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vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Army_incursion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>French Army incursion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-French_Army_incursion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle French Army incursion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-French_Army_incursion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preparations_for_the_offensive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preparations_for_the_offensive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Preparations for the offensive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preparations_for_the_offensive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupation_of_Saarbrücken" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupation_of_Saarbrücken"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Occupation of Saarbrücken</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupation_of_Saarbrücken-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prussian_Army_advance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prussian_Army_advance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Prussian Army advance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prussian_Army_advance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prussian Army advance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prussian_Army_advance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Wissembourg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Wissembourg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Battle of Wissembourg</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Wissembourg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Spicheren" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Spicheren"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Battle of Spicheren</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Spicheren-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Wörth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Wörth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Battle of Wörth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Wörth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Battle of Mars-La-Tour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Gravelotte" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Gravelotte"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Battle of Gravelotte</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Gravelotte-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siege_of_Metz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_of_Metz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Siege of Metz</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_of_Metz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Sedan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Sedan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Battle of Sedan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Sedan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surrender_of_Metz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surrender_of_Metz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Surrender of Metz</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surrender_of_Metz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_of_the_Government_of_National_Defence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_of_the_Government_of_National_Defence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>War of the Government of National Defence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War_of_the_Government_of_National_Defence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle War of the Government of National Defence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-War_of_the_Government_of_National_Defence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Government_of_National_Defence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_of_National_Defence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Government of National Defence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_of_National_Defence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siege_of_Paris" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_of_Paris"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Siege of Paris</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_of_Paris-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loire_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loire_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Loire campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loire_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Northern campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Eastern campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armistice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armistice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Armistice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armistice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_at_sea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_at_sea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>War at sea</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War_at_sea-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle War at sea subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-War_at_sea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Blockade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blockade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Blockade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blockade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_and_Caribbean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_and_Caribbean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Pacific and Caribbean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_and_Caribbean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_crimes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_crimes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>War crimes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_crimes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_military_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_military_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Effects on military thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_military_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Casualties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Casualties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Casualties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Casualties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsequent_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsequent_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Subsequent events</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Subsequent_events-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Subsequent events subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Subsequent_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prussian_reaction_and_withdrawal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prussian_reaction_and_withdrawal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Prussian reaction and withdrawal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prussian_reaction_and_withdrawal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paris_Commune" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paris_Commune"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Paris Commune</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paris_Commune-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1871_Kabyle_revolt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1871_Kabyle_revolt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>1871 Kabyle revolt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1871_Kabyle_revolt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_unification_and_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_unification_and_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>German unification and power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_unification_and_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_reaction_and_Revanchism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_reaction_and_Revanchism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>French reaction and Revanchism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_reaction_and_Revanchism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Websites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Websites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Websites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Websites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books_and_journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books_and_journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Books and journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_and_journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caricatures_and_editorial_cartoons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caricatures_and_editorial_cartoons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Caricatures and editorial cartoons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caricatures_and_editorial_cartoons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Franco-Prussian War</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 86 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-86" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">86 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans-Duitse_Oorlog" title="Frans-Duitse Oorlog – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Frans-Duitse Oorlog" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg" title="Deutsch-Französischer Krieg – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Deutsch-Französischer Krieg" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحرب الفرنسية البروسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحرب الفرنسية البروسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_franco-prusiana" title="Guerra franco-prusiana – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerra franco-prusiana" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransa%E2%80%93Prussiya_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99si" title="Fransa–Prussiya müharibəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fransa–Prussiya müharibəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87_-%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="فرانسه -پروس ساواشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فرانسه -پروس ساواشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%B3%CD%98-Hoat_Chi%C3%A0n-cheng" title="Phó͘-Hoat Chiàn-cheng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Phó͘-Hoat Chiàn-cheng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Франка-пруская вайна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Франка-пруская вайна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Френско-пруска война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Френско-пруска война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francusko-pruski_rat" title="Francusko-pruski rat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Francusko-pruski rat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezel_Gall-Prusian_eus_1870" title="Brezel Gall-Prusian eus 1870 – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Brezel Gall-Prusian eus 1870" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_francoprussiana" title="Guerra francoprussiana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra francoprussiana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prusko-francouzsk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" title="Prusko-francouzská válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Prusko-francouzská válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_fransk-preussiske_krig" title="Den fransk-preussiske krig – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den fransk-preussiske krig" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg" title="Deutsch-Französischer Krieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Deutsch-Französischer Krieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prantsuse-Preisi_s%C3%B5da" title="Prantsuse-Preisi sõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Prantsuse-Preisi sõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%80%CF%81%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Γαλλοπρωσικός Πόλεμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γαλλοπρωσικός Πόλεμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_franco-prusiana" title="Guerra franco-prusiana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra franco-prusiana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia-Prusia_Milito" title="Francia-Prusia Milito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Francia-Prusia Milito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frantzia-Prusia_Gerra" title="Frantzia-Prusia Gerra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Frantzia-Prusia Gerra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87_%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3" title="جنگ فرانسه و پروس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ فرانسه و پروس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_franco-allemande_de_1870" title="Guerre franco-allemande de 1870 – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre franco-allemande de 1870" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A2nsk-D%C3%BAtske_Oarloch" title="Frânsk-Dútske Oarloch – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Frânsk-Dútske Oarloch" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Cogadh_Franc-Phr%C3%BAiseach" title="An Cogadh Franc-Phrúiseach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Cogadh Franc-Phrúiseach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_franco-prusiana" title="Guerra franco-prusiana – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerra franco-prusiana" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%A1%9C%EC%9D%B4%EC%84%BC-%ED%94%84%EB%9E%91%EC%8A%A4_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="프로이센-프랑스 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프로이센-프랑스 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BD-%D5%BA%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Ֆրանս-պրուսական պատերազմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆրանս-պրուսական պատերազմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="फ्रांसीसी जर्मन युद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फ्रांसीसी जर्मन युद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%9Bmsko-francoska_w%C3%B3jna" title="Němsko-francoska wójna – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Němsko-francoska wójna" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francusko-pruski_rat" title="Francusko-pruski rat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Francusko-pruski rat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milito_Franca-Prusiana" title="Milito Franca-Prusiana – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Milito Franca-Prusiana" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Prancis%E2%80%93Prusia" title="Perang Prancis–Prusia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Prancis–Prusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransk-pr%C3%BAssneska_str%C3%AD%C3%B0i%C3%B0" title="Fransk-prússneska stríðið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fransk-prússneska stríðið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_franco-prussiana" title="Guerra franco-prussiana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra franco-prussiana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%AA%E2%80%93%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%94" title="מלחמת צרפת–פרוסיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת צרפת–פרוסיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/1870_you_t%C9%94m" title="1870 you tɔm – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="1870 you tɔm" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%97-%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="საფრანგეთ-პრუსიის ომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საფრანგეთ-პრუსიის ომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81_%D1%81%D0%BE%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Франк-прусс соғысы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Франк-прусс соғысы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vita_ya_Ufaransa_dhidi_ya_Ujerumani_ya_1870" title="Vita ya Ufaransa dhidi ya Ujerumani ya 1870 – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Vita ya Ufaransa dhidi ya Ujerumani ya 1870" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%9F%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%88%D1%83" title="Франция-Пруссия согушу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Франция-Пруссия согушу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellum_Germano-Francicum" title="Bellum Germano-Francicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bellum Germano-Francicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francijas%E2%80%94Pr%C5%ABsijas_kar%C5%A1" title="Francijas—Prūsijas karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Francijas—Prūsijas karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A4itsch-Frans%C3%A9ische_Krich" title="Däitsch-Franséische Krich – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Däitsch-Franséische Krich" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pranc%C5%ABzijos%E2%80%93Pr%C5%ABsijos_karas" title="Prancūzijos–Prūsijos karas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Prancūzijos–Prūsijos karas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porosz%E2%80%93francia_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BA" title="Porosz–francia háború – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Porosz–francia háború" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Француско-пруска војна – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Француско-пруска војна" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="फ्रान्स-प्रशिया युद्ध – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="फ्रान्स-प्रशिया युद्ध" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Perancis-Prusia" title="Perang Perancis-Prusia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Perancis-Prusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Franco-Prussiana" title="Guerra Franco-Prussiana – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Guerra Franco-Prussiana" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86-%D0%9F%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Франц-Пруссийн дайн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Франц-Пруссийн дайн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans-Duitse_Oorlog" title="Frans-Duitse Oorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Frans-Duitse Oorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraans-Pruusischen_oorlog" title="Fraans-Pruusischen oorlog – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Fraans-Pruusischen oorlog" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E4%BB%8F%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="普仏戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="普仏戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_fransk-tyske_krig" title="Den fransk-tyske krig – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den fransk-tyske krig" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_fransk-pr%C3%B8yssiske_krigen" title="Den fransk-prøyssiske krigen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den fransk-prøyssiske krigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rra_franco-prussiana" title="Guèrra franco-prussiana – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrra franco-prussiana" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransiya-Prussiya_urushi" title="Fransiya-Prussiya urushi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fransiya-Prussiya urushi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%84%DA%91%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="فرینکو پروشیا لڑائی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فرینکو پروشیا لڑائی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%90_%D8%A7%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87" title="د فرانسې او پروس جګړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د فرانسې او پروس جګړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Proshan_Waar" title="Franco-Proshan Waar – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Franco-Proshan Waar" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8ra_franco_prussian-a" title="Guèra franco prussian-a – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Guèra franco prussian-a" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BC%C3%BCtsch-Franz%C3%B6%C3%B6sch_Krieg" title="Düütsch-Franzöösch Krieg – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Düütsch-Franzöösch Krieg" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_francusko-pruska" title="Wojna francusko-pruska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojna francusko-pruska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_Franco-Prussiana" title="Guerra Franco-Prussiana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra Franco-Prussiana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboiul_Franco-German" title="Războiul Franco-German – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Războiul Franco-German" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Франко-прусская война – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Франко-прусская война" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Franco-Prussian War" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prusko-franc%C3%BAzska_vojna" title="Prusko-francúzska vojna – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Prusko-francúzska vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francosko-pruska_vojna" title="Francosko-pruska vojna – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Francosko-pruska vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Француско-пруски рат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Француско-пруски рат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francusko-pruski_rat" title="Francusko-pruski rat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Francusko-pruski rat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksan%E2%80%93Ranskan_sota" title="Saksan–Ranskan sota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Saksan–Ranskan sota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransk-tyska_kriget" title="Fransk-tyska kriget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fransk-tyska kriget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digmaang_Prangko-Pruso" title="Digmaang Prangko-Pruso – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Digmaang Prangko-Pruso" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9D%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%AA-%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="สงครามฝรั่งเศส-ปรัสเซีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สงครามฝรั่งเศส-ปรัสเซีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransa-Prusya_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Fransa-Prusya Savaşı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fransa-Prusya Savaşı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Французько-прусська війна – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Французько-прусська війна" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF" title="فرانسیسی جرمن جنگ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فرانسیسی جرمن جنگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guera_franco-prusiana" title="Guera franco-prusiana – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Guera franco-prusiana" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%E1%BA%BFn_tranh_Ph%C3%A1p_%E2%80%93_Ph%E1%BB%95" title="Chiến tranh Pháp – Phổ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chiến tranh Pháp – Phổ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prantsus%C3%B5-Preisi_s%C3%B5da" title="Prantsusõ-Preisi sõda – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Prantsusõ-Preisi sõda" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guere_di_1870" title="Guere di 1870 – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Guere di 1870" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyera_han_Franses_ngan_Prusya" title="Gyera han Franses ngan Prusya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Gyera han Franses ngan Prusya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E6%B3%95%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="普法战争 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="普法战争" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E6%B3%95%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD" title="普法戰爭 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="普法戰爭" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E6%B3%95%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD" title="普法戰爭 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="普法戰爭" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Franco-German war" redirects here. For the war between Lothair and Otto II, see <a href="/wiki/Franco-German_war_of_978%E2%80%93980" title="Franco-German war of 978–980">Franco-German war of 978–980</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Franco-Prussian War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">unification of Germany</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mars-la-Tour" title="Battle of Mars-la-Tour">Battle of Mars-la-Tour</a>, 16 August 1870</i></li> <li><i>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelotte" title="Battle of Gravelotte">Lauenburg 9th Jäger Battalion at Gravelotte</a></i></li> <li><i>Damaged building in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, 1871</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Defense_of_Champigny" title="The Defense of Champigny">The Defense of Champigny</a></i></li> <li><i>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1870%E2%80%931871)" title="Siege of Paris (1870–1871)">Siege of Paris</a> in 1870</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire_(paintings)" title="Proclamation of the German Empire (paintings)">The Proclamation of the German Empire</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>19 July 1870 – 28 January 1871<br />(6 months, 1 week and 2 days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rhine_Province" title="Rhine Province">Rhine Province</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <p><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German</a> victory </p> <ul><li>End of the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a> and establishment of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German</a> annexation of <a href="/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="nowrap"><b>Before 4 September 1870:</b><br /><b><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">French Empire</a></b><hr /><b>After 4 September 1870:</b><br /><b><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Republic</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b></span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Vosges" title="Army of the Vosges">Foreign volunteers</a></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><b>Before <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">18 January 1871</a>:</b><br /><b><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></b> </p> <ul><li><span data-sort-value="Prussia"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></span></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Saxony"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg/23px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg/35px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg/45px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_Sachsen_%281815-1918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Saxony</a></span></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/19px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/29px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg/38px-Flagge_Gro%C3%9Fherzogtum_Hessen_ohne_Wappen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse">Hesse</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>and 19 smaller states</li></ul> <p><span data-sort-value="Bavaria"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bavaria_%28striped%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a></span><br /><span data-sort-value="Württemberg"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/23px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/35px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg/46px-Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Württemberg</a></span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Baden_%281855%E2%80%931891%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a><br /> </p> <hr /><span class="nowrap"><b>After 18 January 1871:</b><br /><b><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></b></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire"><img alt="Second French Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a></b> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire"><img alt="Second French Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Achille_Bazaine" title="François Achille Bazaine">François Bazaine</a>  <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire"><img alt="Second French Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Patrice_de_MacMahon" title="Patrice de MacMahon">Patrice de MacMahon</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></span> <hr /></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic"><img alt="French Third Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Louis-Jules_Trochu" title="Louis-Jules Trochu">Louis-Jules Trochu</a></b></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic"><img alt="French Third Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Léon Gambetta</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic"><img alt="French Third Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire"><img alt="German Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/William_I,_German_Emperor" title="William I, German Emperor">Wilhelm I</a></b></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire"><img alt="German Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a></b></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire"><img alt="German Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_von_Moltke_the_Elder" title="Helmuth von Moltke the Elder">Helmuth von Moltke</a></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire"><img alt="German Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_German_Emperor" title="Frederick III, German Emperor">Crown Prince Friedrich</a></span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire"><img alt="German Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Prince_Frederick_Charles_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia">Prince Friedrich Karl</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire"><img alt="German Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_von_Steinmetz" title="Karl Friedrich von Steinmetz">Karl F. von Steinmetz</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire"><img alt="German Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Roon" title="Albrecht von Roon">Albrecht von Roon</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><b>Total deployment</b>: </p> <ul><li>2,000,740<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>Initial strength</b>: </p> <ul><li>909,951</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>492,585 active, including 300,000 reservists<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199139_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199139-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>417,366 <i><a href="/wiki/Garde_Mobile" title="Garde Mobile">Garde Mobile</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199139_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199139-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></dd></dl> <p><b>Peak field army strength</b>: </p> <ul><li>710,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><b>Total deployment</b>: </p> <ul><li>1,494,412<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201718433,101_officers_and_1,113,254_men_were_deployed_into_France._A_further_348,057_officers_and_men_were_mobilized_and_stayed_in_Germany._5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201718433,101_officers_and_1,113,254_men_were_deployed_into_France._A_further_348,057_officers_and_men_were_mobilized_and_stayed_in_Germany.-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><b>Initial strength</b>: </p> <ul><li>938,424</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>730,274 regulars and reservists<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>208,150 <i><a href="/wiki/Landwehr" title="Landwehr">Landwehr</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></dd></dl> <p><b>Peak field army strength</b>: </p> <ul><li>949,337<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><b>756,285</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolte1884526–527_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENolte1884526–527-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeathCocolin20208_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeathCocolin20208-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>138,871 dead<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolte1884527_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENolte1884527-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187of_which_41,000_killed_in_action,_36,000_died_of_wounds_and_45,000_died_from_disease_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187of_which_41,000_killed_in_action,_36,000_died_of_wounds_and_45,000_died_from_disease-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeathCocolin20208_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeathCocolin20208-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>143,000 wounded</li> <li>474,414 captured or interned<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff1884247_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff1884247-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeathCocolin20208_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeathCocolin20208-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodart1916148At_least_370,000_captured_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodart1916148At_least_370,000_captured-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><b>144,642</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>44,700 dead<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187of_which_17,585_killed_in_action,_10,721_died_of_wounds,_12,147_died_from_disease,_290_died_in_accidents,_29_committed_suicide_and_4,009_were_missing_and_presumed_dead_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187of_which_17,585_killed_in_action,_10,721_died_of_wounds,_12,147_died_from_disease,_290_died_in_accidents,_29_committed_suicide_and_4,009_were_missing_and_presumed_dead-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>89,732 wounded</li> <li>10,129 missing or captured</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> ~250,000 civilians dead, including 162,000 Germans in a smallpox epidemic spread by French POWs<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; white-space"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><sup>a</sup> Until 4 September 1870.</li><li><sup>b</sup> From 4 September 1870.</li><li><sup>c</sup> From <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire" title="Proclamation of the German Empire">18 January 1871</a>.</li></ul></div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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Wörth">Wörth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bitche" title="Siege of Bitche">Bitche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lichtenberg" title="Siege of Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Phalsbourg" title="Siege of Phalsbourg">Phalsbourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Marsal" title="Siege of Marsal">Marsal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borny%E2%80%93Colombey" title="Battle of Borny–Colombey">Borny–Colombey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Strasbourg" title="Siege of Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toul" title="Siege of Toul">Toul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mars-la-Tour" title="Battle of Mars-la-Tour">Mars-la-Tour</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelotte" title="Battle of Gravelotte">Gravelotte</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Metz_(1870)" title="Siege of Metz (1870)">Metz</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buzancy" title="Battle of Buzancy">Buzancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nouart" title="Battle of Nouart">Nouart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beaumont" title="Battle of Beaumont">Beaumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Noisseville" title="Battle of Noisseville">Noisseville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bazeilles" title="Battle of Bazeilles">Bazeilles</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">Sedan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Montm%C3%A9dy" title="Siege of Montmédy">Montmédy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Soissons" title="Siege of Soissons">Soissons</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1870%E2%80%931871)" title="Siege of Paris (1870–1871)">Paris</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sceaux" title="Battle of Sceaux">Sceaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chevilly" title="Battle of Chevilly">Chevilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nompatelize" title="Battle of Nompatelize">Nompatelize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bellevue" title="Battle of Bellevue">Bellevue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artenay" title="Battle of Artenay">Artenay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ch%C3%A2tillon" title="Battle of Châtillon">Châtillon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Verdun_(1870)" title="Siege of Verdun (1870)">Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Neu-Breisach" title="Siege of Neu-Breisach">Neu-Breisach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ch%C3%A2teaudun" title="Battle of Châteaudun">Châteaudun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_S%C3%A9lestat" title="Siege of Sélestat">Sélestat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buzenval_(1870)" title="Battle of Buzenval (1870)">1st Buzenval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ognon" title="Battle of Ognon">Ognon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gray" title="Battle of Gray">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Le_Bourget" title="Battle of Le Bourget">Le Bourget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dijon_(1870)" title="Battle of Dijon (1870)">Dijon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belfort" title="Siege of Belfort">Belfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_La_F%C3%A8re" title="Siege of La Fère">La Fère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Coulmiers" title="Battle of Coulmiers">Coulmiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Havana_(1870)" title="Battle of Havana (1870)">Havana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dreux_(1870)" title="Battle of Dreux (1870)">Dreux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chateauneuf-en-Thimerais" title="Battle of Chateauneuf-en-Thimerais">Chat Chateauneuf-en-Thimerais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Thionville_(1870)" title="Siege of Thionville (1870)">Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ladon_and_M%C3%A9zi%C3%A8res" title="Battle of Ladon and Mézières">Ladon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_M%C3%A9zi%C3%A8res_(1870%E2%80%931871)" title="Siege of Mézières (1870–1871)">Mézières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bretoncelles" title="Battle of Bretoncelles">Bretoncelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_(1870)" title="Battle of Amiens (1870)">Amiens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beaune-la-Rolande" title="Battle of Beaune-la-Rolande">Beaune-la-Rolande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Varize" title="Battle of Varize">Varize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Villiers" title="Battle of Villiers">Villiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Villepion" title="Battle of Villepion">Villepion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Loigny%E2%80%93Poupry" title="Battle of Loigny–Poupry">Loigny–Poupry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Orl%C3%A9ans_(1870)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Battle of Orléans (1870)">Orléans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chateauneuf" title="Battle of Chateauneuf">Chateauneuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buchy" title="Battle of Buchy">Buchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beaugency_(1870)" title="Battle of Beaugency (1870)">Beaugency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_at_Fr%C3%A9teval" title="Fighting at Fréteval">Fréteval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vend%C3%B4me" title="Battle of Vendôme">Vendôme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight_at_Pesmes" title="Fight at Pesmes">Pesmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Longeau" title="Battle of Longeau">Longeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_at_Epuisay" title="Fighting at Epuisay">Epuisay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nuits_Saint_Georges" title="Battle of Nuits Saint Georges">Nuits Saint Georges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monnaie" title="Battle of Monnaie">Tours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hallue" title="Battle of Hallue">Hallue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_P%C3%A9ronne" title="Siege of Péronne">Péronne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bapaume_(1871)" title="Battle of Bapaume (1871)">Bapaume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rocroi" title="Siege of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Villersexel" title="Battle of Villersexel">Villersexel</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Le_Mans" title="Battle of Le Mans">Le Mans</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lisaine" title="Battle of the Lisaine">Lisaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Longwy_(1871)" title="Siege of Longwy (1871)">Longwy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1871)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1871)">St. Quentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buzenval_(1871)" title="Battle of Buzenval (1871)">2nd Buzenval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pontarlier" title="Battle of Pontarlier">Pontarlier</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_and_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Belgium and the Franco-Prussian War">Belgian reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>The <b>Franco-Prussian War</b> or <b>Franco-German War</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often referred to in France as the <b>War of 1870</b>, was a conflict between the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a> led by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>. Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 January 1871, the conflict was caused primarily by France's determination to reassert its dominant position in continental Europe, which appeared in question following the decisive <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Prussian victory over Austria in 1866</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to some historians, Prussian chancellor <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> deliberately provoked the French into declaring war on Prussia in order to induce four independent southern German states—<a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Württemberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse">Hesse-Darmstadt</a>—to join the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a>; other historians contend that Bismarck exploited the circumstances as they unfolded. All agree that Bismarck recognized the potential for new German alliances, given the situation as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamm1967308–313highlights_three_difficulties_with_the_argument_that_Bismarck_planned_or_provoked_a_French_attack._16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamm1967308–313highlights_three_difficulties_with_the_argument_that_Bismarck_planned_or_provoked_a_French_attack.-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>France mobilised its army on 15 July 1870, leading the North German Confederation to respond with its own mobilisation later that day. On 16 July 1870, the <a href="/wiki/Corps_l%C3%A9gislatif" title="Corps législatif">French parliament</a> voted to declare war on Prussia; France invaded German territory on 2 August. The German coalition mobilised its troops much more effectively than the French and invaded northeastern France on 4 August. German forces were superior in numbers, training, and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology, particularly railways and artillery. </p><p>A series of hard-fought Prussian and German victories in eastern France, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Metz_(1870)" title="Siege of Metz (1870)">Siege of Metz</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">Battle of Sedan</a>, resulted in the capture of the French Emperor <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> and the decisive defeat of the army of the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second Empire</a>; a <a href="/wiki/Government_of_National_Defense" title="Government of National Defense">Government of National Defense</a> was formed in Paris on 4 September and continued the war for another five months. German forces fought and defeated new French armies in northern France, then <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1870%E2%80%931871)" title="Siege of Paris (1870–1871)">besieged Paris</a> for over four months before it fell on 28 January 1871, effectively ending the war. </p><p>In the final days of the war, with German victory all but assured, the German states proclaimed their union as the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> under the Prussian king <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_I,_German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm I, German Emperor">Wilhelm I</a> and Chancellor Bismarck. With the notable exceptions of <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/German-speaking_Switzerland" title="German-speaking Switzerland">German Switzerland</a>, the vast majority of German-speakers were united under a <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a> for the first time. Following an armistice with France, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a> was signed on 10 May 1871, giving Germany billions of francs in <a href="/wiki/War_reparations" title="War reparations">war indemnity</a>, as well as most of <a href="/wiki/Alsace" title="Alsace">Alsace</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Lorraine" title="Lorraine">Lorraine</a>, which became the Imperial Territory of <a href="/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen</i></span>). </p><p>The war had a lasting impact on Europe. By hastening <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">German unification</a>, the war significantly altered the balance of power on the continent, with the new German state supplanting France as the dominant European land power. Bismarck maintained great authority in international affairs for two decades, developing a reputation for <i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i> that raised Germany's global stature and influence. In France, it brought a final end to imperial rule and began the first lasting republican government. Resentment over the French government's handling of the war and its aftermath triggered the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a>, a revolutionary uprising which seized and held power for two months before its suppression; the event would influence the politics and policies of the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes of the Franco-Prussian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map-NDB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Map-NDB.svg/220px-Map-NDB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Map-NDB.svg/330px-Map-NDB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Map-NDB.svg/440px-Map-NDB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2621" data-file-height="2224" /></a><figcaption>Map of the North German Confederation (red), four southern German states (orange) and <a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a> (beige)</figcaption></figure> <p>The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are rooted in the events surrounding the lead up to the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">unification of the German states</a> under <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>. France had gained the status of being the dominant power of continental Europe as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Franco-Austrian War of 1859</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Austro%E2%80%93Prussian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro–Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a> of 1866, the <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A9nie_de_Montijo" title="Eugénie de Montijo">Empress Eugénie</a>, Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Drouyn_de_Lhuys" class="mw-redirect" title="Drouyn de Lhuys">Drouyn de Lhuys</a> and War Minister <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Louis_Randon" title="Jacques Louis Randon">Jacques Louis Randon</a> were concerned that the power of Prussia might overtake that of France. They unsuccessfully urged Napoleon to mass troops at France's eastern borders while the bulk of the Prussian armies were still engaged in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> as a warning that no territorial changes could be effected in Germany without consulting France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilza200939_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilza200939-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of Prussia's annexation of several German states which had sided with Austria during the war and the formation of the <a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a> under Prussia's aegis, French public opinion stiffened and now demanded more firmness as well as territorial compensations. As a result, Napoleon demanded from Prussia a return to the French borders of 1814, with the annexation of <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Saarland" title="Saarland">Saarland</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Palatinate" title="Electoral Palatinate">Bavarian Palatinate</a>. Bismarck flatly refused what he disdainfully termed France's <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">politique des pourboires</i></span> ("tipping policy").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilza200940–41_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilza200940–41-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199140_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199140-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then communicated Napoleon's written territorial demands to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a> and the other southern German states of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Württemberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Baden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse">Hesse-Darmstadt</a>, which hastened the conclusion of defensive military alliances with these states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilza200941_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilza200941-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> France had been strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states, which would have threatened French continental dominance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199145_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199145-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The only result of French policy was the consent of Prussia to nominal independence for Saxony, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, and Hessia-Darmstadt; this was a small victory, and one without appeal to a French public which wanted territory and a French army which wanted revenge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200318_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200318-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The situation did not suit either France, which unexpectedly found itself next to the militarily powerful Prussian-led North German Confederation, or Prussia, whose foremost objective was to complete the process of uniting the German states under its control. Thus, war between the two powers since 1866 was only a matter of time. </p><p>In Prussia, some officials considered a war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire. This aim was epitomized by Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's later statement: "I did not doubt that a Franco-German war must take place before the construction of a United Germany could be realised."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Bismarck189958_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Bismarck189958-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the four southern German states to side with Prussia, hence giving Germans numerical superiority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritannica:_Franco-German_War_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritannica:_Franco-German_War-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was convinced that France would not find any allies in her war against Germany for the simple reason that "France, the victor, would be a danger to everybody—Prussia to nobody," and he added, "That is our strong point."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Bismarckvon_Poschinger190087_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Bismarckvon_Poschinger190087-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Germans also viewed the French as the traditional destabilizer of Europe, and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199141_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199141-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The immediate cause of the war was the candidacy of <a href="/wiki/Leopold_of_Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen" class="mw-redirect" title="Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen">Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen</a> to the throne of Spain. France feared an encirclement resulting from an alliance between Prussia and Spain. The <a href="/wiki/Hohenzollern" class="mw-redirect" title="Hohenzollern">Hohenzollern</a> prince's candidacy was withdrawn under French diplomatic pressure, but Otto von Bismarck goaded the French into declaring war by releasing an altered summary of the <a href="/wiki/Ems_Dispatch" class="mw-redirect" title="Ems Dispatch">Ems Dispatch</a>, a telegram sent by <a href="/wiki/William_I,_German_Emperor" title="William I, German Emperor">William I</a> rejecting French demands that Prussia never again support a Hohenzollern candidacy. Bismarck's summary, as mistranslated by the French press <a href="/wiki/Havas" title="Havas">Havas</a>, made it sound as if the king had treated the French envoy in a demeaning fashion, which inflamed public opinion in France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritannica:_Franco-German_War_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritannica:_Franco-German_War-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French historians François Roth and Pierre Milza argue that Napoleon III was pressured by a bellicose press and public opinion and thus sought war in response to France's diplomatic failures to obtain any territorial gains following the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002101_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2002101-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Napoleon III believed he would win a conflict with Prussia. Many in his court, such as <a href="/wiki/Empress_Eug%C3%A9nie" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress Eugénie">Empress Eugénie</a>, also wanted a victorious war to resolve growing domestic political problems, restore France as the undisputed leading power in Europe, and ensure the long-term survival of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bonaparte" title="House of Bonaparte">House of Bonaparte</a>. A national plebiscite held on 8 May 1870, which returned results overwhelmingly in favor of the Emperor's domestic agenda, gave the impression that the regime was politically popular and in a position to confront Prussia. Within days of the plebiscite, France's pacifist Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on,_comte_Daru" title="Napoléon, comte Daru">Napoléon, comte Daru</a>, was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Agenor,_duc_de_Gramont" class="mw-redirect" title="Agenor, duc de Gramont">Agenor, duc de Gramont</a>, a fierce opponent of Prussia who, as French Ambassador to Austria in 1866, had advocated an Austro-French military alliance against Prussia. Napoleon III's worsening health problems made him less and less capable of reining in Empress Eugénie, Gramont and the other members of the war party, known collectively as the "mameluks". For Bismarck, the nomination of Gramont was seen as "a highly bellicose symptom".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilza200949_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilza200949-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ems_telegram" class="mw-redirect" title="Ems telegram">Ems telegram</a> of 13 July 1870 had exactly the effect on French public opinion that Bismarck had intended. "This text produced the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull", Bismarck later wrote. Gramont, the French foreign minister, declared that he felt "he had just received a slap". The leader of the monarchists in Parliament, <a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Thiers" title="Adolphe Thiers">Adolphe Thiers</a>, spoke for moderation, arguing that France had won the diplomatic battle and there was no reason for war, but he was drowned out by cries that he was a traitor and a Prussian. Napoleon's new prime minister, <a href="/wiki/Emile_Ollivier" class="mw-redirect" title="Emile Ollivier">Emile Ollivier</a>, declared that France had done all that it could humanly and honorably do to prevent the war, and that he accepted the responsibility "with a light heart". A crowd of 15,000–20,000 people, carrying flags and patriotic banners, marched through the streets of Paris, demanding war. French mobilization was ordered early on 15 July.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff18818_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff18818-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon receiving news of the French mobilization, the North German Confederation mobilized on the night of 15–16 July, while Bavaria and Baden did likewise on 16 July and Württemberg on 17 July.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff188134–35_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff188134–35-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 19 July 1870, the French sent a declaration of war to the Prussian government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilza200957–59_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilza200957–59-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The southern German states immediately sided with Prussia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritannica:_Franco-German_War_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritannica:_Franco-German_War-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Napoleonic France had no documented alliance with other powers and entered the war virtually without allies. The calculation was for a victorious offensive, which, as the French Foreign Minister Gramont stated, was "the only way for France to lure the wary Austrians, Italians and Danes into the French alliance".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200385_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200385-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The involvement of Russia on the side of France was not considered by her at all, since Russia made the lifting of restrictions on its naval construction on the Black Sea imposed on Russia by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1856)" title="Treaty of Paris (1856)">Treaty of Paris</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> a precondition for the union. But Imperial France was not ready to do this. "Bonaparte did not dare to encroach on the Paris Treaty: the worse things turned out in the present, the more precious the heritage of the past became".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opposing_forces">Opposing forces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Opposing forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the organization of the two armies at the beginning of the war, see <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War_order_of_battle" title="Franco-Prussian War order of battle">Franco-Prussian War order of battle</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French">French</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: French"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-053-87,_Deutsch-franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg_1870-71.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-053-87%2C_Deutsch-franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg_1870-71.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-053-87%2C_Deutsch-franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg_1870-71.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-053-87%2C_Deutsch-franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg_1870-71.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-053-87%2C_Deutsch-franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg_1870-71.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-053-87%2C_Deutsch-franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg_1870-71.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-053-87%2C_Deutsch-franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg_1870-71.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="547" /></a><figcaption>French soldiers drill at IIe Chambrière camp near <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a>, 1870</figcaption></figure> <p>The French Army consisted in peacetime of approximately 426,000 soldiers, some of them regulars, others conscripts who until March 1869 were selected by ballot and served for the comparatively long period of seven years. Some of them were veterans of previous French campaigns in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">Algeria</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Franco-Austrian War</a> in Italy, and in the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">Mexican campaign</a>. However, following the "<a href="/wiki/Seven_Weeks_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Weeks War">Seven Weeks War</a>" between Prussia and Austria four years earlier, it had been calculated that, with commitments in Algeria and elsewhere, the French Army could field only 288,000 men to face the Prussian Army, when potentially 1,000,000 would be required.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcElwee197443_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcElwee197443-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Marshal <a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Niel" title="Adolphe Niel">Adolphe Niel</a>, urgent reforms were made. Universal conscription and a shorter period of service gave increased numbers of reservists, who would swell the army to a planned strength of 800,000 on mobilisation. Those who for any reason were not conscripted were to be enrolled in the <i><a href="/wiki/Garde_Mobile" title="Garde Mobile">Garde Mobile</a></i>, a militia with a nominal strength of 400,000. However, the Franco-Prussian War broke out before these reforms could be completely implemented. The mobilisation of reservists was chaotic and resulted in large numbers of stragglers, while the <i>Garde Mobile</i> were generally untrained and often mutinous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcElwee197446_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcElwee197446-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French infantry were equipped with the breech-loading <a href="/wiki/Chassepot_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Chassepot rifle">Chassepot rifle</a>, one of the most modern mass-produced firearms in the world at the time, with 1,037,555 available in French inventories. With a rubber ring seal and a smaller bullet, the Chassepot had a maximum effective range of some 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) with a short reloading time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002102_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2002102-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French tactics emphasised the defensive use of the Chassepot rifle in trench-warfare style fighting—the so-called <i>feu de bataillon</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002103_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2002103-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The artillery was equipped with rifled, muzzle-loaded <a href="/wiki/La_Hitte_system#Change_in_meaning_of_gun_designations" title="La Hitte system">La Hitte guns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward19914_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward19914-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The army also possessed a precursor to the machine-gun: the <a href="/wiki/Mitrailleuse" title="Mitrailleuse">mitrailleuse</a>, which could unleash significant, concentrated firepower but nevertheless lacked range and was comparatively immobile, and thus prone to being easily overrun. The mitrailleuse was mounted on an artillery gun carriage and grouped in <a href="/wiki/Artillery_battery" title="Artillery battery">batteries</a> in a similar fashion to cannon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002102_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2002102-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The army was nominally led by Napoleon III, with Marshals <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Achille_Bazaine" title="François Achille Bazaine">François Achille Bazaine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patrice_de_MacMahon" title="Patrice de MacMahon">Patrice de MacMahon</a> in command of the field armies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201020_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201020-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there was no previously arranged plan of campaign in place. The only campaign plan prepared between 1866 and 1870 was a defensive one.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199145_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199145-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prussians/Germans"><span id="Prussians.2FGermans"></span>Prussians/Germans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Prussians/Germans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Troupes_allemandes_%C3%A0_Torcy_en_septembre_1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Troupes_allemandes_%C3%A0_Torcy_en_septembre_1870.jpg/220px-Troupes_allemandes_%C3%A0_Torcy_en_septembre_1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Troupes_allemandes_%C3%A0_Torcy_en_septembre_1870.jpg/330px-Troupes_allemandes_%C3%A0_Torcy_en_septembre_1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Troupes_allemandes_%C3%A0_Torcy_en_septembre_1870.jpg/440px-Troupes_allemandes_%C3%A0_Torcy_en_septembre_1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1491" data-file-height="1404" /></a><figcaption>Prussian field artillery column at <a href="/wiki/Torcy,_Seine-et-Marne" title="Torcy, Seine-et-Marne">Torcy</a> in September 1870</figcaption></figure> <p>The German army comprised that of the North German Confederation led by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, and the South German states drawn in under the secret clause of the preliminary peace of Nikolsburg, 26 July 1866,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscoli20019_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscoli20019-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and formalised in the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1866)" title="Peace of Prague (1866)">Treaty of Prague</a>, 23 August 1866.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliot-WrightShann199329_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliot-WrightShann199329-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recruitment and organisation of the various armies were almost identical, and based on the concept of conscripting annual classes of men who then served in the regular regiments for a fixed term before being moved to the reserves. This process gave a theoretical peace time strength of 382,000 and a wartime strength of about 1,189,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarry2009a43_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry2009a43-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>German tactics emphasised <a href="/wiki/Pincer_movement" title="Pincer movement">encirclement battles</a> like <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae" title="Battle of Cannae">Cannae</a> and using artillery offensively whenever possible. Rather than advancing in a column or <a href="/wiki/Line_infantry" title="Line infantry">line formation</a>, Prussian infantry <a href="/wiki/Skirmish#American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Skirmish">moved in small groups</a> that were harder to target by artillery or French defensive fire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200289_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200289-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sheer number of soldiers available made encirclement <i>en masse</i> and destruction of French formations relatively easy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002110_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2002110-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The army was equipped with the <a href="/wiki/Dreyse_needle_gun" title="Dreyse needle gun">Dreyse needle gun</a> renowned for its use at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_K%C3%B6niggr%C3%A4tz" title="Battle of Königgrätz">Battle of Königgrätz</a>, which was by this time showing the age of its 25-year-old design.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002102_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2002102-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rifle had a range of only 600 m (2,000 ft) and lacked the rubber breech seal that permitted aimed shots.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201030_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201030-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The deficiencies of the needle gun were more than compensated for by the famous <a href="/wiki/C64_(field_gun)" title="C64 (field gun)">Krupp 6-pounder</a> (6 kg despite the gun being called a 6-pounder, the rifling technology enabled guns to fire twice the weight of projectiles in the same calibre) steel breech-loading cannons being issued to Prussian artillery batteries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002113_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2002113-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Firing a contact-detonated shell, the <a href="/wiki/Krupp_gun" title="Krupp gun">Krupp gun</a> had a longer range and a higher rate of fire than the French bronze <a href="/wiki/Muzzle_loading" class="mw-redirect" title="Muzzle loading">muzzle loading</a> cannon, which relied on time fuses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200358_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200358-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Prussian army was controlled by the <a href="/wiki/German_General_Staff" title="German General Staff">General Staff</a>, under General <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_Graf_von_Moltke" class="mw-redirect" title="Helmuth Graf von Moltke">Helmuth von Moltke</a>. The Prussian army was unique in Europe for having the only such organisation in existence, whose purpose in peacetime was to prepare the overall war strategy, and in wartime to <a href="/wiki/Operational_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Operational art">direct operational movement</a> and organise logistics and communications.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZabecki20085–7_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabecki20085–7-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The officers of the General Staff were hand-picked from the Prussian <i><a href="/wiki/Prussian_Military_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian Military Academy">Kriegsakademie</a></i> (War Academy). Moltke embraced new technology, particularly the railroad and telegraph, to coordinate and accelerate mobilisation of large forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200347_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200347-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="French_Army_incursion">French Army incursion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: French Army incursion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preparations_for_the_offensive">Preparations for the offensive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Preparations for the offensive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FrancoPrussianWarFrontierJuly1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/FrancoPrussianWarFrontierJuly1870.jpg/220px-FrancoPrussianWarFrontierJuly1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/FrancoPrussianWarFrontierJuly1870.jpg/330px-FrancoPrussianWarFrontierJuly1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/FrancoPrussianWarFrontierJuly1870.jpg/440px-FrancoPrussianWarFrontierJuly1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1083" data-file-height="928" /></a><figcaption>Map of the German and French armies near the common border on 31 July 1870</figcaption></figure> <p>On 28 July 1870 Napoleon III left Paris for <a href="/wiki/Metz" title="Metz">Metz</a> and assumed command of the newly titled Army of the Rhine, some 202,448 strong and expected to grow as the French mobilization progressed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199178_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199178-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marshal_MacMahon" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshal MacMahon">Marshal MacMahon</a> took command of I Corps (4 infantry divisions) near <a href="/wiki/Wissembourg" title="Wissembourg">Wissembourg</a>, Marshal <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Certain_Canrobert" class="mw-redirect" title="François Certain Canrobert">François Canrobert</a> brought VI Corps (4 infantry divisions) to <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2lons-en-Champagne" title="Châlons-en-Champagne">Châlons-sur-Marne</a> in northern France as a reserve and to guard against a Prussian advance through <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199169,_78–79_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199169,_78–79-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A pre-war plan laid down by the late Marshal Niel called for a strong French offensive from <a href="/wiki/Thionville" title="Thionville">Thionville</a> towards <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a> and into the Prussian Rhineland. This plan was discarded in favour of a defensive plan by Generals <a href="/wiki/Charles_Auguste_Frossard" title="Charles Auguste Frossard">Charles Frossard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barth%C3%A9l%C3%A9my_Louis_Joseph_Lebrun" title="Barthélémy Louis Joseph Lebrun">Bartélemy Lebrun</a>, which called for the Army of the Rhine to remain in a defensive posture near the German border and repel any Prussian offensive. As Austria, along with Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden were expected to join in a revenge war against Prussia, I Corps would invade the <a href="/wiki/Palatinate_of_the_Rhine" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatinate of the Rhine">Bavarian Palatinate</a> and proceed to "free" the four South German states in concert with Austro-Hungarian forces. VI Corps would reinforce either army as needed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200366–67_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200366–67-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unfortunately for Frossard's plan, the Prussian army mobilised far more rapidly than expected. The Austro-Hungarians, still reeling after their defeat by Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War, were treading carefully before stating that they would only side with France if the south Germans viewed the French positively. This did not materialize as the four South German states had come to Prussia's aid and were mobilizing their armies against France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199147–48,_60_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199147–48,_60-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupation_of_Saarbrücken"><span id="Occupation_of_Saarbr.C3.BCcken"></span>Occupation of Saarbrücken</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Occupation of Saarbrücken"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saarbr%C3%BCcken" title="Battle of Saarbrücken">Battle of Saarbrücken</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_1_toSedan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_1_toSedan.svg/370px-Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_1_toSedan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_1_toSedan.svg/555px-Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_1_toSedan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_1_toSedan.svg/740px-Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_1_toSedan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="658" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>Course of the first phase of the war up to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">Battle of Sedan</a> on 1 September 1870</figcaption></figure> <p>Napoleon III was under substantial domestic pressure to launch an offensive before the full might of Moltke's forces was mobilized and deployed. Reconnaissance by Frossard's forces had identified only the <a href="/wiki/16th_Division_(German_Empire)" title="16th Division (German Empire)">Prussian 16th Infantry Division</a> guarding the border town of <a href="/wiki/Saarbr%C3%BCcken#19th_century" title="Saarbrücken">Saarbrücken</a>, right before the entire Army of the Rhine. Accordingly, on 31 July the Army marched forward toward the <a href="/wiki/Saar_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Saar River">Saar River</a> to seize Saarbrücken.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200385–86,_90_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200385–86,_90-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>General Frossard's II Corps and Marshal Bazaine's III Corps crossed the German border on 2 August, and began to force the Prussian 40th Regiment of the <a href="/wiki/16th_Division_(German_Empire)" title="16th Division (German Empire)">16th Infantry Division</a> from the town of Saarbrücken with a series of direct attacks. The Chassepot rifle proved its worth against the <a href="/wiki/Needle_gun" title="Needle gun">Dreyse rifle</a>, with French riflemen regularly outdistancing their Prussian counterparts in the skirmishing around Saarbrücken. However the Prussians resisted strongly, and the French suffered 86 casualties to the Prussian 83 casualties. Saarbrücken also proved to be a major obstacle in terms of logistics. Only one railway there led to the German hinterland but could be easily defended by a single force, and the only river systems in the region ran along the border instead of inland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200387,_90_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200387,_90-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the French hailed the invasion as the first step towards the Rhineland and later Berlin, General <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Le_B%C5%93uf" title="Edmond Le Bœuf">Edmond Le Bœuf</a> and Napoleon III were receiving alarming reports from foreign news sources of Prussian and Bavarian armies massing to the southeast in addition to the forces to the north and northeast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200394_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200394-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moltke had indeed massed three armies in the area—the Prussian First Army with 50,000 men, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_von_Steinmetz" title="Karl Friedrich von Steinmetz">General Karl von Steinmetz</a> opposite <a href="/wiki/Saarlouis" title="Saarlouis">Saarlouis</a>, the Prussian Second Army with 134,000 men commanded by <a href="/wiki/Prince_Friedrich_Karl_of_Prussia_(1828%E2%80%931885)" title="Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia (1828–1885)">Prince Friedrich Karl</a> opposite the line <a href="/wiki/Forbach" title="Forbach">Forbach</a>-<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spicheren" title="Battle of Spicheren">Spicheren</a>, and the Prussian Third Army with 120,000 men commanded by Crown Prince <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_III,_German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich III, German Emperor">Friedrich Wilhelm</a>, poised to cross the border at Wissembourg.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199182_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199182-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prussian_Army_advance">Prussian Army advance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Prussian Army advance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Wissembourg">Battle of Wissembourg</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Battle of Wissembourg"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wissembourg_(1870)" title="Battle of Wissembourg (1870)">Battle of Wissembourg (1870)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uniform-Bilder_K%C3%B6niglich_Bayerisches_Infanterie-Regiment_Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ernst_Ludwig_von_Hessen_007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Uniform-Bilder_K%C3%B6niglich_Bayerisches_Infanterie-Regiment_Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ernst_Ludwig_von_Hessen_007.jpg/220px-Uniform-Bilder_K%C3%B6niglich_Bayerisches_Infanterie-Regiment_Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ernst_Ludwig_von_Hessen_007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Uniform-Bilder_K%C3%B6niglich_Bayerisches_Infanterie-Regiment_Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ernst_Ludwig_von_Hessen_007.jpg/330px-Uniform-Bilder_K%C3%B6niglich_Bayerisches_Infanterie-Regiment_Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ernst_Ludwig_von_Hessen_007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Uniform-Bilder_K%C3%B6niglich_Bayerisches_Infanterie-Regiment_Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ernst_Ludwig_von_Hessen_007.jpg/440px-Uniform-Bilder_K%C3%B6niglich_Bayerisches_Infanterie-Regiment_Gro%C3%9Fherzog_Ernst_Ludwig_von_Hessen_007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2944" data-file-height="2222" /></a><figcaption>Bavarian infantry at the Battle of Wissembourg, 1870</figcaption></figure> <p>Upon learning from captured Prussian soldiers and a local area police chief that the Prussian Crown Prince's Third Army was just 30 miles (48 km) north from <a href="/wiki/Saarbr%C3%BCcken" title="Saarbrücken">Saarbrücken</a> near the Rhine river town Wissembourg, General Le Bœuf and Napoleon III decided to retreat to defensive positions. General Frossard, without instructions, hastily withdrew his elements of the Army of the Rhine in Saarbrücken back across the river to <a href="/wiki/Spicheren" title="Spicheren">Spicheren</a> and Forbach.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200395_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200395-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marshal MacMahon, now closest to Wissembourg, spread his four divisions 20 miles (32 km) to react to any Prussian-Bavarian invasion. This organization was due to a lack of supplies, forcing each division to seek out food and forage from the countryside and from the representatives of the army supply arm that was supposed to furnish them with provisions. What made a bad situation much worse was the conduct of General <a href="/wiki/Auguste-Alexandre_Ducrot" title="Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot">Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot</a>, commander of the 1st Division. He told General <a href="/wiki/Abel_Douay" title="Abel Douay">Abel Douay</a>, commander of the 2nd Division, on 1 August that <i>"The information I have received makes me suppose that the enemy has no considerable forces very near his advance posts, and has no desire to take the offensive"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1991100–101_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1991100–101-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two days later, he told MacMahon that he had not found <i>"a single enemy post ... it looks to me as if the menace of the Bavarians is simply bluff"</i>. Even though Ducrot shrugged off the possibility of an attack by the Germans, MacMahon tried to warn his other three division commanders, without success.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1991101_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1991101-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first action of the Franco-Prussian War took place on 4 August 1870. This battle saw the unsupported division of General Douay of I Corps, with some attached cavalry, which was posted to watch the border, attacked in overwhelming but uncoordinated fashion by the German 3rd Army. During the day, elements of a Bavarian and two Prussian corps became engaged and were aided by Prussian artillery, which blasted holes in the city defenses. Douay held a very strong position initially, thanks to the accurate long-range rapid fire of the Chassepot rifles, but his force was too thinly stretched to hold it. Douay was killed in the late morning when a <a href="/wiki/Caisson_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caisson (military)">caisson</a> of the divisional mitrailleuse battery exploded near him; the encirclement of the town by the Prussians then threatened the French avenue of retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200397–98,_101_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200397–98,_101-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fighting within the town had become extremely intense, becoming a door to door battle of survival. Despite an unceasing attack from Prussian infantry, the soldiers of the 2nd Division kept to their positions. The people of the town of Wissembourg finally surrendered to the Germans. The French troops who did not surrender retreated westward, leaving behind <span class="nowrap">1,000 dead</span> and wounded and another <span class="nowrap">1,000 prisoners</span> and all of their remaining ammunition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003101–103_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003101–103-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final attack by the Prussian troops also cost <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1,000 casualties.</span> The German cavalry then failed to pursue the French and lost touch with them. The attackers had an initial superiority of numbers, a broad deployment which made envelopment highly likely but the effectiveness of French Chassepot-rifle fire inflicted costly repulses on infantry attacks, until the French infantry had been extensively bombarded by the Prussian artillery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1991101–103_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1991101–103-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Spicheren">Battle of Spicheren</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Battle of Spicheren"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spicheren" title="Battle of Spicheren">Battle of Spicheren</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FrancoPrussianWar5to6Aug1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/FrancoPrussianWar5to6Aug1870.jpg/220px-FrancoPrussianWar5to6Aug1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/FrancoPrussianWar5to6Aug1870.jpg/330px-FrancoPrussianWar5to6Aug1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/FrancoPrussianWar5to6Aug1870.jpg/440px-FrancoPrussianWar5to6Aug1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1083" data-file-height="928" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Prussian and German offensives, 5–6 August 1870</figcaption></figure> <p>The Battle of Spicheren on 5 August was the second of three critical French defeats. Moltke had originally planned to keep Bazaine's army on the Saar River until he could attack it with the 2nd Army in front and the 1st Army on its left flank, while the 3rd Army closed towards the rear. The aging General von Steinmetz made an overzealous, unplanned move, leading the 1st Army south from his position on the <a href="/wiki/Moselle" title="Moselle">Moselle</a>. He moved straight toward the town of Spicheren, cutting off <a href="/wiki/Prince_Frederick_Charles" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Frederick Charles">Prince Frederick Charles</a> from his forward cavalry units in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003108_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003108-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the French side, planning after the disaster at Wissembourg had become essential. General Le Bœuf, flushed with anger, was intent upon going on the offensive over the Saar and countering their loss. However, planning for the next encounter was more based upon the reality of unfolding events rather than emotion or pride, as Intendant General Wolff told him and his staff that supply beyond the Saar would be impossible. Therefore, the armies of France would take up a defensive position that would protect against every possible attack point, but also left the armies unable to support each other.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199187–88_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199187–88-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the French army under General MacMahon engaged the German 3rd Army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_W%C3%B6rth" title="Battle of Wörth">Battle of Wörth</a>, the German 1st Army under Steinmetz finished their advance west from Saarbrücken. A patrol from the German 2nd Army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia spotted decoy fires nearby and Frossard's army farther off on a distant plateau south of the town of Spicheren, and took this as a sign of Frossard's retreat. Ignoring Moltke's plan again, both German armies attacked Frossard's French 2nd Corps, fortified between Spicheren and Forbach.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199189–90_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199189–90-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The French were unaware of German numerical superiority at the beginning of the battle as the German 2nd Army did not attack all at once. Treating the oncoming attacks as merely skirmishes, Frossard did not request additional support from other units. By the time he realized what kind of a force he was opposing, it was too late. Seriously flawed communications between Frossard and those in reserve under Bazaine slowed down so much that by the time the reserves received orders to move out to Spicheren, German soldiers from the 1st and 2nd armies had charged up the heights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199192–93_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199192–93-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the reserves had not arrived, Frossard erroneously believed that he was in grave danger of being outflanked, as German soldiers under General von Glume were spotted in Forbach. Instead of continuing to defend the heights, by the close of battle after dusk he retreated to the south. The German casualties were relatively high due to the advance and the effectiveness of the Chassepot rifle. They were quite startled in the morning when they had found out that their efforts were not in vain—Frossard had abandoned his position on the heights.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199198–99_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199198–99-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Wörth"><span id="Battle_of_W.C3.B6rth"></span>Battle of Wörth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Battle of Wörth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_W%C3%B6rth" title="Battle of Wörth">Battle of Wörth</a></div> <p>The Battle of Wörth began when the two armies clashed again on 6 August near <a href="/wiki/W%C5%93rth" title="Wœrth">Wörth</a> in the town of <a href="/wiki/Fr%C5%93schwiller" title="Frœschwiller">Frœschwiller</a>, about 10 miles (16 km) from <a href="/wiki/Wissembourg" title="Wissembourg">Wissembourg</a>. The Crown Prince of Prussia's 3rd army had, on the quick reaction of his Chief of Staff General von Blumenthal, drawn reinforcements which brought its strength up to 140,000 troops. The French had been slowly reinforced and their force numbered only 35,000. Although badly outnumbered, the French defended their position just outside Frœschwiller. By afternoon, the Germans had suffered <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 10,500 killed</span> or wounded and the French had lost a similar number of casualties and another <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 9,200 men</span> taken prisoner, a loss of about 50%. The Germans captured Fröschwiller which sat on a hilltop in the centre of the French line. Having lost any hope for victory and facing a massacre, the French army disengaged and retreated in a westerly direction towards Bitche and Saverne, hoping to join French forces on the other side of the <a href="/wiki/Vosges" title="Vosges">Vosges mountains</a>. The German 3rd army did not pursue the French but remained in Alsace and moved slowly south, attacking and destroying the French garrisons in the vicinity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1979108–117_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1979108–117-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour">Battle of Mars-La-Tour</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Battle of Mars-La-Tour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Mars-La-Tour">Battle of Mars-La-Tour</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour,_August_16,1870_by_Emil_H%C3%BCnten.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour%2C_August_16%2C1870_by_Emil_H%C3%BCnten.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour%2C_August_16%2C1870_by_Emil_H%C3%BCnten.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour%2C_August_16%2C1870_by_Emil_H%C3%BCnten.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour%2C_August_16%2C1870_by_Emil_H%C3%BCnten.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour%2C_August_16%2C1870_by_Emil_H%C3%BCnten.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Mars-La-Tour%2C_August_16%2C1870_by_Emil_H%C3%BCnten.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1702" /></a><figcaption>Heinrich XVII, Prince Reuss, on the side of the 5th Squadron I Guards Dragoon Regiment at Mars-la-Tour, 16 August 1870. <a href="/wiki/Emil_H%C3%BCnten" title="Emil Hünten">Emil Hünten</a>, 1902</figcaption></figure> <p>About 160,000 French soldiers were besieged in the fortress of Metz following the defeats on the frontier. A retirement from Metz to link up with French forces at Châlons was ordered on 15 August and spotted by a Prussian cavalry patrol under Major Oskar von Blumenthal. Next day a grossly outnumbered Prussian force of 30,000 men of III Corps (of the 2nd Army) under General <a href="/wiki/Constantin_von_Alvensleben" title="Constantin von Alvensleben">Constantin von Alvensleben</a>, found the French Army near Vionville, east of Mars-la-Tour.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1979145_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1979145-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite odds of four to one, the III Corps launched a risky attack. The French were routed and the III Corps captured Vionville, blocking any further escape attempts to the west. Once blocked from retreat, the French in the fortress of Metz had no choice but to engage in a fight that would see the last major cavalry engagement in Western Europe. The battle soon erupted, and III Corps was shattered by incessant <a href="/wiki/Cavalry_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavalry charge">cavalry charges</a>, losing over half its soldiers. The German Official History recorded <span class="nowrap">15,780 casualties</span> and French casualties of <span class="nowrap">13,761 men.</span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1979152–161_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1979152–161-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 16 August, the French had a chance to sweep away the key Prussian defense, and to escape. Two Prussian corps had attacked the French advance guard, thinking that it was the rearguard of the retreat of the French Army of the Meuse. Despite this misjudgment the two Prussian corps held the entire French army for the whole day. Outnumbered 5 to 1, the extraordinary élan of the Prussians prevailed over gross indecision by the French. The French had lost the opportunity to win a decisive victory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1979160–163_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1979160–163-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Gravelotte">Battle of Gravelotte</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Battle of Gravelotte"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Special:EditPage/Franco-Prussian War">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelotte" title="Battle of Gravelotte">Battle of Gravelotte</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ernst_Zimmer_-_Das_Lauenburgische_J%C3%A4ger-Bataillon_Nr._9_bei_Gravelotte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ernst_Zimmer_-_Das_Lauenburgische_J%C3%A4ger-Bataillon_Nr._9_bei_Gravelotte.jpg/220px-Ernst_Zimmer_-_Das_Lauenburgische_J%C3%A4ger-Bataillon_Nr._9_bei_Gravelotte.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ernst_Zimmer_-_Das_Lauenburgische_J%C3%A4ger-Bataillon_Nr._9_bei_Gravelotte.jpg/330px-Ernst_Zimmer_-_Das_Lauenburgische_J%C3%A4ger-Bataillon_Nr._9_bei_Gravelotte.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ernst_Zimmer_-_Das_Lauenburgische_J%C3%A4ger-Bataillon_Nr._9_bei_Gravelotte.jpg/440px-Ernst_Zimmer_-_Das_Lauenburgische_J%C3%A4ger-Bataillon_Nr._9_bei_Gravelotte.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2101" data-file-height="1078" /></a><figcaption>The "Rifle Battalion 9 from Lauenburg" at Gravelotte</figcaption></figure> <p>The Battle of Gravelotte, or Gravelotte–St. Privat (18 August), was the largest battle in the Franco-Prussian War. It was fought about 6 miles (9.7 km) west of Metz, where on the previous day, having intercepted the French army's retreat to the west at the Battle of Mars-La-Tour, the Prussians were now closing in to complete the destruction of the French forces. The combined German forces, under Field Marshal Count Helmuth von Moltke, were the Prussian First and Second Armies of the North German Confederation numbering about 210 infantry battalions, 133 cavalry squadrons, and 732 heavy cannons totaling 188,332 officers and men. The French Army of the Rhine, commanded by Marshal François-Achille Bazaine, numbering about 183 infantry battalions, 104 cavalry squadrons, backed by 520 heavy cannons, totaling 112,800 officers and men, dug in along high ground with their southern left flank at the town of <a href="/wiki/Roz%C3%A9rieulles" title="Rozérieulles">Rozérieulles</a>, and their northern right flank at <a href="/wiki/Saint-Privat-la-Montagne" title="Saint-Privat-la-Montagne">St. Privat</a>. </p><p>On 18 August, the battle began when at 08:00 Moltke ordered the First and Second Armies to advance against the French positions. The French were dug in with trenches and rifle pits with their artillery and their mitrailleuses in concealed positions. Backed by artillery fire, Steinmetz's VII and VIII Corps launched attacks across the Mance ravine, all of which were defeated by French rifle and mitrailleuse firepower, forcing the two German corps' to withdraw to Rezonville. The Prussian <a href="/wiki/1st_Guards_Infantry_Division_(German_Empire)" title="1st Guards Infantry Division (German Empire)">1st Guards Infantry Division</a> assaulted French-held St. Privat and was pinned down by French fire from rifle pits and trenches. The Second Army under Prince Frederick Charles used its artillery to pulverize the French position at St. Privat. His XII Corps took the town of Roncourt and helped the Guard conquer St. Privat, while <a href="/wiki/Eduard_von_Fransecky" title="Eduard von Fransecky">Eduard von Fransecky</a>'s II Corps advanced across the Mance ravine. The fighting died down at 22:00. </p><p>The next morning the French Army of the Rhine retreated to Metz where they were besieged and forced to surrender two months later. A grand total of 20,163 German troops were killed, wounded or missing in action during the August 18 battle. The French losses were 7,855 killed and wounded along with 4,420 prisoners of war (half of them were wounded) for a total of 12,275. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siege_of_Metz">Siege of Metz</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Siege of Metz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Metz_(1870)" title="Siege of Metz (1870)">Siege of Metz (1870)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Freyberg_%E2%80%93_%C3%9Cbergabe_von_Metz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Freyberg_%E2%80%93_%C3%9Cbergabe_von_Metz.jpg/220px-Freyberg_%E2%80%93_%C3%9Cbergabe_von_Metz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Freyberg_%E2%80%93_%C3%9Cbergabe_von_Metz.jpg/330px-Freyberg_%E2%80%93_%C3%9Cbergabe_von_Metz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Freyberg_%E2%80%93_%C3%9Cbergabe_von_Metz.jpg/440px-Freyberg_%E2%80%93_%C3%9Cbergabe_von_Metz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="594" data-file-height="274" /></a><figcaption>Surrender of Metz</figcaption></figure> <p>With the defeat of Marshal Bazaine's Army of the Rhine at Gravelotte, the French retreated to Metz, where they were besieged by over 150,000 Prussian troops of the First and Second Armies. Further military operations on the part of the army under Bazaine's command have drawn numerous criticisms from historians against its commander. It was later stated with derogatory irony that his occupation at that time was writing orders on hygiene and discipline, as well as playing dominoes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003196_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003196-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bazaine's surprising inactivity was a great relief to Moltke, who now had time to improve his lines around Metz and intensify the hunt for MacMahon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003201_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003201-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At this time, Napoleon III and MacMahon formed the new French <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Ch%C3%A2lons" title="Army of Châlons">Army of Châlons</a> to march on to Metz to rescue Bazaine. Napoleon III personally led the army with Marshal MacMahon in attendance. The Army of Châlons marched northeast towards the Belgian border to avoid the Prussians before striking south to link up with Bazaine. The Prussians took advantage of this maneuver to catch the French in a pincer grip. Moltke left the Prussian First and Second Armies besieging Metz, except three corps detached to form the Army of the Meuse under the Crown Prince of Saxony. With this army and the Prussian Third Army, Moltke marched northward and caught up with the French at Beaumont on 30 August. After a sharp fight in which they lost 5,000 men and 40 cannons, the French withdrew toward Sedan. Having reformed in the town, the Army of Châlons was immediately isolated by the converging Prussian armies. Napoleon III ordered the army to break out of the encirclement immediately. With MacMahon wounded on the previous day, General Auguste Ducrot took command of the French troops in the field. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Sedan">Battle of Sedan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Battle of Sedan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">Battle of Sedan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg/220px-BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg/330px-BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg/440px-BismarckundNapoleonIII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1516" data-file-height="1053" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon III of France">Napoleon III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a> talk after Napoleon's capture at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">Battle of Sedan</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Camphausen" title="Wilhelm Camphausen">Wilhelm Camphausen</a></figcaption></figure> <p>On 1 September 1870, the battle opened with the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Ch%C3%A2lons" title="Army of Châlons">Army of Châlons</a>, with 202 infantry battalions, 80 cavalry squadrons and 564 guns, attacking the surrounding Prussian Third and Meuse Armies totaling 222 infantry battalions, 186 cavalry squadrons and 774 guns. General <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_F%C3%A9lix_de_Wimpffen" title="Emmanuel Félix de Wimpffen">Emmanuel Félix de Wimpffen</a>, the commander of the French V Corps in reserve, hoped to launch a combined infantry and cavalry attack against the Prussian XI Corps. But by 11:00, Prussian artillery took a toll on the French while more Prussian troops arrived on the battlefield. The struggle in the conditions of encirclement turned out to be absolutely impossible for the French—their front was shot through with artillery fire from three sides. The French cavalry, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Auguste_Margueritte" title="Jean Auguste Margueritte">General Margueritte</a>, launched three desperate attacks on the nearby village of <a href="/wiki/Floing,_Ardennes" title="Floing, Ardennes">Floing</a> where the Prussian XI Corps was concentrated. Margueritte was mortally wounded leading the very first charge, dying 4 days later, and the two additional charges led to nothing but heavy losses. By the end of the day, with no hope of breaking out, Napoleon III called off the attacks. The French lost over 17,000 men, killed or wounded, with 21,000 captured. The Prussians reported their losses at 2,320 killed, 5,980 wounded and 700 captured or missing. By the next day, on 2 September, Napoleon III surrendered and was taken prisoner with 104,000 of his soldiers. It was an overwhelming victory for the Prussians, who had captured an entire French army and the leader of France. They subsequently paraded the defeated French army in view of the besieged army in Metz, which had an impact on the morale of the defenders. The defeat of the French at Sedan had decided the war in Prussia's favour. One French army was now immobilised and besieged in the city of Metz, and nothing was preventing a Prussian invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003240_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003240-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This defeat was humiliating for the already morally defeated French army and opened the paveway for the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1870%E2%80%931871)" title="Siege of Paris (1870–1871)">Siege of Paris</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surrender_of_Metz">Surrender of Metz</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Surrender of Metz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bazaine, a well-known Bonapartist, at this time allowed himself to be carried away by illusory plans for a political role in France. Unconventional military plans were put forth, by which the Germans would allow the army under Bazaine's command to withdraw from the fortress of Metz to retreat to the south of France, where it would remain until the German armies captured Paris, eliminated the political usurpers and made room for the legitimate imperial authorities with the support of Bazaine's army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003244_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003244-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even ignoring moral issues and potential public outcry, this plan seems completely unrealistic. Bismarck and Moltke answered Bazaine's offer of "cooperation" against the "republican menace" with an indifferent shrug.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003247_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003247-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German press, undoubtedly at the instigation of Bismarck, widely covered this topic, and reported the details of Bazaine's negotiations. The French press could only remain completely silent on this issue. With whom Bazaine negotiated still raises questions among historians. "For a decade, the French were considered him (M. Edmond Regnier) a sinister figure, almost certainly an agent of Bismarck. They would have been more justified in thinking him a buffoon".<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Undoubtedly, the politically motivated actions of Commander Bazaine led to the passivity of the encircled army at Metz and contributed to the defeat of not only this army, but the country as a whole. Bazaine's army surrendered on 26 October. 173,000 people surrendered, with the Prussians capturing the huge amount of military equipment located in Metz. After the war, Marshal Bazaine was convicted by a French military court. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_of_the_Government_of_National_Defence">War of the Government of National Defence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: War of the Government of National Defence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_of_National_Defence">Government of National Defence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Government of National Defence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_2_deu_ger_all.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_2_deu_ger_all.svg/370px-Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_2_deu_ger_all.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_2_deu_ger_all.svg/555px-Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_2_deu_ger_all.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_2_deu_ger_all.svg/740px-Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_2_deu_ger_all.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1041" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption>Course of the second phase of the war (part 1: 1 September to 30 November)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_3_deu_ger_all.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_3_deu_ger_all.svg/370px-Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_3_deu_ger_all.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_3_deu_ger_all.svg/555px-Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_3_deu_ger_all.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_3_deu_ger_all.svg/740px-Franco-Prussian-War_Phase_3_deu_ger_all.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1041" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption>Course of the second phase of the war (part 2: 1 December until the end of the war)</figcaption></figure> <p>When news of Napoleon III's surrender at Sedan arrived in Paris, the Second Empire was overthrown by a popular uprising. On 4 September, <a href="/wiki/Jules_Favre" title="Jules Favre">Jules Favre</a>, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Léon Gambetta</a>, and General <a href="/wiki/Louis-Jules_Trochu" title="Louis-Jules Trochu">Louis-Jules Trochu</a> proclaimed a provisional government called the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_National_Defence" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of National Defence">Government of National Defence</a> and a <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldick197420–21_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldick197420–21-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the German victory at Sedan, most of the French standing army was either besieged in Metz or held prisoner by the Germans, who hoped for an armistice and an end to the war. Bismarck wanted an early peace but had difficulty finding a legitimate French authority with whom to negotiate. The Emperor was a captive and the Empress in exile, but there had been no abdication <i>de jure</i> and the army was still bound by an oath of allegiance to the defunct imperial regime; on the other hand, the Government of National Defence had no electoral mandate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1979228–231_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1979228–231-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prussia's intention was to weaken the political position of France abroad. The defensive position of the new French authorities, who offered Germany an honorable peace and reimbursement of the costs of the war, was presented by Prussia as aggressive; they rejected the conditions put forward and demanded the annexation of the French provinces of Alsace and part of Lorraine. Bismarck was dangling the Emperor over the republic's head, calling Napoleon III "the legitimate ruler of France" and dismissing Gambetta's new republic as no more than "<i>un coup de parti</i>" ("a partisan coup").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003240_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003240-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This policy was to some extent successful; the European press discussed the legitimacy of the French authorities, and Prussia's aggressive position was to some extent understood. Only the United States and Spain recognized the Government of National Defence immediately after the announcement; other countries refused to do this for some time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003239_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003239-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The question of legitimacy is rather strange for France after <a href="/wiki/1851_French_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1851 French coup d'état">the coup d'état of 1851</a>, since Louis-Napoleon himself only overthrew the Second Republic and rose to the imperial throne by means of a coup d'état. </p><p>The Germans expected to negotiate an end to the war, but while the republican government was amenable to <a href="/wiki/War_reparations" title="War reparations">war reparations</a> or ceding colonial territories in Africa or Southeast Asia, it would go no further. On behalf of the Government of National Defense, Favre declared on 6 September that France would not "yield an inch of its territory nor a stone of its fortresses".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig198031_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig198031-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The republic then renewed the declaration of war, called for recruits in all parts of the country, and pledged to drive the German troops out of France by a <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Attaque_%C3%A0_outrance" title="Attaque à outrance">guerre à outrance</a></i></span> ('overwhelming attack').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1979234_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1979234-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Germans continued the war, yet could not pin down any proper military opposition in their vicinity. As the bulk of the remaining French armies was digging in near Paris, the German leaders decided to put pressure upon their enemy by attacking there. By 15 September, German troops had reached the outskirts and Moltke issued the orders to <a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">surround</a> the city. On 19 September, the Germans surrounded it and erected a blockade, as already established at Metz, completing the encirclement on 20 September.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Relative_time_references" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="Clarify the applicable timeframe so that it is unambiguous when read at a later date. (February 2023)">timeframe?</span></a></i>]</sup> Bismarck met Favre on 18 September at the <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Ferri%C3%A8res" title="Château de Ferrières">Château de Ferrières</a> and demanded a frontier immune to a French war of revenge, which included <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, Alsace, and most of the <a href="/wiki/Moselle_(department)" title="Moselle (department)">Moselle department</a> in Lorraine, of which Metz was the capital. In return for an armistice for the French to elect a National Assembly, Bismarck demanded the surrender of Strasbourg and the fortress city of <a href="/wiki/Toul" title="Toul">Toul</a>. To allow supplies into Paris, one of the perimeter forts had to be handed over. Favre was unaware that Bismarck's real aim in making such extortionate demands was to establish a durable peace on Germany's new western frontier, preferably by a peace with a friendly government, on terms acceptable to French public opinion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Unclear how making these demands would lead to these aims (February 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> An impregnable military frontier was an inferior alternative to him, favoured only by the militant nationalists on the German side.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1991230–233_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1991230–233-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the war had begun, European public opinion heavily favoured the Germans; many Italians attempted to sign up as volunteers at the Prussian embassy in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> and a Prussian diplomat visited <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Caprera" title="Caprera">Caprera</a>. Bismarck's demand that France surrender sovereignty over Alsace caused a dramatic shift in that sentiment in Italy, which was best exemplified by the reaction of Garibaldi soon after the revolution in Paris, who told the <i>Movimento</i> of Genoa on 7 September 1870 that "Yesterday I said to you: war to the death to Bonaparte. Today I say to you: rescue the French Republic by every means."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1976602_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1976602-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Garibaldi went to France and assumed command of the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Vosges" title="Army of the Vosges">Army of the Vosges</a>, with which he operated around <a href="/wiki/Dijon" title="Dijon">Dijon</a> until the end of the war. </p><p>The energetic actions of a part of the government (delegation) in <a href="/wiki/Tours" title="Tours">Tours</a> under Gambetta's leadership led to significant success in the formation of a new army. In less than four months, with persistent battles at the front, eleven new corps were formed (Nos. XVI–XXVI). The average success of the formation was equal to six thousand infantrymen and two batteries per day. This success was achieved despite the fact that the military industry and warehouses were concentrated mainly in Paris; all supplies in the province—chiefs, weapons, camps, uniforms, ammunition, equipment, baggage—had to be improvised anew. Many branches of the military industry were re-established in the province. Freedom of communication with foreign markets brought significant benefits; it was possible to make large purchases on foreign markets, mainly English, Belgian, and American. The artillery created by Gambetta in four months—238 batteries—was one and a half times larger than the artillery of imperial France. In the end, eight corps participated in the battles, and three were ready only by the end of January, when a truce was already concluded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEСвечин_(Svechin)1928327_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEСвечин_(Svechin)1928327-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the Germans had a 2:1 numerical advantage before Napoleon III's surrender, this French recruitment gave them a 2:1 or 3:1 advantage. The French more than tripled their forces during the war, while the Germans did not increase theirs as much; the number of 888,000 mobilized by the North German Union in August increased by only 2% after <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac">3<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> months, and by the end of the war, six months later, only by 15%, which did not even balance the losses incurred. Prussia was completely unaware of the feverish activity of permanent mobilization. This disparity in forces created a crisis for the Germans at the front in November 1870,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEСвечин_(Svechin)1928332_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEСвечин_(Svechin)1928332-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which only the release of the large forces besieging the fortress of Metz allowed them to overcome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siege_of_Paris">Siege of Paris</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Siege of Paris"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anton_von_Werner_-_Im_Etappenquartier_vor_Paris_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Anton_von_Werner_-_Im_Etappenquartier_vor_Paris_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Anton_von_Werner_-_Im_Etappenquartier_vor_Paris_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Anton_von_Werner_-_Im_Etappenquartier_vor_Paris_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Anton_von_Werner_-_Im_Etappenquartier_vor_Paris_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Anton_von_Werner_-_Im_Etappenquartier_vor_Paris_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Anton_von_Werner_-_Im_Etappenquartier_vor_Paris_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2998" /></a><figcaption>Troops quarter in Paris, by <a href="/wiki/Anton_von_Werner" title="Anton von Werner">Anton von Werner</a> (1894)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1870%E2%80%931871)" title="Siege of Paris (1870–1871)">Siege of Paris (1870–1871)</a></div> <p>Prussian forces commenced the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1870)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Paris (1870)">siege of Paris</a> on 19 September 1870. Faced with the blockade, the new French government called for the establishment of several large armies in the French provinces. These new bodies of troops were to march towards Paris and attack the Germans there from various directions at the same time. Armed French civilians were to create a guerilla force—the so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Francs-tireurs" title="Francs-tireurs">Francs-tireurs</a></i>—for the purpose of attacking German <a href="/wiki/Supply_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Supply line">supply lines</a>. </p><p>Bismarck was an active supporter of the bombardment of the city. He sought to end the war as soon as possible, very much fearing a change in the international situation unfavorable to Prussia, as he himself called it "the intervention of neutrals".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003280_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003280-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, Bismarck constantly and actively insisted on the early start of the bombardment, despite all the objections of the military command. Von Blumenthal, who commanded the siege, was opposed to the bombardment on moral grounds. In this he was backed by other senior military figures such as the Crown Prince and Moltke. Nevertheless, in January, the Germans fired some 12,000 shells (300–400 daily) into the city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1991286_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1991286-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The siege of the city caused great hardships for the population, especially for the poor from cold and hunger. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loire_campaign">Loire campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Loire campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bapaume-tableau-Faidherbe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bapaume-tableau-Faidherbe.jpg/220px-Bapaume-tableau-Faidherbe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bapaume-tableau-Faidherbe.jpg/330px-Bapaume-tableau-Faidherbe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bapaume-tableau-Faidherbe.jpg/440px-Bapaume-tableau-Faidherbe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2996" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bapaume_(1871)" title="Battle of Bapaume (1871)">Battle of Bapaume</a>, which took place from 2–3 January 1871</figcaption></figure> <p>Dispatched from Paris as the republican government emissary, Léon Gambetta flew over the German lines in a balloon inflated with coal gas from the city's gasworks and organized the recruitment of the <a href="/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_de_la_Loire" title="Armée de la Loire">Armée de la Loire</a>. Rumors about an alleged German "extermination" plan infuriated the French and strengthened their support of the new regime. Within a few weeks, five new armies totalling more than 500,000 troops were recruited.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFoley200719–20_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoley200719–20-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Germans dispatched some of their troops to the French provinces to detect, attack and disperse the new French armies before they could become a menace. The Germans were not prepared for an occupation of the whole of France. </p><p>On 10 October, hostilities began between German and French republican forces near <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Orléans">Orléans</a>. At first, the Germans were victorious but the French drew reinforcements and defeated a Bavarian force at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Coulmiers" title="Battle of Coulmiers">Battle of Coulmiers</a> on 9 November. After the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Metz_(1870)" title="Siege of Metz (1870)">Metz</a>, more than 100,000 well-trained and experienced German troops joined the German 'Southern Army'. The French were forced to <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Orl%C3%A9ans_(1870)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Battle of Orléans (1870)">abandon Orléans</a> on 4 December, and were finally defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Le_Mans" title="Battle of Le Mans">Battle of Le Mans</a> <span class="nowrap">(10–12 January)</span>. A second French army which operated north of Paris was turned back at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_(1870)" title="Battle of Amiens (1870)">Battle of Amiens</a> (27 November), the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bapaume_(1871)" title="Battle of Bapaume (1871)">Battle of Bapaume</a> (3 January 1871) and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1871)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1871)">Battle of St. Quentin</a> (13 January).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShannDelperier19914_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShannDelperier19914-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_campaign">Northern campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Northern campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the Army of the Loire's defeats, Gambetta turned to <a href="/wiki/Louis_Faidherbe" title="Louis Faidherbe">General Faidherbe</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_North_(France)" title="Army of the North (France)">Army of the North</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHozierDavenport_Adams1872217ff_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHozierDavenport_Adams1872217ff-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The army had achieved several small victories at towns such as Ham, La Hallue, and <a href="/wiki/Amiens" title="Amiens">Amiens</a> and was protected by the belt of fortresses in northern France, allowing Faidherbe's men to launch quick attacks against isolated Prussian units, then retreat behind the fortresses. Despite access to the armaments factories of <a href="/wiki/Lille" title="Lille">Lille</a>, the Army of the North suffered from severe supply difficulties, which depressed morale. In January 1871, Gambetta forced Faidherbe to march his army beyond the fortresses and engage the Prussians in open battle. The army was severely weakened by low morale, supply problems, the terrible winter weather and low troop quality, whilst general Faidherbe was unable to command due to his poor health, the result of decades of campaigning in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>. At the Battle of St. Quentin, the Army of the North suffered a crushing defeat and was scattered, releasing thousands of Prussian soldiers to be relocated to the East.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOllier1883210_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOllier1883210-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_campaign">Eastern campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Eastern campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arm%C3%A9e-Bourb-en-Suisse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Arm%C3%A9e-Bourb-en-Suisse.jpg/220px-Arm%C3%A9e-Bourb-en-Suisse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Arm%C3%A9e-Bourb-en-Suisse.jpg/330px-Arm%C3%A9e-Bourb-en-Suisse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Arm%C3%A9e-Bourb-en-Suisse.jpg/440px-Arm%C3%A9e-Bourb-en-Suisse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1721" data-file-height="1138" /></a><figcaption>The French Army of the East is disarmed at the Swiss border in <a href="/wiki/Bourbaki_Panorama" title="Bourbaki Panorama">the monumental 1881 depiction</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the destruction of the French Army of the Loire, remnants of the Loire army gathered in eastern France to form the <a href="/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_de_l%27Est" title="Armée de l'Est">Army of the East</a>, commanded by general <a href="/wiki/Charles-Denis_Bourbaki" title="Charles-Denis Bourbaki">Charles-Denis Bourbaki</a>. In a final attempt to cut the German supply lines in northeast France, Bourbaki's army marched north to attack the Prussian siege of <a href="/wiki/Belfort" title="Belfort">Belfort</a> and relieve the defenders. </p><p>The French troops had a significant advantage (110 thousand soldiers against 40 thousand). The French offensive took the Germans by surprise and by mid-January 1871, the French had reached the Lisaine River, just a few kilometers from the besieged fortress of Belfort. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lisaine" title="Battle of the Lisaine">battle of the Lisaine</a>, Bourbaki's men failed to break through German lines commanded by General <a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Friedrich_August_Leopold,_Count_von_Werder" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Wilhelm Friedrich August Leopold, Count von Werder">August von Werder</a>. Bringing in the German 'Southern Army', General <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Freiherr_von_Manteuffel" title="Edwin Freiherr von Manteuffel">von Manteuffel</a> then drove Bourbaki's army into the mountains near the Swiss border. Bourbaki attempted to commit suicide, but failed to inflict a fatal wound.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1991429_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1991429-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Facing annihilation, the last intact French army of 87,000 men (now commanded by General <a href="/wiki/Justin_Clinchant" title="Justin Clinchant">Justin Clinchant</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1991421_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1991421-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> crossed the border and was disarmed and interned by the neutral Swiss near <a href="/wiki/Pontarlier" title="Pontarlier">Pontarlier</a> (1 February). </p><p>The besieged fortress of Belfort continued to resist until the signing of the armistice, repelling a German attempt to capture the fortress on 27 January, which was some consolation for the French in this stubborn and unhappy campaign. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armistice">Armistice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Armistice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Special:EditPage/Franco-Prussian War">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Versailles" title="Armistice of Versailles">Armistice of Versailles</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre_Puvis_de_Chavannes_-_Hope_-_Walters_37156.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Pierre_Puvis_de_Chavannes_-_Hope_-_Walters_37156.jpg/220px-Pierre_Puvis_de_Chavannes_-_Hope_-_Walters_37156.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Pierre_Puvis_de_Chavannes_-_Hope_-_Walters_37156.jpg/330px-Pierre_Puvis_de_Chavannes_-_Hope_-_Walters_37156.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Pierre_Puvis_de_Chavannes_-_Hope_-_Walters_37156.jpg/440px-Pierre_Puvis_de_Chavannes_-_Hope_-_Walters_37156.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1419" /></a><figcaption>In this painting by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Puvis_de_Chavannes" title="Pierre Puvis de Chavannes">Pierre Puvis de Chavannes</a> a woman holds up an oak twig as a symbol of hope for the nation's recovery from war and deprivation after the Franco-Prussian War.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Chavannes1872_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Chavannes1872-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Walters Art Museum.</figcaption></figure> <p>On 26 January 1871, the Government of National Defence based in Paris negotiated an armistice with the Prussians. With Paris starving, and Gambetta's provincial armies reeling from one disaster after another, French foreign minister Favre went to <a href="/wiki/Versailles_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles (city)">Versailles</a> on 24 January to discuss peace terms with Bismarck. Bismarck agreed to end the siege and allow food convoys to immediately enter Paris (including trains carrying millions of German army rations), on condition that the Government of National Defence surrender several key fortresses outside Paris to the Prussians. Without the forts, the French Army would no longer be able to defend Paris. </p><p>Although public opinion in Paris was strongly against any form of surrender or concession to the Prussians, the Government realised that it could not hold the city for much longer, and that Gambetta's provincial armies would probably never break through to relieve Paris. President Trochu resigned on 25 January and was replaced by Favre, who signed the surrender two days later at Versailles, with the armistice coming into effect at midnight. </p><p>On 28 January, a truce was concluded for 21 days, after the exhaustion of food and fuel supplies, the Paris garrison capitulated, the National Guard retained its weapons, while German troops occupied part of the forts of Paris to prevent the possibility of resuming hostilities. But military operations continued in the eastern part of the country, in the area of operation of the Bourbaki army. The French side, having no reliable information about the outcome of the struggle, insisted on excluding this area from the truce in the hope of a successful outcome of the struggle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003298_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003298-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Germans did not dissuade the French. </p><p>Several sources claim that in his carriage on the way back to Paris, Favre broke into tears, and collapsed into his daughter's arms as the guns around Paris fell silent at midnight. At <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a>, Gambetta received word from Paris on 29 January that the Government had surrendered. Furious, he refused to surrender. <a href="/wiki/Jules_Simon" title="Jules Simon">Jules Simon</a>, a member of the Government arrived from Paris by train on 1 February to negotiate with Gambetta. Another group of three ministers arrived in Bordeaux on 5 February and the following day Gambetta stepped down and surrendered control of the provincial armies to the Government of National Defence, which promptly ordered a cease-fire across France. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_at_sea">War at sea</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: War at sea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FrenchFleet1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/FrenchFleet1870.jpg/220px-FrenchFleet1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/FrenchFleet1870.jpg/330px-FrenchFleet1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/FrenchFleet1870.jpg/440px-FrenchFleet1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>French warships at sea in 1870</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Parlow,_Meteor_vs._Bouvet,_1892.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Robert_Parlow%2C_Meteor_vs._Bouvet%2C_1892.jpg/220px-Robert_Parlow%2C_Meteor_vs._Bouvet%2C_1892.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Robert_Parlow%2C_Meteor_vs._Bouvet%2C_1892.jpg/330px-Robert_Parlow%2C_Meteor_vs._Bouvet%2C_1892.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Robert_Parlow%2C_Meteor_vs._Bouvet%2C_1892.jpg/440px-Robert_Parlow%2C_Meteor_vs._Bouvet%2C_1892.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="315" /></a><figcaption>Painting of <a href="/wiki/SMS_Meteor_(1865)" title="SMS Meteor (1865)"><i>Meteor</i></a> in battle with <a href="/wiki/French_aviso_Bouvet_(1865)" title="French aviso Bouvet (1865)"><i>Bouvet</i></a>, by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Parlow&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Parlow (page does not exist)">Robert Parlow</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Parlow" class="extiw" title="de:Robert Parlow">de</a>]</span></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blockade">Blockade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Blockade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the war began, the French government ordered a <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a> of the North German coasts, which the small <a href="/wiki/North_German_Federal_Navy" title="North German Federal Navy">North German Federal Navy</a> with only five <a href="/wiki/Ironclad_warship" title="Ironclad warship">ironclads</a> and various minor vessels could do little to oppose. For most of the war, the three largest German ironclads were out of service with engine troubles; only the <a href="/wiki/Turret_ship" title="Turret ship">turret ship</a> <a href="/wiki/SMS_Arminius" title="SMS Arminius">SMS <i>Arminius</i></a> was available to conduct operations. By the time engine repairs had been completed, the French fleet had already departed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESondhaus2001101–102_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESondhaus2001101–102-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The blockade proved only partially successful due to crucial oversights by the planners in Paris. Reservists that were supposed to be at the ready in case of war, were working in the Newfoundland fisheries or in Scotland. Only part of the 470-ship <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a> put to sea on 24 July. Before long, the French navy ran short of <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, needing 200 short tons (180 t) per day and having a bunker capacity in the fleet of only 250 short tons (230 t). A blockade of <a href="/wiki/Wilhelmshaven" title="Wilhelmshaven">Wilhelmshaven</a> failed, and conflicting orders about operations in the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> or a return to France made the French naval efforts futile. Spotting a blockade-runner became unwelcome because of the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">question du charbon</i></span>; pursuit of Prussian ships quickly depleted the coal reserves of the French ships.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERüstow1872229–235_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERüstow1872229–235-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003191_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003191-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the main reason for the only partial success of the naval operation was the fear of the French command to risk political complications with Great Britain. This deterred the French command from trying to interrupt German trade under the British flag.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the limited measures of the blockade, it still created noticeable difficulties for German trade. "The actual captures of German ships were eighty in number".<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To relieve pressure from the expected German attack into Alsace-Lorraine, Napoleon III and the French high command planned a <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">seaborne invasion</a> of northern Germany as soon as war began. The French expected the invasion to divert German troops and to encourage Denmark to join in the war, with its 50,000-strong army and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Danish_Navy" title="Royal Danish Navy">Royal Danish Navy</a>. They discovered that Prussia had recently built defences around the big North German ports, including <a href="/wiki/Coastal_artillery" title="Coastal artillery">coastal artillery</a> batteries with Krupp heavy artillery, which with a range of 4,000 yards (3,700 m), had double the range of French naval guns. The French Navy lacked the heavy guns to engage the coastal defences and the <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> of the Prussian coast made a seaborne invasion of northern Germany impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003190–192_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003190–192-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Troupes_de_marine" title="Troupes de marine">French Marines</a> intended for the invasion of northern Germany were dispatched to reinforce the French Army of Châlons and fell into captivity at Sedan along with Napoleon III. A shortage of officers, following the capture of most of the professional French army at the siege of Metz and at the Battle of Sedan, led to naval officers being sent from their ships to command hastily assembled reservists of the <i>Garde Mobile</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003192_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003192-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the autumn storms of the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> forced the return of more of the French ships, the blockade of the north German ports diminished and in September 1870 the French navy abandoned the blockade for the winter. The rest of the navy retired to ports along the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> and remained in port for the rest of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003192_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003192-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_and_Caribbean">Pacific and Caribbean</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pacific and Caribbean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Outside Europe, the French <a href="/wiki/Corvette" title="Corvette">corvette</a> <a href="/wiki/French_corvette_Dupleix_(1861)" class="mw-redirect" title="French corvette Dupleix (1861)"><i>Dupleix</i></a> blockaded the German corvette <a href="/w/index.php?title=SMS_Hertha_(1864)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SMS Hertha (1864) (page does not exist)">SMS <i>Hertha</i></a> in <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki,_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagasaki, Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Havana_(1870)" title="Battle of Havana (1870)">Battle of Havana</a> took place between the Prussian gunboat <a href="/wiki/SMS_Meteor_(1865)" title="SMS Meteor (1865)">SMS <i>Meteor</i></a> and the French <a href="/wiki/Aviso" title="Aviso">aviso</a> <a href="/wiki/French_aviso_Bouvet_(1865)" title="French aviso Bouvet (1865)"><i>Bouvet</i></a> off <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, in November 1870.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Pflugk-Harttung1900587–588_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Pflugk-Harttung1900587–588-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERüstow1872243_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERüstow1872243-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_crimes">War crimes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: War crimes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bazeilles-FR-08-ruines_post-1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Bazeilles-FR-08-ruines_post-1870.jpg/220px-Bazeilles-FR-08-ruines_post-1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Bazeilles-FR-08-ruines_post-1870.jpg/330px-Bazeilles-FR-08-ruines_post-1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Bazeilles-FR-08-ruines_post-1870.jpg/440px-Bazeilles-FR-08-ruines_post-1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1082" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of Bazeilles</figcaption></figure> <p>The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 resulted in numerous war crimes committed by the Prussian army. One notable war crime committed during the conflict was the execution of prisoners of war. Reports indicate that several hundred French prisoners were summarily executed by Prussian soldiers. This included the execution of a group of over 200 French soldiers at the village of Dornach, which was subsequently referred to as the "Dornach atrocities".<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the small town of <a href="/wiki/Bazeilles" title="Bazeilles">Bazeilles</a>, near Sedan, French marines and <a href="/wiki/Partisans_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisans (military)">partisans</a> put up a resistance against a force of Bavarian soldiers. After the initial French resistance was overcome, the Bavarian troops shelled the village with artillery before sending in infantry to continue the assault. In battle, some surrendering soldiers were shot on the spot, and over 400 buildings were destroyed. The Bavarian troops detained around one hundred civilians, believing they illegally took part in the battle, only to release them unharmed the next day. After the war investigations established that 39 civilians were killed or wounded during the battle.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prussian soldiers were also accused of committing acts of violence against civilians, including murder, rape, and the destruction of property.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis">Analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christian_Sell_Winterfeldzug_1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Christian_Sell_Winterfeldzug_1870.jpg/220px-Christian_Sell_Winterfeldzug_1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Christian_Sell_Winterfeldzug_1870.jpg/330px-Christian_Sell_Winterfeldzug_1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Christian_Sell_Winterfeldzug_1870.jpg/440px-Christian_Sell_Winterfeldzug_1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>German <a href="/wiki/Uhlans" class="mw-redirect" title="Uhlans">uhlans</a> and an infantryman escorting captured French soldiers</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yves_%26_Barret_L%27Europe_en_ce_Moment_1872_Cornell_CUL_PJM_2082_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Yves_%26_Barret_L%27Europe_en_ce_Moment_1872_Cornell_CUL_PJM_2082_01.jpg/220px-Yves_%26_Barret_L%27Europe_en_ce_Moment_1872_Cornell_CUL_PJM_2082_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Yves_%26_Barret_L%27Europe_en_ce_Moment_1872_Cornell_CUL_PJM_2082_01.jpg/330px-Yves_%26_Barret_L%27Europe_en_ce_Moment_1872_Cornell_CUL_PJM_2082_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Yves_%26_Barret_L%27Europe_en_ce_Moment_1872_Cornell_CUL_PJM_2082_01.jpg/440px-Yves_%26_Barret_L%27Europe_en_ce_Moment_1872_Cornell_CUL_PJM_2082_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9145" data-file-height="6023" /></a><figcaption>Europe at This Moment (1872) – A Political-Geographic Fantasy: An elaborate satirical map reflecting the European situation following the Franco-Prussian war. France had suffered a crushing defeat: the loss of Alsace and parts of Lorraine; The map contains satirical comments on 14 countries</figcaption></figure> <p>The quick German victory over the French stunned neutral observers, many of whom had expected a French victory and a long war. The strategic advantages which the Germans had were not appreciated outside Germany until after hostilities had ceased. Other countries quickly discerned the advantages given to the Germans by their military system, and adopted many of their innovations, particularly the <a href="/wiki/General_staff" class="mw-redirect" title="General staff">general staff</a>, universal conscription, and highly detailed mobilization systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Creveld197796_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Creveld197796-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Prussian General Staff developed by Moltke proved to be extremely effective, in contrast to the traditional French school. This was in large part because the Prussian General Staff was created to study previous Prussian operations and learn to avoid mistakes. The structure also greatly strengthened Moltke's ability to control large formations spread out over significant distances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199123_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199123-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chief of the General Staff, effectively the commander in chief of the Prussian army, was independent of the minister of war and answered only to the monarch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvine1938192_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvine1938192-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French General Staff—along with those of every other European military—was little better than a collection of assistants for the line commanders. This disorganization hampered the French commanders' ability to <a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">exercise control</a> of their forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199123–24_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199123–24-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In addition, the Prussian military education system was superior to the French model; Prussian staff officers were trained to <a href="/wiki/Auftragstaktik" class="mw-redirect" title="Auftragstaktik">exhibit initiative and independent thinking</a>. Indeed, this was Moltke's expectation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolborn1942159_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolborn1942159-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French, meanwhile, suffered from an education and promotion system that stifled intellectual development. According to the military historian Dallas Irvine, the system: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>was almost completely effective in excluding the army's brain power from the staff and high command. To the resulting lack of intelligence at the top can be ascribed all the inexcusable defects of French military policy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrvine1938192_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrvine1938192-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_von_Roon" title="Albrecht von Roon">Albrecht von Roon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Minister_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian Minister of War">Prussian Minister of War</a> from 1859 to 1873, put into effect a series of reforms of the Prussian military system in the 1860s. Among these were two major reforms that substantially increased the military power of Germany. The first was a reorganization of the army that integrated the regular army and the <i><a href="/wiki/Landwehr" title="Landwehr">Landwehr</a></i> reserves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199119–20_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199119–20-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second was the provision for the <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscription</a> of every male Prussian of military age in the event of mobilization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199121_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199121-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, although the population of France was greater than the population of all of the Northern German states that participated in the war, the Germans mobilized more soldiers for battle. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Population and soldiers mobilized at the start of the war </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th scope="col">Population in 1870 </th> <th scope="col">Mobilized </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a> </td> <td align="right">38,000,000 </td> <td align="right">500,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%281867%E2%80%931918%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a> </td> <td align="right">32,000,000 </td> <td align="right">550,000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>At the start of the Franco-Prussian War, 462,000 German soldiers concentrated on the French frontier while only 270,000 French soldiers could be moved to face them, the French army having lost 100,000 stragglers before a shot was fired, through poor planning and administration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcElwee197446_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcElwee197446-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was partly due to the peacetime organisations of the armies. Each Prussian Corps was based within a <i>Kreis</i> (literally "circle") around the chief city in an area. Reservists rarely lived more than a day's travel from their regiment's depot. By contrast, French regiments generally served far from their depots, which in turn were not in the areas of France from which their soldiers were drawn. Reservists often faced several days' journey to report to their depots, and then another long journey to join their regiments. Large numbers of reservists choked railway stations, vainly seeking rations and orders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199168_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199168-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effect of these differences was accentuated by the peacetime preparations. The Prussian General Staff had drawn up minutely detailed <a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">mobilization</a> plans using the railway system, which in turn had been partly laid out in response to recommendations of a Railway Section within the General Staff. The French railway system, with competing companies, had developed purely from commercial pressures and many journeys to the front in Alsace and Lorraine involved long diversions and frequent changes between trains. There was no system of military control of the railways and officers simply commandeered trains as they saw fit. Rail <a href="/wiki/Siding_(rail)" title="Siding (rail)">sidings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marshalling_yard" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshalling yard">marshalling yards</a> became choked with loaded wagons, with nobody responsible for unloading them or directing them to the destination.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199170–71_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199170–71-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>France also suffered from an outdated tactical system. Although referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleonic</a> tactics", this system was developed by <a href="/wiki/Antoine-Henri_Jomini" title="Antoine-Henri Jomini">Antoine-Henri Jomini</a> during his time in Russia. Surrounded by a rigid aristocracy with a "Sacred Social Order" mentality, Jomini's system was equally rigid and inflexible. His system simplified several formations that were meant for an entire army, using battalions as the building blocks. His system was simple, but only strong enough to attack in one direction. The system was adopted by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbons</a> to prevent a repeat of when Napoleon I had returned to France, and Napoleon III retained the system upon his ascension to power (hence why they became associated with his family name). The Prussians in contrast did not use battalions as their basic tactical unit, and their system was much more flexible. Companies were formed into columns and attacked in parallel, rather than as a homogeneous battalion-sized block. Attacking in parallel allowed each company to choose its own axis of advance and make the most of local cover. It also permitted the Prussians to fire at oblique angles, raking the French lines with rifle fire. Thus, even though the Prussians had inferior rifles, they still inflicted more casualties with rifle fire than the French, with 53,900 French killed by the Dreyse (70% of their war casualties) versus 25,475 Germans killed by the Chassepot (96% of their war casualties).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Although <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> had both wished to avenge their recent military defeats against Prussia, they chose not to intervene in the war due to a lack of confidence in the French. These countries did not have a documented alliance with France, and they were too late to start a war. After the rapid and stunning victories of Prussia, they preferred to abandon any plans to intervene in the war altogether. Napoleon III also failed to cultivate alliances with the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a>, partially due to the diplomatic efforts of the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck had bought Tsar Alexander II's complicity by promising to help restore his naval access to the Black Sea and Mediterranean (cut off by the treaties ending the Crimean War), other powers were less biddable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003238_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003238-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Seizing upon the distraction of the Franco-Prussian War, Russia in November 1870 had begun rebuilding its naval bases in the Black Sea, a clear violation of the treaty that had ended the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> fourteen years earlier".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003290_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003290-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the peace of Frankfurt in 1871, a rapprochement between France and Russia was born. "Instead of forging ties with Russia in the east and further crippling France in the west, Bismarck's miscalculation had opened the door to future relations between Paris and St. Petersburg. The culmination of this new relationship will finally be the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894</a>; an alliance that explicitly refers to the perceived threat of Germany and its military response".<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Great Britain saw nothing wrong with the strengthening of Prussia on the European continent, viewing France as its traditional rival in international affairs. <a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Lord Palmerston</a>, the head of the British cabinet in 1865, wrote: "The current Prussia is too weak to be honest and independent in its actions. And, taking into account the interests of the future, it is highly desirable for Germany as a whole became strong, so she was able to keep the ambitious and warlike nation, France, and Russia, which compress it from the West and the East".<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English historians criticize the then British policy, pointing out that Palmerston misunderstood Bismarck's policy due to his adherence to outdated ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, Britain began to understand that the military defeat of France meant a radical change in the European balance of power. In the future, the development of historical events is characterized by a gradual increase in Anglo-German contradictions. "The colonial quarrels, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race" title="Anglo-German naval arms race">naval rivalry</a> and disagreement over the European balance of power which drove Britain and Germany apart, were in effect the strategical and geopolitical manifestations of the relative shift in the economic power of these two countries between 1860 and 1914".<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Peace of Prague in 1866, the nominally independent German states of Saxony, Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt (the southern part that was not included in the North German Union) remained. Despite the fact that there was a strong opposition to Prussia in the ruling circles and in the war of 1866 they participated on the side of Austria against Prussia, they were forced to reckon with a broad popular movement in favor of German unity and were also afraid of angering their strong neighbor in the form of Prussia. After the diplomatic provocation in Bad Ems, these states had no room for maneuver, the war was presented by Bismarck as a war for national independence against an external enemy. All these states joined the Prussian war from the very beginning of hostilities. In January 1871, these states became part of the German Empire. </p><p>The French <a href="/wiki/Breech-loading_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Breech-loading rifle">breech-loading rifle</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chassepot" title="Chassepot">Chassepot</a>, had a longer range than the German needle gun; 1,400 metres (1,500 yd) compared to 550 m (600 yd). The French also had an early machine-gun type weapon, the <a href="/wiki/Mitrailleuse" title="Mitrailleuse">mitrailleuse</a>, which could fire its thirty-seven barrels at a range of around 1,100 m (1,200 yd).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200352–53_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200352–53-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was developed in such secrecy that little training with the weapon had occurred, leaving French gunners with little experience; the gun was treated like artillery and in this role it was ineffective. Worse still, once the small number of soldiers who had been trained how to use the new weapon became casualties, there were no replacements who knew how to operate the mitrailleuse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2004217_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2004217-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The French were equipped with bronze, rifled <a href="/wiki/Muzzle-loading" class="mw-redirect" title="Muzzle-loading">muzzle-loading</a> artillery, while the Prussians used new steel breech-loading guns, which had a far longer range and a faster rate of fire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199135–36_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199135–36-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prussian gunners strove for a high rate of fire, which was discouraged in the French army in the belief that it wasted ammunition. In addition, the Prussian artillery batteries had 30% more guns than their French counterparts. The Prussian guns typically opened fire at a range of 2–3 kilometres (1.2–1.9 mi), beyond the range of French artillery or the Chassepot rifle. The Prussian batteries could thus destroy French artillery with impunity, before being moved forward to directly support infantry attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2004216–217_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2004216–217-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Germans fired 30,000,000 rounds of small arms ammunition and 362,662 field artillery rounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff1884195_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff1884195-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_military_thought">Effects on military thought</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Effects on military thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The events of the Franco-Prussian War had great influence on military thinking over the next forty years. Lessons drawn from the war included the need for a general staff system, the scale and duration of future wars and the tactical use of artillery and cavalry. The bold use of artillery by the Prussians, to silence French guns at long range and then to directly support infantry attacks at close range, proved to be superior to the defensive doctrine employed by French gunners. Likewise, the war showed that breech-loading cannons were superior to muzzle-loaded cannons, just as the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a> of 1866 had demonstrated for rifles. The Prussian tactics and designs were adopted by European armies by 1914, exemplified in the <a href="/wiki/Canon_de_75_mod%C3%A8le_1897" title="Canon de 75 modèle 1897">French 75</a>, an artillery piece optimised to provide direct fire support to advancing infantry. Most European armies ignored the evidence of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> of <span class="nowrap">1904–1905</span> which suggested that infantry armed with new smokeless-powder rifles could engage gun crews effectively in the open. This forced gunners to fire at longer range using <a href="/wiki/Indirect_fire" title="Indirect fire">indirect fire</a>, usually from a position of cover.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2004218–219_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2004218–219-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The heavy use of fortifications and dugouts in the Russo-Japanese war also greatly undermined the usefulness of field artillery which was not designed for indirect fire. </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mars-la-Tour" title="Battle of Mars-la-Tour">Battle of Mars-La-Tour</a>, the Prussian 12th Cavalry Brigade, commanded by General <a href="/wiki/Adalbert_von_Bredow" title="Adalbert von Bredow">Adalbert von Bredow</a>, conducted a charge against a French artillery battery. The attack was a costly success and came to be known as "von Bredow's Death Ride", but which nevertheless was held to prove that cavalry charges could still prevail on the battlefield. Use of traditional cavalry on the battlefields of 1914 proved to be disastrous, due to accurate, long-range rifle fire, machine-guns and artillery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1979156–157_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1979156–157-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bredow's attack had succeeded only because of an unusually effective artillery bombardment just before the charge, along with favorable terrain that masked his approach.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2004218_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2004218-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1979156–157_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1979156–157-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A third influence was the effect on notions of entrenchment and its limitations. While the American Civil War had famously involved entrenchment in the final years of the war, the Prussian system had overwhelmed French attempts to use similar tactics. With Prussian tactics seeming to make entrenchment and prolonged offensive campaigns ineffective, the experience of the American Civil War was seen as that of a musket war, not a rifle war.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Many European armies were convinced of the viability of the "<a href="/wiki/Cult_of_the_offensive" title="Cult of the offensive">cult of the offensive</a>" because of this, and focused their attention on aggressive bayonet charges over infantry fire. These would needlessly expose men to artillery fire in 1914, and entrenchment would return with a vengeance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Casualties">Casualties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Casualties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Germans deployed a total of 33,101 officers and 1,113,254 men into France, of whom they lost 1,046 officers and 16,539 enlisted men killed in action. Another 671 officers and 10,050 men died of their wounds, for total battle deaths of 28,306. Disease killed 207 officers and 11,940 men, with <a href="/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a> accounting for 6,965. 4,009 were missing and presumed dead; 290 died in accidents and 29 committed suicide. Among the missing and captured were 103 officers and 10,026 men. The wounded amounted to 3,725 officers and 86,007 men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French battle deaths were 77,000, of which 41,000 were killed in action and 36,000 died of wounds. More than 45,000 died of sickness. Total deaths were 138,871, with 136,540 being suffered by the army and 2,331 by the navy. The wounded totaled 137,626; 131,000 for the army and 6,526 for the navy. French prisoners of war numbered 383,860. In addition, 90,192 French soldiers were interned in Switzerland and 6,300 in Belgium.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the war the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a> (ICRC) established an international tracing agency in <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a> for prisoners of that war. The holdings of the "Basel Agency" were later transferred to the ICRC headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> and integrated into the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross_archives" title="International Committee of the Red Cross archives">ICRC archives</a>, where they are accessible today.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subsequent_events">Subsequent events</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Subsequent events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prussian_reaction_and_withdrawal">Prussian reaction and withdrawal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Prussian reaction and withdrawal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S95francoprussian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/S95francoprussian.jpg/220px-S95francoprussian.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/S95francoprussian.jpg/330px-S95francoprussian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/S95francoprussian.jpg/440px-S95francoprussian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1195" /></a><figcaption>Prussian parade in Paris in 1871</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_1871_map_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Europe_1871_map_en.png/220px-Europe_1871_map_en.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Europe_1871_map_en.png/330px-Europe_1871_map_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Europe_1871_map_en.png/440px-Europe_1871_map_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2284" data-file-height="1503" /></a><figcaption>Europe after the Franco-Prussian War and the unification of Germany</figcaption></figure> <p>The Prussian Army, under the terms of the armistice, held <a href="/wiki/German_victory_parade_in_Paris_(1871)" title="German victory parade in Paris (1871)">a brief victory parade</a> in Paris on 1 March; the city was silent and draped with black and the Germans quickly withdrew. Bismarck honoured the armistice, by allowing train loads of food into Paris and withdrawing Prussian forces to the east of the city, prior to a full withdrawal once France agreed to pay a <a href="/wiki/French_indemnity" title="French indemnity">five billion franc war indemnity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1955133_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1955133-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The indemnity was proportioned, according to population, to be the exact equivalent to the indemnity imposed by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> on Prussia in <a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Tilsit" title="Treaties of Tilsit">1807</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1955133_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1955133-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, Prussian forces were concentrated in the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. An exodus occurred from Paris as some 200,000 people, predominantly middle-class, went to the countryside. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paris_Commune">Paris Commune</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Paris Commune"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></div> <p>During the war, the <a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(France)" title="National Guard (France)">Paris National Guard</a>, particularly in the working-class neighbourhoods of Paris, had become highly politicised and units elected officers; many refused to wear uniforms or obey commands from the national government. National guard units tried to seize power in Paris on 31 October 1870 and 22 January 1871. On 18 March 1871, when the regular army tried to remove cannons from an artillery park on <a href="/wiki/Montmartre" title="Montmartre">Montmartre</a>, National Guard units resisted and killed two army generals. The national government and regular army forces retreated to <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Versailles</a> and a revolutionary government was proclaimed in Paris. A <a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">commune</a> was elected, which was dominated by socialists, anarchists and revolutionaries. The <a href="/wiki/Red_flag_(politics)" title="Red flag (politics)">red flag</a> replaced the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">French tricolour</a> and a civil war began between the Commune and the regular army, which attacked and recaptured Paris from <span class="nowrap">21–28 May</span> in the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Semaine_Sanglante" class="mw-redirect" title="Semaine Sanglante">Semaine Sanglante</a></i></span> ("bloody week").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003301,_310_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003301,_310-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldick1974209_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldick1974209-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the fighting, the <a href="/wiki/Communards" title="Communards">Communards</a> killed around 500 people, including <a href="/wiki/Georges_Darboy" title="Georges Darboy">Georges Darboy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Paris" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Paris">Archbishop of Paris</a>, and burned down many government buildings, including the <a href="/wiki/Tuileries_Palace" title="Tuileries Palace">Tuileries Palace</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hotel_de_Ville,_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotel de Ville, Paris">Hotel de Ville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorne1965416_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorne1965416-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Communards captured with weapons were routinely shot by the army and Government troops killed between 7,000 and 30,000 Communards, both during the fighting and in massacres of men, women, and children during and after the Commune.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERougerie1995118_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERougerie1995118-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldick1974209_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldick1974209-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2000122_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2000122-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003301_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003301-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent histories, based on studies of the number buried in Paris cemeteries and in mass graves after the fall of the Commune, put the number killed at between 6,000 and 10,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERougerie2014118_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERougerie2014118-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twenty-six courts were established to try more than <span class="nowrap">40,000 people</span> who had been arrested, which took until 1875 and imposed <span class="nowrap">95 death</span> sentences, of which <span class="nowrap">23 were</span> inflicted. Forced labour for life was imposed on <span class="nowrap">251 people,</span> <span class="nowrap">1,160 people</span> were transported to "a fortified place" and <span class="nowrap">3,417 people</span> were transported <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)" title="Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)"><span title="The geographic scope near this tag is ambiguous. (March 2024)">where?</span></a></i>]</sup>. About <span class="nowrap">20,000 Communards</span> were held in prison hulks until released in 1872 and a great many Communards fled abroad to Britain, Switzerland, Belgium or the United States. The survivors were amnestied by a bill introduced by Gambetta in 1880 and allowed to return.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorne1965422–424_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorne1965422–424-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1871_Kabyle_revolt">1871 Kabyle revolt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: 1871 Kabyle revolt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1830, the French army <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Algiers_in_1830" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Algiers in 1830">invaded</a> and conquered the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Algeria">Beylik of Algiers</a>. Afterwards, France colonized the country, setting up its own administration over Algeria. The withdrawal of a large proportion of the army stationed in <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a> to serve in the Franco-Prussian War had weakened France's control of the territory, while reports of defeats undermined French prestige amongst the indigenous population. The most serious native insurrection since the time of <a href="/wiki/Emir_Abdelkader" title="Emir Abdelkader">Emir Abdelkader</a> was the 1871 <a href="/wiki/Mokrani_Revolt" title="Mokrani Revolt">Mokrani Revolt</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Kabylia" title="Kabylia">Kabylia</a>, which spread through much of Algeria. By April 1871, 250 tribes had risen, or nearly a third of Algeria's population.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_unification_and_power">German unification and power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: German unification and power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_(3._Fassung_1885).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg/220px-A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg/330px-A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg/440px-A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="1097" /></a><figcaption>Proclamation of the German Empire, painted by <a href="/wiki/Anton_von_Werner" title="Anton von Werner">Anton von Werner</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The creation of a unified <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> (which excluded Austria) greatly disturbed the balance of power that had been created with the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>. Germany had established itself as a major power in continental Europe, boasting one of the most powerful and professional armies in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1987_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1987-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Britain remained the dominant world power overall, British involvement in European affairs during the late 19th century was limited, owing to its focus on colonial empire-building, allowing Germany to exercise great influence over the European mainland.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anglo-German straining of tensions was somewhat mitigated by several prominent relationships between the two powers, such as the Crown Prince's marriage with the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a>. </p><p>Einheit—unity—was achieved at the expense of Freiheit—freedom. According to <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, the German Empire became "a military despotism cloaked in parliamentary forms with a feudal ingredient, influenced by the bourgeoisie, festooned with bureaucrats and guarded by police." Likewise, many historians would see Germany's "escape into war" in 1914 as a flight from all of the internal-political contradictions forged by Bismarck at Versailles in the fall of 1870.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003302_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003302-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_reaction_and_Revanchism">French reaction and Revanchism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: French reaction and Revanchism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg/280px-The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg/420px-The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg/560px-The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="11506" data-file-height="8400" /></a><figcaption>French students being taught about the provinces taken by Germany, painted by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Bettannier" title="Albert Bettannier">Albert Bettannier</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The defeat in the Franco-Prussian War led to the birth of <a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">Revanchism</a> (literally, "revenge-ism") in France, characterised by a deep sense of bitterness, hatred and demand for revenge against Germany. This was particularly manifested in loose talk of another war with Germany in order to reclaim Alsace and Lorraine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarley2008a62–80_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarley2008a62–80-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarley2008b_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarley2008b-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also led to the development of nationalist ideologies emphasising "the ideal of the guarded, self-referential nation schooled in the imperative of war", an ideology epitomised by figures such as General <a href="/wiki/Georges_Ernest_Boulanger" title="Georges Ernest Boulanger">Georges Ernest Boulanger</a> in the 1880s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2010_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2010-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paintings that emphasized the humiliation of the defeat became in high demand, such as those by <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Neuville" title="Alphonse de Neuville">Alphonse de Neuville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJay1984151–162_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJay1984151–162-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Revanchism was not a major cause of war in 1914 because it faded after 1880. J.F.V. Keiger says, "By the 1880s Franco-German relations were relatively good."<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French public had very little interest in foreign affairs and elite French opinion was strongly opposed to war with its more powerful neighbor.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The elites were now calm and considered it a minor issue.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Alsace-Lorraine issue remained a minor theme after 1880, and Republicans and Socialists systematically downplayed the issue. Return did not become a French war aim until after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> began.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/32px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/48px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/64px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:France" title="Portal:France">France portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_and_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Belgium and the Franco-Prussian War">Belgium and the Franco-Prussian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_ambulances_in_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="British ambulances in the Franco-Prussian War">British ambulances in the Franco-Prussian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Germany" title="Foreign relations of Germany">Foreign relations of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity" title="French–German enmity">French–German enmity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_foreign_relations" title="History of French foreign relations">History of French foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_of_the_Great_Powers_(1814%E2%80%931919)" class="mw-redirect" title="International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)">International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Franco-Prussian_War_films" title="List of Franco-Prussian War films">List of Franco-Prussian War films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_de_la_commune" title="Crimes de la commune">Crimes de la commune</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Under the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_National_Defense" title="Government of National Defense">Government of National Defense</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Guerre franco-allemande de 1870</i>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Deutsch-Französischer Krieg</i>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[dɔʏtʃ<span class="wrap"> </span>fʁanˌtsøːzɪʃɐ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈkʁiːk]</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/47\/De-Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg.ogg\/De-Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Deutsch-Franz\u00f6sischer Krieg.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/47/De-Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg.ogg/De-Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:De-Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sischer_Krieg.ogg" title="File:De-Deutsch-Französischer Krieg.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The northern parts and the Army oh the Grand Duchy of Hesse were part of the North German Confederation G</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017184_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClodfelter2017">Clodfelter 2017</a>, p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199139-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199139_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199139_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1991">Howard 1991</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201718433,101_officers_and_1,113,254_men_were_deployed_into_France._A_further_348,057_officers_and_men_were_mobilized_and_stayed_in_Germany.-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201718433,101_officers_and_1,113,254_men_were_deployed_into_France._A_further_348,057_officers_and_men_were_mobilized_and_stayed_in_Germany._5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClodfelter2017">Clodfelter 2017</a>, p. 184, 33,101 officers and 1,113,254 men were deployed into France. A further 348,057 officers and men were mobilized and stayed in Germany..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENolte1884526–527-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolte1884526–527_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNolte1884">Nolte 1884</a>, pp. 526–527.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeathCocolin20208-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeathCocolin20208_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeathCocolin20208_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeathCocolin20208_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeathCocolin2020">Heath & Cocolin 2020</a>, pp. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENolte1884527-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENolte1884527_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNolte1884">Nolte 1884</a>, p. 527.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187of_which_41,000_killed_in_action,_36,000_died_of_wounds_and_45,000_died_from_disease-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187of_which_41,000_killed_in_action,_36,000_died_of_wounds_and_45,000_died_from_disease_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClodfelter2017">Clodfelter 2017</a>, p. 187, of which 41,000 killed in action, 36,000 died of wounds and 45,000 died from disease.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff1884247-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff1884247_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerman_General_Staff1884">German General Staff 1884</a>, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodart1916148At_least_370,000_captured-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodart1916148At_least_370,000_captured_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBodart1916">Bodart 1916</a>, p. 148, At least 370,000 captured.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClodfelter2017">Clodfelter 2017</a>, p. 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187of_which_17,585_killed_in_action,_10,721_died_of_wounds,_12,147_died_from_disease,_290_died_in_accidents,_29_committed_suicide_and_4,009_were_missing_and_presumed_dead-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter2017187of_which_17,585_killed_in_action,_10,721_died_of_wounds,_12,147_died_from_disease,_290_died_in_accidents,_29_committed_suicide_and_4,009_were_missing_and_presumed_dead_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClodfelter2017">Clodfelter 2017</a>, p. 187, of which 17,585 killed in action, 10,721 died of wounds, 12,147 died from disease, 290 died in accidents, 29 committed suicide and 4,009 were missing and presumed dead.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Éric Anceau, "Aux origines de la Guerre de 1870", in <i>France-Allemagne(s) 1870–1871. La guerre, la Commune, les mémoires</i>, (under the direction of Mathilde Benoistel, Sylvie Le Ray-Burimi, Christophe Pommier) Gallimard-Musée de l'Armée, 2017, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERamm1967308–313highlights_three_difficulties_with_the_argument_that_Bismarck_planned_or_provoked_a_French_attack.-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERamm1967308–313highlights_three_difficulties_with_the_argument_that_Bismarck_planned_or_provoked_a_French_attack._16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRamm1967">Ramm 1967</a>, pp. 308–313, highlights three difficulties with the argument that Bismarck planned or provoked a French attack..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilza200939-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilza200939_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMilza2009">Milza 2009</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilza200940–41-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilza200940–41_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMilza2009">Milza 2009</a>, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199140-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199140_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1991">Howard 1991</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilza200941-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilza200941_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMilza2009">Milza 2009</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199145-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199145_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199145_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1991">Howard 1991</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200318-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200318_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2003">Wawro 2003</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Bismarck189958-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Bismarck189958_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Bismarck1899">von Bismarck 1899</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritannica:_Franco-German_War-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritannica:_Franco-German_War_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritannica:_Franco-German_War_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritannica:_Franco-German_War_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBritannica:_Franco-German_War">Britannica: Franco-German War</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Bismarckvon_Poschinger190087-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Bismarckvon_Poschinger190087_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Bismarckvon_Poschinger1900">von Bismarck & von Poschinger 1900</a>, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199141-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199141_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1991">Howard 1991</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2002101-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002101_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2002">Wawro 2002</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilza200949-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilza200949_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMilza2009">Milza 2009</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff18818-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff18818_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerman_General_Staff1881">German General Staff 1881</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff188134–35-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff188134–35_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerman_General_Staff1881">German General Staff 1881</a>, pp. 34–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilza200957–59-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilza200957–59_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMilza2009">Milza 2009</a>, pp. 57–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200385-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200385_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2003">Wawro 2003</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVinogradov2005" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vinogradov, V. 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcElwee197446_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcElwee1974">McElwee 1974</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2002102-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002102_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002102_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002102_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2002">Wawro 2002</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2002103-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2002103_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2002">Wawro 2002</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward19914-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward19914_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolborn1942159-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolborn1942159_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolborn1942">Holborn 1942</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199119–20-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199119–20_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1991">Howard 1991</a>, pp. 19–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199121-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199121_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1991">Howard 1991</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199168-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199168_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1991">Howard 1991</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199170–71-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199170–71_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1991">Howard 1991</a>, pp. 70–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003238-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003238_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2003">Wawro 2003</a>, p. 238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003290-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003290_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2003">Wawro 2003</a>, p. 290.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chris Kempshall, <i>British, French and American Relations on the Western Front, 1914–1918</i>, Canterbury, Kent, UK, 2018, (ISBN 978-3-319-89464-5), p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jasper Ridley, <i>Lord Palmerston</i> (1970), p. 582</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Baring Pemberton, <i>Lord Palmerston</i> (Batchworth Press, 1954) p. 332</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul M. Kennedy. <i>The rise of the Anglo-German antagonism, 1860–1914</i>. London; Boston : Allen & Unwin. 1980. p. 410.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro200352–53-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro200352–53_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2003">Wawro 2003</a>, pp. 52–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2004217-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2004217_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBailey2004">Bailey 2004</a>, p. 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward199135–36-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward199135–36_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1991">Howard 1991</a>, pp. 35–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2004216–217-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2004216–217_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBailey2004">Bailey 2004</a>, pp. 216–217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff1884195-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerman_General_Staff1884195_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerman_General_Staff1884">German General Staff 1884</a>, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2004218–219-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2004218–219_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBailey2004">Bailey 2004</a>, pp. 218–219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward1979156–157-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1979156–157_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward1979156–157_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward1979">Howard 1979</a>, pp. 156–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2004218-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2004218_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBailey2004">Bailey 2004</a>, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.icrc.org/cross-files/individual-archives/">"Agency Archives"</a>. <i>International Committee of the Red Cross – CROSS-files</i>. 30 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Committee+of+the+Red+Cross+%E2%80%93+CROSS-files&rft.atitle=Agency+Archives&rft.date=2016-04-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.icrc.org%2Fcross-files%2Findividual-archives%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1955133-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1955133_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1955133_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1955">Taylor 1955</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003301,_310-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003301,_310_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2003">Wawro 2003</a>, pp. 301, 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldick1974209-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldick1974209_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldick1974209_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaldick1974">Baldick 1974</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauzanne1923" class="citation journal cs1">Lauzanne, Stephane (1923). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25113009">"When Germany Occupied France"</a>. <i>The North American Review</i>. <b>217</b> (810): 594–600. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25113009">25113009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+North+American+Review&rft.atitle=When+Germany+Occupied+France&rft.volume=217&rft.issue=810&rft.pages=594-600&rft.date=1923&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25113009%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lauzanne&rft.aufirst=Stephane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25113009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorne1965416-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorne1965416_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorne1965">Horne 1965</a>, p. 416.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERougerie1995118-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERougerie1995118_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRougerie1995">Rougerie 1995</a>, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2000122-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2000122_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2000">Wawro 2000</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003301-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003301_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2003">Wawro 2003</a>, p. 301.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERougerie2014118-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERougerie2014118_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRougerie2014">Rougerie 2014</a>, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorne1965422–424-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorne1965422–424_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorne1965">Horne 1965</a>, pp. 422–424.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard Droz, « Insurrection de 1871: la révolte de Mokrani », dans Jeannine Verdès-Leroux (dir.), <i>L'Algérie et la France</i>, Paris, Robert Laffont 2009, pp. 474–475 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-221-10946-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-221-10946-5">978-2-221-10946-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1987-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1987_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1987">Kennedy 1987</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Arthur Ransome Marriott, <i>The Evolution of Prussia: The Making of an Empire</i>, OUP 1937, pp.400–402</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWawro2003302-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWawro2003302_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWawro2003">Wawro 2003</a>, p. 302.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarley2008a62–80-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarley2008a62–80_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVarley2008a">Varley 2008a</a>, pp. 62–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVarley2008b-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVarley2008b_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVarley2008b">Varley 2008b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2010-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2010_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown2010">Brown 2010</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJay1984151–162-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJay1984151–162_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJay1984">Jay 1984</a>, pp. 151–162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeiger2001" class="citation book cs1">Keiger, J.F.V. (2001). <i>France and the World since 1870</i>. pp. 112–120.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+and+the+World+since+1870&rft.pages=112-120&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Keiger&rft.aufirst=J.F.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span>, quoting p 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1995" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Gordon (1995). <i>France in Modern Times</i> (5th ed.). pp. 288–299.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+in+Modern+Times&rft.pages=288-299&rft.edition=5th&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllan_Mitchell2018" class="citation book cs1">Allan Mitchell (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gQZfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT190"><i>The German Influence in France after 1870: The Formation of the French Republic</i></a>. UNC Press Books. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-2292-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-2292-7"><bdi>978-1-4696-2292-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Influence+in+France+after+1870%3A+The+Formation+of+the+French+Republic&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=UNC+Press+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-2292-7&rft.au=Allan+Mitchell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgQZfDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeager1969" class="citation book cs1">Seager, Frederic H. (1969). "The Alsace-Lorraine Question in France, 1871–1914". In Warner, Charles K. (ed.). <i>From the Ancien Régime to the Popular Front: Essays in the History of Modern France</i>. pp. 111–126.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Alsace-Lorraine+Question+in+France%2C+1871%E2%80%931914&rft.btitle=From+the+Ancien+R%C3%A9gime+to+the+Popular+Front%3A+Essays+in+the+History+of+Modern+France&rft.pages=111-126&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Seager&rft.aufirst=Frederic+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll1931" class="citation book cs1">Carroll, E. Malcolm (1931). <i>French Public Opinion and Foreign Affairs: 1870–1914</i>. pp. 47–48.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=French+Public+Opinion+and+Foreign+Affairs%3A+1870%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=47-48&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=E.+Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAscoli2001" class="citation book cs1">Ascoli, David (2001). <i>A Day of Battle: Mars-La-Tour 16 August 1870</i>. Edinburgh: Birlinn. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84158-121-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84158-121-7"><bdi>978-1-84158-121-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Day+of+Battle%3A+Mars-La-Tour+16+August+1870&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Birlinn&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84158-121-7&rft.aulast=Ascoli&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailey2004" class="citation book cs1">Bailey, Jonathan B. A. (2004). <i>Field Artillery and Firepower</i> (Revised and expanded ed.). Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-029-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-029-0"><bdi>978-1-59114-029-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Field+Artillery+and+Firepower&rft.place=Annapolis&rft.edition=Revised+and+expanded&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-59114-029-0&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+B.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaldick1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Baldick" title="Robert Baldick">Baldick, Robert</a> (1974). <i>The Siege of Paris</i>. London: London New English Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-450-02190-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-450-02190-9"><bdi>978-0-450-02190-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Siege+of+Paris&rft.place=London&rft.pub=London+New+English+Library&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-450-02190-9&rft.aulast=Baldick&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2009a" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Barry, Quintin (2009a). <i>The Franco-Prussian War 1870–71</i>. Vol. 1 The Campaign of Sedan. Solihull: Helion & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-906033-45-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-906033-45-3"><bdi>978-1-906033-45-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-Prussian+War+1870%E2%80%9371&rft.place=Solihull&rft.pub=Helion+%26+Company&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-906033-45-3&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=Quintin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2010" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Frederick (2010). <i>For the Soul of France: Culture wars in the age of Dreyfus</i>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-26631-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-26631-6"><bdi>978-0-307-26631-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+the+Soul+of+France%3A+Culture+wars+in+the+age+of+Dreyfus&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-307-26631-6&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodart1916" class="citation book cs1">Bodart, Gaston (1916). <i>Losses of Life in Modern Wars, Austria-Hungary: France</i>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1112270444" title="Special:BookSources/978-1112270444"><bdi>978-1112270444</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Losses+of+Life+in+Modern+Wars%2C+Austria-Hungary%3A+France&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1916&rft.isbn=978-1112270444&rft.aulast=Bodart&rft.aufirst=Gaston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClodfelter2017" class="citation book cs1">Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). <i>Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015</i> (4th ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-7470-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-7470-7"><bdi>978-0-7864-7470-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Armed+Conflicts%3A+A+Statistical+Encyclopedia+of+Casualty+and+Other+Figures%2C+1492%E2%80%932015&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+NC&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-7470-7&rft.aulast=Clodfelter&rft.aufirst=Micheal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_A._Craig" title="Gordon A. Craig">Craig, G. A.</a> (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germany1866194500crai"><i>Germany: 1866–1945</i></a></span>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502724-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502724-2"><bdi>978-0-19-502724-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%3A+1866%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-19-502724-2&rft.aulast=Craig&rft.aufirst=G.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermany1866194500crai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliot-WrightShann1993" class="citation book cs1">Elliot-Wright, Philipp; Shann, Stephen (1993). <i>Gravelotte-St-Privat 1870</i>. Campaign. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-286-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-286-8"><bdi>978-1-85532-286-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gravelotte-St-Privat+1870&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Campaign&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-85532-286-8&rft.aulast=Elliot-Wright&rft.aufirst=Philipp&rft.au=Shann%2C+Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoley2007" class="citation book cs1">Foley, Robert T. (2007). <i>German Strategy and the Path to Verdun: Erich von Falkenhayn and the Development of Attrition, 1870–1916</i> (pbk. ed.). Cambridge: CUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-04436-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-04436-3"><bdi>978-0-521-04436-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Strategy+and+the+Path+to+Verdun%3A+Erich+von+Falkenhayn+and+the+Development+of+Attrition%2C+1870%E2%80%931916&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=pbk.&rft.pub=CUP&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-04436-3&rft.aulast=Foley&rft.aufirst=Robert+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerman_General_Staff1881" class="citation book cs1">German General Staff (1881). <i>The Franco-German War 1870–71: Part 1</i>. Vol. 1. Translated by Clarke, F.C.H. London: Clowes & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-German+War+1870%E2%80%9371%3A+Part+1&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Clowes+%26+Sons&rft.date=1881&rft.au=German+General+Staff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerman_General_Staff1884" class="citation book cs1">German General Staff (1884). <i>The Franco-German War 1870–71: Part 2</i>. Vol. 3. Translated by Clarke, F.C.H. London: Clowes & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-German+War+1870%E2%80%9371%3A+Part+2&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Clowes+%26+Sons&rft.date=1884&rft.au=German+General+Staff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorne1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alistair_Horne" title="Alistair Horne">Horne, Alistair</a> (1965). <i>The Fall of Paris; The siege and the Commune 1870–71</i>. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/490599556">490599556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+Paris%3B+The+siege+and+the+Commune+1870%E2%80%9371&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F490599556&rft.aulast=Horne&rft.aufirst=Alistair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Howard_(historian)" title="Michael Howard (historian)">Howard, Michael</a> (1979) [1961]. <i>The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France 1870–1871</i>. London: Rupert Hart-Davis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-246-63587-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-246-63587-7"><bdi>978-0-246-63587-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-Prussian+War%3A+The+German+Invasion+of+France+1870%E2%80%931871&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Rupert+Hart-Davis&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-246-63587-7&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward1991" class="citation book cs1">Howard, Michael (1991) [1961]. <i>The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France 1870–1871</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02787-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02787-8"><bdi>978-0-415-02787-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-Prussian+War%3A+The+German+Invasion+of+France+1870%E2%80%931871&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-415-02787-8&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHozierDavenport_Adams1872" class="citation book cs1">Hozier, Henry Montagu; <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Davenport_Adams" title="William Henry Davenport Adams">Davenport Adams, W. H.</a> (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11122111?page=257"><i>The Franco-Prussian War: Its Causes, Incidents, and Consequences</i></a>. Vol. 2. London: William Mackenzie. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/931716547">931716547</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-Prussian+War%3A+Its+Causes%2C+Incidents%2C+and+Consequences&rft.place=London&rft.pub=William+Mackenzie&rft.date=1872&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F931716547&rft.aulast=Hozier&rft.aufirst=Henry+Montagu&rft.au=Davenport+Adams%2C+W.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitale-sammlungen.de%2Fde%2Fview%2Fbsb11122111%3Fpage%3D257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kennedy" title="Paul Kennedy">Kennedy, Paul M.</a> (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/risefallofgreatp00kenn"><i>The rise and fall of the great powers: economic change and military conflict from 1500 to 2000</i></a></span> (1st ed.). New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-54674-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-54674-2"><bdi>978-0-394-54674-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rise+and+fall+of+the+great+powers%3A+economic+change+and+military+conflict+from+1500+to+2000&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-394-54674-2&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frisefallofgreatp00kenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcElwee1974" class="citation book cs1">McElwee, William Lloyd (1974). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artofwarwaterloo0000mcel"><i>The Art of War: Waterloo to Mons</i></a></span>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20214-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20214-7"><bdi>978-0-253-20214-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+War%3A+Waterloo+to+Mons&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-253-20214-7&rft.aulast=McElwee&rft.aufirst=William+Lloyd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartofwarwaterloo0000mcel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilza2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Milza" title="Pierre Milza">Milza, Pierre</a> (2009). <i>L'Année terrible</i>. Vol. 1: La Guerre franco-prussienne, septembre 1870 – mars 1871. Paris: Perrin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-262-02498-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-262-02498-7"><bdi>978-2-262-02498-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Ann%C3%A9e+terrible&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Perrin&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-2-262-02498-7&rft.aulast=Milza&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNolte1884" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nolte, Frédérick (1884). <i>L'Europe militaire et diplomatique au dix-neuvième siècle, 1815–1884</i> (in French). Paris: E. Plon, Nourrit et Cie. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4899575">4899575</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Europe+militaire+et+diplomatique+au+dix-neuvi%C3%A8me+si%C3%A8cle%2C+1815%E2%80%931884&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=E.+Plon%2C+Nourrit+et+Cie.&rft.date=1884&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4899575&rft.aulast=Nolte&rft.aufirst=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9rick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOllier1883" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Ollier" title="Edmund Ollier">Ollier, Edmund</a> (1883). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JO3n-ui4VvEC&pg=PA210"><i>Cassell's History of the War Between France and Germany, 1870–1871</i></a>. Vol. 2. London: Cassell Petter & Galpin. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/914936793">914936793</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cassell%27s+History+of+the+War+Between+France+and+Germany%2C+1870%E2%80%931871&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cassell+Petter+%26+Galpin&rft.date=1883&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F914936793&rft.aulast=Ollier&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJO3n-ui4VvEC%26pg%3DPA210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer2010" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, Michael A. (2010). <i>The German Wars: A Concise History, 1859–1945</i>. Minneapolis: MBI Pub. Co. and Zenith Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61673-985-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61673-985-0"><bdi>978-1-61673-985-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Wars%3A+A+Concise+History%2C+1859%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=MBI+Pub.+Co.+and+Zenith+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-61673-985-0&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamm1967" class="citation book cs1">Ramm, Agetha (1967). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germany17891919p0000ramm"><i>Germany, 1789–1919 : a political history</i></a></span>. London: Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-416-33990-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-416-33990-1"><bdi>978-0-416-33990-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%2C+1789%E2%80%931919+%3A+a+political+history&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-416-33990-1&rft.aulast=Ramm&rft.aufirst=Agetha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermany17891919p0000ramm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidley1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jasper_Ridley" title="Jasper Ridley">Ridley, Jasper</a> (1976) [1974]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/garibaldi00ridl"><i>Garibaldi</i></a>. New York: Viking Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-33548-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-33548-0"><bdi>978-0-670-33548-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Garibaldi&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-670-33548-0&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.aufirst=Jasper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgaribaldi00ridl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRougerie1995" class="citation book cs1">Rougerie, Jacques (1995). <i>Paris Insurgé: La Commune de 1871</i>. Paris: Gallimard. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-07-053289-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-07-053289-6"><bdi>978-2-07-053289-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paris+Insurg%C3%A9%3A+La+Commune+de+1871&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Gallimard&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-2-07-053289-6&rft.aulast=Rougerie&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRougerie2014" class="citation book cs1">Rougerie, Jacques (2014). <i>La Commune de 1871</i>. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-13-062078-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-13-062078-5"><bdi>978-2-13-062078-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Commune+de+1871&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Presses+Universitaires+de+France&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-2-13-062078-5&rft.aulast=Rougerie&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRüstow1872" class="citation book cs1">Rüstow, W. (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9cBVAAAAYAAJ"><i>The War for the Rhine Frontier, 1870: Its Political and Military History</i></a>. Vol. 3. Translated by Needham, John Layland. Edinburgh: Blackwood. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/13591954">13591954</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+for+the+Rhine+Frontier%2C+1870%3A+Its+Political+and+Military+History&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Blackwood&rft.date=1872&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F13591954&rft.aulast=R%C3%BCstow&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9cBVAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShannDelperier1991" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Shann, Stephen; Delperier, Louis (1991). <i>French Army 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War</i>. Men-at-Arms. Vol. 2 Republican Troops. Illustrated by Richard and Christa Hook. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-135-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-135-9"><bdi>978-1-85532-135-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=French+Army+1870%E2%80%9371+Franco-Prussian+War&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Men-at-Arms&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-1-85532-135-9&rft.aulast=Shann&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Delperier%2C+Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSondhaus2001" class="citation book cs1">Sondhaus, Lawrence (2001). <i>Naval Warfare, 1815–1914</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-21478-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-21478-0"><bdi>978-0-415-21478-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naval+Warfare%2C+1815%E2%80%931914&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-21478-0&rft.aulast=Sondhaus&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFСвечин_(Svechin)1928" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Свечин (Svechin), А. А. (1928). Военгиз (Voengiz), М.Л. (M.L.) (ed.). <i>Эволюция военного искусства (Evolution of military art)</i> (in Russian). Vol. II.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0+%28Evolution+of+military+art%29&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD+%28Svechin%29&rft.aufirst=%D0%90.+%D0%90.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1955" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._J._P._Taylor" title="A. J. P. Taylor">Taylor, A. J. P.</a> (1955). <i>Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman</i>. 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Pen and Sword Military. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1526756107" title="Special:BookSources/978-1526756107"><bdi>978-1526756107</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Lost+State%3A+The+Fall+of+Prussia+and+the+Wilhelm+Gustloff+Tragedy&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword+Military&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1526756107&rft.aulast=Heath&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.au=Cocolin%2C+Michela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Creveld1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_van_Creveld" title="Martin van Creveld">van Creveld, Martin</a> (1977). <i>Supplying War: Logistics from Wallenstein to Patton</i> (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29793-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29793-6"><bdi>978-0-521-29793-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supplying+War%3A+Logistics+from+Wallenstein+to+Patton&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29793-6&rft.aulast=van+Creveld&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarley2008a" class="citation book cs1">Varley, Karine (2008a). "The Taboos of Defeat: Unmentionable Memories of the Franco-Prussian War in France, 1870–1914". In Macleod, Jenny (ed.). <i>Defeat and Memory: Cultural Histories of Military Defeat in the Modern Era</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-51740-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-51740-0"><bdi>978-0-230-51740-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Taboos+of+Defeat%3A+Unmentionable+Memories+of+the+Franco-Prussian+War+in+France%2C+1870%E2%80%931914&rft.btitle=Defeat+and+Memory%3A+Cultural+Histories+of+Military+Defeat+in+the+Modern+Era&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-230-51740-0&rft.aulast=Varley&rft.aufirst=Karine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarley2008b" class="citation book cs1">Varley, Karine (2008b). <i>Under the shadow of defeat: the war of 1870–71 in French memory</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-00519-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-00519-8"><bdi>978-0-230-00519-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Under+the+shadow+of+defeat%3A+the+war+of+1870%E2%80%9371+in+French+memory&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-230-00519-8&rft.aulast=Varley&rft.aufirst=Karine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Bismarck1899" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">von Bismarck, Otto Eduard Leopold</a> (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bismarckmanands00butlgoog"><i>Bismarck: The Man & the Statesman</i></a>. 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New York: Harper & Brothers. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51415680">51415680</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bismarck%3A+The+Man+%26+the+Statesman&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1899&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51415680&rft.aulast=von+Bismarck&rft.aufirst=Otto+Eduard+Leopold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbismarckmanands00butlgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Bismarckvon_Poschinger1900" class="citation book cs1">von Bismarck, Otto Eduard Leopold; <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Poschinger" title="Heinrich von Poschinger">von Poschinger, Heinrich</a> (1900). <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Poschinger" title="Heinrich von Poschinger">von Poschinge, Heinrich</a>; Whitman, Sidney (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conversationswit00poscrich/page/87"><i>Conversations with Prince Bismarck</i></a>. Translated by Whitman, Sidney (English ed.). London: Harper & Brothers. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/222059904">222059904</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conversations+with+Prince+Bismarck&rft.place=London&rft.edition=English&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1900&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F222059904&rft.aulast=von+Bismarck&rft.aufirst=Otto+Eduard+Leopold&rft.au=von+Poschinger%2C+Heinrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconversationswit00poscrich%2Fpage%2F87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Pflugk-Harttung1900" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julius_von_Pflugk-Harttung" title="Julius von Pflugk-Harttung">von Pflugk-Harttung, Julius Albert Georg</a> (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/francogermanwar100maur/page/n0"><i>The Franco-German War, 1870–71</i></a>. Translated by Maurice, J. F.; Long, Wilfred James; Sonnenschein, A. London: S. Sonnenschein and Co. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3132807">3132807</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-German+War%2C+1870%E2%80%9371&rft.place=London&rft.pub=S.+Sonnenschein+and+Co.&rft.date=1900&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3132807&rft.aulast=von+Pflugk-Harttung&rft.aufirst=Julius+Albert+Georg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrancogermanwar100maur%2Fpage%2Fn0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWawro2000" class="citation book cs1">Wawro, Geoffrey (2000). <i>Warfare and Society in Europe, 1792–1914</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-21445-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-21445-2"><bdi>978-0-415-21445-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Society+in+Europe%2C+1792%E2%80%931914&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-21445-2&rft.aulast=Wawro&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWawro2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Wawro" title="Geoffrey Wawro">Wawro, Geoffrey</a> (2002). <i>Warfare and Society in Europe, 1792–1914</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-17183-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-17183-7"><bdi>978-0-203-17183-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Society+in+Europe%2C+1792%E2%80%931914&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-203-17183-7&rft.aulast=Wawro&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWawro2003" class="citation book cs1">Wawro, Geoffrey (2003). <i>The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France in 1870–1871</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58436-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58436-4"><bdi>978-0-521-58436-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-Prussian+War%3A+The+German+Conquest+of+France+in+1870%E2%80%931871&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-58436-4&rft.aulast=Wawro&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZabecki2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/David_T._Zabecki" title="David T. Zabecki">Zabecki, David T.</a> (2008). <i>Chief of Staff</i>. Vol. 1: <i>Napoleonic Wars to World War I</i>. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-990-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-990-3"><bdi>978-1-59114-990-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chief+of+Staff&rft.place=Annapolis&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59114-990-3&rft.aulast=Zabecki&rft.aufirst=David+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journals">Journals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolborn1942" class="citation journal cs1">Holborn, H. (1942). "Moltke's Strategical Concepts". <i>Military Affairs</i>. <b>VI</b> (3): 153–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1982846">10.2307/1982846</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2325-6990">2325-6990</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1982846">1982846</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+Affairs&rft.atitle=Moltke%27s+Strategical+Concepts&rft.volume=VI&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=153-168&rft.date=1942&rft.issn=2325-6990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1982846%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1982846&rft.aulast=Holborn&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrvine1938" class="citation journal cs1">Irvine, D. D. (1938). "The French and Prussian Staff Systems Before 1870". <i>The Journal of the American Military Foundation</i>. <b>2</b> (4): 192–203. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3038792">10.2307/3038792</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2326-6120">2326-6120</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3038792">3038792</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+American+Military+Foundation&rft.atitle=The+French+and+Prussian+Staff+Systems+Before+1870&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=192-203&rft.date=1938&rft.issn=2326-6120&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3038792%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3038792&rft.aulast=Irvine&rft.aufirst=D.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay1984" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Jay, Robert (1984). "Alphonse de Neuville's 'The Spy' and the Legacy of the Franco-Prussian War". <i>Metropolitan Museum Journal</i>. 19/20: 151–162. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1512817">10.2307/1512817</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1512817">1512817</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:193058659">193058659</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metropolitan+Museum+Journal&rft.atitle=Alphonse+de+Neuville%27s+%27The+Spy%27+and+the+Legacy+of+the+Franco-Prussian+War&rft.volume=19%2F20&rft.pages=151-162&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A193058659%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1512817%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1512817&rft.aulast=Jay&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Websites">Websites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Websites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Chavannes1872" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Puvis_de_Chavannes" title="Pierre Puvis de Chavannes">de Chavannes, Pierre Puvis</a> (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://art.thewalters.org/detail/8084">"Hope"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Walters_Art_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="The Walters Art Museum">The Walters Art Museum</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hope&rft.pub=The+Walters+Art+Museum&rft.date=1872&rft.aulast=de+Chavannes&rft.aufirst=Pierre+Puvis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fart.thewalters.org%2Fdetail%2F8084&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBritannica:_Franco-German_War" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/216971/Franco-German-War">"Franco-German War"</a>. <i>Britannica.com</i>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Inc." title="Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a> 30 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica.com&rft.atitle=Franco-German+War&rft.date=2013-12-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F216971%2FFranco-German-War&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_and_journals">Books and journals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Books and journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Arand, Tobias (2018). <i>1870/71 die Geschichte des Deutsch-Französischen Krieges erzählt in Einzelschicksalen</i> (in German). Hamburg: Osburg Verlag GmbH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-95510-167-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-95510-167-1"><bdi>978-3-95510-167-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1870%2F71+die+Geschichte+des+Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sischen+Krieges+erz%C3%A4hlt+in+Einzelschicksalen&rft.place=Hamburg&rft.pub=Osburg+Verlag+GmbH&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-95510-167-1&rft.aulast=Arand&rft.aufirst=Tobias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAronson1970" class="citation book cs1">Aronson, Theo (1970). <i>The fall of the third Napoleon</i> (1st History Book Club ed.). London: Cassell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0304934518" title="Special:BookSources/0304934518"><bdi>0304934518</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+fall+of+the+third+Napoleon.&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1st+History+Book+Club&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0304934518&rft.aulast=Aronson&rft.aufirst=Theo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Audoin-Rouzeau, Stéphane (1989). <i>1870 : la France dans la guerre</i> (in French). Paris: Armand Colin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-20037-165-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-20037-165-4"><bdi>978-2-20037-165-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1870+%3A+la+France+dans+la+guerre&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Armand+Colin&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-2-20037-165-4&rft.aulast=Audoin-Rouzeau&rft.aufirst=St%C3%A9phane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Bresler, Fenton (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/napoleoniiilife00bres"><i>Napoleon III: A Life</i></a>. New York: Carroll & Graf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-0660-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7867-0660-0"><bdi>978-0-7867-0660-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon+III%3A+A+Life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Carroll+%26+Graf&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7867-0660-0&rft.aulast=Bresler&rft.aufirst=Fenton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleoniiilife00bres&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Bucholz, Arden (2001). <i>Moltke and the German wars, 1864–1871</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-68758-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-68758-1"><bdi>978-0-333-68758-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moltke+and+the+German+wars%2C+1864%E2%80%931871&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-333-68758-1&rft.aulast=Bucholz&rft.aufirst=Arden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Clark" title="Christopher Clark">Clark, Christopher M.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ironkingdomrised00chri"><i>Iron Kingdom: The Rise And Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947</i></a>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02385-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02385-7"><bdi>978-0-674-02385-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iron+Kingdom%3A+The+Rise+And+Downfall+of+Prussia%2C+1600%E2%80%931947&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02385-7&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Christopher+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fironkingdomrised00chri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Jerrold, William Blanchard (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofnapoleonii04jerruoft"><i>The Life of Napoleon III</i></a>. 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London: Chapter Two. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85307-123-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85307-123-2"><bdi>978-1-85307-123-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nest+in+the+Altar+or+Reminiscences+of+the+Franco-Prussian+War+of+1870&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Chapter+Two&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-85307-123-2&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Lowe, John (2013). <i>The Great Powers, Imperialism and the German Problem 1865–1925</i>. Hoboken NY: Florence Taylor and Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15228-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15228-3"><bdi>978-1-136-15228-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Powers%2C+Imperialism+and+the+German+Problem+1865%E2%80%931925&rft.place=Hoboken+NY&rft.pub=Florence+Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-15228-3&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mehrkens, Heidi (2008). <i>Statuswechsel : Kriegserfahrung und nationale Wahrnehmung im Deutsch-Französischen Krieg 1870/71</i>. Schriften der Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte (in German). Essen: Klartext. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89861-565-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89861-565-5"><bdi>978-3-89861-565-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Statuswechsel+%3A+Kriegserfahrung+und+nationale+Wahrnehmung+im+Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sischen+Krieg+1870%2F71&rft.place=Essen&rft.series=Schriften+der+Bibliothek+f%C3%BCr+Zeitgeschichte&rft.pub=Klartext&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-89861-565-5&rft.aulast=Mehrkens&rft.aufirst=Heidi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Milza" title="Pierre Milza">Milza, Pierre</a> (2004). <i>Napoleon III</i>. Paris: Editions Perrin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-262-02607-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-262-02607-3"><bdi>978-2-262-02607-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon+III&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Editions+Perrin&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-2-262-02607-3&rft.aulast=Milza&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Milza, Pierre (2009). <i>L'Année terrible</i>. Vol. 2: La commune mars – juin 1871. 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Oxford: Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-121-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-121-2"><bdi>978-1-85532-121-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=French+Army+1870%E2%80%9371+Franco-Prussian+War&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Men-at-Arms&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-1-85532-121-2&rft.aulast=Shann&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Delperier%2C+Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Showalter" title="Dennis Showalter">Showalter, Dennis E.</a> (2015). <i>The wars of German unification</i>. Modern Wars (2 ed.). 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Novato, CA: Presidio Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-891414-84-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-891414-84-1"><bdi>978-0-891414-84-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moltke+on+the+Art+of+War%3A+Selected+Writings&rft.place=Novato%2C+CA&rft.pub=Presidio+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-891414-84-1&rft.aulast=von+Moltke&rft.aufirst=Helmuth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">von Moltke, Helmuth (1992). <i>The Franco-German war of 1870–71</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Forbes" title="Archibald Forbes">Forbes, Archibald</a>. London: Greenhill Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-131-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85367-131-9"><bdi>978-1-85367-131-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco-German+war+of+1870%E2%80%9371&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Greenhill+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1-85367-131-9&rft.aulast=von+Moltke&rft.aufirst=Helmuth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Wetzel, David (2012). <i>A Duel of Nations: Germany, France, and the diplomacy of the War of 1870–1871</i>. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-29133-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-29133-4"><bdi>978-0-299-29133-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Duel+of+Nations%3A+Germany%2C+France%2C+and+the+diplomacy+of+the+War+of+1870%E2%80%931871&rft.place=Madison%2C+WI&rft.pub=The+University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-299-29133-4&rft.aulast=Wetzel&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caricatures_and_editorial_cartoons">Caricatures and editorial cartoons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Caricatures and editorial cartoons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPullen1871" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_William_Pullen" title="Henry William Pullen">Pullen, Henry William</a> (1871). <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Fight_at_Dame_Europa%27s_School" class="extiw" title="s:The Fight at Dame Europa's School">The Fight at Dame Europa's School</a></i> (Pamphlet). Illustrated by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nast" title="Thomas Nast">Thomas Nast</a>. New York: Francis B. Felt. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/504021110">504021110</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fight+at+Dame+Europa%27s+School&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Francis+B.+Felt&rft.date=1871&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F504021110&rft.aulast=Pullen&rft.aufirst=Henry+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniels2005" class="citation web cs1">Daniels, Morna (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/eblj/2005articles/pdf/article5.pdf">"Caricatures from the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and the Paris Commune"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. British Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150120075705/http://www.bl.uk/eblj/2005articles/pdf/article5.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2015-01-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Caricatures+from+the+Franco-Prussian+War+of+1870+and+the+Paris+Commune&rft.pub=British+Library&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Morna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Feblj%2F2005articles%2Fpdf%2Farticle5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVernon2014" class="citation web cs1">Vernon, Teresa (23 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/european/2014/06/napoleon-iii-meets-his-nemesis-caricatures-from-the-franco-prussian-war.html">"Napoleon III meets his nemesis: caricatures from the Franco-Prussian War"</a>. British Library<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Napoleon+III+meets+his+nemesis%3A+caricatures+from+the+Franco-Prussian+War&rft.pub=British+Library&rft.date=2014-06-23&rft.aulast=Vernon&rft.aufirst=Teresa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbritishlibrary.typepad.co.uk%2Feuropean%2F2014%2F06%2Fnapoleon-iii-meets-his-nemesis-caricatures-from-the-franco-prussian-war.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranco-Prussian+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fabry-Tehranchi, Irene (2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://europeancollections.wordpress.com/2019/03/11/caricatures-of-the-franco-prussian-war-and-the-paris-commune-1870-71/">"Cambridge caricatures of the Franco-Prussian War and the Paris Commune (1870–71)".</a> Cambridge University Library.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franco-Prussian_War&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Franco-Prussian_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work" class="extiw" title="s:The New Student's Reference Work">The New Student's Reference Work</a></i> article "<b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work/Franco-German_War" class="extiw" title="s:The New Student's Reference Work/Franco-German War">Franco-German War</a></b>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.laguerrede1870enimages.fr/">La guerre de 1870–71 en images</a></li> <li>"Caricatures of the Franco-Prussian War and the Paris Commune (1870–71)": <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exhibitions.lib.cam.ac.uk/caricatures/">Virtual exhibition</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/stories/caricatures-franco-prussian-war-and-paris-commune-1870-71">story</a>, Cambridge University Library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/caricatures/1">Collection de caricatures et de charges pour servir à l'histoire de la guerre et de la révolution de 1870–1871</a> (Cambridge University Library)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heidicon.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/search?p=59&ot=objekte&inp=fulltext:Collection%20caricatures%20charges%20guerre">Collection de caricatures et de charges pour servir à l'histoire de la guerre et de la révolution de 1870–1871</a> (Heidelberg University Library)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deuframat.de">Texts and documents about German–French relations and an essay on the Franco-German war</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516114356/http://www.omaha-beach.org/Travel/1870/1870-71.html">Information and maps on the battles of Wissembourg, Woerth and Gravelotte</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Unification_of_Germany" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Unification_of_Germany" title="Template:Unification of Germany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Unification_of_Germany" title="Template talk:Unification of Germany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Unification_of_Germany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Unification of Germany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Unification_of_Germany" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(later <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Kingdom of Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hanover" title="Kingdom of Hanover">Kingdom of Hanover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Kingdom of Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Kingdom of Württemberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_of_the_German_Confederation" title="States of the German Confederation">States of the German Confederation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire_(1848%E2%80%931849)" title="German Empire (1848–1849)">German Empire (1848–1849)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erfurt_Union" title="Erfurt Union">Erfurt Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;">1814–1815</span> <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1815–1848</span> <i><a href="/wiki/Vorm%C3%A4rz" title="Vormärz">Vormärz</a></i> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;">1817</span> <a href="/wiki/Wartburg_Festival" title="Wartburg Festival">Wartburg Festival</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1819</span> <a href="/wiki/Carlsbad_Decrees" title="Carlsbad Decrees">Carlsbad Decrees</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1832</span> <a href="/wiki/Hambach_Festival" title="Hambach Festival">Hambach Festival</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1833</span> <i><a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Wachensturm" title="Frankfurter Wachensturm">Frankfurter Wachensturm</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849"><span style="font-size:85%;">1848</span> Revolutions</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;">1848–1849</span> <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt Parliament">Frankfurt Parliament</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1848</span> <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_uprising_(1848)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Poland uprising (1848)">Greater Poland uprising</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1850</span> <a href="/wiki/Punctation_of_Olm%C3%BCtz" title="Punctation of Olmütz">Punctation of Olmütz</a></li></ul></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1850-1851</span> <a href="/wiki/Dresden_Conference_(1851)" title="Dresden Conference (1851)">Dresden Conference</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1862</span> <a href="/wiki/Blood_and_Iron_(speech)" title="Blood and Iron (speech)">"Blood and Iron" speech</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1864</span> <a href="/wiki/Second_Schleswig_War" title="Second Schleswig War">Second Schleswig War</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1866</span> <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Prague_(1866)" title="Peace of Prague (1866)">Peace of Prague</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1870–1871</span> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franco-Prussian War</a></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">1871</span> <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1871)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1871)">Treaty of Versailles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Friedrich_Karl_vom_und_zum_Stein" title="Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein">Baron von Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Charles I of Württemberg">Charles I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_IX_of_Denmark" title="Christian IX of Denmark">Christian IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_von_Simson" title="Eduard von Simson">Eduard von Simson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Franz I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William III of Prussia">Frederick William III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_IV_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William IV of Prussia">Frederick William IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Daniel_Bassermann" title="Friedrich Daniel Bassermann">Friedrich Daniel Bassermann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ferdinand_von_Beust" title="Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust">Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Gagern" title="Heinrich von Gagern">Heinrich von Gagern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gustav_Droysen" title="Johann Gustav Droysen">Johann Gustav Droysen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archduke_John_of_Austria" title="Archduke John of Austria">Archduke John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John,_King_of_Saxony" title="John, King of Saxony">John, King of Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_August_von_Hardenberg" title="Karl August von Hardenberg">Karl August von Hardenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_II_of_Bavaria" title="Ludwig II of Bavaria">Ludwig II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Blum" title="Robert Blum">Robert Blum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Wilhelm von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_I,_German_Emperor" title="William I, German Emperor">Wilhelm I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_rivalry" title="Austro-Prussian rivalry">Austro-Prussian rivalry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burschenschaft" title="Burschenschaft">Burschenschaft</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deutschlandlied" title="Deutschlandlied">Das Lied der Deutschen</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Die_Wacht_am_Rhein" title="Die Wacht am Rhein">Die Wacht am Rhein</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Germany" title="Flag of Germany">Flag of Germany</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCtzow_Free_Corps" title="Lützow Free Corps">Lützow Free Corps</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">Pan-Germanism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Germany" title="Lesser Germany">Lesser Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_question" title="German question">German question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Austria_proposal" title="Greater Austria proposal">Greater Austria proposal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schleswig%E2%80%93Holstein_question" title="Schleswig–Holstein question">Schleswig–Holstein question</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/16px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/24px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_French_weapons_of_the_19th_century" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_weapons_of_the_19th_century" title="Template:French weapons of the 19th century"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_weapons_of_the_19th_century" title="Template talk:French weapons of the 19th century"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_weapons_of_the_19th_century" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French weapons of the 19th century"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=&#124;link=_French_weapons_of_the_19th_century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> French weapons of the 19th century</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Small_arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Small arms">Small arms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri-Gustave_Delvigne" title="Henri-Gustave Delvigne">Delvigne rifle (1826)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carabine_%C3%A0_tige" title="Carabine à tige">Thouvenin <i>Carabine à tige</i> (1846)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lefaucheux_M1858" title="Lefaucheux M1858">Lefaucheux M1858 revolver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini%C3%A9_rifle" title="Minié rifle">Minié rifle (1849)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabati%C3%A8re_rifle" title="Tabatière rifle">Tabatière rifle (1864)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chassepot" title="Chassepot">Chassepot rifle (1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusil_Gras_mle_1874" title="Fusil Gras mle 1874">Gras rifle (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebel_Model_1886_rifle" title="Lebel Model 1886 rifle">Lebel rifle (1886)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le_1892_revolver" title="Modèle 1892 revolver">Modèle 1892 revolver</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mitrailleuse_front.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Reffye mitrailleuse"><img alt="Reffye mitrailleuse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Mitrailleuse_front.jpg/50px-Mitrailleuse_front.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Mitrailleuse_front.jpg/75px-Mitrailleuse_front.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Mitrailleuse_front.jpg/100px-Mitrailleuse_front.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mitrailleuse_Gatling_APX1895_Paris_FRA_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="APX 1895"><img alt="APX 1895" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Mitrailleuse_Gatling_APX1895_Paris_FRA_001.jpg/50px-Mitrailleuse_Gatling_APX1895_Paris_FRA_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Mitrailleuse_Gatling_APX1895_Paris_FRA_001.jpg/75px-Mitrailleuse_Gatling_APX1895_Paris_FRA_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Mitrailleuse_Gatling_APX1895_Paris_FRA_001.jpg/100px-Mitrailleuse_Gatling_APX1895_Paris_FRA_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2311" data-file-height="3471" /></a></span></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:90mm_De_Bange_in_1898.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="De Bange 90 mm"><img alt="De Bange 90 mm" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/90mm_De_Bange_in_1898.jpg/50px-90mm_De_Bange_in_1898.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/90mm_De_Bange_in_1898.jpg/75px-90mm_De_Bange_in_1898.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/90mm_De_Bange_in_1898.jpg/100px-90mm_De_Bange_in_1898.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2997" data-file-height="2072" /></a></span></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Canon_de_75_Mod%C3%A8le_1897,_MDLA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Canon de 75"><img alt="Canon de 75" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Canon_de_75_Mod%C3%A8le_1897%2C_MDLA.jpg/50px-Canon_de_75_Mod%C3%A8le_1897%2C_MDLA.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Canon_de_75_Mod%C3%A8le_1897%2C_MDLA.jpg/75px-Canon_de_75_Mod%C3%A8le_1897%2C_MDLA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Canon_de_75_Mod%C3%A8le_1897%2C_MDLA.jpg/100px-Canon_de_75_Mod%C3%A8le_1897%2C_MDLA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2141" data-file-height="1411" /></a></span></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">Machine guns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitrailleuse" title="Mitrailleuse">Reffye mitrailleuse (1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotchkiss_gun" title="Hotchkiss gun">Hotchkiss "Canon-Revolver" (1872)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatling_gun" title="Gatling gun">Mitrailleuse Gatling modèle APX 1895 (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotchkiss_M1914_machine_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotchkiss M1914 machine gun">Mle 1897 Hotchkiss Machine gun (1897)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">Cannons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Year_XI_system" title="Year XI system">Year XI system (1803)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paixhans_gun" title="Paixhans gun">Paixhans gun (1823)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9e_system" title="Valée system">Valée system (1828)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_obusier_de_12" title="Canon obusier de 12">Canon obusier de 12 (1853)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Hitte_system" title="La Hitte system">La Hitte system (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reffye_85_mm_cannon" title="Reffye 85 mm cannon">Reffye 85 mm (1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reffye_75_mm_cannon" title="Reffye 75 mm cannon">Reffye 75 mm (1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahitolle_95_mm_cannon" title="Lahitolle 95 mm cannon">Lahitolle 95 mm (1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Bange_80_mm_cannon" title="De Bange 80 mm cannon">de Bange 80 mm (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Bange_90_mm_cannon" title="De Bange 90 mm cannon">de Bange 90 mm (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canet_guns" class="mw-redirect" title="Canet guns">Canet 320 mm (1880)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_de_75_mod%C3%A8le_1897" title="Canon de 75 modèle 1897">Canon de 75 (1897)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_ship_Napol%C3%A9on_(1850)" title="French ship Napoléon (1850)">Steam battleship <i>Napoléon</i> (1850)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Lave" class="mw-redirect" title="French ironclad Lave">Ironclad floating battery <i>Lave</i> (1854)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Gloire" title="French ironclad Gloire">Ironclad <i>Gloire</i> (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_submarine_Plongeur" title="French submarine Plongeur">Mechanical powered submarine <i>Plongeur</i> (1863)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_ironclad_Redoutable" title="French ironclad Redoutable">Steel battleship <i>Redoutable</i> (1876)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_cruiser_Dupuy_de_L%C3%B4me" title="French cruiser Dupuy de Lôme">Armoured cruiser <i>Dupuy de Lôme</i> (1890)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_submarine_Gymnote_(Q1)" title="French submarine Gymnote (Q1)">Electrical submarine <i>Gymnote</i> (1888)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Ammunition" title="Ammunition">Ammunition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lepage" title="Jean Lepage">Lepage fulminate (1807–10)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Pr%C3%A9lat" title="François Prélat">Pauly-Prélat integrated cartridge (1808)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Pr%C3%A9lat" title="François Prélat">Prélat percussion cap (1818)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casimir_Lefaucheux" title="Casimir Lefaucheux">Lefaucheux cartridge (1836)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamisier" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamisier">Tamisier ball (1841)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini%C3%A9_ball" title="Minié ball">Minié ball (1847)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8mm_Lebel" class="mw-redirect" title="8mm Lebel">8 mm Lebel smokeless powder cartridge (1886)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lepage" title="Jean Lepage">Lepage percussion system (1807)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Mari%C3%A9-Davy" title="Hippolyte Marié-Davy">Marié-Davy naval periscope (1854)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Ragon_de_Bange" title="Charles Ragon de Bange">De Bange breech obturator (1872)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_du_Temple_de_la_Croix" title="Félix du Temple de la Croix">Du Temple high-circulation steam engine (1876)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Constantin_Krebs" title="Arthur Constantin Krebs">Krebs naval electric gyrocompass (1880)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poudre_B" title="Poudre B">Smokeless powder Poudre B (1886)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Operational<br />usage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Thousand_Sons_of_Saint_Louis" title="Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis">French Intervention in Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French conquest of Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">French Intervention in Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_weapons_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="French weapons in the American Civil War">French weapons in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Franco-Prussian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonkin Campaign">Tonkin Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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