35273-X"><bdi>0-304-35273-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+at+Sea+in+the+Ironclad+age&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-304-35273-X&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=J.+Richard%2C+Rear+Admiral&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780304352739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJentschuraJungMickel1977" class="citation book cs1">Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Jung, Dieter & Mickel, Peter (1977). <i>Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945</i>. Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87021-893-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87021-893-X"><bdi>0-87021-893-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warships+of+the+Imperial+Japanese+Navy%2C+1869%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=United+States+Naval+Institute&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-87021-893-X&rft.aulast=Jentschura&rft.aufirst=Hansgeorg&rft.au=Jung%2C+Dieter&rft.au=Mickel%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kennedy" title="Paul Kennedy">Kennedy, Paul M.</a> (1985). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackbattlefleet00unse"><i>The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery</i></a></span>. Houndmills, UK: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-35094-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-35094-4"><bdi>0-333-35094-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+British+Naval+Mastery&rft.place=Houndmills%2C+UK&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-333-35094-4&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackbattlefleet00unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1860–1905</i>. Roger Chesneau, Eugène M. Koleśnik, N. J. M. Campbell (1st American ed.). New York: Mayflower Books. 1979. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8317-0302-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8317-0302-4"><bdi>0-8317-0302-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4775646">4775646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conway%27s+All+the+World%27s+Fighting+Ships+1860%E2%80%931905&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st+American&rft.pub=Mayflower+Books&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4775646&rft.isbn=0-8317-0302-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lambert" title="Andrew Lambert">Lambert, Andrew</a> (1984). <i>Battleships in Transition: The Creation of the Steam Battlefleet 1815–1860</i>. London: Conway Maritime Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85177-315-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-85177-315-X">0-85177-315-X</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambert1992" class="citation book cs1">Lambert, Andrew (1992). "Iron Hulls and Armour Plate". In Gardiner, Robert (ed.). <i>Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The Steam Warship 1815–1905</i>. Conway's History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 47–60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0"><bdi>1-55750-774-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iron+Hulls+and+Armour+Plate&rft.btitle=Steam%2C+Steel+and+Shellfire%3A+The+Steam+Warship+1815%E2%80%931905&rft.place=London&rft.series=Conway%27s+History+of+the+Ship&rft.pages=47-60&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-55750-774-0&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambert1992" class="citation book cs1">Lambert, Andrew (1992). "The Screw Propeller Warship". In Gardiner, Robert (ed.). <i>Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The Steam Warship 1815–1905</i>. Conway's History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 30–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0"><bdi>1-55750-774-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Screw+Propeller+Warship&rft.btitle=Steam%2C+Steel+and+Shellfire%3A+The+Steam+Warship+1815%E2%80%931905&rft.place=London&rft.series=Conway%27s+History+of+the+Ship&rft.pages=30-46&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-55750-774-0&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangensiepenGüleryüz1995" class="citation book cs1">Langensiepen, Bernd & Güleryüz, Ahmet (1995). <i>The Ottoman Steam Navy 1828–1923</i>. London: Conway Maritime Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85177-610-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85177-610-1"><bdi>978-0-85177-610-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Steam+Navy+1828%E2%80%931923&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-85177-610-1&rft.aulast=Langensiepen&rft.aufirst=Bernd&rft.au=G%C3%BClery%C3%BCz%2C+Ahmet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_H_U_Noel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerard H U Noel">Noel, Gerard</a> <i>et al</i>. <i>The Gun, Ram and Torpedo, Manoeuvres and Tactics of a Naval Battle of the Present Day</i>. 2nd edition, pub. Griffin 1885. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/57209664">57209664</a>.</li> <li>Northrop Grumman Newport News, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070219052656/http://www.nn.northropgrumman.com/news/2005/050226_news.html">Northrop Grumman Employees Reconstruct History with USS Monitor Replica</a>. Retrieved 2007-05-21.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkes1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Parkes" title="Oscar Parkes">Parkes, Oscar</a> (1990) [1957]. <i>British Battleships</i>. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-075-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-075-4"><bdi>1-55750-075-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Battleships&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=1-55750-075-4&rft.aulast=Parkes&rft.aufirst=Oscar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuarstein2006" class="citation book cs1">Quarstein, John V. (2006). <i>A History of Ironclads: The Power of Iron Over Wood</i>. Charleston, South Carolina: History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59629-118-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59629-118-8"><bdi>978-1-59629-118-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ironclads%3A+The+Power+of+Iron+Over+Wood&rft.place=Charleston%2C+South+Carolina&rft.pub=History+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-59629-118-8&rft.aulast=Quarstein&rft.aufirst=John+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_James_Reed" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward James Reed">Reed, Edward J.</a> (1869). <i>Our Ironclad Ships, their Qualities, Performance and Cost</i>. John Murray.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1992" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, John (1992). "Warships of Steel 1879–1889". In Gardiner, Robert (ed.). <i>Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The Steam Warship 1815–1905</i>. Conway's History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 95–111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0"><bdi>1-55750-774-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Warships+of+Steel+1879%E2%80%931889&rft.btitle=Steam%2C+Steel+and+Shellfire%3A+The+Steam+Warship+1815%E2%80%931905&rft.place=London&rft.series=Conway%27s+History+of+the+Ship&rft.pages=95-111&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-55750-774-0&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2021" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Stephen (2021). <i>French Warships in the Age of Steam 1859–1914</i>. Barnsley, UK: Seaforth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5267-4533-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5267-4533-0"><bdi>978-1-5267-4533-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=French+Warships+in+the+Age+of+Steam+1859%E2%80%931914&rft.place=Barnsley%2C+UK&rft.pub=Seaforth&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-5267-4533-0&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandler2004" class="citation book cs1">Sandler, Stanley (2004). <i>Battleships: An Illustrated History of Their Impact</i>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-8510-9410-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-8510-9410-5"><bdi>1-8510-9410-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battleships%3A+An+Illustrated+History+of+Their+Impact&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-8510-9410-5&rft.aulast=Sandler&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sandler, Stanley (1979). <i>Emergence of the Modern Capital Ship</i>. Newark, Delaware: Associated University Presses. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87413-119-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-87413-119-7">0-87413-119-7</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4498820">4498820</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilverstone1984" class="citation book cs1">Silverstone, Paul H. (1984). <i>Directory of the World's Capital Ships</i>. New York: Hippocrene Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88254-979-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-88254-979-0"><bdi>0-88254-979-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Directory+of+the+World%27s+Capital+Ships&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hippocrene+Books&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-88254-979-0&rft.aulast=Silverstone&rft.aufirst=Paul+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sondhaus, Lawrence (2001). <i>Naval Warfare 1815–1914</i>. London: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-21478-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-21478-5">0-415-21478-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStill1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_N._Still_Jr." title="William N. Still Jr.">Still, William N.</a> (1992). "The American Civil War". In Gardiner, Robert (ed.). <i>Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The Steam Warship 1815–1905</i>. Conway's History of the Ship. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 61–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-774-0"><bdi>1-55750-774-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+American+Civil+War&rft.btitle=Steam%2C+Steel+and+Shellfire%3A+The+Steam+Warship+1815%E2%80%931905&rft.place=London&rft.series=Conway%27s+History+of+the+Ship&rft.pages=61-74&rft.pub=Conway+Maritime+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-55750-774-0&rft.aulast=Still&rft.aufirst=William+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1995" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, H. W. (1995) [1926]. <i>Battleships in Action</i>. Vol. 1. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-061-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-061-4"><bdi>1-55750-061-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battleships+in+Action&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-55750-061-4&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=H.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinfieldLyon2004" class="citation book cs1">Winfield, Rif & Lyon, David (2004). <i>The Sail and Steam Navy List: All the Ships of the Royal Navy 1815–1889</i>. London: Chatham Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86176-032-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86176-032-6"><bdi>978-1-86176-032-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52620555">52620555</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sail+and+Steam+Navy+List%3A+All+the+Ships+of+the+Royal+Navy+1815%E2%80%931889&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Chatham+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52620555&rft.isbn=978-1-86176-032-6&rft.aulast=Winfield&rft.aufirst=Rif&rft.au=Lyon%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIronclad+warship" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ironclad_warship&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060113062635/http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-m/monitor.htm">Images and text on the USS <i>Monitor</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revistanaval.com/armada/buques_marinablindada/numancia.htm">The Spanish Navy <i>Numancia</i>, first ironclad warship to circumnavigate the world</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927185849/http://www.bruzelius.info/nautica/Ships/Naval_Science%281874%29_p1.html">Circular Iron-Clads in the Imperial Russian Navy</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:BBhistory" title="Template:BBhistory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:BBhistory" title="Template talk:BBhistory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:BBhistory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:BBhistory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_battleship" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of the <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleship</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ship_of_the_line" title="Ship of the line">Ship of the line</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ironclad warship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-dreadnought_battleship" title="Pre-dreadnought battleship">Pre-dreadnought battleship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dreadnought" title="Dreadnought">Dreadnought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlecruiser" title="Battlecruiser">Battlecruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_battleship" title="Fast battleship">Fast battleship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_battleship" title="Treaty battleship">Treaty battleship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battleships_in_World_War_II" title="Battleships in World War II">Battleships in World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Naval_ships_and_warships_in_19th_and_20th_centuries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Warship_types_of_the_19th_%26_20th_centuries" title="Template:Warship types of the 19th & 20th centuries"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Warship_types_of_the_19th_%26_20th_centuries" title="Template talk:Warship types of the 19th & 20th centuries"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Warship_types_of_the_19th_%26_20th_centuries" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Warship types of the 19th & 20th centuries"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Naval_ships_and_warships_in_19th_and_20th_centuries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Naval_ship" title="Naval ship">Naval ships</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">warships</a> in 19th and 20th centuries</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_ship_classes_in_service" title="List of naval ship classes in service">Naval ship classes in service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_submarine_classes_in_service" title="List of submarine classes in service">submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_auxiliary_ship_classes_in_service" title="List of auxiliary ship classes in service">auxiliary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_geography" title="Maritime geography">Operational zones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown-water navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green-water navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue-water navy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Gun placement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadside_(naval)" title="Broadside (naval)">Broadside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_battery_ship" title="Central battery ship">Central battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">Casemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_turret" title="Gun turret">Turrets</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_assault_ship" title="Amphibious assault ship">Amphibious assault ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare_carrier" title="Anti-submarine warfare carrier">Anti-submarine warfare carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balloon_carrier" title="Balloon carrier">Balloon carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlecarrier" title="Battlecarrier">Battlecarrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAM_ship" title="CAM ship">CAM ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escort_carrier" title="Escort carrier">Escort carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_catapult_ship" title="Fighter catapult ship">Fighter catapult ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_carrier" title="Fleet carrier">Fleet carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_deck_cruiser" title="Flight deck cruiser">Flight deck cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter_carrier" title="Helicopter carrier">Helicopter carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interdiction_Assault_Ship" title="Interdiction Assault Ship">Interdiction Assault Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_aircraft_carrier" title="Light aircraft carrier">Light aircraft carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_aircraft_carrier" title="Merchant aircraft carrier">Merchant aircraft carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaplane_tender" title="Seaplane tender">Seaplane tender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercarrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercarrier">Supercarrier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">Battleships</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_ship" title="Coastal defence ship">Coastal defence ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dreadnought" title="Dreadnought">Dreadnought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_battleship" title="Fast battleship">Fast battleship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-dreadnought_battleship" title="Pre-dreadnought battleship">Pre-dreadnought battleship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dreadnought#Super-dreadnoughts" title="Dreadnought">Super-dreadnought</a> (<a href="/wiki/Standard-type_battleship" title="Standard-type battleship">Standard-type battleship</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_battleship" title="Treaty battleship">Treaty battleship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cruiser" title="Cruiser">Cruisers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_cruiser" title="Aircraft cruiser">Aircraft cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armored_cruiser" title="Armored cruiser">Armored cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlecruiser" title="Battlecruiser">Battlecruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_missile_cruiser" class="mw-redirect" title="Guided missile cruiser">Guided missile cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_cruiser" title="Heavy cruiser">Heavy cruiser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deutschland-class_cruiser" title="Deutschland-class cruiser">Pocket battleship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_cruiser" title="Light cruiser">Light cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_raider" title="Merchant raider">Merchant raider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_cruiser" title="Protected cruiser">Protected cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scout_cruiser" title="Scout cruiser">Scout cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_cruiser" title="Strike cruiser">Strike cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_cruiser" title="Torpedo cruiser">Torpedo cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unprotected_cruiser" title="Unprotected cruiser">Unprotected cruiser</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Escort</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviso" title="Aviso">Aviso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy_rescue_ship" title="Convoy rescue ship">Convoy rescue ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destroyer" title="Destroyer">Destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destroyer_escort" title="Destroyer escort">Destroyer escort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destroyer_leader" title="Destroyer leader">Destroyer leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escort_destroyer" title="Escort destroyer">Escort destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escorteur" title="Escorteur">Escorteur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frigate" title="Frigate">Frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided-missile_destroyer" title="Guided-missile destroyer">Guided-missile destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaib%C5%8Dkan" title="Kaibōkan">Kaibōkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar_picket" title="Radar picket">Radar picket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloop-of-war" title="Sloop-of-war">Sloop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_transport_dock" title="Amphibious transport dock">Amphibious transport dock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare_ship" title="Amphibious warfare ship">Amphibious warfare ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_transport" title="Attack transport">Attack transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dock_landing_ship" title="Dock landing ship">Dock landing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft_carrier" title="Landing craft carrier">Landing craft carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Support" title="Landing Craft Support">Landing Craft Support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_Ship_Heavy" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing Ship Heavy">Landing Ship Heavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_ship,_infantry" title="Landing ship, infantry">Landing ship, infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_Ship_Logistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing Ship Logistics">Landing Ship Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_Ship_Medium" title="Landing Ship Medium">Landing Ship Medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_Ship,_Tank" title="Landing Ship, Tank">Landing Ship, Tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_Ship_Vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing Ship Vehicle">Landing Ship Vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troopship" title="Troopship">Troopship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Patrol craft</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armed_boarding_steamer" title="Armed boarding steamer">Armed boarding steamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_yacht" title="Armed yacht">Armed yacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_motor_boat" title="Coastal motor boat">Coastal motor boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvette" title="Corvette">Corvette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunboat" title="Gunboat">Gunboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbour_defence_motor_launch" title="Harbour defence motor launch">Harbour defence motor launch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_launch_(naval)" title="Motor launch (naval)">Motor launch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_drifter" title="Naval drifter">Naval drifter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_trawler" title="Naval trawler">Naval trawler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_boarding_vessel" title="Ocean boarding vessel">Ocean boarding vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrol_boat" title="Patrol boat">Patrol boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q-ship" title="Q-ship">Q-ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_gun_boat" title="Steam gun boat">Steam gun boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_chaser" title="Submarine chaser">Submarine chaser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_boat" title="Torpedo boat">Torpedo boat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fast_attack_craft" title="Fast attack craft">Fast attack craft</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E-boat" title="E-boat">E-boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAS_(motorboat)" title="MAS (motorboat)">MAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_gunboat" title="Motor gunboat">MGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_boat" title="Missile boat">Missile boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_torpedo_boat" title="Motor torpedo boat">MTB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MT_explosive_motorboat" title="MT explosive motorboat">MTM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MTSM_motor_torpedo_boat" title="MTSM motor torpedo boat">MTSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PT_boat" title="PT boat">PT boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin%27y%C5%8D-class_suicide_motorboat" class="mw-redirect" title="Shin'yō-class suicide motorboat">Shin'yō</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mine warfare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danlayer" title="Danlayer">Danlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destroyer_minesweeper" title="Destroyer minesweeper">Destroyer minesweeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mine_countermeasures_vessel" title="Mine countermeasures vessel">Mine countermeasures vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mine_planter" title="Mine planter">Mine planter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minehunter" title="Minehunter">Minehunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minelayer" title="Minelayer">Minelayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minesweeper" title="Minesweeper">Minesweeper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Command and support</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amenities_ship" title="Amenities ship">Amenities ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammunition_ship" title="Ammunition ship">Ammunition ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_repair_dock" title="Auxiliary repair dock">Auxiliary repair dock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collier_(ship)" title="Collier (ship)">Collier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_stores_ship" title="Combat stores ship">Combat stores ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_ship" title="Command ship">Command ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crane_vessel" title="Crane vessel">Crane vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depot_ship" title="Depot ship">Depot ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destroyer_tender" title="Destroyer tender">Destroyer tender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispatch_boat" title="Dispatch boat">Dispatch boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_combat_support_ship" title="Fast combat support ship">Fast combat support ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_stores_issue_ship" title="General stores issue ship">General stores issue ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_ship" title="Hospital ship">Hospital ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_support_ship" title="Joint support ship">Joint support ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tugboat" title="Tugboat">Naval tugboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_laying_ship" title="Net laying ship">Net laying ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repair_ship" title="Repair ship">Repair ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replenishment_oiler" title="Replenishment oiler">Replenishment oiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_tender" title="Submarine tender">Submarine tender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_submarine" title="Attack submarine">Attack submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballistic_missile_submarine" title="Ballistic missile submarine">Ballistic missile submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_submarine" title="Coastal submarine">Coastal submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruise_missile_submarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruise missile submarine">Cruise missile submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruiser_submarine" title="Cruiser submarine">Cruiser submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-submergence_vehicle" title="Deep-submergence vehicle">Deep-submergence vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Deep-submergence rescue vehicle">DSRV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_submarine" title="Fleet submarine">Fleet submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_torpedo" title="Human torpedo">Human torpedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midget_submarine" title="Midget submarine">Midget submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_aircraft_carrier" title="Submarine aircraft carrier">Submarine aircraft carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_sub" title="Wet sub">Wet sub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armed_merchantman" title="Armed merchantman">Armed merchantman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenal_ship" title="Arsenal ship">Arsenal ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barracks_ship" title="Barracks ship">Barracks ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastwork_monitor" title="Breastwork monitor">Breastwork monitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_ship" title="Capital ship">Capital ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_carrier" title="Drone carrier">Drone carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship" title="Flagship">Flagship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_battery" title="Floating battery">Floating battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guard_ship" title="Guard ship">Guard ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_combat_ship" title="Littoral combat ship">Littoral combat ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monitor_(warship)" title="Monitor (warship)">Monitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_ship" title="Mother ship">Mother ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_monitor" title="River monitor">River monitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Training_ship" title="Training ship">Training ship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ship_types" title="Template:Ship types">Ship types</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Sailing_vessels_and_rigs" title="Template:Sailing vessels and rigs">Sailing vessels</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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