CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Szlachta - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"2c78a683-dce6-4cf6-bd64-4508d7d6ae46","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Szlachta","wgTitle":"Szlachta","wgCurRevisionId":1254626118,"wgRevisionId":1254626118,"wgArticleId":29050,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using the Phonos extension","CS1 interwiki-linked names","CS1 Polish-language sources (pl)","CS1 Latin-language sources (la)","CS1 Lithuanian-language sources (lt)","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from February 2022","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 errors: periodical ignored","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","All articles with unsourced statements", "Articles with unsourced statements from April 2021","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2024","Commons category link is locally defined","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021","Articles with unsourced statements from September 2019","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2018","Articles with unsourced statements from September 2021","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2017","Articles containing Polish-language text","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017","Articles with Polish-language sources (pl)","Polish nobility","Ruthenian nobility of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth","Lithuanian nobility","Ukrainian nobility","Social class in Poland"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Szlachta","wgRelevantArticleId":29050,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[], "wgRedirectedFrom":"Polish_nobles","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Szlachta","wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q311995","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled": false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.phonos.styles":"ready","ext.phonos.icons":"ready","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.phonos.init","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips", "ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.phonos.icons%2Cstyles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="757"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG/800px-Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="505"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG/640px-Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="404"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Szlachta - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Szlachta rootpage-Szlachta skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Szlachta" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Szlachta" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Szlachta" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Szlachta" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Etymology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Composition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Origins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.1 Poland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Military_caste_and_aristocracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_caste_and_aristocracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.1.1 Military caste and aristocracy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_caste_and_aristocracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lithuania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithuania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.2 Lithuania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithuania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ruthenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ruthenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.3 Ruthenia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ruthenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_of_szlachta_surnames" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_szlachta_surnames"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Origins of szlachta surnames </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins_of_szlachta_surnames-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Origins of szlachta surnames subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_szlachta_surnames-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Heraldry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heraldry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Heraldry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heraldry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Heritability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heritability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Heritability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heritability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ennoblement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ennoblement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Ennoblement </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ennoblement-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ennoblement subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ennoblement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kingdom_of_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdom_of_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Kingdom of Poland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdom_of_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Estimated_number_of_ennoblements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estimated_number_of_ennoblements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Estimated number of ennoblements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estimated_number_of_ennoblements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Grand Duchy of Lithuania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Privileges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Privileges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Privileges </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Privileges-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Privileges subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Privileges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Real_and_false_nobles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Real_and_false_nobles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Real and false nobles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Real_and_false_nobles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accretion_of_sovereignty_to_the_szlachta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accretion_of_sovereignty_to_the_szlachta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Accretion of sovereignty to the szlachta </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accretion_of_sovereignty_to_the_szlachta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Privilege_of_Koszyce_and_others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Privilege_of_Koszyce_and_others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Privilege of Koszyce and others </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Privilege_of_Koszyce_and_others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Royal_Election" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Royal_Election"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 First Royal Election </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Royal_Election-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Jagiellonian_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Jagiellonian_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 End of the Jagiellonian dynasty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Jagiellonian_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnate_oligarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnate_oligarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Magnate oligarchy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnate_oligarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Szlachta_loss_of_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Szlachta_loss_of_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Szlachta loss of influence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Szlachta_loss_of_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_and_international_connections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_and_international_connections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Cultural and international connections </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cultural_and_international_connections-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cultural and international connections subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cultural_and_international_connections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Women_as_purveyors_of_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_as_purveyors_of_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Women as purveyors of culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_as_purveyors_of_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gastronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gastronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Gastronomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gastronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hunting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hunting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Hunting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hunting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics_and_stratification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics_and_stratification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Demographics and stratification </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics_and_stratification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographics and stratification subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics_and_stratification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Szlachta_categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Szlachta_categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Szlachta categories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Szlachta_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sarmatism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sarmatism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Sarmatism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sarmatism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 General bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Szlachta</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" > 41 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A7" title="شلختا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شلختا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Шляхта – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Шляхта" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Шляхта – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Шляхта" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Шляхта – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Шляхта" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0lahta" title="Šlahta – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Šlahta" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%BB%CE%AC%CF%87%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Σλάχτα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σλάχτα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobleza_de_Polonia_y_Lituania" title="Nobleza de Polonia y Lituania – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nobleza de Polonia y Lituania" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A7" title="شلختا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شلختا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noblesse_polonaise" title="Noblesse polonaise – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Noblesse polonaise" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%90%EB%9D%BC%ED%9D%90%ED%83%80" title="슐라흐타 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="슐라흐타" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%87%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%BF%D5%A1" title="Շլյախտա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Շլյախտա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%9B%D7%98%D7%94" title="שלאכטה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שלאכטה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90" title="შლიახტა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შლიახტა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Шляхта – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Шляхта" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Шляхта – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Шляхта" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0%C4%BCahta" title="Šļahta – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Šļahta" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bajorai_(Lietuva_ir_Lenkija)" title="Bajorai (Lietuva ir Lenkija) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Bajorai (Lietuva ir Lenkija)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta_(adel)" title="Szlachta (adel) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Szlachta (adel)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E3%83%A9%E3%83%95%E3%82%BF" title="シュラフタ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="シュラフタ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta_w_Polsce" title="Szlachta w Polsce – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Szlachta w Polsce" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98leaht%C4%83" title="Șleahtă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Șleahtă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Шляхта – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Шляхта" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0lahta" title="Šlahta – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Šlahta" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%99%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Шљахта – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Шљахта" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0ljahta" title="Šljahta – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Šljahta" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Szlachta" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%88%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Польська шляхта – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Польська шляхта" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%80%E6%8B%89%E8%B5%AB%E5%A1%94" title="什拉赫塔 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="什拉赫塔" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q311995#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Szlachta" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Szlachta">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Szlachta">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Szlachta" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Szlachta" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&oldid=1254626118" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Szlachta&id=1254626118&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSzlachta">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSzlachta">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Szlachta&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Polish_nobility" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q311995" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Polish_nobles&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish nobles">Polish nobles</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Noble class in the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the village, see <a href="/wiki/Szlachta,_Pomeranian_Voivodeship" title="Szlachta, Pomeranian Voivodeship">Szlachta, Pomeranian Voivodeship</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG/280px-Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG" decoding="async" width="280" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG/420px-Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG/560px-Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="555" /></a><figcaption>Szlachta in costumes of the voivodeships of the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Crown of the Kingdom of Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> in the 17th and 18th century.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Court_of_the_Polish_Lord_during_the_journey_in_times_of_Augustus_III_the_Saxon.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Court_of_the_Polish_Lord_during_the_journey_in_times_of_Augustus_III_the_Saxon.PNG/280px-Court_of_the_Polish_Lord_during_the_journey_in_times_of_Augustus_III_the_Saxon.PNG" decoding="async" width="280" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Court_of_the_Polish_Lord_during_the_journey_in_times_of_Augustus_III_the_Saxon.PNG/420px-Court_of_the_Polish_Lord_during_the_journey_in_times_of_Augustus_III_the_Saxon.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Court_of_the_Polish_Lord_during_the_journey_in_times_of_Augustus_III_the_Saxon.PNG/560px-Court_of_the_Polish_Lord_during_the_journey_in_times_of_Augustus_III_the_Saxon.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="755" /></a><figcaption>Journey of a <a href="/wiki/Magnates_of_Poland_and_Lithuania" title="Magnates of Poland and Lithuania">Polish Lord</a> During the Times of King <a href="/wiki/Augustus_III_of_Poland" title="Augustus III of Poland">Augustus III of Poland</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Che%C5%82mi%C5%84ski" title="Jan Chełmiński">Jan Chełmiński</a>, 1880.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Ogi%C5%84ski.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Ogi%C5%84ski.PNG/220px-Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Ogi%C5%84ski.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Ogi%C5%84ski.PNG/330px-Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Ogi%C5%84ski.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Ogi%C5%84ski.PNG/440px-Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Ogi%C5%84ski.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="1481" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kazimierz_Ogi%C5%84ski" title="Michał Kazimierz Ogiński">Michał Kazimierz Ogiński</a>, a nobleman from <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">18th century Poland and the Enlightenment</a></figcaption></figure> The szlachta (Polish: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Polish" title="Help:IPA/Polish">[ˈʂlaxta]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a6\/Pl-szlachta.ogg\/Pl-szlachta.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Pl-szlachta.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a6/Pl-szlachta.ogg/Pl-szlachta.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Pl-szlachta.ogg" title="File:Pl-szlachta.ogg">ⓘ</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: šlėkta) were the <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">noble</a> <a href="/wiki/Estate_of_the_realm" class="mw-redirect" title="Estate of the realm">estate of the realm</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> and, as a <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a>, dominated those states<a href="#cite_note-epwn-1">[1]</a> by exercising <a href="/wiki/Szlachta%27s_privileges" class="mw-redirect" title="Szlachta's privileges">political rights and power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-an-electorate-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-can-be-king-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-clannish-structures-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-only-szlachta-are-citizens-7">[7]</a> Szlachta as a class differed significantly from the <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal nobility</a> of <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-not-gentry-not-nobility-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-dmowski-clan-system-9">[9]</a> The estate was officially abolished in 1921 by the <a href="/wiki/March_Constitution_(Poland)" title="March Constitution (Poland)">March Constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-epwn-1">[1]</a> The origins of the szlachta are obscure and the subject of several theories.<a href="#cite_note-davies--norman-10">[10]</a>: 207  Traditionally, its members <a href="/wiki/Allod" title="Allod">owned land (allods)</a>,<a href="#cite_note-szlachta--allodial-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-own-estates-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a> often <a href="/wiki/Folwark" title="Folwark">folwarks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The szlachta secured <a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">substantial and increasing political power and rights</a> throughout its history, beginning with the reign of King <a href="/wiki/Casimir_III_the_Great" title="Casimir III the Great">Casimir III the Great</a> between 1333 and 1370 in the Kingdom of Poland<a href="#cite_note-davies--norman-10">[10]</a>: 211  until the decline and end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century. Apart from providing officers for the army, its chief civic obligations included <a href="/wiki/Elected_monarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Elected monarch">electing the monarch</a> and filling honorary and <a href="/wiki/Curia_regis#Poland" title="Curia regis">advisory roles at court</a> that would later evolve into the upper legislative chamber, the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Poland" title="Senate of Poland">Senate</a>. The szlachta <a href="/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland" title="Royal elections in Poland">electorate</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-an-electorate-2">[2]</a> also took part in the government of the Commonwealth via the lower legislative chamber of the <a href="/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Sejm (bicameral national parliament)</a>, composed of representatives elected at local <a href="/wiki/Sejmik" title="Sejmik">sejmiks</a> (local szlachta assemblies). Sejmiks performed various governmental functions at local levels, such as appointing officials and overseeing judicial and financial governance, including tax-raising. The szlachta assumed various governing positions, including <a href="/wiki/Voivode" title="Voivode">voivode</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voivodeships_of_Poland" title="Voivodeships of Poland">marshal of voivodeship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Castellans_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Castellans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">castellan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Starosta_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Starosta (Poland)">starosta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-góralski--zbigniew-14">[14]</a> In 1413, following a series of tentative <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal unions</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Crown of the Kingdom of Poland</a>, the existing <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_nobility" title="Lithuanian nobility">Lithuanian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_nobility" title="Ruthenian nobility">Ruthenian nobilities</a> formally joined the szlachta.<a href="#cite_note-davies--norman-10">[10]</a>: 211  As the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) evolved and expanded territorially after the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Union of Lublin</a>, its membership grew to include the leaders of <a href="/wiki/Ducal_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ducal Prussia">Ducal Prussia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Livonia" title="Livonia">Livonia</a>. Over time, membership in the szlachta grew to encompass around 8% to 15% of Polish-Lithuanian society, which made the membership an <a href="/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland" title="Royal elections in Poland">electorate</a> that was several times larger than most noble classes in other countries; by contrast, nobles in Italy and France encompassed 1% during the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-an-electorate-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Despite often enormous differences in wealth and political influence, few distinctions in law existed between the <a href="/wiki/Magnates_of_Poland_and_Lithuania" title="Magnates of Poland and Lithuania">great magnates</a> and lesser szlachta.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-an-electorate-2">[2]</a> The juridic principle of szlachta equality existed because szlachta land titles were <a href="/wiki/Allod" title="Allod">allodial</a>,<a href="#cite_note-szlachta--allodial-11">[11]</a> not <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a>, involving no requirement of feudal service to a <a href="/wiki/Homage_(feudal)" title="Homage (feudal)">liege Lord</a>.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-clannish-structures-6">[6]</a> Unlike <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchs</a> who eventually took reign in most other European countries, the Polish king was not an <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocrat</a> and not the szlachta's overlord.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski-allod-16">[16]</a> The relatively few hereditary <a href="/wiki/Noble_titles" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble titles">noble titles</a> in the Kingdom of Poland were bestowed by foreign monarchs, while in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, princely titles were mostly inherited by descendants of old dynasties.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] During the three successive <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a> between 1772 and 1795, most of the szlachta began to lose legal privileges and social status, while szlachta elites became part of the nobilities of the three partitioning powers. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> In Polish, a nobleman is called a "szlachcic" and a noblewoman a "szlachcianka". The Polish term szlachta derived from the <a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> word slahta. In modern German Geschlecht – which originally came from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> *slagiz, "blow", "strike", and shares the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon">Anglo-Saxon</a> root for "slaughter", or the verb "to slug" – means "breeding" or "gender". Like many other Polish words pertaining to nobility, it derives from Germanic words: the Polish word for "knight" is rycerz, from the German Ritter, meaning "rider". The Polish word for "coat of arms" is herb from the German Erbe ("heritage"). 17th-century Poles assumed szlachta came from the German schlachten, "to slaughter" or "to butcher", and was therefore related to the German word for battle, Schlacht. Some early Polish historians thought the term might have derived from the name of the legendary proto-Polish chief, <a href="/wiki/Lech,_Czech,_and_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Lech, Czech, and Rus'">Lech</a>, mentioned in Polish and Czech writings. The szlachta traced their descent from Lech, who allegedly founded the Polish kingdom in about the fifth century.<a href="#cite_note-races-old-world-17">[17]</a>: 482  The Polish term szlachta designated the formalized, hereditary<a href="#cite_note-szacki--inherited--1995-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a><a href="#cite_note-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste-3">[3]</a> of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which constituted the nation itself, and ruled without competition.<a href="#cite_note-dmowski-szlachta-the-nation-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-polish-peasant-not-belong-to-polish-nation-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-only-szlachta-are-citizens-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-krasinski--szlachta-are-poland-22">[22]</a> In official Latin documents of the old <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a>, the hereditary szlachta were referred to as "nobilitas" from the Latin term,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and could be compared in legal status to English or British <a href="/wiki/Peer_of_the_realm" title="Peer of the realm">peers of the realm</a>,<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a> or to the ancient Roman idea of cives, "citizen".<a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">[21]</a> Until the second half of the 19th century, the Polish term <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/obywatel" class="extiw" title="wikt:obywatel">obywatel</a> (which now means "citizen") could be used as a synonym for szlachta landlords.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equals-citizen-23">[23]</a> Today the word szlachta simply translates as "nobility". In its broadest sense, it can also denote some non-hereditary honorary knighthoods and <a href="/wiki/Baron" title="Baron">baronial</a> titles granted by other European monarchs, including the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a>. Occasionally, 19th-century landowners of commoner descent were referred to as szlachta by courtesy or error, when they owned manorial estates, but were not in fact noble by birth. Szlachta also denotes the Ruthenian and Lithuanian nobility from before the old Commonwealth. In the past, a misconception sometimes led to the mistranslation of "szlachta" as "gentry" rather than "nobility".<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-not-gentry-not-nobility-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> This mistaken practice began due to the inferior economic status of many szlachta members compared to that of the nobility in other European countries (see also <a href="/wiki/Gentry#Two_principal_estates_of_the_realm" title="Gentry">Estates of the Realm</a> regarding wealth and nobility).<a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-warrior-caste-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The szlachta included those rich and powerful enough to be <a href="/wiki/Polish_magnate" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish magnate">great magnates</a> down to the impoverished with an aristocratic lineage, but with no land, no castle, no money, no village, and no subject peasants.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Historian M.Ross wrote in 1835: "At least 60,000 families belong to this class, of which, however, only about 100 are wealthy; all the rest are poor."<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-poor-29">[29]</a> A few exceptionally wealthy and powerful szlachta members constituted the magnateria and were known as <a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">magnates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Magnates_of_Poland_and_Lithuania" title="Magnates of Poland and Lithuania">magnates of Poland and Lithuania</a>). <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composition">Composition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Composition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_(Reytan).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg/330px-Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg/495px-Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg/660px-Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_%28Reytan%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3543" data-file-height="2049" /></a><figcaption>Szlachcic <a href="/wiki/Sejmik" title="Sejmik">sejmik representative</a> <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Rejtan" title="Tadeusz Rejtan">Tadeusz Rejtan</a> (lower right), with szlachta <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republican</a> right of ending any <a href="/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Senate (Sejm)</a> session and nullifying any legislation passed (<a href="/wiki/Liberum_veto" title="Liberum veto">Liberum veto</a>), defying <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic might</a> to cease legalization of the <a href="/wiki/First_Partition_of_Poland" title="First Partition of Poland">First Partition of Poland</a>, by halting the <a href="/wiki/Partition_Sejm" title="Partition Sejm">Partition Sejm</a>'s exit from the Senate chamber on 30 September 1773, in effect proclaiming, "Murder me, not Poland." Painting by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Matejko" title="Jan Matejko">Jan Matejko</a>, 1866</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Zamoyski" title="Adam Zamoyski">Adam Zamoyski</a> argues that the szlachta were not exactly the same as the European <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a> nor a <a href="/wiki/Landed_gentry" title="Landed gentry">gentry</a>,<a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-not-gentry-not-nobility-8">[8]</a> as the szlachta fundamentally differed in law, rights, political power, origin, and composition from the <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal nobility</a> of Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-not-gentry-not-nobility-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-dmowski-clan-system-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-rule-30">[30]</a> The szlachta did not rank below the king,<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-can-be-king-4">[4]</a> as the szlachta's relationship to the Polish king was not feudal. The szlachta stood as equals before the king.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a> The king was not an <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocrat</a>, nor the szlachta's overlord, as szlachta land was in <a href="/wiki/Allod" title="Allod">allodium</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Feudal_land_tenure_in_England" title="Feudal land tenure in England">feudal tenure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta--allodial-11">[11]</a> Feudal dependence upon a Polish king did not exist for the szlachta<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a> and earlier in history some high-ranking szlachta (<a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">magnates</a>) descending from past tribal dynasties regarded themselves as co-proprietors of <a href="/wiki/Piast_dynasty" title="Piast dynasty">Piast realms</a> and constantly sought to undermine Piast authority.<a href="#cite_note-davies--norman-10">[10]</a>: 75, 76  In 1459 <a href="/wiki/Ostror%C3%B3g_family" title="Ostroróg family">Ostroróg</a> presented a memorandum to the <a href="/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland">Sejm (parliament)</a>, submitting <a href="/wiki/Palatine" title="Palatine">palatines</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Voivodes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Voivodes of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Voivodes of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, receive the title of <a href="/wiki/Prince" title="Prince">prince</a>. Sons of a prince were to receive titles of <a href="/wiki/Count" title="Count">counts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baron" title="Baron">barons</a>. <a href="/wiki/Castellans_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Castellans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Castellans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> were to receive the title of count. This attempt to introduce the hierarchy of noble titles common for European feudal systems for szlachta was rejected.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-reject-titles-of-nobility-31">[31]</a> The fact the szlachta were equal before the king and deliberately opposed becoming a feudal nobility became a matter of law embedded as a constitutional principle of equality.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-an-electorate-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-can-be-king-4">[4]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> was the szlachta's ideal.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-roman-republicanism-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-roman-empire-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-dictate-like-roman-senate-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-okolski-ancient-romans-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">[21]</a> Poland was known as the <a href="/wiki/Most_Serene_Republic" title="Most Serene Republic">Most Serene Republic</a> of Poland, Serenissima Res Publica Poloniae.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The szlachta, not as a feudal nobility or gentry,<a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-not-gentry-not-nobility-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-dmowski-clan-system-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-clannish-structures-6">[6]</a> but as an electorate,<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-an-electorate-2">[2]</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> and warrior <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>,<a href="#cite_note-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-races-old-world--caste-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-warrior-caste-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-szacki--caste--1995-37">[37]</a> with no feudal dependence on a king,<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a> exercised <a href="/wiki/Liberum_veto" title="Liberum veto">supreme political power over that republic</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-rule-30">[30]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland" title="Royal elections in Poland">elected kings</a> as servants of a republic the szlachta regarded as the embodiment of their rights.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-rights-embodied-in-republic-38">[38]</a> Over time, numerically most lesser szlachta became poorer, or were poorer than, their few rich peers with the same political status and status in law, and many lesser szlachta were worse off than commoners with land. They were called szlachta zagrodowa, that is, "farm nobility", from zagroda, a farm, often little different from a peasant's dwelling, sometimes referred to as drobna szlachta, "petty nobles" or yet, szlachta okoliczna, meaning "local". Particularly impoverished szlachta families were often forced to become tenants of their wealthier peers. They were described as szlachta czynszowa, or "tenant nobles" who paid rent.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> See "<a href="#Szlachta_categories">Szlachta categories</a>" for more. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Piast_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Piast dynasty">History of Poland during the Piast dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poland">Poland</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Poland">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chlop_w_dybach_biernat_z_lublina_zywot_ezopa_fryga_krakow_1578.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Chlop_w_dybach_biernat_z_lublina_zywot_ezopa_fryga_krakow_1578.jpg/220px-Chlop_w_dybach_biernat_z_lublina_zywot_ezopa_fryga_krakow_1578.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Chlop_w_dybach_biernat_z_lublina_zywot_ezopa_fryga_krakow_1578.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="316" data-file-height="229" /></a><figcaption>A Polish peasant in <a href="/wiki/Stocks" title="Stocks">stocks</a> in a 16th-century Polish woodcut</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lachus_I_(Beno%C3%AEt_Farjat).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Lachus_I_%28Beno%C3%AEt_Farjat%29.jpg/160px-Lachus_I_%28Beno%C3%AEt_Farjat%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Lachus_I_%28Beno%C3%AEt_Farjat%29.jpg/240px-Lachus_I_%28Beno%C3%AEt_Farjat%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Lachus_I_%28Beno%C3%AEt_Farjat%29.jpg/320px-Lachus_I_%28Beno%C3%AEt_Farjat%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5763" data-file-height="7740" /></a><figcaption>Lech I</figcaption></figure> The origins of the szlachta, while ancient, have always been considered obscure.<a href="#cite_note-davies--norman-10">[10]</a>: 207  As a result, its members often referred to it as odwieczna (perennial).<a href="#cite_note-davies--norman-10">[10]</a>: 207  Two popular historical theories about its origins have been put forward by its members and early historians and chroniclers. The first theory involved a presumed descent from the ancient Iranian tribe known as <a href="/wiki/Sarmatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarmatian">Sarmatians</a>, who in the 2nd century AD, occupied lands in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. The second theory involved a presumed szlachta descent from <a href="/wiki/Japheth" title="Japheth">Japheth</a>, one of <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a>'s sons. By contrast, the peasantry were said to be the offspring of another son of Noah, <a href="/wiki/Ham,_son_of_Noah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ham, son of Noah">Ham</a> — and hence subject to bondage under the <a href="/wiki/Curse_of_Ham" title="Curse of Ham">Curse of Ham</a>. The Jews were considered the offspring of <a href="/wiki/Shem" title="Shem">Shem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-colin-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-davies1-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bondage_to_the_dead:_Poland_and_the_memory_of_the_Holocaust-42">[42]</a> Other fanciful theories included its foundation by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, or regional leaders who had not mixed their bloodlines with those of 'slaves, prisoners, or aliens'.<a href="#cite_note-davies--norman-10">[10]</a>: 207 <a href="#cite_note-davies--norman-10">[10]</a>: 208  Another theory describes its derivation from a non-<a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">warrior</a> class,<a href="#cite_note-sarmatians--sulimirski-43">[43]</a>: 42, 64–66  forming a distinct element known as the <a href="/wiki/Lechites" title="Lechites">Lechici</a>/Lekhi (Lechitów)<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-races-old-world-17">[17]</a>: 482  within the ancient Polonic tribal groupings (<a href="/wiki/Gentry#The_historical_background_of_social_stratification_in_the_Western_world" title="Gentry">Indo-European caste systems</a>). Similar to <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> racial ideology, which dictated the Polish elite were largely <a href="/wiki/Master_race" title="Master race">Nordic</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> (the szlachta <a href="/wiki/Boreyko_coat_of_arms" title="Boreyko coat of arms">Boreyko coat of arms</a> heralds a <a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastika</a>), this hypothesis states this upper class was not of Slavonic extraction<a href="#cite_note-races-old-world-17">[17]</a>: 482  and was of a different origin than the Slavonic peasants (<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kmie%C4%87" class="extiw" title="pl:Kmieć">kmiecie; Latin: cmethones</a>)<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-kmiecie--guzowski-47">[47]</a> over which they ruled.<a href="#cite_note-races-old-world-17">[17]</a>: 482  In old Poland, there were two nations – szlachta and peasants.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The szlachta were differentiated from the rural population.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> In harshly stratified and <a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">elitist</a> Polish society,<a href="#cite_note-krasinski--szlachta-are-poland-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-only-szlachta-are-citizens-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-peasants-not-want-polish-state-51">[51]</a> the szlachta's sense of distinction led to practices that in later periods would be characterized as racism.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Potocki" title="Wacław Potocki">Wacław Potocki</a>, herbu <a href="/wiki/Srzeniawa_coat_of_arms" title="Srzeniawa coat of arms">Śreniawa</a> (1621–1696), proclaimed <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%82opi" class="extiw" title="pl:Chłopi">peasants</a> "by nature" are "chained to the land and plow," that even an educated peasant would always remain a peasant, because "it is impossible to transform a <a href="/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">dog</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Lynx" title="Lynx">lynx</a>."<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The szlachta were noble in the <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryan</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>) sense -- "noble" in contrast to the people over whom they ruled after coming into contact with them.<a href="#cite_note-races-old-world-17">[17]</a>: 482  The szlachta traced their descent from <a href="/wiki/Lech,_Czech,_and_Rus" title="Lech, Czech, and Rus">Lech/Lekh</a>, who allegedly founded the Polish kingdom in about the fifth century.<a href="#cite_note-races-old-world-17">[17]</a>: 482  <a href="/wiki/Lechia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lechia">Lechia</a> was the name of Poland in antiquity, and the szlachta's own name for themselves was <a href="/wiki/Lechites" title="Lechites">Lechici</a>/Lekhi.<a href="#cite_note-races-old-world-17">[17]</a>: 482  <a href="/wiki/Richard_Holt_Hutton" title="Richard Holt Hutton">Richard Holt Hutton</a> argued an exact counterpart of szlachta society was the system of tenure of southern India—an aristocracy of equality—settled as conquerors among a separate race.<a href="#cite_note-races-old-world-17">[17]</a>: 484  Some elements of the Polish state paralleled the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a><a href="#cite_note-roman-empire-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-roman-republicanism-32">[32]</a> in that full rights of citizenship were limited to the szlachta.<a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-polish-peasant-not-belong-to-polish-nation-20">[20]</a> According to British historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Bruce_Boswell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexander Bruce Boswell (page does not exist)">Alexander Bruce Boswell</a> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bruce_Boswell" class="extiw" title="pl:Alexander Bruce Boswell">pl</a>], the 16th-century szlachta ideal was a <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">Greek polis</a>—a body of citizens, a small merchant class, and a multitude of laborers.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-aristocratic-greek-city-state-54">[54]</a> The laborers consisted of peasants in <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The szlachta had the exclusive right to enter the clergy until the time of the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">three partitions of Poland–Lithuania</a>,<a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski-clergy-szlachta-exclusive-right-56">[56]</a> and the szlachta and clergy believed they were genetically superior to peasants.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The szlachta regarded peasants as a lower species.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Quoting Bishop of Poznań, <a href="/wiki/Wawrzyniec_Grzyma%C5%82a_Go%C5%9Blicki" class="mw-redirect" title="Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki">Wawrzyniec Goślicki, herbu Grzymała</a> (between 1530 and 1540–1607): <blockquote> "The kingdome of Polonia doth also consist of the said three sortes, that is, the king, nobility and people. But it is to be noted, that this word people includeth only knights and gentlemen. ... The gentlemen of Polonia doe represent the popular state, for in them consisteth a great part of the government, and they are as a Seminarie from whence Councellors and Kinges are taken."<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> </blockquote> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Military_caste_and_aristocracy">Military caste and aristocracy</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Military caste and aristocracy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zbroja_1514.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Zbroja_1514.JPG/170px-Zbroja_1514.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Zbroja_1514.JPG/255px-Zbroja_1514.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Zbroja_1514.JPG/340px-Zbroja_1514.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>Polish Armor</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boles%C5%82aw_I_Wysoki.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Wysoki.PNG/170px-Boles%C5%82aw_I_Wysoki.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Wysoki.PNG/255px-Boles%C5%82aw_I_Wysoki.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Boles%C5%82aw_I_Wysoki.PNG/340px-Boles%C5%82aw_I_Wysoki.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2205" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_the_Tall" title="Bolesław I the Tall">Bolesław I the Tall (1127–1201)</a> with heraldic shield, by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Matejko" title="Jan Matejko">Jan Matejko</a></figcaption></figure> The szlachta were a <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>,<a href="#cite_note-szacki--caste--1995-37">[37]</a> a military caste, as in <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> society.<a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-warrior-caste-26">[26]</a> In the year 1244, <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_of_Masovia" title="Bolesław I of Masovia">Bolesław, Duke of Masovia</a>, identified members of the <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knights</a>' clan as members of a genealogia: <blockquote> "I received my good servitors [Raciborz and Albert] from the land of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland" title="Greater Poland">[Great] Poland</a>, and from the clan [genealogia] called <a href="/wiki/Jelita_coat_of_arms" title="Jelita coat of arms">Jelito</a>, with my well-disposed knowledge [i.e., consent and encouragement] and the cry [vocitatio], [that is], the godło, [by the name of] Nagody, and I established them in the said land of mine, <a href="/wiki/Masovia" class="mw-redirect" title="Masovia">Masovia</a>, [on the military tenure described elsewhere in the charter]." </blockquote> The documentation regarding Raciborz and Albert's tenure is the earliest surviving of the use of the clan name and cry defining the honorable status of Polish knights. The names of knightly genealogiae only came to be associated with heraldic devices later in the Middle Ages and in the early modern period. The Polish clan name and cry ritualized the ius militare, i.e., the power to command an army; and they had been used sometime before 1244 to define knightly status. (<a href="#CITEREFGórecki1992">Górecki 1992</a>, pp. 183–185). <blockquote> "In Poland, the Radwanice were noted relatively early (1274) as the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Radwan_coat_of_arms" title="Radwan coat of arms">Radwan</a>, a knight [more properly a "rycerz" from the German "<a href="/wiki/Ritter" title="Ritter">ritter</a>"] active a few decades earlier. ..."<a href="#cite_note-radwan-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-radwan-family-line-61">[61]</a> </blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Escutcheon_(heraldry)" title="Escutcheon (heraldry)">Escutcheons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms" title="Coat of arms">hereditary coats of arms</a> with eminent privileges attached is an honor derived from the ancient Germans. Where Germans did not inhabit, and where German customs were unknown, no such thing existed.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The usage of heraldry in Poland was brought in by knights arriving from <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lusatia" title="Lusatia">Lusatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meissen" title="Meissen">Meissen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>. Migrations from here were the most frequent, and the time period was the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> However, unlike other European <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalry</a>, coats of arms were associated with Polish knights' clans' (genealogiae) names and war cries (godło), where heraldic devices came to be held in common by entire clans, fighting in regiments.<a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-whole-clans-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-clannish-structures-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-dmowski-clan-system-9">[9]</a> (<a href="#CITEREFGórecki1992">Górecki 1992</a>, pp. 183–185). Around the 14th century, there was little difference between knights and the szlachta in Poland. Members of the szlachta had the personal obligation to defend the country (<a href="/wiki/Pospolite_ruszenie" title="Pospolite ruszenie">pospolite ruszenie</a>), thereby becoming within the kingdom a military caste<a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-warrior-caste-26">[26]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">aristocracy</a><a href="#cite_note-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste-3">[3]</a> with political power and extensive rights secured.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta--allodial-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-clannish-structures-6">[6]</a> Inclusion in the warrior caste was almost exclusively based on inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-szacki--inherited--1995-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--1998-65">[65]</a> Concerning the early Polish tribes, geography contributed to long-standing traditions. The Polish tribes were internalized and organized around a unifying religious cult, governed by the <a href="/wiki/Veche" title="Veche">wiec</a>, an assembly of free tribesmen. Later, when safety required power to be consolidated, an elected prince was chosen to govern. The election privilege was usually limited to elites.<a href="#cite_note-bardach202627-66">[66]</a> The tribes were ruled by clans (<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3d" class="extiw" title="pl:Ród">ród</a>) consisting of people related by blood or marriage and theoretically descending from a common ancestor,<a href="#cite_note-radwan-family-line-61">[61]</a> giving the ród/clan a highly developed sense of solidarity. (See <a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">gens</a>.) The <a href="/wiki/Starosta" title="Starosta">starosta</a> (or starszyna) had judicial and military power over the ród/clan, although this power was often exercised with an assembly of elders. Strongholds called <a href="/wiki/Gord_(Slavic_settlement)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gord (Slavic settlement)">grόd</a> were built where the religious cult was powerful, where trials were conducted, and where clans gathered in the face of danger. The opole was the territory occupied by a single tribe. (<a href="#CITEREFManteuffel1982">Manteuffel 1982</a>, p. 44) The family unit of a tribe is called the rodzina, while a collection of tribes is a <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plemi%C4%99" class="extiw" title="pl:Plemię">plemię</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mieszko_I_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Mieszko I of Poland">Mieszko I of Poland</a> (c. 935 – 25 May 992) established an elite knightly retinue from within his army, which he depended upon for success in uniting the <a href="/wiki/Lechites" title="Lechites">Lekhitic</a> tribes and preserving the unity of his state. Documented proof exists of Mieszko I's successors utilizing such a retinue, as well. Another group of knights were granted land in <a href="/wiki/Allod" title="Allod">allodium</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Feudal_land_tenure_in_England" title="Feudal land tenure in England">feudal tenure</a>,<a href="#cite_note-szlachta--allodial-11">[11]</a> by the prince, allowing them the economic ability to serve the prince militarily. A Polish warrior belonging to the military caste<a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-warrior-caste-26">[26]</a> living at the time prior to the 15th century was referred to as a "rycerz", very roughly equivalent to the English "knight," the critical difference being the status of "rycerz" was almost strictly hereditary;<a href="#cite_note-szacki--inherited--1995-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--1998-65">[65]</a> the group of all such warriors was known as the "rycerstwo".<a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--1998-65">[65]</a> Representing the wealthier families of Poland and itinerant knights from abroad seeking their fortunes, this other group of rycerstwo, which became the szlachta ("szlachta" becomes the proper term for Polish <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">aristocracy</a><a href="#cite_note-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste-3">[3]</a> beginning about the 15th century), gradually formed apart from Mieszko I's and his successors' elite retinues. This rycerstwo/<a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">aristocracy</a><a href="#cite_note-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste-3">[3]</a> secured more rights granting them favored status. They were absolved from particular burdens and obligations under ducal law, resulting in the belief only rycerstwo (those combining military prowess with high/aristocratic birth) could serve as officials in state administration. Select rycerstwo were distinguished above the other rycerstwo, because they descended from past tribal dynasties, or because early <a href="/wiki/Piast_dynasty" title="Piast dynasty">Piasts'</a> endowments made them select beneficiaries. These rycerstwo of great wealth were called <a href="/wiki/Piotr_W%C5%82ostowic" title="Piotr Włostowic">możni (Magnates)</a>. They had the same political status and status in law as the rycerstwo from which they all originated<a href="#cite_note-dmowski-magnates-szlachta-67">[67]</a> and to which they would return were their wealth lost. (<a href="#CITEREFManteuffel1982">Manteuffel 1982</a>, pp. 148–149) <a href="/wiki/Testament_of_Boles%C5%82aw_III_Wrymouth" title="Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth">The Period of Division from, A.D., 1138 – A.D., 1314</a>, which included nearly 200 years of fragmentation and which stemmed from <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolesław III">Bolesław III</a>'s division of Poland among his sons, was the genesis of the political structure where the great landowning szlachta (<a href="/wiki/Piotr_W%C5%82ostowic" title="Piotr Włostowic">możni/Magnates, both ecclesiastical and lay</a>), whose land was in <a href="/wiki/Allod" title="Allod">allodium</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Feudal_land_tenure_in_England" title="Feudal land tenure in England">feudal tenure</a>,<a href="#cite_note-szlachta--allodial-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a> were economically elevated above the rycerstwo they originated from. The prior political structure was one of Polish tribes united into the historic Polish nation under a state ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Piast_dynasty" title="Piast dynasty">Piast dynasty</a>, this dynasty appearing circa 850 A.D. Some <a href="/wiki/Skarbimir" title="Skarbimir">możni (Magnates)</a> descending from past tribal dynasties regarded themselves as co-proprietors of Piast realms,<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta--allodial-11">[11]</a> even though the Piasts attempted to deprive them of their independence. These <a href="/wiki/Sieciech" title="Sieciech">możni (Magnates)</a> constantly sought to <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_III_Wrymouth#Fight_against_Sieciech" title="Bolesław III Wrymouth">undermine princely authority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-davies--norman-10">[10]</a>: 75, 76  In <a href="/wiki/Gallus_Anonymus" title="Gallus Anonymus">Gall Anonym's</a> chronicle, there is noted the nobility's alarm when the <a href="/wiki/Count_palatine" title="Count palatine">Palatine</a> <a href="/wiki/Sieciech" title="Sieciech">Sieciech</a> "elevated those of a lower class over those who were noble born" entrusting them with state offices. (<a href="#CITEREFManteuffel1982">Manteuffel 1982</a>, p. 149) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lithuania">Lithuania</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lithuania">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_nobility" title="Lithuanian nobility">Lithuanian nobility</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jogaila_(W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Jogaila_%28W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II%29.jpg/170px-Jogaila_%28W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Jogaila_%28W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II%29.jpg/255px-Jogaila_%28W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Jogaila_%28W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II%29.jpg/340px-Jogaila_%28W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1351" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jogaila_(W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jogaila (Władysław II)">Jogaila (Władysław II)</a></figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Lithuania_Propria" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuania Propria">Lithuania Propria</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Samogitia" title="Samogitia">Samogitia</a>, prior to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lithuania" title="Kingdom of Lithuania">Kingdom of Lithuania</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mindaugas" title="Mindaugas">Mindaugas</a>, nobles were called die beste leuten in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> sources. In Lithuanian, nobles were named ponai. The higher nobility were named kunigai or kunigaikščiai (dukes) — a loanword from Scandinavian <a href="/wiki/Konung" class="mw-redirect" title="Konung">konung</a>. They were the established local leaders and warlords. During the development of the state, they gradually became subordinated to higher dukes, and later to the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Lithuania">King of Lithuania</a>. Because of Lithuanian expansion into the lands of <a href="/wiki/Ruthenia" title="Ruthenia">Ruthenia</a> in the middle of the 14th century, a new term for nobility appeared — bajorai, from <a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_language" title="Ruthenian language">Ruthenian</a> бояре. This word is used to this day in Lithuania to refer to nobility in general, including those from abroad. After the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Horod%C5%82o" title="Union of Horodło">Union of Horodło</a>, the Lithuanian nobility acquired equal status with its Polish counterparts. Over time they became increasingly <a href="/wiki/Polonized" class="mw-redirect" title="Polonized">Polonized</a>, although they did preserve their <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">national</a> consciousness, and in most cases recognition of their Lithuanian family roots. In the 16th century, some of the Lithuanian nobility claimed that they were descended from the Romans, and that the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian language</a> was derived from Latin. This led to a conundrum: Polish nobility claimed its own ancestry from <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatian</a> tribes, but Sarmatians were considered enemies of the Romans. Thus, a new Roman-Sarmatian theory was created. Strong cultural ties with Polish nobility led to a new term for Lithuanian nobility appearing in the 16th century — šlėkta, a direct loanword from Polish szlachta. Recently, Lithuanian linguists advocated dropping the usage of this Polish loanword.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> The process of <a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonization</a> took place over a lengthy period. At first only the leading members of the nobility were involved. Gradually the wider population became affected. Major effects on the lesser Lithuanian nobility occurred after various sanctions were imposed by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, such as removing Lithuania from the names of the Gubernyas shortly after the <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">November Uprising</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ochmański-69">[69]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/January_Uprising" title="January Uprising">January Uprising</a> the sanctions went further, and Russian officials began to intensify <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_press_ban#Origins_and_legal_basis" title="Lithuanian press ban">Russification</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_press_ban" title="Lithuanian press ban">banned the printing of books in Lithuanian</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ruthenia">Ruthenia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ruthenia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_nobility" title="Ruthenian nobility">Ruthenian nobility</a></div> After the principalities of <a href="/wiki/Halych" title="Halych">Halych</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a> became integrated with the Grand Duchy, <a href="/wiki/Ruthenia" title="Ruthenia">Ruthenia</a>'s nobility gradually rendered loyalty to the multilingual and cultural <a href="/wiki/Melting_pot" title="Melting pot">melting pot</a> that was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Many noble Ruthenian families intermarried with Lithuanians.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The rights of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> nobles were nominally equal to those enjoyed by the Polish and Lithuanian nobility, but they were put under cultural pressure to convert to Catholicism.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It was a policy that was greatly eased in 1596 by the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Brest" title="Union of Brest">Union of Brest</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] See, for example, the careers of Senator <a href="/wiki/Adam_Kisiel" title="Adam Kisiel">Adam Kisiel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Franciszek_Kulczycki" title="Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki">Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_szlachta_surnames">Origins of szlachta surnames</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Origins of szlachta surnames">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polish_surnames" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish surnames">Polish surnames</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epitafium--jana-z-ujazdu--circa-1450.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Epitafium--jana-z-ujazdu--circa-1450.jpg/220px-Epitafium--jana-z-ujazdu--circa-1450.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Epitafium--jana-z-ujazdu--circa-1450.jpg/330px-Epitafium--jana-z-ujazdu--circa-1450.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Epitafium--jana-z-ujazdu--circa-1450.jpg/440px-Epitafium--jana-z-ujazdu--circa-1450.jpg 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Epitaph" title="Epitaph">Epitaph</a> of szlachcic John of <a href="/wiki/Ujazd,_Opole_Voivodeship" title="Ujazd, Opole Voivodeship">Ujazd</a> sealed with the <a href="/wiki/Srzeniawa_coat_of_arms" title="Srzeniawa coat of arms">Srzeniawa coat of arms</a> by unknown artist. It is located at the church of <a href="/wiki/Czch%C3%B3w" title="Czchów">Czchów</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Voivodeship_(14th_century_%E2%80%93_1795)" title="Kraków Voivodeship (14th century – 1795)">Kraków Voivodeship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland" title="Lesser Poland">Lesser Poland province</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Crown of the Kingdom of Poland">Crown of the Kingdom of Poland</a>; 1450.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_knights_1228-1333.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Polish_knights_1228-1333.PNG/220px-Polish_knights_1228-1333.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Polish_knights_1228-1333.PNG/330px-Polish_knights_1228-1333.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Polish_knights_1228-1333.PNG/440px-Polish_knights_1228-1333.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1215" data-file-height="896" /></a><figcaption>Szlachta 1228–1333</figcaption></figure> The Proto-Slavic suffix "-ьskъ" means "characteristic of", "typical of". This suffix exists in Polish as "-ski" (feminine: "-ska"). It's attached to surnames derived from a person's occupation, characteristics, patronymic surnames, or toponymic surnames (from a person's place of residence, birth or family origin). <a href="#cite_note-hoffman--william-70">[70]</a>: 157  In antiquity, the szlachta used topographic surnames to identify themselves.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> The expression "<a href="/wiki/German_nobility#Nobiliary_particles" title="German nobility">z</a>" (meaning "from" sometimes "at") plus the name of one's <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">patrimony</a> or <a href="/wiki/Estate_(land)" title="Estate (land)">estate</a> (dominion) carried the same prestige as "de" in French names such as "de Châtellerault", and "<a href="/wiki/Von" title="Von">von</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/German_nobility#Nobiliary_particles" title="German nobility">zu</a>" in German names such as <a href="/wiki/German_nobility#Nobiliary_particles" title="German nobility">"von Weizsäcker" or "zu Rhein"</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> For example, the family name of counts Litwiccy (Litwicki<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a>) was formed with the patronymic suffix -ic from the ethnic name Litwa, i.e. Lithuania, 'nation of Lithuanians'. It refers to the early modern empire of Central Europe, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648). In Polish "z Dąbrówki" and "Dąbrowski" mean the same thing: "of, from Dąbrówka."<a href="#cite_note-hoffman--william-70">[70]</a>: 60  More precisely, "z Dąbrówki" means owning the patrimony or estate Dąbrówka, not necessarily originating from. Almost all the surnames of genuine Polish szlachta can be traced back to a patrimony or locality, despite time scattering most families far from their original home. John of <a href="/wiki/Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Zamość">Zamość</a> called himself John <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zamoyski" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Zamoyski">Zamoyski</a>, Stephen of <a href="/wiki/Potok,_Stasz%C3%B3w_County" title="Potok, Staszów County">Potok</a> called himself <a href="/wiki/House_of_Potocki" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Potocki">Potocki</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> At least since the 17th century the surnames/<a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions#Cognomen" title="Roman naming conventions">cognomens</a> of szlachta families became fixed and were inherited by following generations, remaining in that form until today. Prior to that time, a member of the family<a href="#cite_note-radwan-family-line-61">[61]</a> would simply use his Christian name (e.g., Jakub, Jan, Mikołaj, etc.), and the name of the coat of arms common to all members of his clan.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> A member of the family would be identified as, for example, "Jakub z Dąbrówki",<a href="#cite_note-boniecki-76">[76]</a> herbu Radwan, (Jacob to/at Dąbrówki of the knights' clan <a href="/wiki/Radwan_coat_of_arms" title="Radwan coat of arms">Radwan coat of arms</a>), or "Jakub z Dąbrówki, Żądło (<a href="/wiki/Cognomen" title="Cognomen">cognomen</a>)<a href="#cite_note-zadlo-cognomen-77">[77]</a> (later a przydomek/nickname/<a href="/wiki/Agnomen" title="Agnomen">agnomen</a>), herbu Radwan" (Jacob to/at [owning] Dąbrówki with the distinguishing name Żądło of the knights' clan <a href="/wiki/Radwan_coat_of_arms" title="Radwan coat of arms">Radwan coat of arms</a>), or "Jakub Żądło,<a href="#cite_note-zadlo-cognomen-77">[77]</a> herbu Radwan". The Polish state paralleled the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a><a href="#cite_note-roman-empire-33">[33]</a> in that full rights of citizenship were limited to the szlachta.<a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">[21]</a> The szlachta in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, where Latin was written and spoken far and wide,<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> used the <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions#Tria_nomina" title="Roman naming conventions">Roman naming convention of the tria nomina (praenomen, nomen, and cognomen)</a><a href="#cite_note-okolski-ancient-romans-35">[35]</a> to distinguish Polish citizens/szlachta from <a href="/wiki/Peasant#Medieval_European_peasants" title="Peasant">the peasantry</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> and foreigners, hence why multiple surnames are associated with many Polish coat of arms. Example – Jakub: Radwan Żądło-Dąbrowski<a href="#cite_note-minakowski-80">[80]</a> (sometimes Jakub: Radwan Dąbrowski-Żądło) <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions#Praenomen" title="Roman naming conventions">Praenomen</a> Jakub <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions#Nomen" title="Roman naming conventions">Nomen</a> (nomen gentile—name of the <a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">gens</a><a href="#cite_note-radwan-family-line-61">[61]</a>/<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3d" class="extiw" title="pl:Ród">ród</a> or knights' clan): <a href="/wiki/Radwan_coat_of_arms" title="Radwan coat of arms">Radwan</a><a href="#cite_note-radwan-60">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions#Cognomen" title="Roman naming conventions">Cognomen</a> (name of the family branch/<a href="/wiki/Sept" title="Sept">sept</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Radwan_coat_of_arms" title="Radwan coat of arms">Radwan</a> gens): For example—Braniecki, Dąbrowski,<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Czcikowski, Dostojewski, Górski, Nicki, <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zebrzydowski" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Zebrzydowski">Zebrzydowski</a>, etc. <a href="/wiki/Agnomen" title="Agnomen">Agnomen</a> (nickname, Polish <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/przydomek" class="extiw" title="wikt:przydomek">przydomek</a>): Żądło (prior to the 17th century, was a <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions#Cognomen" title="Roman naming conventions">cognomen</a><a href="#cite_note-zadlo-cognomen-77">[77]</a>) <a href="/wiki/Bartosz_Paprocki" title="Bartosz Paprocki">Bartosz Paprocki</a> gives an example of the Rościszewski family taking different surnames from the names of various patrimonies or estates they owned. The branch of the Rościszewski family that settled in Chrapunia became the Chrapunski family, the branch of the Rościszewski family that settled in Strykwina became the Strykwinski family, and the branch of the Rościszewski family that settled in Borkow became known as the Borkowski family. Each family shared a common ancestor and belonged to the same knights' clan, so they bore the same coat of arms as the Rościszewski family.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Each knights' clan/gens/ród had its <a href="/wiki/List_of_coats_of_arms_of_Polish_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="List of coats of arms of Polish nobility">coat of arms</a>, and there were only a limited number. Almost without exception, there were no family coat of arms.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Each coat of arms bore a name, the clan's call word. In most instances, the coat of arms belonged to many families within the clan.<a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-whole-clans-64">[64]</a> The Polish state paralleled the Roman Empire,<a href="#cite_note-roman-empire-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-okolski-ancient-romans-35">[35]</a> and the szlachta had a different origin and structure in law than Western Europe's feudal nobility.<a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-clannish-structures-6">[6]</a> The clan/gens/ród system survived the whole of Polish history.<a href="#cite_note-dmowski-clan-system-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heraldry">Heraldry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Heraldry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polish_heraldry" title="Polish heraldry">Polish heraldry</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gelre_Folio_53v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Gelre_Folio_53v.jpg/220px-Gelre_Folio_53v.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Gelre_Folio_53v.jpg/330px-Gelre_Folio_53v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Gelre_Folio_53v.jpg/440px-Gelre_Folio_53v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="728" data-file-height="1072" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_nobility_coats_of_arms_images" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Polish nobility coats of arms images">Polish coats of arms</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gelre_Armorial" title="Gelre Armorial">Gelre Armorial</a> (compiled before 1396), among them <a href="/wiki/Leliwa_coat_of_arms" title="Leliwa coat of arms">Leliwa coat of arms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ogo%C5%84czyk_coat_of_arms" title="Ogończyk coat of arms">Ogończyk coat of arms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ostoja_coat_of_arms" title="Ostoja coat of arms">Ostoja coat of arms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Clan_Ostoja" class="mw-redirect" title="Clan Ostoja">Ostoja knights' clan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Na%C5%82%C4%99cz_coat_of_arms" title="Nałęcz coat of arms">Nałęcz coat of arms</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Coats_of_arms_of_families_of_Poland" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Coats of arms of families of Poland">Coats of arms of families of Poland</a>.</div></div> </div> <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms" title="Coat of arms">Coats of arms</a> were very important to the szlachta. Its heraldic system evolved together with neighbouring states in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>, while differing in many ways from the heraldry of other European countries. Polish Knighthood had its counterparts, links and roots in <a href="/wiki/Moravia" title="Moravia">Moravia</a>, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Poraj_coat_of_arms" title="Poraj coat of arms">Poraj coat of arms</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Junosza_coat_of_arms" title="Junosza coat of arms">Junosza coat of arms</a>. Families who had a common origin would also share a coat of arms. They would also share their crest with families adopted into the clan. Sometimes unrelated families would be falsely attributed to a clan on the basis of similarity of crests. Some noble families inaccurately claimed clan membership. The number of coats of arms in this system was comparatively low and did not exceed 200 in the late Middle Ages. There were 40,000 in the late 18th century. At the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Horod%C5%82o" title="Union of Horodło">Union of Horodło</a>, forty-seven families of Catholic Lithuanian lords and boyars were adopted by Polish szlachta families and allowed to use Polish coats of arms.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Heritability">Heritability</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Heritability">edit</a>]</div> The tradition of differentiating between a coat of arms and a <a href="/wiki/Lozenge_(heraldry)" title="Lozenge (heraldry)">lozenge</a> granted to women, did not develop in Poland. By the 17th century, invariably, men and women inherited a coat of arms from their father.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] When mixed marriages developed after the partitions, that is between commoners and members of the nobility, as a courtesy, children could claim a coat of arms from their <a href="/wiki/Distaff" title="Distaff">distaff</a> side, but this was only tolerated and could not be passed on to the next generation. The <a href="/wiki/Brisure" class="mw-redirect" title="Brisure">brisure</a> was rarely used. All children would inherit the coat of arms and title of their father. This partly accounts for the relatively large proportion of Polish families who had claim to a coat of arms by the 18th century. Another factor was the arrival of titled foreign settlers, especially from the German lands and the Habsburg Empire. Illegitimate children could adopt the mother's surname and title by the consent of the mother's father, but would sometimes be adopted and raised by the natural father's family, thereby acquiring the father's surname, though not the title or arms. <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ennoblement">Ennoblement</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ennoblement">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingdom_of_Poland">Kingdom of Poland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Kingdom of Poland">edit</a>]</div> The number of lawfully granted ennoblements (<a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalization</a>)<a href="#cite_note-only-szlachta-are-citizens-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equals-citizen-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-dmowski-szlachta-the-nation-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-polish-peasant-not-belong-to-polish-nation-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-peasants-not-want-polish-state-51">[51]</a> after the 15th century was minimal. In the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1385%E2%80%931569)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)">Kingdom of Poland</a> and later in the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, ennoblement (nobilitacja) may be equated with an individual given legal status as a szlachcic member of the Polish nobility. Initially, this privilege could be granted by the monarch, but from 1641 onward, this right was reserved for the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">sejm</a>. Most often the individual being ennobled would join an existing noble szlachta clan and assume the undifferentiated <a href="/wiki/Polish_heraldry" title="Polish heraldry">coat of arms</a> of that clan. According to <a href="/wiki/Heraldic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraldic">heraldic</a> sources, the total number of lawful ennoblements issued between the 14th century and the mid-18th century is estimated at 800.<a href="#cite_note-czajkowski-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-pudlowski-87">[87]</a> This is an average of only about two ennoblements per year, or only 0.000,000,14 – 0.000,001 of the historical population. Compare: <a href="/wiki/Historical_demography_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical demography of Poland">historical demography of Poland</a>. <a href="/wiki/Charles-Joseph,_7th_Prince_of_Ligne" title="Charles-Joseph, 7th Prince of Ligne">Charles-Joseph, 7th Prince of Ligne</a>, when trying to obtain Polish noble status, supposedly said in 1784, "It is easier to become a duke in Germany, than to be counted among Polish nobles."<a href="#cite_note-bajer--polish-noble--2012-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-bajer--piot-pawel--polish-nobility-89">[89]</a> The close of the late 18th century (see below) was a period in which a definite increase<a href="#cite_note-czajkowski-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-pudlowski-87">[87]</a> in the number of ennoblements can be noted. This can most readily be explained in terms of the ongoing decline and eventual collapse of the Commonwealth and the resulting need for soldiers and other military leaders (see: <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a>, King <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Estimated_number_of_ennoblements">Estimated number of ennoblements</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Estimated number of ennoblements">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geneseos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Geneseos.jpg/180px-Geneseos.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Geneseos.jpg/270px-Geneseos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Geneseos.jpg/360px-Geneseos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Ennoblement of the <a href="/wiki/Odrow%C4%85%C5%BC_family" title="Odrowąż family">Odrowąż family</a> in the 12th century by the Emperor of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> with <a href="/wiki/Odrow%C4%85%C5%BC_coat_of_arms" title="Odrowąż coat of arms">Odrowąż coat of arms</a> received by Prandota the Old, probable founder of Saint John the Baptist church in <a href="/wiki/Prandocin,_Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship" title="Prandocin, Lesser Poland Voivodeship">Prandocin village</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seniorate_Province" title="Seniorate Province">Duchy of Kraków</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1025%E2%80%931385)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)">Kingdom of Poland</a>. From Liber Genesos illustris Familiae Shidlovicae (Book of the Genesis of the <a href="/wiki/Szyd%C5%82owiecki" title="Szydłowiecki">Illustrious Family Szydłowiecki</a>). Painting by <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Samostrzelnik" title="Stanisław Samostrzelnik">Stanisław Samostrzelnik</a></figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Heraldic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraldic">heraldic</a> sources 1,600 is the total estimated number of all lawful ennoblements throughout the history of Kingdom of Poland and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from the 14th century onward (half of which were performed in the final years of the late 18th century).<a href="#cite_note-czajkowski-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-pudlowski-87">[87]</a> Types of ennoblement: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adopcja_herbowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Adopcja herbowa">Adopcja herbowa</a> – The "old way" of ennoblement, popular in the 14th century, connected with adoption into an existing szlachta clan by an act of the king. The king granted a fragment of his own coat of arms establishing an alliance with the king's family, or a knight performed an adoption under their coat of arms, which required the confirmation of the king.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> This form of ennoblement was abolished in the 17th century.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skartabellat" title="Skartabellat">Skartabellat</a> – Introduced by <a href="/wiki/Pacta_conventa_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacta conventa (Poland)">pacta conventa</a> of the 17th century (since 1669), this was ennoblement into a sort of "conditional" or "graduated nobility" status. Skartabels could not hold public offices or be members of the Sejm, but after three generations, the descendants of these families would "mature" to full szlachta status. In 1775 another requirement was imposed – they had to acquire a landed estate.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indygenat" title="Indygenat">Indygenat</a> – from the Latin expression, indigenatus, recognition of foreign noble status. A foreign noble, after acquiring indygenat status, received all privileges of a Polish szlachcic. In Polish history, 413 foreign noble families were recognized. Prior to the 17th century this was done by the King and <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a>, after the 17th century it was done only by the Sejm.</li> <li>"secret ennoblement" – This was of questionable legal status and was often not recognized by many szlachta members. It was typically granted by the elected monarch without the required legal approval of the Sejm.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Grand Duchy of Lithuania">edit</a>]</div> In the late 14th century, in the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vytautas_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Vytautas the Great">Vytautas the Great</a> reformed the Grand Duchy's army: instead of calling all men to arms, he created forces comprising professional warriors—<a href="/wiki/Bajorai" class="mw-redirect" title="Bajorai">bajorai</a> ("nobles"; see the <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> "<a href="/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">boyar</a>"). As there were not enough nobles, Vytautas trained suitable men, relieving them of labor on the land and of other duties; for their <a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">military service</a> to the Grand Duke, they were granted land that was worked by hired men (<a href="/wiki/Veldamas" title="Veldamas">veldams</a>). The newly formed noble families generally took up, as their <a href="/wiki/Family_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Family name">family names</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a> pagan <a href="/wiki/Given_name" title="Given name">given names</a> of their ennobled ancestors; this was the case with the <a href="/wiki/Go%C5%A1tautai" title="Goštautai">Goštautai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radvilos" class="mw-redirect" title="Radvilos">Radvilos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astikai" title="Astikai">Astikai</a>, <a href="/wiki/K%C4%99sgailos" class="mw-redirect" title="Kęsgailos">Kęsgailos</a> and others. These families were granted their <a href="/wiki/Coats_of_arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Coats of arms">coats of arms</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Horodlo" class="mw-redirect" title="Union of Horodlo">Union of Horodlo</a> (1413). In 1506, King <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_I_the_Old" title="Sigismund I the Old">Sigismund I the Old</a> confirmed the position of the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Council_of_Lords" title="Lithuanian Council of Lords">Lithuanian Council of Lords</a> in state politics and limited entry into the <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a>. <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Privileges">Privileges</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Privileges">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Szlachta%27s_privileges" class="mw-redirect" title="Szlachta's privileges">Szlachta's privileges</a></div> Specific rights of the szlachta included: <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bellotto_Election_of_Stanislas_Augustus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Bellotto_Election_of_Stanislas_Augustus.jpg/220px-Bellotto_Election_of_Stanislas_Augustus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Bellotto_Election_of_Stanislas_Augustus.jpg/330px-Bellotto_Election_of_Stanislas_Augustus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Bellotto_Election_of_Stanislas_Augustus.jpg/440px-Bellotto_Election_of_Stanislas_Augustus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2044" data-file-height="1460" /></a><figcaption>Election of <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a> in 1764</figcaption></figure> <ol><li>The right to hold outright ownership of land (<a href="/wiki/Allod" title="Allod">Allod</a>)<a href="#cite_note-szlachta--allodial-11">[11]</a>—not as a fief, conditional upon service to the liege Lord,<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">[5]</a> but absolutely in perpetuity unless sold. The szlachta had a monopoly on land. Peasants did not own land.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> See <a href="/wiki/Polish_landed_gentry" title="Polish landed gentry">Polish landed gentry (Ziemiaństwo)</a>.</li> <li>The right to join in political and military assemblies of the regional nobility.</li> <li>The right to form independent administrative councils for their locality.</li> <li>The right to cast a vote for Polish Kings.</li> <li>The right to travel freely anywhere in the old Commonwealth of the Polish and Lithuanian nobility; or outside it, as foreign policy dictated.</li> <li>The right to demand information from Crown offices.</li> <li>The right to spiritual semi-independence from the clergy.</li> <li>The right to interdict, in suitable ways, the passage of foreigners and townsmen through their territories.</li> <li>The right of priority over the courts of the peasantry.</li> <li>Special rights in Polish courts, including freedom from <a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention" title="Arbitrary arrest and detention">arbitrary arrest</a> and freedom from corporal punishment.</li> <li>The right to sell their military or administrative services.</li> <li>Heraldic rights.</li> <li>The right to receive higher pay when entitled in the "<a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">Levée en masse</a>" (mobilization of the szlachta for defence of the nation).</li> <li>Educational rights</li> <li>The right of importing duty-free goods often.</li> <li>The exclusive right to enter the clergy until the time of the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">three partitions of Poland</a>.</li> <li>The right to try their peasants for major offences (reduced to minor offences only, after the 1760s).<a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski-szlachta-rights-94">[94]</a></li></ol> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franciszek_Salezy_Potocki_111.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Franciszek_Salezy_Potocki_111.PNG/170px-Franciszek_Salezy_Potocki_111.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Franciszek_Salezy_Potocki_111.PNG/255px-Franciszek_Salezy_Potocki_111.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Franciszek_Salezy_Potocki_111.PNG/340px-Franciszek_Salezy_Potocki_111.PNG 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="772" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Franciszek_Salezy_Potocki" title="Franciszek Salezy Potocki">Franciszek Salezy Potocki</a>, wearing the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_White_Eagle_(Poland)" title="Order of the White Eagle (Poland)">Order of the White Eagle</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_Zborowski_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Samuel_Zborowski_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87.jpg/170px-Samuel_Zborowski_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Samuel_Zborowski_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87.jpg/255px-Samuel_Zborowski_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Samuel_Zborowski_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87.jpg/340px-Samuel_Zborowski_%C5%9Bmier%C4%87.jpg 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Zborowski" title="Samuel Zborowski">Samuel Zborowski</a> on his way to his execution, 26 May 1584. Sketch by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Matejko" title="Jan Matejko">Jan Matejko</a>, 1860</figcaption></figure> Significant legislative changes in the status of the szlachta, as defined by Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries, consist of its 1374 exemption from the land tax, a 1425 guarantee against the 'arbitrary arrests and/or seizure of property' of its members, a 1454 requirement that military forces and new taxes be approved by provincial <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejms</a>, and statutes issued between 1496 and 1611 that prescribed the rights of commoners.<a href="#cite_note-ian-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Real_and_false_nobles">Real and false nobles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Real and false nobles">edit</a>]</div> Nobles were born into a <a href="/wiki/Noble_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble family">noble family</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Heraldic_adoption" title="Heraldic adoption">adopted into a noble clan by an act of the King</a> (this was abolished in 1633). The rarest way of achieving szlachta status was through <a href="/wiki/Ennoblement" title="Ennoblement">ennoblement</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalization</a>) by a king or <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> for reasons such as bravery in combat, service to the state, etc. There were claims some nobles were, in fact, usurpers who were commoners that moved to another part of the country and falsely claimed noble status.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the first half of the 16th century, hundreds of such "false nobles" were denounced by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hieronim_Nekanda_Trepka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hieronim Nekanda Trepka (page does not exist)">Hieronim Nekanda Trepka</a> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronim_Nekanda_Trepka" class="extiw" title="pl:Hieronim Nekanda Trepka">pl</a>] (1550–1630) in his "Liber generationis plebeanorum (Liber chamorum)", or "Book of <a href="/wiki/Plebeian" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian">Plebeian</a> Genealogy (<a href="/wiki/Ham_(son_of_Noah)" title="Ham (son of Noah)">Ham's</a> Book)". Peasants were considered descendants of Ham, the son of Noah subject to bondage under the <a href="/wiki/Curse_of_Ham" title="Curse of Ham">Curse of Ham</a>. The law forbade commoners holding landed estates and promised such estates as a reward to denouncers. Trepka was himself an impoverished nobleman who lived a town dweller's life and documented hundreds of such false claims hoping to take over one of the usurped estates. He does not seem to have succeeded in his quest despite his employment as the king's secretary.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Many sejms issued decrees over the centuries in an attempt to resolve this issue, but with little success. It is unknown what percentage of the Polish nobility came from the 'lower orders' of society, but there are historians who claim nobles of such base origins formed a 'significant' element of the szlachta.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Self-promotion and aggrandizement were not confined to commoners. Often, members of the lower szlachta sought further ennoblement from foreign, therefore less verifiable, sources. That is, they might acquire by legitimate means or otherwise, such as by purchase, one of a selection of foreign titles ranging from <a href="/wiki/Baron" title="Baron">Baron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marchese" class="mw-redirect" title="Marchese">Marchese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freiherr" title="Freiherr">Freiherr</a> to <a href="/wiki/Count" title="Count">Comte</a>, all readily translatable into the Polish <a href="/wiki/Hrabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hrabia">Hrabia</a>. Alternatively, they would simply appropriate a title by conferring it upon themselves. An example of this is cited in the case of the last descendant of the <a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Ciechanowiecki" title="Andrzej Ciechanowiecki">Ciechanowiecki family</a>, who managed to restore a genuinely old <a href="/wiki/Comital" class="mw-redirect" title="Comital">Comital</a> title, but whose actual origins are shrouded in 18th-century mystery.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accretion_of_sovereignty_to_the_szlachta">Accretion of sovereignty to the szlachta</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Accretion of sovereignty to the szlachta">edit</a>]</div> The szlachta secured many rights not secured to the nobility of other countries. Over time, each new monarch ceded to them further privileges. Those privileges became the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a> in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Despite having a king, Poland was considered the 'nobility's <a href="/wiki/Rzeczpospolita" title="Rzeczpospolita">Commonwealth</a>' because <a href="/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland" title="Royal elections in Poland">Royal elections in Poland</a> were in the hands of members of a hereditary class. Poland was therefore the domain of this class, and not that of the king or the ruling <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasty</a>. This arose in part because of the extinction of male heirs in the original royal dynasties: first, the <a href="/wiki/Piasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Piasts">Piasts</a>, then the <a href="/wiki/Jagiellons" class="mw-redirect" title="Jagiellons">Jagiellons</a>. As a result, the nobility took it upon itself to choose "the Polish king" from among the dynasties' <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">matrilinial</a> descendants. Poland's successive kings granted privileges to the nobility upon their election to the throne – the privileges having been specified in the king-elect's <a href="/wiki/Pacta_conventa_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacta conventa (Poland)">Pacta conventa</a> – and at other times, in exchange for <a href="/wiki/Ad_hoc" title="Ad hoc">ad hoc</a> leave to raise an extraordinary tax or a <a href="/wiki/Pospolite_ruszenie" title="Pospolite ruszenie">pospolite ruszenie</a>, a military call up. Poland's nobility thus accumulated a growing array of privileges and immunities. In 1355 in <a href="/wiki/Buda" title="Buda">Buda</a> King <a href="/wiki/Casimir_III_the_Great" title="Casimir III the Great">Casimir III the Great</a> issued the first country-wide privilege for the nobility, in exchange for their agreeing that if Casimir had no male heirs, the throne would pass to his nephew, <a href="/wiki/Louis_I_of_Hungary" title="Louis I of Hungary">Louis I of Hungary</a>. Casimir further decreed that the nobility would no longer be subject to 'extraordinary' taxes or have to use their own funds for foreign military expeditions. Casimir also promised that when the royal court toured, the king and the court would cover all expenses, instead of requiring facilities to be provided by the local nobility. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Privilege_of_Koszyce_and_others">Privilege of Koszyce and others</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Privilege of Koszyce and others">edit</a>]</div> In 1374 <a href="/wiki/Louis_I_of_Hungary" title="Louis I of Hungary">King Louis of Hungary</a> approved the <a href="/wiki/Privilege_of_Koszyce" title="Privilege of Koszyce">Privilege of Koszyce</a> (przywilej koszycki) to guarantee the Polish throne for his daughter, <a href="/wiki/Jadwiga_of_Poland" title="Jadwiga of Poland">Jadwiga</a>. He broadened the definition of membership of the nobility and exempted the entire class from all but one tax (łanowy) a limit of 2 <a href="/wiki/Groschen" title="Groschen">groszes</a> per łan of land, <a href="/wiki/Old_Polish_units_of_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Polish units of measurement">Old Polish units of measurement</a>. In addition, the King's right to raise taxes was effectively abolished: no new taxes would be levied without the agreement of the nobility. Henceforth, <a href="/wiki/Offices_in_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth#District_offices" class="mw-redirect" title="Offices in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">district offices</a> were also reserved exclusively for local nobility, as the Privilege of Koszyce forbade the king to grant official posts and major Polish castles to foreign knights. Finally, the privilege obliged the king to pay <a href="/wiki/Indemnity" title="Indemnity">indemnities</a> to nobles injured or taken captive during a war outside Polish borders. In 1422 <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II_Jagie%C5%82%C5%82o" title="Władysław II Jagiełło">King Władysław II Jagiełło</a> was constrained by the Privilege of Czerwińsk (przywilej czerwiński), which established the inviolability of nobles' property. Their estates could not be confiscated except upon the verdict of a court. It also made him cede some jurisdiction over <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal policy</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Privy_council" title="Privy council">Royal Council</a>, later, the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Poland" title="Senate of Poland">Senate of Poland</a>, including the right to <a href="/wiki/Mint_(coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mint (coin)">mint coinage</a>. In 1430, with the Privileges of <a href="/wiki/Jedlnia" title="Jedlnia">Jedlnia</a>, confirmed at <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> in 1433, Polish: przywileje jedlneńsko-krakowskie, based partially on his earlier <a href="/wiki/Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_Kujawski" title="Brześć Kujawski">Brześć Kujawski</a> privilege (25 April 1425), King Władysław II Jagiełło granted the nobility a guarantee against arbitrary arrest, similar to the English <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a>, known from its own Latin name as "<a href="/wiki/Neminem_captivabimus" title="Neminem captivabimus">neminem captivabimus</a> nisi jure victum". Henceforth, no member of the nobility could be imprisoned without a <a href="/wiki/Arrest_warrant" title="Arrest warrant">warrant</a> from a court of justice. The king could neither punish nor imprison any noble on a whim. King Władysław's <a href="/wiki/Quid_pro_quo" title="Quid pro quo">quid pro quo</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easement</a> was the nobles' guarantee that the throne would be inherited by one of his sons, who would be bound to honour the privileges granted earlier to the nobility. On 2 May 1447 the same king issued the <a href="/wiki/Wilno_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilno Pact">Wilno Pact</a>, or Wilno Privilege, which gave the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <a href="/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">boyars</a> the same rights as those already secured by the Polish szlachta. In 1454, <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_IV_Jagiellon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazimierz IV Jagiellon">King Casimir IV</a> granted the <a href="/wiki/Nieszawa_Statutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nieszawa Statutes">Nieszawa Statutes</a> – Polish: statuty cerkwicko-nieszawskie, clarifying the legal basis of <a href="/wiki/Voivodship" class="mw-redirect" title="Voivodship">voivodship</a> <a href="/wiki/Sejmik" title="Sejmik">sejmiks</a> – local parliaments. The king could <a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">promulgate</a> new laws, raise taxes, or call for a mass military call up pospolite ruszenie, only with the consent of the sejmiks, and the nobility were protected from judicial abuses. The Nieszawa Statutes also curbed the power of the magnates, as the Sejm, the national parliament, had the right to elect many officials, including judges, <a href="/wiki/Voivode" title="Voivode">voivods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Castellan" title="Castellan">castellans</a>. These privileges were demanded by the szlachta in exchange for their participation in the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Years%27_War_(1454%E2%80%9366)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)">Thirteen Years' War</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_Royal_Election">First Royal Election</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: First Royal Election">edit</a>]</div> The first "<a href="/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland" title="Royal elections in Poland">free election</a>" (Polish: wolna elekcja) of a king took place in 1492. In fact, some earlier Polish kings had been elected with help from assemblies such as those that put <a href="/wiki/Casimir_II_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimir II of Poland">Casimir II</a> on the throne, thereby setting a precedent for free elections. Only <a href="/wiki/Senator" class="mw-redirect" title="Senator">senators</a> voted in the 1492 free election, which was won by <a href="/wiki/John_I_Albert" title="John I Albert">John I Albert</a>. For the duration of the <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Jagiellonian Dynasty">Jagiellonian Dynasty</a>, only members of that royal family were considered for election. Later, there would be no restrictions on the choice of candidates. In 1493 the Sejm, began meeting every two years at <a href="/wiki/Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski" title="Piotrków Trybunalski">Piotrków</a>. It comprised two chambers: <ul><li>a <a href="/wiki/Senate" title="Senate">Senate</a> of 81 <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Offices_in_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth#Senatorial_offices" class="mw-redirect" title="Offices in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">other dignitaries</a></li> <li>a Chamber of Deputies of 54 deputies representing their respective domains.</li></ul> The numbers of senators and deputies later increased. On 26 April 1496 King <a href="/wiki/John_I_Albert" title="John I Albert">John I Albert</a> granted the <a href="/wiki/Privilege_of_Piotrk%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Privilege of Piotrków">Privilege of Piotrków</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_Piotrk%C3%B3w" title="Statutes of Piotrków">Statutes of Piotrków</a> increased the nobility's <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> power over <a href="/wiki/Serfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Serfs">serfs</a>. It bound the peasant to the land, and only one son though not the eldest, was permitted to leave the village. Townsfolk mieszczaństwo were prohibited from owning land. Positions in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Church</a> hierarchy were restricted to nobles. On 23 October 1501, the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_union" title="Polish–Lithuanian union">Polish–Lithuanian union</a> was reformed by the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Mielnik" title="Union of Mielnik">Union of Mielnik</a>. It was there that the tradition of a <a href="/wiki/Coronation_Sejm" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronation Sejm">coronation Sejm</a> was founded. Here again, the lesser nobility, lesser in wealth only – not in rank – attempted to reduce the power of the Magnates with a law that made them <a href="/wiki/Impeachment" title="Impeachment">impeachable</a> before the Senate for <a href="/wiki/Malfeasance" class="mw-redirect" title="Malfeasance">malfeasance</a>. However, the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Mielnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Mielnik">Act of Mielnik</a> of 25 October did more to strengthen the Magnate-dominated <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Poland" title="Senate of Poland">Senate of Poland</a> than the lesser nobility. Nobles as a whole were given the right to disobey the King or his representatives — non praestanda oboedientia, and to form <a href="/wiki/Konfederacja" class="mw-redirect" title="Konfederacja">confederations</a>, armed opposition against the king or state officials if the nobles found that the law or their legitimate privileges were being infringed. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg/220px-Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg/330px-Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg/440px-Pot%C4%99ga_Rzeczypospolitej_u_zenitu._Z%C5%82ota_wolno%C5%9B%C4%87._Elekcja_R.P._1573.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption>The Commonwealth's Power at Its Zenith, <a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_elections_in_Poland" title="Royal elections in Poland">Election</a> of 1573. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Matejko" title="Jan Matejko">Jan Matejko</a></figcaption></figure> On 3 May 1505 King <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_Jagiellon" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander I Jagiellon">Alexander I Jagiellon</a> granted the Act of <a href="/wiki/Nihil_novi" title="Nihil novi">Nihil novi</a> nisi commune consensu – "I accept nothing new except by common consent". This forbade the king to pass new laws without the consent of the representatives of the nobility in the assembled Sejm, thus greatly strengthening the nobility's powers. Essentially, this act marked the transfer of legislative power from the king to the Sejm. It also marks the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/First_Rzeczpospolita" class="mw-redirect" title="First Rzeczpospolita">First Rzeczpospolita</a>, the period of a szlachta-run "Commonwealth". In 1520 the Act of Bydgoszcz granted the Sejm the right to convene every four years, with or without the king's permission. At about that time the Executionist Movement, seeking to oversee law enforcement, began to take shape. Its members sought to curb the power of the Magnates at the Sejm and to strengthen the power of the monarch. In 1562 at the Sejm in Piotrków they forced the Magnates to return many leased <a href="/wiki/Krolewszczyzna" class="mw-redirect" title="Krolewszczyzna">crown lands</a> to the king, and the king to create a standing army <a href="/wiki/Wojsko_kwarciane" title="Wojsko kwarciane">wojsko kwarciane</a>. One of the most famous members of this movement was <a href="/wiki/Jan_Zamoyski" title="Jan Zamoyski">Jan Zamoyski</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="End_of_the_Jagiellonian_dynasty">End of the Jagiellonian dynasty</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: End of the Jagiellonian dynasty">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anjou_1570louvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Anjou_1570louvre.jpg/170px-Anjou_1570louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Anjou_1570louvre.jpg/255px-Anjou_1570louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Anjou_1570louvre.jpg/340px-Anjou_1570louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="454" data-file-height="581" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_France" title="Henry III of France">Henry of Valois</a>, first elected monarch of Poland-Lithuania</figcaption></figure> Until the death of <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_II_Augustus" title="Sigismund II Augustus">Sigismund II Augustus</a>, the last king of the <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jagiellonian">Jagiellonian</a> dynasty, all monarchs had to be elected from within the royal family. However, from 1573, practically any Polish noble or foreigner of royal blood could potentially become a <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> monarch. Every newly elected king was supposed to sign two documents: the <a href="/wiki/Pacta_conventa_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacta conventa (Poland)">Pacta conventa</a>, the king's "pre-election pact", and the <a href="/wiki/Henrican_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Henrican articles">Henrican articles</a>, named after the first freely elected king, <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_France" title="Henry III of France">Henry of Valois</a>. The latter document was a virtual Polish constitution and contained the basic laws of the Commonwealth: <ul><li>Free election of kings</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_freedom_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious freedom in Poland">Religious tolerance</a></li> <li>The Sejm to meet every two years</li> <li>Foreign policy controlled by the Sejm</li> <li>A royal advisory council chosen by the Sejm</li> <li>Official posts restricted to Polish and Lithuanian nobles</li> <li>Taxes and monopolies set up by the Sejm only</li> <li>Nobles' right to disobey the Monarch should s/he break any of these laws.</li></ul> In 1578 king, <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Batory" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan Batory">Stefan Batory</a>, created the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Tribunal" title="Crown Tribunal">Crown Tribunal</a> to reduce the enormous pressure on the <a href="/wiki/Court_(royal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Court (royal)">Royal Court</a>. This placed much of the monarch's juridical power in the hands of the elected szlachta deputies, further strengthening the nobility as a class. In 1581 the Crown Tribunal was joined by a counterpart in Lithuania, the <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Tribunal" title="Lithuanian Tribunal">Lithuanian Tribunal</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnate_oligarchy">Magnate oligarchy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Magnate oligarchy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polish_magnates_1697-1795.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Polish_magnates_1697-1795.PNG/340px-Polish_magnates_1697-1795.PNG" decoding="async" width="340" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Polish_magnates_1697-1795.PNG/510px-Polish_magnates_1697-1795.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Polish_magnates_1697-1795.PNG/680px-Polish_magnates_1697-1795.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1556" data-file-height="962" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Magnates_of_Poland_and_Lithuania" title="Magnates of Poland and Lithuania">Magnates of Poland and Lithuania</a>. Drawing by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Matejko" title="Jan Matejko">Jan Matejko</a>, circa 1893</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Magnates_of_Poland_and_Lithuania" title="Magnates of Poland and Lithuania">Magnates of Poland and Lithuania</a></div> For many centuries, wealthy and powerful members of the szlachta sought to gain legal privileges over their peers. In 1459 <a href="/wiki/Ostror%C3%B3g_family" title="Ostroróg family">Ostroróg</a> presented a memorandum to the <a href="/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland">Sejm (parliament)</a>, submitting <a href="/wiki/Palatine" title="Palatine">palatines</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Voivodes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Voivodes of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Voivodes of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, receive the title of <a href="/wiki/Prince" title="Prince">prince</a>. Sons of the prince were to receive titles of <a href="/wiki/Count" title="Count">counts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baron" title="Baron">barons</a>. <a href="/wiki/Castellans_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Castellans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Castellans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> were to receive the title of count. All these submissions were rejected.<a href="#cite_note-szlachta-reject-titles-of-nobility-31">[31]</a> Few szlachta were wealthy enough to be known as Magnates, karmazyni, the "<a href="/wiki/Crimson" title="Crimson">Crimsons</a>" – from the crimson colour of their boots. A true Magnate had to be able to trace his ancestry for many generations and own at least 20 villages or estates. He also had to hold high <a href="/wiki/Offices_in_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Offices in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">office in the Commonwealth</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. Thus, out of about one million szlachta, only 200–300 persons could be classed as Magnates with country-wide possessions and influence. Of these some 30–40 were considered as having significant impact on Poland's politics. Magnates often received gifts from monarchs, which greatly increased their wealth. Although such gifts were only temporary <a href="/wiki/Lease" title="Lease">leases</a>, often the Magnates never returned them. This gave rise in the 16th century, to a self-policing trend by the szlachta, known as the ruch egzekucji praw — movement for the enforcement of the law – against usurping Magnates to force them to return leased lands back to their rightful owner, the monarch.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] One of the most important victories of the Magnates was the late 16th century right to create <a href="/wiki/Ordynacja" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordynacja">Ordynacjas</a>, similar to <a href="/wiki/Fee_tail" title="Fee tail">Fee tails</a> under English law, which ensured that a family which gained landed wealth could more easily preserve it. The Ordynacjas that belonged to families such as the <a href="/wiki/Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82" class="mw-redirect" title="Radziwiłł">Radziwiłł</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zamoyski" class="mw-redirect" title="Zamoyski">Zamoyski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potocki" class="mw-redirect" title="Potocki">Potocki</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lubomirski" title="Lubomirski">Lubomirskis</a> often rivalled the estates of the king and were important power bases for them.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The difference between the magnateria and the rest of the szlachta was primarily one of wealth and life-style, as both belonged to the same legally defined class being members of the same clans. Consequently, any power wrested from the king by the magnates was consequently trickled down to the entirety of the szlachta. This often meant the rest of the szlachta tended to cooperate with the magnates rather than struggle against them.<a href="#cite_note-dmowski-magnates-szlachta-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Szlachta_loss_of_influence">Szlachta loss of influence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Szlachta loss of influence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG/220px-Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG/330px-Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG/440px-Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1206" data-file-height="936" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Galician_slaughter" class="mw-redirect" title="Galician slaughter">The Peasant Uprising of 1846</a>, the largest <a href="/wiki/Peasant_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasant uprising">peasant uprising</a> against szlachta rulership on Polish lands in the 19th century.</figcaption></figure> The notion of the szlachta's accrued sovereignty ended in 1795 with the final <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a>, and until 1918 their legal status was dependent on the policies of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In the 1840s <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a> reduced 64,000 of lesser szlachta to a particular commoner status known as <a href="/wiki/Odnodvortsy" title="Odnodvortsy">odnodvortsy</a> (literally "single-householders").<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Despite this, 62.8% of all Russia's nobles were Polish szlachta in 1858 and still 46.1% in 1897.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polish_serfdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish serfdom">Serfdom</a> was abolished in Russian Poland on 19 February 1864. It was deliberately enacted with the aim of ruining the szlachta. Only in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Partition" title="Russian Partition">Russian Partition</a> did peasants pay the market price for land redemption, the average for the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> was 34% above the market rates. All land taken from Polish peasants since 1846 was to be returned to them without redemption payments. The ex-serfs could only sell land to other peasants, not szlachta. 90% of the ex-serfs in the empire who actually gained land after 1861 lived in the 8 western provinces. Along with <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, Polish landless or domestic serfs were the only ones to be given land after serfdom was abolished.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> All this was to punish the szlachta's role in the uprisings of 1830 and 1863. By 1864 80% of szlachta were déclassé – downward social mobility. One quarter of petty nobles were worse off than the average serf. While 48.9% of the land in Russian Poland was in peasant hands, nobles still held onto 46%.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a> the privileges of the nobility were legally abolished by the <a href="/wiki/March_Constitution_(Poland)" title="March Constitution (Poland)">March Constitution</a> in 1921 and as such not reinstated by any succeeding <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Polish</a> law. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_and_international_connections">Cultural and international connections</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cultural and international connections">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta" title="Sovereign Military Order of Malta">Sovereign Military Order of Malta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Enlightenment in Poland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta_(variant).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta_%28variant%29.svg/170px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta_%28variant%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta_%28variant%29.svg/255px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta_%28variant%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta_%28variant%29.svg/340px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta_%28variant%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="509" data-file-height="649" /></a><figcaption>Coat of arms of the Order of Malta</figcaption></figure> Despite preoccupations with warring, politics and status, the szlachta in Poland, as did people from all social classes, played its part in contributing in fields ranging from literature, art and architecture, philosophy, education, agriculture and the many branches of science, to technology and industry.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Perhaps foremost among the cultural determinants of the nobility in Poland were its continuing international connections with the Rome-based <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. It was from the ranks of the szlachta that were drawn the church's leading <a href="/wiki/Prelate" title="Prelate">Prelates</a> until the 20th century. Other international influences came through the more or less secretive and powerful Christian and lay organisations such as the <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta" title="Sovereign Military Order of Malta">Sovereign Military Order of Malta</a>, focused on hospital and other charitable activity.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> The most notable Polish Maltese Knight was the Pozńan commander, <a href="/wiki/Bart%C5%82omiej_Nowodworski_High_School" title="Bartłomiej Nowodworski High School">Bartłomiej Nowodworski</a>, founder in 1588 of the oldest school in Poland. One alumnus was <a href="/wiki/John_III_Sobieski" title="John III Sobieski">John III Sobieski</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> In the 18th century, after several false starts, international <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a>, wolnomularstwo, from western lodges, became established among the higher échelons of the szlachta, and in spite of membership of some clergy, it was intermittently but strongly opposed by the Catholic Church. After the partitions it became a cover for opposition to the occupying powers.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Also in the 18th century there was a marked development in <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">Patronage</a> of the arts during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanisław August Poniatowski</a>, himself a freemason, and with the growth of social awareness, in <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_as_purveyors_of_culture">Women as purveyors of culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Women as purveyors of culture">edit</a>]</div> High-born women in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth exerted political and cultural influence throughout history in their own country and abroad, as queens, princesses and the wives or widows of magnates. Their cultural activities came into sharper relief in the 18th century with their hosting of <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salons</a> in the French manner. They went on to publish as translators and writers and as facilitators of educational and social projects.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barbara_sangushkivna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Barbara_sangushkivna.jpg/170px-Barbara_sangushkivna.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Barbara_sangushkivna.jpg/255px-Barbara_sangushkivna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Barbara_sangushkivna.jpg/340px-Barbara_sangushkivna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Barbara Sanguszko, philanthropist, writer and salon hostess at <a href="/wiki/Podd%C4%99bice" title="Poddębice">Poddębice</a>. Oil by <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Bacciarelli" title="Marcello Bacciarelli">Marcello Bacciarelli</a></figcaption></figure> Notable women members of the szlachta who exerted political and/or cultural influence include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Jadwiga" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Jadwiga">Queen Jadwiga</a> (1373 ог 1374–1399)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bona_Sforza" title="Bona Sforza">Bona Sforza</a> (1494-1557), second wife of <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_I_the_Old" title="Sigismund I the Old">Sigismund I the Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zofia_Lubomirska" title="Zofia Lubomirska">Zofia Lubomirska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Jab%C5%82onowska" title="Anna Jabłonowska">Anna Jabłonowska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El%C5%BCbieta_Izabela_Lubomirska" title="Elżbieta Izabela Lubomirska">Elzbieta Lubomirska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleonora_Czartoryska" title="Eleonora Czartoryska">Eleonora Czartoryska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izabela_Czartoryska" title="Izabela Czartoryska">Izabela Czartoryska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Sanguszko" title="Barbara Sanguszko">Barbara Sanguszko</a> (1718–1791), poet, translator and moralist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tekla_Teresa_Lubienska" class="mw-redirect" title="Tekla Teresa Lubienska">Tekla Teresa Lubienska</a> (1767–1810), poet, playwright and translator</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gastronomy">Gastronomy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Gastronomy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polish_cuisine" title="Polish cuisine">Polish cuisine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wierusz-Kowalski_Do%C5%BCynki_1910.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Wierusz-Kowalski_Do%C5%BCynki_1910.jpg/220px-Wierusz-Kowalski_Do%C5%BCynki_1910.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Wierusz-Kowalski_Do%C5%BCynki_1910.jpg/330px-Wierusz-Kowalski_Do%C5%BCynki_1910.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Wierusz-Kowalski_Do%C5%BCynki_1910.jpg/440px-Wierusz-Kowalski_Do%C5%BCynki_1910.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1036" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Do%C5%BCynki" title="Dożynki">Dożynki</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wierusz-Kowalski" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Wierusz-Kowalski">Alfred Wierusz-Kowalski</a>, 1910</figcaption></figure> The szlachta, no less than the rest of the population, placed a particular accent on food. It was at the centre of courtly and estate entertaining and in good times, at the heart of village life. During the Age of Enlightenment, King Stanislaw August Poniatowski emulated the French <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">Salons</a> by holding his famed <a href="/wiki/Thursday_Lunches" class="mw-redirect" title="Thursday Lunches">Thursday Lunches</a> for intellectuals and artists, drawn chiefly from the szlachta.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> His Wednesday Lunches were gatherings for policy makers in science, education and politics. There was a tradition, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Mazovia" title="Mazovia">Mazovia</a>, kept until the 20th century, of estate owners laying on a festive banquet at the completion of <a href="/wiki/Harvest" title="Harvest">harvest</a> for their staff, known as <a href="/wiki/Do%C5%BCynki" title="Dożynki">Dożynki</a>, as a way of expressing an acknowledgment of their work. It was equivalent to a <a href="/wiki/Harvest_festival" title="Harvest festival">harvest festival</a>. Polish food varied according to region, as elsewhere in Europe, and was influenced by settlers, especially <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Jewish cuisine</a>, and occupying armies.<a href="#cite_note-Strybel-350-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hunting">Hunting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Hunting">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PolishHound-MlChPl-OKSANA-ZOstregoBoru-wl.JoannaZembrzuska_3.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/PolishHound-MlChPl-OKSANA-ZOstregoBoru-wl.JoannaZembrzuska_3.JPG/220px-PolishHound-MlChPl-OKSANA-ZOstregoBoru-wl.JoannaZembrzuska_3.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/PolishHound-MlChPl-OKSANA-ZOstregoBoru-wl.JoannaZembrzuska_3.JPG/330px-PolishHound-MlChPl-OKSANA-ZOstregoBoru-wl.JoannaZembrzuska_3.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/PolishHound-MlChPl-OKSANA-ZOstregoBoru-wl.JoannaZembrzuska_3.JPG/440px-PolishHound-MlChPl-OKSANA-ZOstregoBoru-wl.JoannaZembrzuska_3.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1609" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ogar_Polski" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogar Polski">Ogar Polski</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wojciech_Kossak_-_El%C5%BCbieta_Potocka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Wojciech_Kossak_-_El%C5%BCbieta_Potocka.jpg/170px-Wojciech_Kossak_-_El%C5%BCbieta_Potocka.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Wojciech_Kossak_-_El%C5%BCbieta_Potocka.jpg/255px-Wojciech_Kossak_-_El%C5%BCbieta_Potocka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Wojciech_Kossak_-_El%C5%BCbieta_Potocka.jpg/340px-Wojciech_Kossak_-_El%C5%BCbieta_Potocka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="691" /></a><figcaption>Elżbieta Potocka by <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Kossak" title="Wojciech Kossak">Wojciech Kossak</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PolishScenthound2BRANKA_Herbu_Weszynos_Wl_E.Ziolek.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/PolishScenthound2BRANKA_Herbu_Weszynos_Wl_E.Ziolek.JPG/220px-PolishScenthound2BRANKA_Herbu_Weszynos_Wl_E.Ziolek.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/PolishScenthound2BRANKA_Herbu_Weszynos_Wl_E.Ziolek.JPG/330px-PolishScenthound2BRANKA_Herbu_Weszynos_Wl_E.Ziolek.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/PolishScenthound2BRANKA_Herbu_Weszynos_Wl_E.Ziolek.JPG/440px-PolishScenthound2BRANKA_Herbu_Weszynos_Wl_E.Ziolek.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>"Brach", <a href="/wiki/Polish_Hunting_Dog" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Hunting Dog">Polish Hunting Dog</a></figcaption></figure> One of the favourite szlachta pastimes was hunting (łowiectwo).<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Before the formation of Poland as a state, hunting was accessible to everyone. With the introduction of rulers and rules, big game, generically zwierzyna: <a href="/wiki/Aurochs" title="Aurochs">Aurochs</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_bison" title="European bison">bison</a>, deer and boar became the preserve of kings and princes on penalty of <a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">poachers</a>' death. From the 13th century on the king would appoint a high-ranking courtier to the role of Master of the Hunt, <a href="/wiki/%C5%81owczy" class="mw-redirect" title="Łowczy">Łowczy</a>. In time, the penalties for poaching were commuted to fines and from around the 14th century, landowners acquired the right to hunt on their land. Small game, foxes, hare, badger and stoat etc. were 'fair game' to all comers. Hunting became one of the most popular social activities of the szlachta until the partitions, when different sets of restrictions in the three territories were introduced. This was with a view to curbing social interaction among the subject Poles.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Over the centuries, at least two breeds of specialist hounds were bred in Poland. One was the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Hunting_Dog" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Hunting Dog">Polish Hunting Dog</a>, the brach. The other was the <a href="/wiki/Ogar_Polski" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogar Polski">Ogar Polski</a>. <a href="/wiki/Count_Xavier_Branicki" title="Count Xavier Branicki">Count Xavier Branicki</a> was so nostalgic about Polish hunting, that when he settled in France in the mid 19th century, and restored his estate at the <a href="/wiki/Chateau_de_Montresor" class="mw-redirect" title="Chateau de Montresor">Chateau de Montresor</a>, he ordered a brace of Ogar Polski hounds from the Polish breeder and szlachcic, Piotr Orda.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics_and_stratification">Demographics and stratification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Demographics and stratification">edit</a>]</div> The szlachta differed in many respects from the nobility in other countries. The most important difference was that, while in most European countries the nobility lost power as the ruler strove for <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a>, in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth a reverse process occurred: the nobility actually gained power at the expense of the king, and enabled the <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political system</a> to evolve into an <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>. Szlachta members were also proportionately more numerous than their equivalents in all other European countries, constituting 6–12% of the entire population.<a href="#cite_note-Frost-115">[115]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#endnote_anone">[a]</a> By contrast, nobles in other European countries, except for Spain, amounted to a mere 1–3%. Most of the szlachta were "minor nobles" or <a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">smallholders</a>. In Lithuania the minor nobility made up to 3/4 of the total szlachta population.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Sikorska-116">[116]</a> By the mid-16th century the szlachta class consisted of at least 500,000 persons (some 25,000 families).<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frost-115">[115]</a> Polish historian <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Korzon" title="Tadeusz Korzon">Tadeusz Korzon</a> carried out an estimation of the social structure of Poland based on the documents of 1770–1780s, such as tax registers, partial censuses, etc. His estimate for the number of szlachta was 725,000 of total population 8.8 million. For comparison with other social classes, Christian clergy counted 50,000, Christian mieszczaństwo (<a href="/wiki/Burgher_(social_class)" title="Burgher (social class)">burghers</a>) counted 500,000, peasants of various categories (<a href="/w/index.php?title=W%C5%82o%C5%9Bcianie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Włościanie (page does not exist)">włościanie</a> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82o%C5%9Bcianin" class="extiw" title="pl:Włościanin">pl</a>]): 6.4 million, Jews (the fast growing group), e.g., 750,000 in 1764 and 900,000 in 1790. Korzon counted Armenians, Tatars, Greeks, and Russian <a href="/wiki/Raskolnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Raskolnik">raskolniks</a> as separate social groups, totaling 250,000-300,000.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> The proportion of nobles in the population varied across regions. In the 16th century, the highest proportion of nobles lived in the <a href="/wiki/P%C5%82ock_Voivodeship_(1495%E2%80%931793)" title="Płock Voivodeship (1495–1793)">Płock Voivodeship</a> (24,6%) and in <a href="/wiki/Podlachia" title="Podlachia">Podlachia</a> (26,7%), while Galicia had numerically the largest szlachta population.<a href="#cite_note-zsz-119">[119]</a> In districts, such as <a href="/wiki/Wizna_Land" title="Wizna Land">Wizna</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%81om%C5%BCa_Land" title="Łomża Land">Łomża</a>, the szlachta constituted nearly half of the population. Regions with the lowest percentage of nobles were the <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Voivodeship_(14th_century_%E2%80%93_1795)" title="Kraków Voivodeship (14th century – 1795)">Kraków Voivodeship</a> with (1,7%), <a href="/wiki/Royal_Prussia" title="Royal Prussia">Royal Prussia</a> with (3%) and the <a href="/wiki/Sieradz_Voivodeship_(1339%E2%80%931793)" title="Sieradz Voivodeship (1339–1793)">Sieradz Voivodeship</a> with 4,6%.<a href="#cite_note-Mika-120">[120]</a> Before the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">Union of Lublin</a>, inequality among nobles in terms of wealth and power was far greater in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania than in the Polish Kingdom. The further south and east one went, the more the territory was dominated by magnate families and other nobles.<a href="#cite_note-Frost-115">[115]</a> In the Lithuanian and Ruthenian palatinates, poor nobles were more likely to rent smallholdings from magnates than to own land themselves.<a href="#cite_note-Lukowski-121">[121]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamps_of_Lithuania,_2014-21.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Stamps_of_Lithuania%2C_2014-21.jpg/200px-Stamps_of_Lithuania%2C_2014-21.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Stamps_of_Lithuania%2C_2014-21.jpg/300px-Stamps_of_Lithuania%2C_2014-21.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Stamps_of_Lithuania%2C_2014-21.jpg/400px-Stamps_of_Lithuania%2C_2014-21.jpg 2x" data-file-width="848" data-file-height="721" /></a><figcaption>Prince <a href="/wiki/Konstanty_Ostrogski" title="Konstanty Ostrogski">Konstanty Ostrogski</a> on a Lithuanian commemorative stamp</figcaption></figure> It has been said that the ruling elites were the only socio-political milieu to whom a sense of national consciousness could be attributed. All szlachta members, irrespective of their cultural/ethnic background, were regarded as belonging to a single "political nation" within the Commonwealth. Arguably, a common culture, the Catholic religion and the Polish language were seen as the main unifying factors in the dual state.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Prior to the Partitions there was said to have been no Polish national identity as such. Only szlachta members, irrespective of their ethnicity or culture of origin, were considered as "Poles".<a href="#cite_note-Struve-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Despite <a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonisation</a> in Lithuania and <a href="/wiki/Ruthenia" title="Ruthenia">Ruthenia</a> in the 17th-18th centuries, a large part of the lower szlachta managed to retain their cultural identity in various ways.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Due to poverty most of the local szlachta had never had access to formal education nor to Polish language teaching and hence could not be expected to self-identify as Poles.<a href="#cite_note-Sikorska-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> It was common even for wealthy and in practice Polonised szlachta members still to refer to themselves as Lithuanian, Litwin or Ruthenian, Rusyn.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Although born a Lithuanian and a Lithuanian I shall die, I must use the Polish idiom in my homeland.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Janusz_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82_(1612%E2%80%931655)" title="Janusz Radziwiłł (1612–1655)">Janusz Radziwiłł</a>, in letter to his brother <a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82" title="Krzysztof Radziwiłł">Krzysztof</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></cite></div></blockquote> According to Polish estimates from the 1930s, 300,000 members of the common nobles s zlachta zagrodowa – inhabited the <a href="/wiki/Outer_Subcarpathia" title="Outer Subcarpathia">subcarpathian</a> region of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a> out of 800,000 in the whole country. 90% of them were Ukrainian-speaking and 80% were Ukrainian <a href="/wiki/Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Greek Catholic Church">Greek Catholics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-zsz-119">[119]</a> In other parts of Ukraine with a significant szlachta population, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bar,_Vinnytsia_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar, Vinnytsia Oblast">Bar</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Ovruch" title="Ovruch">Ovruch regions</a>, the situation was similar despite <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a> and earlier Polonization.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> As an example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... The first official records of the Chopovsky family, as clan members of the <a href="/wiki/Korwin_coat_of_arms" title="Korwin coat of arms">Korwin coat of arms</a>, date back to mid-XVII century. As the Chopovsky family multiplied, by 1861 they were already 3063 souls of both sexes. They were considered szlachta members, but neither their way of life nor their clothing distinguished them from the neighbouring peasants, except that they were more prosperous and possessed more of their own land [...]. When <a href="/wiki/Uniates" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniates">Uniates</a> began joining the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox church</a> in 1839 - The Russian government liquidated the <a href="/wiki/Uniate_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniate church">Uniate church</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Polotsk" title="Polotsk">Polotsk</a> Convocation - 43 souls of both sexes switched to the Roman faith, while the rest of the Chopovsky (86%) returned to Orthodoxy. The Heraldic Office of the Russian Senate declined to certify the Chopovsky family's noble status, but the land remained theirs. The exception were the Prokopenko-Chopovsky branch of the family who were received into the Russian nobility in 1858,<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bacciarelli_Blue_Marquise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Bacciarelli_Blue_Marquise.jpg/170px-Bacciarelli_Blue_Marquise.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Bacciarelli_Blue_Marquise.jpg/255px-Bacciarelli_Blue_Marquise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Bacciarelli_Blue_Marquise.jpg/340px-Bacciarelli_Blue_Marquise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1405" data-file-height="1977" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/El%C5%BCbieta_Czartoryska_(1736%E2%80%931816)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elżbieta Czartoryska (1736–1816)">Elżbieta Czartoryska</a> as <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Bacciarelli" title="Marcello Bacciarelli">Bacciarelli</a>'s Blue Marquise</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simmler_szlachcic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Simmler_szlachcic.jpg/170px-Simmler_szlachcic.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Simmler_szlachcic.jpg/255px-Simmler_szlachcic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Simmler_szlachcic.jpg/340px-Simmler_szlachcic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2912" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Polish Nobleman with a Parrot, by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Simmler" title="Józef Simmler">Józef Simmler</a>, 1859.</figcaption></figure> However the era of sovereign rule by the szlachta ended earlier than in other countries, excluding France, in 1795 (see <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a>). Since then their legitimacy and fate depended on the legislation and policies of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a>. Their privileges became increasingly limited, and were ultimately dissolved by the <a href="/wiki/March_Constitution_(Poland)" title="March Constitution (Poland)">March Constitution of Poland</a> in 1921. There were a number of avenues to upward social mobility and the attainment of nobility. The szlachta was not rigidly exclusive or closed as a class, but according to <a href="/wiki/Heraldic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraldic">heraldic</a> sources, the total number of legal ennoblements issued between the 14th and mid-18th century, is estimated at 800.<a href="#cite_note-czajkowski-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-pudlowski-87">[87]</a> This is an average of about two ennoblements per year. According to two English journalists <a href="/wiki/Richard_Holt_Hutton" title="Richard Holt Hutton">Richard Holt Hutton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Bagehot" title="Walter Bagehot">Walter Bagehot</a> writing on the subject in 1864, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The condition of the country at the present day shows that the population consisted of two different peoples, between whom there was an impassable barrier. There is the Sliachta, or caste of nobles (the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Lechites" title="Lechites">Lekh</a>), on the one hand, and the serfs or peasantry, who constitute the bulk of the population, on the other.<a href="#cite_note-races-old-world-17">[17]</a>: 483–484 </blockquote> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... the Statute of 1633 completed the slavery of the other classes, by proclaiming the principle that 'the air enslaves the man,' in virtue of which every peasant who had lived for a year upon the estate of a noble was held to be his property. Nowhere in history - nowhere in the world - do we ever see a homogeneous nation organise itself in a form like that which has prevailed from the earliest times in Poland. But where there has been an intrusion of a dominant people, or settlers, who have not fused into the original population, there we find an exact counterpart of Polish society: the dominant settlers establishing themselves as an upper caste, all politically equal among themselves, and holding the lands (or, more frequently, simply drawing the rents) of the country.<a href="#cite_note-races-old-world-17">[17]</a>: 483 </blockquote> Sociologist and historian, <a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Szacki" title="Jerzy Szacki">Jerzy Ryszard Szacki</a> said in this context, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... the Polish nobility was a closed group (apart from a few exceptions, many of which were contrary to the law), in which membership was inherited.<a href="#cite_note-szacki--inherited--1995-18">[18]</a></blockquote> Others assert the szlachta were not a <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a>, but a <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>, among them, historian <a href="/wiki/Adam_Zamoyski" title="Adam Zamoyski">Adam Zamoyski</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A more apt analogy might perhaps be made with the <a href="/wiki/Rajput" title="Rajput">Rajputs</a> of northern India. ... unlike any other gentry in Europe, the szlachta was not limited by nor did it depend for its status on either wealth, or land, or royal writ. It was defined by its function, that of a warrior caste.<a href="#cite_note-zamoyski-warrior-caste-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">[21]</a></blockquote> Jerzy Szacki continues, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">While <a href="/wiki/Aleksander_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tochowski" title="Aleksander Świętochowski">Aleksander Świętochowski</a> wrote: 'If from the deeds of the Polish nobility we took away excesses and the exclusiveness of caste, ...'.<a href="#cite_note-szacki--caste--1995-37">[37]</a></blockquote> Low-born individuals, including <a href="/wiki/Townsfolk" class="mw-redirect" title="Townsfolk">townsfolk</a> mieszczanie, <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> chłopi, but not Jews Żydzi, could and did rise to official <a href="/wiki/Ennoblement" title="Ennoblement">ennoblement</a> in Commonwealth society, although <a href="/wiki/Charles-Joseph,_7th_Prince_of_Ligne" title="Charles-Joseph, 7th Prince of Ligne">Charles-Joseph, 7th Prince of Ligne</a>, while trying to obtain Polish noble status, is supposed to have said in 1784, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">It is easier to become a duke in Germany, than to be counted among Polish nobles.<a href="#cite_note-bajer--polish-noble--2012-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-bajer--piot-pawel--polish-nobility-89">[89]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Konstanty_Aleksandrowicz_-_Portrait_of_Karol_Stanislaw_Radziwill_-_MNK_I-220_(165375).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Konstanty_Aleksandrowicz_-_Portrait_of_Karol_Stanislaw_Radziwill_-_MNK_I-220_%28165375%29.jpg/170px-Konstanty_Aleksandrowicz_-_Portrait_of_Karol_Stanislaw_Radziwill_-_MNK_I-220_%28165375%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Konstanty_Aleksandrowicz_-_Portrait_of_Karol_Stanislaw_Radziwill_-_MNK_I-220_%28165375%29.jpg/255px-Konstanty_Aleksandrowicz_-_Portrait_of_Karol_Stanislaw_Radziwill_-_MNK_I-220_%28165375%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Konstanty_Aleksandrowicz_-_Portrait_of_Karol_Stanislaw_Radziwill_-_MNK_I-220_%28165375%29.jpg/340px-Konstanty_Aleksandrowicz_-_Portrait_of_Karol_Stanislaw_Radziwill_-_MNK_I-220_%28165375%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Karol_Stanis%C5%82aw_%22Panie_Kochanku%22_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82" class="mw-redirect" title="Karol Stanisław "Panie Kochanku" Radziwiłł">Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł</a>, the richest noble of his time.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antoni_Protazy_Potocki.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Antoni_Protazy_Potocki.PNG/170px-Antoni_Protazy_Potocki.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Antoni_Protazy_Potocki.PNG/255px-Antoni_Protazy_Potocki.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Antoni_Protazy_Potocki.PNG/340px-Antoni_Protazy_Potocki.PNG 2x" data-file-width="2464" data-file-height="3232" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Protazy_Potocki" title="Antoni Protazy Potocki">Prot Potocki</a>, banker and industrialist who turned <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a> from a sleepy fishing village into an international trade centre</figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/Heraldic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraldic">heraldic</a> sources 1,600 is the total estimated number of all legal ennoblements throughout the history of Kingdom of Poland and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from the 14th century onward, half of which were enacted in the final years of the late 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-czajkowski-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-pudlowski-87">[87]</a> Hutton and Bagehot, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... for the barrier of exclusion was partly thrown down in the last days of the monarchy ....<a href="#cite_note-races-old-world-17">[17]</a>: 482 </blockquote> Each szlachcic was said to hold enormous potential influence over the country's politics, far greater than that enjoyed by the citizens of modern democratic countries. Between 1652 and 1791, any nobleman could potentially nullify all the proceedings of a given sejm or sejmik by exercising his individual right of <a href="/wiki/Liberum_veto" title="Liberum veto">liberum veto</a> – Latin for "I do not allow" – except in the case of a <a href="/wiki/Confederated_sejm" title="Confederated sejm">confederated sejm</a> or confederated sejmik. In old Poland, a nobleman could only marry a noblewoman, as intermarriage between "castes" was fraught with difficulties<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/endogamy" class="extiw" title="wikt:endogamy">endogamy</a>); but, children of a legitimate marriage followed the condition of the father, never the mother, therefore, only the father transmitted his nobility to his children.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> See <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">patrilineality</a>. A noble woman married to a commoner could not transmit her nobility to her husband and their children. Any individual could attain ennoblement (nobilitacja) for special services to the state. A foreign noble might be naturalized as a Polish noble through the mechanism called the <a href="/wiki/Indygenat" title="Indygenat">Indygenat</a>, certified by the king. Later, from 1641, it could only be done by a <a href="/wiki/General_sejm" class="mw-redirect" title="General sejm">general sejm</a>. By the eighteenth century all these trends contributed to the great increase in the proportion of szlachta in the total population. In theory all szlachta members were social equals and were formally legal peers. Those who held civic appointments were more privileged but their roles were not hereditary. Those who held honorary appointments were superior in the hierarchy but these positions were only granted for a lifetime. Some tenancies became hereditary and went with both privilege and title. Nobles who were not direct <a href="/wiki/Lessee" class="mw-redirect" title="Lessee">Lessees</a> of the Crown but held land from other lords were only peers "de iure". The poorest enjoyed the same rights as the wealthiest magnate. The exceptions were a few symbolically privileged families such as the Radziwiłł, Lubomirski and <a href="/wiki/Czartoryski" title="Czartoryski">Czartoryski</a>, who held honorary aristocratic titles bestowed by foreign courts and recognised in Poland which granted them use of titles such as "Prince" or "<a href="/wiki/Count" title="Count">Count</a>". See also <a href="/wiki/The_Princely_Houses_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="The Princely Houses of Poland">The Princely Houses of Poland</a>. All other szlachta simply addressed each other by their given name or as "Brother, Sir" Panie bracie or the feminine equivalent. The other forms of address would be "Illustrious and Magnificent Lord", "Magnificent Lord", "Generous Lord" or "Noble Lord" in descending order, or simply "His/Her Grace Lord/Lady". The notion that all Polish nobles were social equals, regardless of their financial status or offices held, is enshrined in a traditional Polish <a href="/wiki/Adage" class="mw-redirect" title="Adage">adage</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> Szlachcic na zagrodzie równy wojewodzie. </div></blockquote> renderable in English: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> "The noble on the <a href="/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">croft</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Voivode" title="Voivode">voivode</a>'s equal." </div></blockquote> or, preserving the Polish original's <a href="/wiki/Rhyme" title="Rhyme">rhyme</a> scheme: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> "The noble behind his garden wall is the province governor's equal." </div></blockquote> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Szlachta_categories">Szlachta categories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Szlachta categories">edit</a>]</div> The nobility were divided by wealth into: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnates_of_Poland_and_Lithuania" title="Magnates of Poland and Lithuania">magnates</a>, the wealthiest class: owners of vast lands, towns, many villages, and thousands of peasants</li> <li>middle nobility (średnia szlachta): owners of one or more villages, often bearing official titles, or deputies from <a href="/wiki/Sejmik" title="Sejmik">sejmiks</a> (regional sejms) to the general <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:150913_Garden_of_the_Branicki_Palace_in_Bia%C5%82ystok_-_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/150913_Garden_of_the_Branicki_Palace_in_Bia%C5%82ystok_-_02.jpg/300px-150913_Garden_of_the_Branicki_Palace_in_Bia%C5%82ystok_-_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/150913_Garden_of_the_Branicki_Palace_in_Bia%C5%82ystok_-_02.jpg/450px-150913_Garden_of_the_Branicki_Palace_in_Bia%C5%82ystok_-_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/150913_Garden_of_the_Branicki_Palace_in_Bia%C5%82ystok_-_02.jpg/600px-150913_Garden_of_the_Branicki_Palace_in_Bia%C5%82ystok_-_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4822" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Magnate palace: <a href="/wiki/Branicki_Palace,_Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Branicki Palace, Białystok">Branicki family palace</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C5%BB%C4%85d%C5%82o-D%C4%85browski_z_D%C4%85br%C3%B3wki_Herbu_(Coat_of_Arms)_Radwan_Family_Manor_in_Micha%C5%82owice_Village,_POLAND.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/%C5%BB%C4%85d%C5%82o-D%C4%85browski_z_D%C4%85br%C3%B3wki_Herbu_%28Coat_of_Arms%29_Radwan_Family_Manor_in_Micha%C5%82owice_Village%2C_POLAND.jpg/245px-%C5%BB%C4%85d%C5%82o-D%C4%85browski_z_D%C4%85br%C3%B3wki_Herbu_%28Coat_of_Arms%29_Radwan_Family_Manor_in_Micha%C5%82owice_Village%2C_POLAND.jpg" decoding="async" width="245" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/%C5%BB%C4%85d%C5%82o-D%C4%85browski_z_D%C4%85br%C3%B3wki_Herbu_%28Coat_of_Arms%29_Radwan_Family_Manor_in_Micha%C5%82owice_Village%2C_POLAND.jpg/368px-%C5%BB%C4%85d%C5%82o-D%C4%85browski_z_D%C4%85br%C3%B3wki_Herbu_%28Coat_of_Arms%29_Radwan_Family_Manor_in_Micha%C5%82owice_Village%2C_POLAND.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/%C5%BB%C4%85d%C5%82o-D%C4%85browski_z_D%C4%85br%C3%B3wki_Herbu_%28Coat_of_Arms%29_Radwan_Family_Manor_in_Micha%C5%82owice_Village%2C_POLAND.jpg/490px-%C5%BB%C4%85d%C5%82o-D%C4%85browski_z_D%C4%85br%C3%B3wki_Herbu_%28Coat_of_Arms%29_Radwan_Family_Manor_in_Micha%C5%82owice_Village%2C_POLAND.jpg 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>Middle nobility manor house (<a href="/wiki/Manor_houses_of_Polish_nobility" title="Manor houses of Polish nobility">dwór</a>): <a href="/wiki/D%C4%85browski_Manor_in_Micha%C5%82owice" class="mw-redirect" title="Dąbrowski Manor in Michałowice">Żądło-Dąbrowski family manor</a></figcaption></figure><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gerson_Before_the_manor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Gerson_Before_the_manor.jpg/225px-Gerson_Before_the_manor.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Gerson_Before_the_manor.jpg/338px-Gerson_Before_the_manor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Gerson_Before_the_manor.jpg/450px-Gerson_Before_the_manor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption>"In Front of the Manor House" by <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Gerson" title="Wojciech Gerson">Wojciech Gerson</a>; Year: 1856 – painting of a lesser szlachta/nobility homestead (<a href="/wiki/Manor_houses_of_Polish_nobility" title="Manor houses of Polish nobility">dwór</a>)</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petty_nobility" title="Petty nobility">petty nobility</a> (drobna szlachta): owners of part of a village or of no land at all, they were often referred to by a variety of colourful Polish terms, including: <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta_za%C5%9Bciankowa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Szlachta zaściankowa (page does not exist)">szlachta zaściankowa</a> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/szlachta_za%C5%9Bciankowa" class="extiw" title="pl:szlachta zaściankowa">pl</a>] – from <a href="/wiki/Za%C5%9Bcianek" title="Zaścianek">zaścianek</a>, poorer members of the szlachta settled together in related families in one village, neighborhood/village nobility.</li> <li>szaraczkowa – grey nobility, from their grey, <a href="/wiki/Wool" title="Wool">woollen</a>, undyed <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBupan" title="Żupan">żupans</a></li> <li>okoliczna – local nobility, similar to zaściankowa</li> <li>zagrodowa – from zagroda, a <a href="/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">croft</a>, often little more than a peasant's dwelling<a href="#cite_note-porozb-141">[141]</a></li> <li>zagonowa – from zagon, a small unit of land measure, hide nobility</li> <li>cząstkowa – partial, owners of only part of a single village<a href="#cite_note-porozb-141">[141]</a></li> <li>panek – little pan (i.e., lordling), term used in <a href="/wiki/Kashubia" title="Kashubia">Kaszuby</a>, the Kashubian region, also one of the legal terms for legally separated lower nobility in late medieval and early modern Poland</li> <li>hreczkosiej – <a href="/wiki/Buckwheat" title="Buckwheat">buckwheat</a> sowers – those who had to work their fields themselves because they had no peasants.</li> <li>szlachta służebna – petty nobility who possessed land on the condition of military service (mainly of Ruthenian origin, in Eastern Poland)<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-deklas-143">[143]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quit-rent" title="Quit-rent">quit-rent</a> szlachta (szlachta czynszowa) – a class of impoverished szlachta who rented estates in the vast lands of magnates (predominantly in Ruthenian lands) <a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></li> <li>szlachta poddańcza – a step below the quit-rent szlachta: they required to work for the landlord who allotted them some land.<a href="#cite_note-porozb-141">[141]</a></li> <li>szlachta-gołota – naked nobility, i.e., the landless szlachta; the poorest szlachta considered the "lowest of the high."</li> <li>brukowa – town-street nobility: landless szlachta who earned a living in towns like other townsfolk<a href="#cite_note-porozb-141">[141]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Polish_landed_gentry" title="Polish landed gentry">Polish landed gentry</a> – ziemianie, or ziemiaństwo – was a social class of landowners with manorial estates. The vast majority were szlachta, including lesser nobility, and owned at least part of a village. Since titular <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_manor" title="Lord of the manor">manorial lordships</a> were also open to burgers of certain privileged <a href="/wiki/Royal_city_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal city in Poland">cities with royal charters</a>, not all landed gentry had hereditary noble status. The term ziemiaństwo was also applied to wealthier landed peasants.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Magnates, as owners of vast lands, generally were considered a separate social class. Landless szlachta were sometimes excluded from taking part in <a href="/wiki/Sejmik" title="Sejmik">sejmiks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Its political rights were removed altogether by the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">Constitution of 3 May 1791</a>. The purpose of the move was to eliminate the purchases of szlachta-gołota voices in sejmiks by magnates to use them, e.g., in voting or in executing <a href="/wiki/Liberum_veto" title="Liberum veto">liberum veto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Półpanek ("half-lord"); also podpanek/pidpanek ("sub-lord") in <a href="/wiki/Podolia" title="Podolia">Podolia</a> and Ukrainian accent<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> – a derogatory term for a petty szlachcic pretending to be wealthy. In the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Partition" title="Russian Partition">Russian Partition</a> of Poland, <a href="/wiki/Tsar_Nicholas_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsar Nicholas I">Tsar Nicholas I</a> signed a <a href="/wiki/Ukase" title="Ukase">ukase</a> on 19 October 1831, titled "On the Division and Disposition of Nobility in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Krai" title="Western Krai">Western Governorates</a>", which required those claiming noble status to provide evidence to the Russian <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Heraldry" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of Heraldry">Office of Heraldry</a>. The result was a drastic decrease in the number of petty szlachta, who were demoted into <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">estates of the realm</a> required to pay taxes.<a href="#cite_note-deklas-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Sarmatism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:296px;max-width:296px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Zamoyski.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Jan_Zamoyski.PNG/150px-Jan_Zamoyski.PNG" decoding="async" width="150" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Jan_Zamoyski.PNG/225px-Jan_Zamoyski.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Jan_Zamoyski.PNG/300px-Jan_Zamoyski.PNG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="672" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Zamoyski" title="Jan Zamoyski">Jan Zamoyski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hetman" title="Hetman">Hetman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor (Poland)">Grand Crown Chancellor</a> and a representative of <a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a>.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_A_Polish_nobleman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_A_Polish_nobleman.jpg/138px-Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_A_Polish_nobleman.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_A_Polish_nobleman.jpg/207px-Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_A_Polish_nobleman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_A_Polish_nobleman.jpg/276px-Rembrandt_van_Rijn_-_A_Polish_nobleman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3259" data-file-height="4781" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/A_Polish_Nobleman" title="A Polish Nobleman">A Polish Nobleman</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a> (1637). The subject's Polish identity and garb are unclear.</div></div></div></div></div> The szlachta's prevalent <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a>, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries, was manifested in its adoption of "<a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a>", a word derived from the <a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">legend</a> that its origins reached back to the ancient tribe of an Iranic people, the <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a>. This nostalgic belief system embracing chivalry and courtliness became an important part of szlachta culture and affected all aspects of their lives. It was popularized by poets who exalted traditional village life, peace and pacifism. It was also manifested in oriental-style apparel, the <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBupan" title="Żupan">żupan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kontusz" title="Kontusz">kontusz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sukmana" title="Sukmana">sukmana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pas_kontuszowy" title="Pas kontuszowy">pas kontuszowy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delia_(clothing)" title="Delia (clothing)">delia</a> and made the <a href="/wiki/Scimitar" title="Scimitar">scimitar</a>-like <a href="/wiki/Szabla" title="Szabla">szabla</a> a near-obligatory item of everyday szlachta apparel. Sarmatism served to integrate a nobility of disparate provenance, as it sought to create a sense of <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">national</a> unity and pride in the szlachta's "<a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a>" złota wolność. It was marked furthermore by a linguistic affectation among the szlachta of mixing Polish and Latin vocabulary, producing a form of Polish <a href="/wiki/Dog_Latin" title="Dog Latin">Dog Latin</a> peppered with "<a href="/wiki/Macaronic_language" title="Macaronic language">macaronisms</a>" in everyday conversation.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_titled_nobility" title="List of Polish titled nobility">List of Polish titled nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_szlachta" title="List of szlachta">List of szlachta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_nobility" title="Lithuanian nobility">Lithuanian nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_heraldry" title="Polish heraldry">Polish heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_landed_gentry" title="Polish landed gentry">Polish landed gentry</a> (Ziemiaństwo)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish name">Polish name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silva_rerum" title="Silva rerum">Silva rerum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_nobility_from_Galicia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian nobility from Galicia">Ukrainian nobility from Galicia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> a.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_anone">^</a> Estimates of the proportion of szlachta vary widely: 10–12% of the total population of historic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> around 8%<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> of the total population in 1791 (up from 6.6% in the 16th century)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] or 6–8%.<a href="#cite_note-Frost-115">[115]</a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-epwn-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-epwn_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-epwn_1-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/;4019673">"Szlachta. Szlachta w Polsce"</a>, Encyklopedia PWN </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-an-electorate-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-an-electorate_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-an-electorate_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-an-electorate_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-an-electorate_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-an-electorate_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-an-electorate_2-5">f</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDaviesDawsonJasiewiczKondracki2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Ivor Norman Richard</a>; Dawson, Andrew Hutchinson; <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krzysztof_Jasiewicz" class="extiw" title="pl:Krzysztof Jasiewicz">Jasiewicz, Krzysztof</a> [in Polish]; <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerzy_Kondracki" class="extiw" title="pl:Jerzy Kondracki">Kondracki, Jerzy Aleksander</a> [in Polish]; <a href="/wiki/Piotr_S._Wandycz" title="Piotr S. Wandycz">Wandycz, Piotr Stefan</a> (2 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland/The-Commonwealth">"Poland"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. p. 15. Retrieved 24 April 2021. <q>Ranging from the poorest landless yeomen to the great magnates, the szlachta insisted on the equality of all its members. As a political nation it was more numerous (8–10 percent) than the electorate of most European states even in the early 19th century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poland&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=15&rft.date=2017-06-02&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Ivor+Norman+Richard&rft.au=Dawson%2C+Andrew+Hutchinson&rft.au=Jasiewicz%2C+Krzysztof&rft.au=Kondracki%2C+Jerzy+Aleksander&rft.au=Wandycz%2C+Piotr+Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FPoland%2FThe-Commonwealth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world--aristocracy--caste_3-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuttonBagehot1864" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Holt_Hutton" title="Richard Holt Hutton">Hutton, Richard Holt</a>; <a href="/wiki/Walter_Bagehot" title="Walter Bagehot">Bagehot, Walter</a> (January 1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4u4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA484">"The Races of the Old World"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Review_(1855)" title="National Review (1855)">National Review</a>. London, England: Robson and Levey: 484. Retrieved 9 Oct 2014. <q>These remark exactly express the view which we entertain in regard to the population of Poland. There we find an aristocracy of equals resting upon a basis of serfage, an upper caste drawing the rents of the land, monopolising the government, and composing the army of the country, and who, in the course of long centuries, have imparted much of their own spirit and ideas, and, with the license of a gay aristocracy, not a little of their blood also, to the subordinate population.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Review&rft.atitle=The+Races+of+the+Old+World&rft.pages=484&rft.date=1864-01&rft.aulast=Hutton&rft.aufirst=Richard+Holt&rft.au=Bagehot%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4u4RAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-can-be-king-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-can-be-king_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-can-be-king_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-can-be-king_4-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1835" class="citation book cs1">Ross, M. (1835). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fqxDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51">"A Descriptive View of Poland: Character, Manners, and Customs of the Poles"</a>. A history of Poland from its foundation as a state to the present time; including a full account of the recent patriotic struggle to re-establish its independence. To which is prefixed, a descriptive view of the country, its natural history, cities and towns, and the manners and customs of its inhabitants. Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Pattison and Ross. p. 51. <q>Once admitted within the pale of nobility, every honour of the state, and even the kingly office, was open, there being a perfect equality of civil rights.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Descriptive+View+of+Poland%3A+Character%2C+Manners%2C+and+Customs+of+the+Poles&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Poland+from+its+foundation+as+a+state+to+the+present+time%3B+including+a+full+account+of+the+recent+patriotic+struggle+to+re-establish+its+independence.+To+which+is+prefixed%2C+a+descriptive+view+of+the+country%2C+its+natural+history%2C+cities+and+towns%2C+and+the+manners+and+customs+of+its+inhabitants&rft.place=Newcastle+upon+Tyne%2C+England&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Pattison+and+Ross&rft.date=1835&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfqxDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-equality-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equality_5-12">m</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkwarczyński1956" class="citation journal cs1">Skwarczyński, Paweł (June 1956). "The Problem of Feudalism in Poland up to the Beginning of the 16th Century". <a href="/wiki/The_Slavonic_and_East_European_Review" title="The Slavonic and East European Review">The Slavonic and East European Review</a>. 34 (83). Salisbury House, Station Road, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridgeshire" title="Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire county</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">ENGLAND</a>: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Humanities_Research_Association" title="Modern Humanities Research Association">Modern Humanities Research Association</a>: 299. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4204744">4204744</a>. <q>As the knights owned their land, there was no room or need for any intermediaries between them and the king. All of them were equal before the king; but they were not king's tenants, and the king was not their overlord. Their relationship to the king was not feudal, i.e., based on feudal dependence, but rather it was regulated by public law. ... From the fact that the knights were equal before the king, the theory of equality was evolved, which later became one of the important features of the constitution.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Feudalism+in+Poland+up+to+the+Beginning+of+the+16th+Century&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=83&rft.pages=299&rft.date=1956-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4204744%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Skwarczy%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Pawe%C5%82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zamoyski-clannish-structures-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-clannish-structures_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-clannish-structures_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-clannish-structures_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-clannish-structures_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-clannish-structures_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-clannish-structures_6-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamoyski1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Zamoyski" title="Adam Zamoyski">Zamoyski, Adam</a> (1998) [1987]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/24">The Polish Way: A Thousand-year history of the Poles and their culture</a> (Fourth Printing ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Hippocrene_Books" title="Hippocrene Books">Hippocrene Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/24">24</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8"><bdi>0-7818-0200-8</bdi></a>. <q>Polish society had evolved from clannish structures, and the introduction of Christianity and all that went with it did not alter these significantly. The feudal system which regulated society all over Europe was never introduced into Poland, and this fact cannot be stressed too heavily.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish+Way%3A+A+Thousand-year+history+of+the+Poles+and+their+culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=24&rft.edition=Fourth+Printing&rft.pub=Hippocrene+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7818-0200-8&rft.aulast=Zamoyski&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolishwaythousan00zamo%2Fpage%2F24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-only-szlachta-are-citizens-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-only-szlachta-are-citizens_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-only-szlachta-are-citizens_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-only-szlachta-are-citizens_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-only-szlachta-are-citizens_7-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStruve2008" class="citation book cs1">Struve, Kai (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:214737/FULLTEXT01.pdf">"Citizenship and National Identity: the Peasants of Galicia during the 19th Century"</a> (PDF). In <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Wawrzeniuk" title="Piotr Wawrzeniuk">Wawrzeniuk, Piotr</a> (ed.). SOCIETAL CHANGE AND IDEOLOGICAL FORMATION AMONG THE RURAL POPULATION OF THE BALTIC AREA 1880-1939 (History). <a href="/wiki/Flemingsberg" title="Flemingsberg">Flemingsberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huddinge_Municipality" title="Huddinge Municipality">Huddinge municipality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_County" title="Stockholm County">Stockholm county</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">KINGDOM OF SWEDEN</a>: <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6dert%C3%B6rn_University" title="Södertörn University">Södertörns högskola</a>. pp. 76–77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-85139-11-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-85139-11-8"><bdi>978-91-85139-11-8</bdi></a>. <q>A deep division between enserfed peasants and gentry landowners had developed in the early modern Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The noble estate, the szlachta, monopolized the political rights and consequently only the szlachta, as constituted by the Commonwealth's sovereign, according to the early modern understanding of the concept, as well as the Polish nation and its members, were considered to be citizens.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Citizenship+and+National+Identity%3A+the+Peasants+of+Galicia+during+the+19th+Century&rft.btitle=SOCIETAL+CHANGE+AND+IDEOLOGICAL+FORMATION+AMONG+THE+RURAL+POPULATION+OF+THE+BALTIC+AREA+1880-1939&rft.place=Flemingsberg%2C+Huddinge+municipality%2C+Stockholm+county%2C+KINGDOM+OF+SWEDEN&rft.pages=76-77&rft.pub=S%C3%B6dert%C3%B6rns+h%C3%B6gskola&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-91-85139-11-8&rft.aulast=Struve&rft.aufirst=Kai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.diva-portal.org%2Fsmash%2Fget%2Fdiva2%3A214737%2FFULLTEXT01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zamoyski-not-gentry-not-nobility-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-not-gentry-not-nobility_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-not-gentry-not-nobility_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-not-gentry-not-nobility_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-not-gentry-not-nobility_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-not-gentry-not-nobility_8-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamoyski1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Zamoyski" title="Adam Zamoyski">Zamoyski, Adam</a> (1998) [1987]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/55">The Polish Way: A Thousand-year history of the Poles and their culture</a> (Fourth Printing ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Hippocrene_Books" title="Hippocrene Books">Hippocrene Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/55">55</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8"><bdi>0-7818-0200-8</bdi></a>. <q>One cannot substitute the terms 'nobility' or 'gentry' for szlachta because it had little in common with those classes in other European countries either in origin, composition or outlook.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish+Way%3A+A+Thousand-year+history+of+the+Poles+and+their+culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=55&rft.edition=Fourth+Printing&rft.pub=Hippocrene+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7818-0200-8&rft.aulast=Zamoyski&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolishwaythousan00zamo%2Fpage%2F55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dmowski-clan-system-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dmowski-clan-system_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dmowski-clan-system_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dmowski-clan-system_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dmowski-clan-system_9-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dmowski-clan-system_9-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDmowski1917" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski, Roman Stanisław</a> (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RussianRealitiesAndProblems">"Poland, Old And New"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/James_Duff_Duff" title="James Duff Duff">Duff, James Duff</a> (ed.). RUSSIAN REALITIES & PROBLEMS. Cambridge, East of England, ENGLAND, UNITED KINGDOM: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 91–92. <q>This military class was subdivided into clans, the members of each clan being bound together by strong ties of solidarity. Each clan had its name and crest. The Polish nobility, which sprang from this military class and which derived its family names from its landed properties (in the fifteenth century), had no family crests, of which there was only a limited number. Each of these bore a name which had been the old word of call of the clan. In many instances, one crest belonged to more than a hundred families. The clan system survived in this way throughout the whole of Polish history. It is evident that the warrior class in Poland had quite a different origin and a different legal and social position from that of the feudal nobility of Western Europe.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poland%2C+Old+And+New&rft.btitle=RUSSIAN+REALITIES+%26+PROBLEMS&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+East+of+England%2C+ENGLAND%2C+UNITED+KINGDOM&rft.pages=91-92&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Dmowski&rft.aufirst=Roman+Stanis%C5%82aw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FRussianRealitiesAndProblems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-davies--norman-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-davies--norman_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-davies--norman_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-davies--norman_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-davies--norman_10-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-davies--norman_10-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-davies--norman_10-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-davies--norman_10-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-davies--norman_10-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-davies--norman_10-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Norman</a> (1982). <a href="/wiki/God%27s_Playground" title="God's Playground">God's Playground: A History of Poland, Volume I - The Origins to 1795</a>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-05351-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-05351-7"><bdi>0-231-05351-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Playground%3A+A+History+of+Poland%2C+Volume+I+-+The+Origins+to+1795&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-231-05351-7&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta--allodial-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta--allodial_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta--allodial_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta--allodial_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta--allodial_11-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta--allodial_11-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta--allodial_11-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta--allodial_11-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta--allodial_11-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkwarczyński1956" class="citation journal cs1">Skwarczyński, Paweł (June 1956). "The Problem of Feudalism in Poland up to the Beginning of the 16th Century". <a href="/wiki/The_Slavonic_and_East_European_Review" title="The Slavonic and East European Review">The Slavonic and East European Review</a>. 34 (83). Salisbury House, Station Road, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridgeshire" title="Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire county</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">ENGLAND</a>: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Humanities_Research_Association" title="Modern Humanities Research Association">Modern Humanities Research Association</a>: 298. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4204744">4204744</a>. <q>The resistance to the royal policy was so strong however that by far the greater part of the land was held by the knights as <a href="/wiki/Allod" title="Allod">allodial</a>, not as feudal property, which is in striking contrast to the land conditions in England.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Feudalism+in+Poland+up+to+the+Beginning+of+the+16th+Century&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=83&rft.pages=298&rft.date=1956-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4204744%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Skwarczy%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Pawe%C5%82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-own-estates-12"><a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-own-estates_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1835" class="citation book cs1">Ross, M. (1835). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fqxDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51">"A Descriptive View of Poland: Character, Manners, and Customs of the Poles"</a>. A history of Poland from its foundation as a state to the present time; including a full account of the recent patriotic struggle to re-establish its independence. To which is prefixed, a descriptive view of the country, its natural history, cities and towns, and the manners and customs of its inhabitants. Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Pattison and Ross. p. 51. <q>By the laws of Poland, a noble is a person who possesses a <a href="/wiki/Allod" title="Allod">freehold estate</a>, or who can prove his descent from ancestors formerly possessing a <a href="/wiki/Allod" title="Allod">freehold</a>, following no trade or commerce, and at liberty to choose the place of his habitation; so that this description includes all persons above <a href="/wiki/Burgher_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgher (title)">burghers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Poland" title="Serfdom in Poland">peasants</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Descriptive+View+of+Poland%3A+Character%2C+Manners%2C+and+Customs+of+the+Poles&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Poland+from+its+foundation+as+a+state+to+the+present+time%3B+including+a+full+account+of+the+recent+patriotic+struggle+to+re-establish+its+independence.+To+which+is+prefixed%2C+a+descriptive+view+of+the+country%2C+its+natural+history%2C+cities+and+towns%2C+and+the+manners+and+customs+of+its+inhabitants&rft.place=Newcastle+upon+Tyne%2C+England&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Pattison+and+Ross&rft.date=1835&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfqxDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Szulc, Halina. (1995) Morfogeneza Osiedli Wiejskich w Polsce, Continuo, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-86682-00-0" title="Special:BookSources/83-86682-00-0">83-86682-00-0</a>, especially p. 59. In Polish but with a decent Summary in English about patterns of rural settlement in Poland since the Middle Ages. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://rcin.org.pl/igipz/Content/685/Wa51_5218_r1995-nr163_Prace-Geogr.pdf">http://rcin.org.pl/igipz/Content/685/Wa51_5218_r1995-nr163_Prace-Geogr.pdf</a> [accessed 2018-11-08] </li> <li id="cite_note-góralski--zbigniew-14"><a href="#cite_ref-góralski--zbigniew_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGóralski1998" class="citation book cs1">Góralski, Zbigniew (1998). Urzędy i godności w dawnej Polsce. LSW. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-205-4533-1" title="Special:BookSources/83-205-4533-1"><bdi>83-205-4533-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urz%C4%99dy+i+godno%C5%9Bci+w+dawnej+Polsce&rft.pub=LSW&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=83-205-4533-1&rft.aulast=G%C3%B3ralski&rft.aufirst=Zbigniew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> (Pol.) </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen2021" class="citation book cs1">Kamen, Henry (2021). Early Modern European Society (3rd ed.). New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15865-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15865-7"><bdi>978-0-415-15865-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Modern+European+Society&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pages=107&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-415-15865-7&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-topor-jakubowski-allod-16"><a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski-allod_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTopór-Jakubowski" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Top%C3%B3r_coat_of_arms" title="Topór coat of arms">Topór</a>-Jakubowski, Theodore. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020704093315/http://www.ststanislas.org/papers/american_nob.htm">"It's Time to End the Myth That Polish Immigrants Were Peasants"</a>. West European Grand Priory, International Order of St Stanislas. Croxteth House, Liverpool, Lancashire county, Merseyside, North West England, ENGLAND, UNITED KINGDOM: Order of St Stanislas. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ststanislas.org/papers/american_nob.htm">the original</a> on 4 July 2002. Retrieved 24 April 2021. <q>1. The right to hold <a href="/wiki/Allod" title="Allod">outright ownership of land</a> - not as a <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fief</a>, conditional upon service to the <a href="/wiki/Homage_(feudal)" title="Homage (feudal)">liege Lord</a>, but absolutely in perpetuity unless sold.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=West+European+Grand+Priory%2C+International+Order+of+St+Stanislas&rft.atitle=It%27s+Time+to+End+the+Myth+That+Polish+Immigrants+Were+Peasants&rft.aulast=Top%C3%B3r-Jakubowski&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ststanislas.org%2Fpapers%2Famerican_nob.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-races-old-world-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world_17-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world_17-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world_17-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world_17-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world_17-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world_17-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world_17-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world_17-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world_17-10">k</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuttonBagehot1864" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Holt_Hutton" title="Richard Holt Hutton">Hutton, Richard Holt</a>; <a href="/wiki/Walter_Bagehot" title="Walter Bagehot">Bagehot, Walter</a> (January 1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4u4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA482">"The Races of the Old World"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Review_(1855)" title="National Review (1855)">National Review</a>. London, England: Robson and Levey. Retrieved 9 Oct 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Review&rft.atitle=The+Races+of+the+Old+World&rft.date=1864-01&rft.aulast=Hutton&rft.aufirst=Richard+Holt&rft.au=Bagehot%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4u4RAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szacki--inherited--1995-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szacki--inherited--1995_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szacki--inherited--1995_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szacki--inherited--1995_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szacki--inherited--1995_18-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzacki1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Szacki" title="Jerzy Szacki">Szacki, Jerzy Ryszard</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gU6_JbBHkXoC&pg=PA48">LIBERALISM AFTER COMMUNISM</a>. Budapest, Hungary: <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781858660165" title="Special:BookSources/9781858660165"><bdi>9781858660165</bdi></a>. <q>... the Polish nobility was a closed group (apart from a few exceptions, many of which were contrary to the law), in which membership was inherited.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LIBERALISM+AFTER+COMMUNISM&rft.place=Budapest%2C+Hungary&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781858660165&rft.aulast=Szacki&rft.aufirst=Jerzy+Ryszard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgU6_JbBHkXoC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dmowski-szlachta-the-nation-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dmowski-szlachta-the-nation_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dmowski-szlachta-the-nation_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDmowski1917" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski, Roman Stanisław</a> (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RussianRealitiesAndProblems">"Poland Old and New"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/James_Duff_Duff" title="James Duff Duff">Duff, James Duff</a> (ed.). RUSSIAN REALITIES AND PROBLEMS. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 116. <q>In the past the nobility in Poland constituted the nation itself. It ruled the country without competition on the part of any other class, the middle class being small in numbers and wealth, and the peasants being <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfs</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poland+Old+and+New&rft.btitle=RUSSIAN+REALITIES+AND+PROBLEMS&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Dmowski&rft.aufirst=Roman+Stanis%C5%82aw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FRussianRealitiesAndProblems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-polish-peasant-not-belong-to-polish-nation-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-polish-peasant-not-belong-to-polish-nation_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polish-peasant-not-belong-to-polish-nation_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polish-peasant-not-belong-to-polish-nation_20-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bruce_Boswell" class="extiw" title="pl:Alexander Bruce Boswell">Boswell, Alexander Bruce</a> [in Polish] (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loBDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA116">POLAND AND THE POLES</a> (GOOGLE EBOOK). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NEW YORK</a>, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/Dodd,_Mead_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd, Mead and Company">Dodd, Mead and Company</a>. pp. 116–117. <q>The Polish peasant in the past was a very humble member of the Polish community – in fact he scarcely belonged to it at all. He had for 350 years no civic rights whatever. He was the serf of his master. It was only the easy-going and patriarchal relations between squire and peasant that made life tolerable for the latter.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND+AND+THE+POLES&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=116-117&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+and+Company&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DloBDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-topor-jakubowski--2002-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--2002_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--2002_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--2002_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--2002_21-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--2002_21-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--2002_21-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--2002_21-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--2002_21-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--2002_21-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--2002_21-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--2002_21-10">k</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJakubowski2002" class="citation magazine cs1">Jakubowski, Theodore (Spring–Summer 2002). Suligowski, Leonard Joseph (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170412052147/http://pnaf.us/pdfs/white-eagle-spring-summer-2002.pdf">"Claiming Inherited Noble Status"</a> (PDF). White Eagle: Journal of the Polish Nobility Association Foundation. Baltimore, MD. p. 5. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pnaf.us/pdfs/white-eagle-spring-summer-2002.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 12 April 2017. <q>... the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth of Two Nations (from 1385 until the Third Partition of 1795) paralleled the Roman Empire in that -- whether we like it or not -- full rights of citizenship were limited to the governing elite, called szlachta in Polish ... It is not truly correct to consider the szlachta a class; they actually were more like a caste, the military caste, as in Hindu society.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=White+Eagle%3A+Journal+of+the+Polish+Nobility+Association+Foundation&rft.atitle=Claiming+Inherited+Noble+Status&rft.chron=spring%E2%80%93summer&rft.pages=5&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Jakubowski&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpnaf.us%2Fpdfs%2Fwhite-eagle-spring-summer-2002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-krasinski--szlachta-are-poland-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-krasinski--szlachta-are-poland_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-krasinski--szlachta-are-poland_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGliński2015" class="citation web cs1">Gliński, Mikołaj (8 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20170624062330/http://culture.pl/en/article/slavery-vs-serfdom-or-was-poland-a-colonial-empire">"Slavery vs. Serfdom, or Was Poland a Colonial Empire?"</a>. Culture.pl. <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">POLAND</a>, EU. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://culture.pl/en/article/slavery-vs-serfdom-or-was-poland-a-colonial-empire">the original</a> on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2017. <q>The boundaries between nobility and peasants (and other social groups) persisted well into the 19th and 20th centuries. A shocking proof of how terribly effective this Sarmatian ideology was, can be found in a personal letter of <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Zygmunt Krasiński</a>, one of the three greatest Polish Romantic poets in the 19th century (and a descendant of an aristocratic family). In the mid-19th century Krasiński wrote to his English friend Henry Reeve: 'Believe me and rest assured that apart from aristocracy there's nothing in Poland: no talent, no bright minds, nor sense of sacrifice. Our third state [bourgeoisie] is nonsense; our peasants are machines. Only we [szlachta] are Poland.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Culture.pl&rft.atitle=Slavery+vs.+Serfdom%2C+or+Was+Poland+a+Colonial+Empire%3F&rft.date=2015-10-08&rft.aulast=Gli%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Miko%C5%82aj&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fculture.pl%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fslavery-vs-serfdom-or-was-poland-a-colonial-empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-equals-citizen-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equals-citizen_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-equals-citizen_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStruve2008" class="citation book cs1">Struve, Kai (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:214737/FULLTEXT01.pdf">"Citizenship and National Identity: the Peasants of Galicia during the 19th Century"</a> (PDF). In <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Wawrzeniuk" title="Piotr Wawrzeniuk">Wawrzeniuk, Piotr</a> (ed.). SOCIETAL CHANGE AND IDEOLOGICAL FORMATION AMONG THE RURAL POPULATION OF THE BALTIC AREA 1880-1939 (History). <a href="/wiki/Flemingsberg" title="Flemingsberg">Flemingsberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huddinge_Municipality" title="Huddinge Municipality">Huddinge municipality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_County" title="Stockholm County">Stockholm county</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">KINGDOM OF SWEDEN</a>: <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6dert%C3%B6rn_University" title="Södertörn University">Södertörns högskola</a>. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-85139-11-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-85139-11-8"><bdi>978-91-85139-11-8</bdi></a>. <q>The fact that the Polish term obywatel ("citizen") could be used as a synonym for gentry landlords until the second half of the 19th century shows how strong this concept was within Polish culture.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Citizenship+and+National+Identity%3A+the+Peasants+of+Galicia+during+the+19th+Century&rft.btitle=SOCIETAL+CHANGE+AND+IDEOLOGICAL+FORMATION+AMONG+THE+RURAL+POPULATION+OF+THE+BALTIC+AREA+1880-1939&rft.place=Flemingsberg%2C+Huddinge+municipality%2C+Stockholm+county%2C+KINGDOM+OF+SWEDEN&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=S%C3%B6dert%C3%B6rns+h%C3%B6gskola&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-91-85139-11-8&rft.aulast=Struve&rft.aufirst=Kai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.diva-portal.org%2Fsmash%2Fget%2Fdiva2%3A214737%2FFULLTEXT01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichener1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_A._Michener" title="James A. Michener">Michener, James Albert</a> (1983). <a href="/wiki/Poland_(novel)" title="Poland (novel)">POLAND</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>; New York City, NEW YORK, U.S.A. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-53189-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-53189-2"><bdi>0-394-53189-2</bdi></a>. <q>Minor nobility: Linguistically, this category causes trouble. Some Polish writers refer to 'gentry', which doesn't quite sound right in English. Whereas some European writers use the term 'petty nobility' [analogously to <a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">Petite bourgeoisie</a>], but the adjective has unfortunate connotations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND&rft.pub=Random+House%3B+New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-394-53189-2&rft.aulast=Michener&rft.aufirst=James+Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Norman</a> (1982). GOD'S PLAYGROUND: A HISTORY OF POLAND, VOLUME I - THE ORIGINS TO 1795. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-05351-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-05351-7"><bdi>0-231-05351-7</bdi></a>. <q>For the sake of precision therefore, it is essential that szlachta should be translated as 'Nobility', szlachcic as 'nobleman', and stan szlachecki as 'the noble estate'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GOD%27S+PLAYGROUND%3A+A+HISTORY+OF+POLAND%2C+VOLUME+I+-+THE+ORIGINS+TO+1795&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-231-05351-7&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zamoyski-warrior-caste-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-warrior-caste_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-warrior-caste_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-warrior-caste_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-warrior-caste_26-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-warrior-caste_26-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-warrior-caste_26-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamoyski1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Zamoyski" title="Adam Zamoyski">Zamoyski, Adam</a> (1998) [1987]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/55">The Polish Way: A Thousand-year history of the Poles and their culture</a> (Fourth Printing ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Hippocrene_Books" title="Hippocrene Books">Hippocrene Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/55">55</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8"><bdi>0-7818-0200-8</bdi></a>. <q>A more apt analogy might perhaps be made with the <a href="/wiki/Rajput" title="Rajput">Rajputs</a> of northern India. ... unlike any other gentry in Europe, the szlachta was not limited by nor did it depend for its status on either wealth, or land, or royal writ. It was defined by its function, that of a warrior caste.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish+Way%3A+A+Thousand-year+history+of+the+Poles+and+their+culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=55&rft.edition=Fourth+Printing&rft.pub=Hippocrene+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7818-0200-8&rft.aulast=Zamoyski&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolishwaythousan00zamo%2Fpage%2F55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamoyski1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Zamoyski" title="Adam Zamoyski">Zamoyski, Adam</a> (1998) [1987]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/57">The Polish Way: A Thousand-year history of the Poles and their culture</a> (Fourth Printing ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Hippocrene_Books" title="Hippocrene Books">Hippocrene Books</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/57">57–58</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8"><bdi>0-7818-0200-8</bdi></a>. <q>While land provided the majority with a livelihood, it was not the only or even the predominant source of wealth for the magnates, whose estates were not large by the standards of the barons of England or the great lords of France. ... The magnates only started accumulating property on a large scale at the beginning of the fifteenth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish+Way%3A+A+Thousand-year+history+of+the+Poles+and+their+culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=57-58&rft.edition=Fourth+Printing&rft.pub=Hippocrene+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7818-0200-8&rft.aulast=Zamoyski&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolishwaythousan00zamo%2Fpage%2F57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichener1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_A._Michener" title="James A. Michener">Michener, James Albert</a> (1983). <a href="/wiki/Poland_(novel)" title="Poland (novel)">POLAND</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>; New York City. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-53189-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-53189-2"><bdi>0-394-53189-2</bdi></a>. <q>Minor nobility: ... The category includes men almost rich and powerful enough to be magnates, and all intervening levels down to the roving rascal with no castle, no money, no village, no peasants, one horse and pride unbounded.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND&rft.pub=Random+House%3B+New+York+City&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-394-53189-2&rft.aulast=Michener&rft.aufirst=James+Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-poor-29"><a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-poor_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss_(of_Durham)1835" class="citation book cs1">Ross (of Durham), M. (1835). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fqxDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51">"A Descriptive View of Poland: Character, Manners, and Customs of the Poles"</a>. A history of Poland from its foundation as a state to the present time; including a full account of the recent patriotic struggle to re-establish its independence. To which is prefixed, a descriptive view of the country, its natural history, cities and towns, and the manners and customs of its inhabitants. Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Pattison and Ross. p. 51. <q>At least 60,000 families belong to this class [szlachta], of which, however, only about 100 are wealthy; all the rest are poor.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Descriptive+View+of+Poland%3A+Character%2C+Manners%2C+and+Customs+of+the+Poles&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Poland+from+its+foundation+as+a+state+to+the+present+time%3B+including+a+full+account+of+the+recent+patriotic+struggle+to+re-establish+its+independence.+To+which+is+prefixed%2C+a+descriptive+view+of+the+country%2C+its+natural+history%2C+cities+and+towns%2C+and+the+manners+and+customs+of+its+inhabitants&rft.place=Newcastle+upon+Tyne%2C+England&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Pattison+and+Ross&rft.date=1835&rft.aulast=Ross+%28of+Durham%29&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfqxDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-rule-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-rule_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-rule_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bruce_Boswell" class="extiw" title="pl:Alexander Bruce Boswell">Boswell, Alexander Bruce</a> [in Polish] (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loBDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA66">POLAND AND THE POLES</a> (GOOGLE EBOOK). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NEW YORK</a>, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/Dodd,_Mead_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd, Mead and Company">Dodd, Mead and Company</a>. pp. 66–67. <q>But the Parliament was at best a clumsy body, as the deputies were not free agents, but were bound by their mandates from the real sovereign bodies, the local Diets or Sejmiki. The representative of a Sejmik had the right of vetoing all legislation in the Sejm, since he spoke for a whole province or tribe.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND+AND+THE+POLES&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=66-67&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+and+Company&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DloBDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-reject-titles-of-nobility-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-reject-titles-of-nobility_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-reject-titles-of-nobility_31-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkwarczyński1956" class="citation journal cs1">Skwarczyński, Paweł (June 1956). "The Problem of Feudalism in Poland up to the Beginning of the 16th Century". <a href="/wiki/The_Slavonic_and_East_European_Review" title="The Slavonic and East European Review">The Slavonic and East European Review</a>. 34 (83). Salisbury House, Station Road, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridgeshire" title="Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire county</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">ENGLAND</a>: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Humanities_Research_Association" title="Modern Humanities Research Association">Modern Humanities Research Association</a>: 302. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4204744">4204744</a>. <q>In 1459 <a href="/wiki/Ostror%C3%B3g_family" title="Ostroróg family">Ostroróg</a> submitted a memorandum to the parliament (sejm), suggesting that the <a href="/wiki/Voivodes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Voivodes of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">palatines, or provincial governors</a>, should be given the title of prince and their sons the titles of barons and counts. The title of count was suggested by him for a <a href="/wiki/Castellans_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Castellans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">castellanus</a>. But all these suggestions were not accepted. The composition of the king's council provides another distinction between the system in Poland and regular feudal systems elsewhere.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Feudalism+in+Poland+up+to+the+Beginning+of+the+16th+Century&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=83&rft.pages=302&rft.date=1956-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4204744%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Skwarczy%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Pawe%C5%82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-roman-republicanism-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-roman-republicanism_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-roman-republicanism_32-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bruce_Boswell" class="extiw" title="pl:Alexander Bruce Boswell">Boswell, Alexander Bruce</a> [in Polish] (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loBDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA47">POLAND AND THE POLES</a> (GOOGLE EBOOK). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NEW YORK</a>, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/Dodd,_Mead_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd, Mead and Company">Dodd, Mead and Company</a>. p. 47. <q>... through all modern Polish history it was Roman republicanism that formed the ideal of the republican gentry. The Roman precedent was even quoted to justify serfdom, which was a modified form of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Roman slavery</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND+AND+THE+POLES&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+and+Company&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DloBDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-roman-empire-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-roman-empire_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roman-empire_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roman-empire_33-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roman-empire_33-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesDawsonJasiewiczKondracki2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Ivor Norman Richard</a>; Dawson, Andrew Hutchinson; <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krzysztof_Jasiewicz" class="extiw" title="pl:Krzysztof Jasiewicz">Jasiewicz, Krzysztof</a> [in Polish]; <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerzy_Kondracki" class="extiw" title="pl:Jerzy Kondracki">Kondracki, Jerzy Aleksander</a> [in Polish]; <a href="/wiki/Piotr_S._Wandycz" title="Piotr S. Wandycz">Wandycz, Piotr Stefan</a> (2 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland/The-Commonwealth">"Poland"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. p. 15. Retrieved 4 June 2017. <q>Throughout most of Europe the medieval system of <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">estates</a> evolved into <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutism</a>, but in the Commonwealth it led to a szlachta democracy inspired by the ideals of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>, to which parallels were constantly drawn.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poland&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=15&rft.date=2017-06-02&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Ivor+Norman+Richard&rft.au=Dawson%2C+Andrew+Hutchinson&rft.au=Jasiewicz%2C+Krzysztof&rft.au=Kondracki%2C+Jerzy+Aleksander&rft.au=Wandycz%2C+Piotr+Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FPoland%2FThe-Commonwealth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-dictate-like-roman-senate-34"><a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-dictate-like-roman-senate_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bruce_Boswell" class="extiw" title="pl:Alexander Bruce Boswell">Boswell, Alexander Bruce</a> [in Polish] (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loBDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA47">POLAND AND THE POLES</a> (GOOGLE EBOOK). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NEW YORK</a>, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/Dodd,_Mead_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd, Mead and Company">Dodd, Mead and Company</a>. p. 67. <q>Poland was the great power of East Central Europe, and the <a href="/wiki/Sejm_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish Sejm</a> dictated to the <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">East</a> as despotically as the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> itself.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND+AND+THE+POLES&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+and+Company&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DloBDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-okolski-ancient-romans-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-okolski-ancient-romans_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-okolski-ancient-romans_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-okolski-ancient-romans_35-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilewska-Waźbińska2013" class="citation journal cs1">Milewska-Waźbińska, Barbara (2013). Sosnowski, Miłosz (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170608095553/http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-47ad7632-fb82-47ff-a88d-3ebf4845ea16">"Latin as the Language of Social Communication of the Polish Nobility (Based on the Latin Heraldic Work by Szymon Okolski)"</a>. The Central European Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>: <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B3rnik_Library" title="Kórnik Library">Kórnik Library</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Polish Academy of Sciences">Polish Academy of Sciences</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-47ad7632-fb82-47ff-a88d-3ebf4845ea16">the original</a> on 8 June 2017. Retrieved 8 June 2017. <q>The article highlights the role of Latin as the language of communication of the nobility living in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the beginning discusses the concept 'latinitas', which meant not only the correct Latin, but also pointed to the ideological content of antiquity passed through the language of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Romans</a>. ... We studied Latin armorial 'Orbis Polonus' by <a href="/wiki/Szymon_Okolski" title="Szymon Okolski">Simon Okolski</a> (Cracow 1641-1645). ... It concludes that Okolski consciously wrote his work in the language of the ancient Romans.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Central+European+Journal+of+Social+Sciences+and+Humanities&rft.atitle=Latin+as+the+Language+of+Social+Communication+of+the+Polish+Nobility+%28Based+on+the+Latin+Heraldic+Work+by+Szymon+Okolski%29&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Milewska-Wa%C5%BAbi%C5%84ska&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcejsh.icm.edu.pl%2Fcejsh%2Felement%2Fbwmeta1.element.desklight-47ad7632-fb82-47ff-a88d-3ebf4845ea16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-races-old-world--caste-36"><a href="#cite_ref-races-old-world--caste_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuttonBagehot1864" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Holt_Hutton" title="Richard Holt Hutton">Hutton, Richard Holt</a>; <a href="/wiki/Walter_Bagehot" title="Walter Bagehot">Bagehot, Walter</a> (January 1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4u4RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA484">"The Races of the Old World"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Review_(1855)" title="National Review (1855)">National Review</a>. London, England: Robson and Levey: 484. Retrieved 9 Oct 2014. <q>.... there we find an exact counterpart of Polish society: the dominant settlers establishing themselves as an upper caste, all politically equal among themselves, and holding the lands (or more frequently, simply drawing the rents) of the country.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Review&rft.atitle=The+Races+of+the+Old+World&rft.pages=484&rft.date=1864-01&rft.aulast=Hutton&rft.aufirst=Richard+Holt&rft.au=Bagehot%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4u4RAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szacki--caste--1995-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szacki--caste--1995_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szacki--caste--1995_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szacki--caste--1995_37-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzacki1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Szacki" title="Jerzy Szacki">Szacki, Jerzy Ryszard</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gU6_JbBHkXoC&pg=PA46">LIBERALISM AFTER COMMUNISM</a>. Budapest, Central Hungary region, HUNGARY, EU: <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>. pp. 45–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781858660165" title="Special:BookSources/9781858660165"><bdi>9781858660165</bdi></a>. <q><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tochowski" title="Aleksander Świętochowski">Aleksander Świętochowski</a>, on the other hand, wrote as follows: 'If from the deeds of the Polish nobility we took away excesses and the exclusiveness of caste, ...'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LIBERALISM+AFTER+COMMUNISM&rft.place=Budapest%2C+Central+Hungary+region%2C+HUNGARY%2C+EU&rft.pages=45-46&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9781858660165&rft.aulast=Szacki&rft.aufirst=Jerzy+Ryszard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgU6_JbBHkXoC%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-rights-embodied-in-republic-38"><a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-rights-embodied-in-republic_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesDawsonJasiewiczKondracki2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Ivor Norman Richard</a>; Dawson, Andrew Hutchinson; <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krzysztof_Jasiewicz" class="extiw" title="pl:Krzysztof Jasiewicz">Jasiewicz, Krzysztof</a> [in Polish]; <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerzy_Kondracki" class="extiw" title="pl:Jerzy Kondracki">Kondracki, Jerzy Aleksander</a> [in Polish]; <a href="/wiki/Piotr_S._Wandycz" title="Piotr S. Wandycz">Wandycz, Piotr Stefan</a> (2 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland/The-Commonwealth">"Poland"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. p. 15. Retrieved 24 April 2021. <q>The Commonwealth gradually came to be dominated by the szlachta, which regarded the state as an embodiment of its rights and privileges.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poland&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=15&rft.date=2017-06-02&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Ivor+Norman+Richard&rft.au=Dawson%2C+Andrew+Hutchinson&rft.au=Jasiewicz%2C+Krzysztof&rft.au=Kondracki%2C+Jerzy+Aleksander&rft.au=Wandycz%2C+Piotr+Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FPoland%2FThe-Commonwealth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jolanta_Sikorska-Kulesza" title="Jolanta Sikorska-Kulesza">Jolanta Sikorska-Kulesza</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://otworzksiazke.pl/images/ksiazki/deklasacja_drobnej_szlachty_na_litwie_i_bialorusi_w_XIX_wieku/deklasacja_drobnej_szlachty_na_litwie_i_bialorusi_w_XIX_wieku.pdf">Deklasacja drobnej szlachty na Litwie i Białorusi w XIX wieku</a> Warsaw, Oficyna Wydawnicza "Ajaks". 1995. p.14. [accessed 2018-11-2]. This monograph describes how during the 19th century the mass of "local" szlachta in the western borderlands of the Russian Empire were subjected to downward mobility and rank poverty through tsarist bureaucracy and a policy of social degradation </li> <li id="cite_note-colin-40"><a href="#cite_ref-colin_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKidd1999" class="citation book cs1">Kidd, Colin (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lz0JwL5jHCgC&q=Cursed+Ham+szlachta&pg=PA29">British identities before nationalism: ethnicity and nationhood in the Atlantic world, 1600–1800</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62403-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62403-9"><bdi>978-0-521-62403-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+identities+before+nationalism%3A+ethnicity+and+nationhood+in+the+Atlantic+world%2C+1600%E2%80%931800&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62403-9&rft.aulast=Kidd&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlz0JwL5jHCgC%26q%3DCursed%2BHam%2Bszlachta%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-davies1-41"><a href="#cite_ref-davies1_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1982" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Norman (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=07vm4vmWPqsC&q=szlachta+davies+clouded+mystery&pg=PA161">God's Playground: A History of Poland; Volume I: The Origins to 1795</a>. Columbia University Press. pp. 161–163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-05351-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-05351-8"><bdi>978-0-231-05351-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2010-09-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Playground%3A+A+History+of+Poland%3B+Volume+I%3A+The+Origins+to+1795&rft.pages=161-163&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-231-05351-8&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D07vm4vmWPqsC%26q%3Dszlachta%2Bdavies%2Bclouded%2Bmystery%26pg%3DPA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bondage_to_the_dead:_Poland_and_the_memory_of_the_Holocaust-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Bondage_to_the_dead:_Poland_and_the_memory_of_the_Holocaust_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinlauf1997" class="citation book cs1">Steinlauf, Michael C. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NQkFY9Uj7ZgC&q=szlachta+japet+ham&pg=PA5">Bondage to the dead: Poland and the memory of the Holocaust</a>. Syracuse University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2729-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2729-6"><bdi>978-0-8156-2729-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bondage+to+the+dead%3A+Poland+and+the+memory+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-2729-6&rft.aulast=Steinlauf&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNQkFY9Uj7ZgC%26q%3Dszlachta%2Bjapet%2Bham%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sarmatians--sulimirski-43"><a href="#cite_ref-sarmatians--sulimirski_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSulimirski1964" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Sulimirski" title="Tadeusz Sulimirski">Sulimirski, Tadeusz</a> (Winter 1964). "Sarmatians in the Polish Past". <a href="/wiki/The_Polish_Review" title="The Polish Review">The Polish Review</a>. 9 (1). Champaign, Champaign county, ILLINOIS, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Institute_of_Arts_and_Sciences_of_America" title="Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America">Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America</a>: 13–66. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25776522">25776522</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Polish+Review&rft.atitle=Sarmatians+in+the+Polish+Past&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-66&rft.date=1964&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25776522%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sulimirski&rft.aufirst=Tadeusz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiesiecki_S.J.de_Bobrowicz1846" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Kasper_Niesiecki" title="Kasper Niesiecki">Niesiecki S.J., Kasper</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jan_Nepomucen_Bobrowicz" title="Jan Nepomucen Bobrowicz">de Bobrowicz, Jan Nepomucen</a> (1846) [1728]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JH_RAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA430">HERBARZ POLSKI</a> (online book) (in Polish). Vol. I. (3rd? ed.). Leipzig, Saxony, GERMANY: <a href="/wiki/Breitkopf_%26_H%C3%A4rtel" title="Breitkopf & Härtel">Breitkopf & Härtel</a>. p. 430. Retrieved 13 Oct 2014. <q>Miano Szlachty, pochodzi od Lechitów (The name of the nobility, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Lechites" title="Lechites">Lechites</a>).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=HERBARZ+POLSKI&rft.place=Leipzig%2C+Saxony%2C+GERMANY&rft.pages=430&rft.edition=3rd%3F&rft.pub=Breitkopf+%26+H%C3%A4rtel&rft.date=1846&rft.aulast=Niesiecki+S.J.&rft.aufirst=Kasper&rft.au=de+Bobrowicz%2C+Jan+Nepomucen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJH_RAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA430&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLukas2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Lukas" title="Richard C. Lukas">Lukas, Richard C.</a> (1 July 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.projectinposterum.org/docs/lucas2.htm">"Chapter IV. Germanization; Part I"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/didchildrencryhi0000luka">Did the children cry? Hitler's war against Jewish and Polish children, 1939-1945</a> (Online excerpt from book). New York: <a href="/wiki/Hippocrene_Books" title="Hippocrene Books">Hippocrene Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0781808705" title="Special:BookSources/978-0781808705"><bdi>978-0781808705</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 August 2018. <q>The same bizarre logic was applied to the Polish intelligentsia, who led the Polish resistance movement. To the Nazis, these leaders were largely <a href="/wiki/Master_race" title="Master race">Nordic</a> which enabled them 'To be active in contrast to the fatalistic Slavonic elements.' The implication was obvious: If the Polish elite were re-Germanized, then the mass of Polish people would be denied a dynamic leadership class.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+IV.+Germanization%3B+Part+I&rft.btitle=Did+the+children+cry%3F+Hitler%27s+war+against+Jewish+and+Polish+children%2C+1939-1945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hippocrene+Books&rft.date=2001-07-01&rft.isbn=978-0781808705&rft.aulast=Lukas&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.projectinposterum.org%2Fdocs%2Flucas2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiesiecki_S.J.de_Bobrowicz1846" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Kasper_Niesiecki" title="Kasper Niesiecki">Niesiecki S.J., Kasper</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jan_Nepomucen_Bobrowicz" title="Jan Nepomucen Bobrowicz">de Bobrowicz, Jan Nepomucen</a> (1846) [1728]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JH_RAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA430">HERBARZ POLSKI</a> (online book) (in Polish). Vol. I. (3rd? ed.). Leipzig, Saxony, GERMANY: <a href="/wiki/Breitkopf_%26_H%C3%A4rtel" title="Breitkopf & Härtel">Breitkopf & Härtel</a>. p. 430. Retrieved 13 Oct 2014. <q>Kmiecie czyli lud pospolity wolny (Kmiecie is the common free people), ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=HERBARZ+POLSKI&rft.place=Leipzig%2C+Saxony%2C+GERMANY&rft.pages=430&rft.edition=3rd%3F&rft.pub=Breitkopf+%26+H%C3%A4rtel&rft.date=1846&rft.aulast=Niesiecki+S.J.&rft.aufirst=Kasper&rft.au=de+Bobrowicz%2C+Jan+Nepomucen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJH_RAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA430&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kmiecie--guzowski-47"><a href="#cite_ref-kmiecie--guzowski_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuzowski2014" class="citation journal cs1">Guzowski, Piotr (1 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7481437">"Village court records and peasant credit in fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Poland"</a>. Continuity and Change. 29 (1). Cambridge, East of England, ENGLAND, UNITED KINGDOM: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: 118. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0268416014000101">10.1017/S0268416014000101</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145766720">145766720</a>. Retrieved 9 Oct 2014. <q>The most important and the most numerous section of the peasantry in late medieval and early modern Poland was the kmiecie (Latin: cmethones), full peasant holders of hereditary farms with an average size in the region under study of half a mansus, which was equivalent to eight <a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">hectares</a>. Farms belonging to kmiecie were largely self-sufficient, although some of them were, to varying extents, engaged in production for the market. Other, less numerous, sections of the peasantry were the zagrodnicy (Latin: ortulani), or smallholders, and the ogrodnicy, or cottagers, who farmed small plots of land. These two categories of peasants were not able to support themselves and their families from their land, so they earned extra money as hired labourers on their landlords' land, or that of the kmiecie. Apart from the holders of large or small farms, Polish villages were also inhabited by so-called komornicy, landless lodgers who earned wages locally. This group included village craftsmen, while the wealthiest kmiecie included millers and innkeepers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Continuity+and+Change&rft.atitle=Village+court+records+and+peasant+credit+in+fifteenth-+and+sixteenth-century+Poland&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=118&rft.date=2014-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0268416014000101&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145766720%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Guzowski&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7481437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuligowski2017" class="citation web cs1">Kuligowski, Waldemar Tadeusz (2 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200406222122/http://czaskultury.pl/en/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/WKuligowski_AHistoryOfPolishSerfdom_CzasKultury_3_2016.pdf">"A History of Polish Serfdom. Theses and Antitheses"</a> (PDF). Czas Kultury. p. 116. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://czaskultury.pl/en/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/WKuligowski_AHistoryOfPolishSerfdom_CzasKultury_3_2016.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 April 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020. <q>In Poland two, near-nations appeared – nobles and peasants, and between them there was a Jewish wall.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Czas+Kultury&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Polish+Serfdom.+Theses+and+Antitheses&rft.pages=116&rft.date=2017-02-02&rft.aulast=Kuligowski&rft.aufirst=Waldemar+Tadeusz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fczaskultury.pl%2Fen%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F02%2FWKuligowski_AHistoryOfPolishSerfdom_CzasKultury_3_2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJastrzębiec-Czajkowski" class="citation web cs1">Jastrzębiec-Czajkowski, Leszek Jan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305045021/http://www.ornatowski.com/lib/zhistoriiszlachty.htm">"Niektóre dane z historii slachty i herbu"</a>. Ornatowski.com. Artur Ornatowski. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ornatowski.com/lib/zhistoriiszlachty.htm">the original</a> on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 9 Oct 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ornatowski.com&rft.atitle=Niekt%C3%B3re+dane+z+historii+slachty+i+herbu&rft.aulast=Jastrz%C4%99biec-Czajkowski&rft.aufirst=Leszek+Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ornatowski.com%2Flib%2Fzhistoriiszlachty.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDmowski1917" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski, Roman Stanisław</a> (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RussianRealitiesAndProblems">"Poland, Old And New"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/James_Duff_Duff" title="James Duff Duff">Duff, James Duff</a> (ed.). RUSSIAN REALITIES & PROBLEMS. Cambridge, East of England, ENGLAND, UNITED KINGDOM: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 91. <q>The population consists of free <a href="/wiki/Husbandman" title="Husbandman">husbandmen</a> and slaves. Above them there is a class of warriors, very strong numerically, from which the ruler chooses his officials.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poland%2C+Old+And+New&rft.btitle=RUSSIAN+REALITIES+%26+PROBLEMS&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+East+of+England%2C+ENGLAND%2C+UNITED+KINGDOM&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Dmowski&rft.aufirst=Roman+Stanis%C5%82aw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FRussianRealitiesAndProblems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-peasants-not-want-polish-state-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-peasants-not-want-polish-state_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-peasants-not-want-polish-state_51-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStruve2008" class="citation book cs1">Struve, Kai (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:214737/FULLTEXT01.pdf">"Citizenship and National Identity: the Peasants of Galicia during the 19th Century"</a> (PDF). In <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Wawrzeniuk" title="Piotr Wawrzeniuk">Wawrzeniuk, Piotr</a> (ed.). SOCIETAL CHANGE AND IDEOLOGICAL FORMATION AMONG THE RURAL POPULATION OF THE BALTIC AREA 1880-1939 (History). <a href="/wiki/Flemingsberg" title="Flemingsberg">Flemingsberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huddinge_Municipality" title="Huddinge Municipality">Huddinge municipality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_County" title="Stockholm County">Stockholm county</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">KINGDOM OF SWEDEN</a>: <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6dert%C3%B6rn_University" title="Södertörn University">Södertörns högskola</a>. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-85139-11-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-85139-11-8"><bdi>978-91-85139-11-8</bdi></a>. <q>The peasants feared the reestablishment of a Polish state because they expected it to be the state of their landlords. Their memory of independent Poland, conveyed from one generation to the next, was one of landlord wilfulness and a lack of rights.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Citizenship+and+National+Identity%3A+the+Peasants+of+Galicia+during+the+19th+Century&rft.btitle=SOCIETAL+CHANGE+AND+IDEOLOGICAL+FORMATION+AMONG+THE+RURAL+POPULATION+OF+THE+BALTIC+AREA+1880-1939&rft.place=Flemingsberg%2C+Huddinge+municipality%2C+Stockholm+county%2C+KINGDOM+OF+SWEDEN&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=S%C3%B6dert%C3%B6rns+h%C3%B6gskola&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-91-85139-11-8&rft.aulast=Struve&rft.aufirst=Kai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.diva-portal.org%2Fsmash%2Fget%2Fdiva2%3A214737%2FFULLTEXT01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Norman</a> (1982). <a href="/wiki/God%27s_Playground" title="God's Playground">GOD'S PLAYGROUND: A HISTORY OF POLAND, VOLUME 1: THE ORIGINS TO 1795</a>. New York City, NEW YORK, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. p. 233. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0231053517" title="Special:BookSources/0231053517"><bdi>0231053517</bdi></a>. <q>The nobleman's belief in the exclusive quality of his own estate led to practices which nowadays could only be described as an expression of Racism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GOD%27S+PLAYGROUND%3A+A+HISTORY+OF+POLAND%2C+VOLUME+1%3A+THE+ORIGINS+TO+1795&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=233&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0231053517&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJastrzębiec-Czajkowski" class="citation web cs1">Jastrzębiec-Czajkowski, Leszek Jan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305045021/http://www.ornatowski.com/lib/zhistoriiszlachty.htm">"Niektóre dane z historii slachty i herbu"</a>. Ornatowski.com. Warsaw: Artur Ornatowski. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ornatowski.com/lib/zhistoriiszlachty.htm">the original</a> on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2018. <q>Podobnie głosił <a href="/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Potocki" title="Wacław Potocki">Wacław Potocki</a> h. <a href="/wiki/Srzeniawa_coat_of_arms" title="Srzeniawa coat of arms">Śreniawa</a>, że <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%82opi" class="extiw" title="pl:Chłopi">chłopi</a> 'z natury' są 'sprawieni do ziemi i do pługa', że nawet wykształcony chłop zawsze pozostanie chłopem, bo 'niepodobna przerobić psa na rysia'; ... (<a href="/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Potocki" title="Wacław Potocki">Wacław Potocki</a>, herbu <a href="/wiki/Srzeniawa_coat_of_arms" title="Srzeniawa coat of arms">Śreniawa</a>, proclaimed <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%82opi" class="extiw" title="pl:Chłopi">peasants</a> 'by nature' are 'chained to the land and plow,' that even an educated peasant would always remain a peasant, because 'it is impossible to transform a <a href="/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">dog</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Lynx" title="Lynx">lynx</a>.')</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ornatowski.com&rft.atitle=Niekt%C3%B3re+dane+z+historii+slachty+i+herbu&rft.aulast=Jastrz%C4%99biec-Czajkowski&rft.aufirst=Leszek+Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ornatowski.com%2Flib%2Fzhistoriiszlachty.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szlachta-aristocratic-greek-city-state-54"><a href="#cite_ref-szlachta-aristocratic-greek-city-state_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bruce_Boswell" class="extiw" title="pl:Alexander Bruce Boswell">Boswell, Alexander Bruce</a> [in Polish] (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loBDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA66">POLAND AND THE POLES</a> (GOOGLE EBOOK). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NEW YORK</a>, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/Dodd,_Mead_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd, Mead and Company">Dodd, Mead and Company</a>. p. 66. <q>Their ideal was that of a Greek city State—a body of citizens, a small trading class, and a mass of labourers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND+AND+THE+POLES&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+and+Company&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DloBDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1835" class="citation book cs1">Ross, M. (1835). "A Descriptive View of Poland: Character, Manners, and Customs of the Poles". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fqxDAAAAYAAJ">A history of Poland from its foundation as a state to the present time; including a full account of the recent patriotic struggle to re-establish its independence. To which is prefixed, a descriptive view of the country, its natural history, cities and towns, and the manners and customs of its inhabitants</a>. Newcastle upon Tyne: PATTISON AND ROSS. p. 55. <q>The peasants of Poland, as in all feudal countries, were serfs, or slaves; and the value of an estate was not estimated from its extent, but from the number of peasants, who were transferred, like cattle, from one master to another.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Descriptive+View+of+Poland%3A+Character%2C+Manners%2C+and+Customs+of+the+Poles&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Poland+from+its+foundation+as+a+state+to+the+present+time%3B+including+a+full+account+of+the+recent+patriotic+struggle+to+re-establish+its+independence.+To+which+is+prefixed%2C+a+descriptive+view+of+the+country%2C+its+natural+history%2C+cities+and+towns%2C+and+the+manners+and+customs+of+its+inhabitants&rft.place=Newcastle+upon+Tyne&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=PATTISON+AND+ROSS&rft.date=1835&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfqxDAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-topor-jakubowski-clergy-szlachta-exclusive-right-56"><a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski-clergy-szlachta-exclusive-right_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTopór-Jakubowski" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Top%C3%B3r_coat_of_arms" title="Topór coat of arms">Topór</a>-Jakubowski, Theodore. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020704093315/http://www.ststanislas.org/papers/american_nob.htm">"It's Time to End the Myth That Polish Immigrants Were Peasants"</a>. West European Grand Priory, International Order of St Stanislas. Croxteth House, Liverpool, Lancashire county, Merseyside, North West England, ENGLAND, UNITED KINGDOM: Order of St Stanislas. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ststanislas.org/papers/american_nob.htm">the original</a> on 4 July 2002. Retrieved 24 April 2021. <q>I would also like to add, for myself, that the szlachta possessed the exclusive right to enter the clergy up until the time of the three partitions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=West+European+Grand+Priory%2C+International+Order+of+St+Stanislas&rft.atitle=It%27s+Time+to+End+the+Myth+That+Polish+Immigrants+Were+Peasants&rft.aulast=Top%C3%B3r-Jakubowski&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ststanislas.org%2Fpapers%2Famerican_nob.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuligowski2017" class="citation web cs1">Kuligowski, Waldemar Tadeusz (2 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200406222122/http://czaskultury.pl/en/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/WKuligowski_AHistoryOfPolishSerfdom_CzasKultury_3_2016.pdf">"A History of Polish Serfdom. Theses and Antitheses"</a> (PDF). Czas Kultury. <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>. p. 116. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://czaskultury.pl/en/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/WKuligowski_AHistoryOfPolishSerfdom_CzasKultury_3_2016.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 April 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020. <q>To distance itself from the peasants, the nobility (and clergy) cultivated a belief in their genetic superiority over the peasants.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Czas+Kultury&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Polish+Serfdom.+Theses+and+Antitheses&rft.pages=116&rft.date=2017-02-02&rft.aulast=Kuligowski&rft.aufirst=Waldemar+Tadeusz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fczaskultury.pl%2Fen%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F02%2FWKuligowski_AHistoryOfPolishSerfdom_CzasKultury_3_2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuligowski2017" class="citation web cs1">Kuligowski, Waldemar Tadeusz (2 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200406222122/http://czaskultury.pl/en/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/WKuligowski_AHistoryOfPolishSerfdom_CzasKultury_3_2016.pdf">"A History of Polish Serfdom. Theses and Antitheses"</a> (PDF). Czas Kultury. <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>. p. 118. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://czaskultury.pl/en/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/WKuligowski_AHistoryOfPolishSerfdom_CzasKultury_3_2016.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 April 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020. <q>Nobility does not enter, or does so very unwillingly, into marriages with serfs, regarding them as a lower species.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Czas+Kultury&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Polish+Serfdom.+Theses+and+Antitheses&rft.pages=118&rft.date=2017-02-02&rft.aulast=Kuligowski&rft.aufirst=Waldemar+Tadeusz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fczaskultury.pl%2Fen%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F02%2FWKuligowski_AHistoryOfPolishSerfdom_CzasKultury_3_2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_I._Frost" title="Robert I. Frost">Frost, Robert I.</a> (23 June 2011). "Nobility, Citizenship and Corporate Decision-Making in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1454-1795". In <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rn_Leonhard" title="Jörn Leonhard">Leonhard, Jörn</a>; Wieland, Christian (eds.). WHAT MAKES THE NOBILITY NOBLE?: COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES FROM THE SIXTEENTH TO THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a>, <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_(district)" title="Göttingen (district)">Göttingen district</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lower_Saxony" title="Lower Saxony">Lower Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">GERMANY</a>: <a href="/wiki/Vandenhoeck_%26_Ruprecht" title="Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht">Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht</a>. pp. 148–149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3525310410" title="Special:BookSources/978-3525310410"><bdi>978-3525310410</bdi></a>. <q>'The kingdome of Polonia doth also consist of the said three sortes, that is, the king, nobility and people. But it is to be noted, that this word people includeth only knights and gentlemen.' This limitation of political rights to the szlachta, Goślicki argued, meant that the system was more balanced and virtuous since it was based on the best elements of society: ... 'The gentlemen of Polonia doe represent the popular state, for in them consisteth a great part of the government, and they are as a Seminarie from whence Councellors and Kinges are taken.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nobility%2C+Citizenship+and+Corporate+Decision-Making+in+the+Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth%2C+1454-1795&rft.btitle=WHAT+MAKES+THE+NOBILITY+NOBLE%3F%3A+COMPARATIVE+PERSPECTIVES+FROM+THE+SIXTEENTH+TO+THE+TWENTIETH+CENTURY&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen%2C+G%C3%B6ttingen+district%2C+Lower+Saxony%2C+GERMANY&rft.pages=148-149&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=2011-06-23&rft.isbn=978-3525310410&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Robert+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-radwan-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-radwan_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-radwan_60-1">b</a> <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janusz_Bieniak" class="extiw" title="pl:Janusz Bieniak">Janusz Bieniak</a>, "Knight Clans in Medieval Poland," in <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoni_G%C4%85siorowski_(ur._1932)" class="extiw" title="pl:Antoni Gąsiorowski (ur. 1932)">Antoni Gąsiorowski</a> (ed.), THE POLISH NOBILITY IN THE MIDDLE AGES: ANTHOLOGIES, <a href="/wiki/Ossolineum" title="Ossolineum">Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich</a>; Wrocław, POLAND, EU; 1984, page 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-radwan-family-line-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-radwan-family-line_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-radwan-family-line_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-radwan-family-line_61-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-radwan-family-line_61-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkolski1643" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Szymon_Okolski" title="Szymon Okolski">Okolski, Szymon</a> (1643). "RADWAN alias WIRBOW.". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20170608065310/https://books.google.nl/books?id=eKBMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA564&redir_esc=y%23v=onepage&q&f=false">Orbis Polonus</a> (in Latin). Vol. II. <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>: Franciscus Caesarius. p. 564. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eKBMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA564">the original</a> on 8 June 2017. Retrieved 8 June 2017. <q>LINEA FAMILIAE RADWAN</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=RADWAN+alias+WIRBOW.&rft.btitle=Orbis+Polonus&rft.place=Krak%C3%B3w&rft.pages=564&rft.pub=Franciscus+Caesarius&rft.date=1643&rft.aulast=Okolski&rft.aufirst=Szymon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeKBMAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobbes1651" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes, Thomas</a> (1651). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/3207/3207-h/3207-h.htm">"Chapter X. Of Power, Worth, Dignity, Honour and Worthiness; To Honour and Dishonour"</a> (website). LEVIATHAN (Online eBook). <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Crooke_and_William_Cooke" title="Andrew Crooke and William Cooke">Andrew Crooke's</a> Shop, Sign of the Green Dragon, <a href="/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral" title="St Paul's Cathedral">St Paul's Cathedral</a> Churchyard, <a href="/wiki/Ludgate_Hill" title="Ludgate Hill">Ludgate Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">ENGLAND</a>: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Crooke_and_William_Cooke" title="Andrew Crooke and William Cooke">ANDREW CROOKE</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20131117220000/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/3207/3207-h/3207-h.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-11-17. Retrieved 17 August 2018. <q>Scutchions, and coats of Armes haereditary, where they have any eminent Priviledges, are Honourable; otherwise not: for their Power consisteth either in such Priviledges, or in Riches, or some such thing as is equally honoured in other men. This kind of Honour, commonly called Gentry, has been derived from the Antient Germans. For there never was any such thing known, where the German Customes were unknown. Nor is it now any where in use, where the Germans have not inhabited.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+X.+Of+Power%2C+Worth%2C+Dignity%2C+Honour+and+Worthiness%3B+To+Honour+and+Dishonour&rft.btitle=LEVIATHAN&rft.place=Andrew+Crooke%27s+Shop%2C+Sign+of+the+Green+Dragon%2C+St+Paul%27s+Cathedral+Churchyard%2C+Ludgate+Hill%2C+London%2C+ENGLAND&rft.pub=ANDREW+CROOKE&rft.date=1651&rft.aulast=Hobbes&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F3207%2F3207-h%2F3207-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJelinska-Marchal1988" class="citation book cs1">Jelinska-Marchal, D. (1988). Judycki, Z. (ed.). THE POLISH ARMORIAL POLANAIS. <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry" title="Château-Thierry">Château-Thierry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aisne" title="Aisne">Aisne department</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hauts-de-France" title="Hauts-de-France">Hauts-de-France region</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">FRANCE</a>: Albi Corvi. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2907771009" title="Special:BookSources/978-2907771009"><bdi>978-2907771009</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=THE+POLISH+ARMORIAL+POLANAIS&rft.place=Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry%2C+Aisne+department%2C+Hauts-de-France+region%2C+FRANCE&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Albi+Corvi&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-2907771009&rft.aulast=Jelinska-Marchal&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zamoyski-whole-clans-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-whole-clans_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zamoyski-whole-clans_64-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamoyski1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Zamoyski" title="Adam Zamoyski">Zamoyski, Adam</a> (1998) [1987]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/55">The Polish Way: A Thousand-year history of the Poles and their culture</a> (Fourth Printing ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Hippocrene_Books" title="Hippocrene Books">Hippocrene Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/55">55</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8"><bdi>0-7818-0200-8</bdi></a>. <q>Polish coats of arms are utterly unlike those of European chivalry, and were held in common by whole clans which fought as regiments.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish+Way%3A+A+Thousand-year+history+of+the+Poles+and+their+culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=55&rft.edition=Fourth+Printing&rft.pub=Hippocrene+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7818-0200-8&rft.aulast=Zamoyski&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolishwaythousan00zamo%2Fpage%2F55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-topor-jakubowski--1998-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--1998_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--1998_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski--1998_65-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJakubowski1998" class="citation magazine cs1">Jakubowski, Theodore (Spring–Summer 1998). Suligowski, Leonard Joseph (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pnaf.us/pdfs/white-eagle-spring-summer-1998.pdf">"15th-Century Polish Nobility in the 21st Century"</a> (PDF). White Eagle: Journal of the Polish Nobility Association Foundation. Baltimore, MD. p. 9. <q>Membership in the Polish szlachta was hereditary. ... (and the family knighthood, rycerstwo, in itself) ... The paramount principle regarding Polish nobility is that it was hereditary. ... one Rudolf Lambert had successfully proven his right to hereditary knighthood (szlachectwo) ... He [Nikodem Tadeusz] was also Marshal of the Knighthood (using the word rycerz and not szlachcic ...)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=White+Eagle%3A+Journal+of+the+Polish+Nobility+Association+Foundation&rft.atitle=15th-Century+Polish+Nobility+in+the+21st+Century&rft.chron=spring%E2%80%93summer&rft.pages=9&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Jakubowski&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpnaf.us%2Fpdfs%2Fwhite-eagle-spring-summer-1998.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bardach202627-66"><a href="#cite_ref-bardach202627_66-0">^</a> Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987), p.20, 26-27 </li> <li id="cite_note-dmowski-magnates-szlachta-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dmowski-magnates-szlachta_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dmowski-magnates-szlachta_67-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDmowski1917" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski, Roman Stanisław</a> (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RussianRealitiesAndProblems">"Poland, Old And New"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/James_Duff_Duff" title="James Duff Duff">Duff, James Duff</a> (ed.). RUSSIAN REALITIES & PROBLEMS. Cambridge, East of England, ENGLAND, UNITED KINGDOM: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 94. <q>But between the gentry and the magnates there was only a difference of wealth and culture. Both belonged directly to the same class of the community, both were members of the same clans, and the gentry by its social character was destined rather to co-operate with the magnates than to struggle against them. And, as both those elements occupied the same legal position, the power wrested from the king by the magnates became legally an acquisition of the whole of the nobility, ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poland%2C+Old+And+New&rft.btitle=RUSSIAN+REALITIES+%26+PROBLEMS&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+East+of+England%2C+ENGLAND%2C+UNITED+KINGDOM&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Dmowski&rft.aufirst=Roman+Stanis%C5%82aw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FRussianRealitiesAndProblems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiaupienė2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/J%C5%ABrat%C4%97_Kiaupien%C4%97" title="Jūratė Kiaupienė">Kiaupienė, Jūratė</a> (2003). "Mes, Lietuva": Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės bajorija XVI a. ["We the Lithuania": nobility of Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 16th c.] (in Lithuanian). Kronta. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9955-595-08-6" title="Special:BookSources/9955-595-08-6"><bdi>9955-595-08-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Mes%2C+Lietuva%22%3A+Lietuvos+Did%C5%BEiosios+Kunigaik%C5%A1tyst%C4%97s+bajorija+XVI+a.&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Kronta&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9955-595-08-6&rft.aulast=Kiaupien%C4%97&rft.aufirst=J%C5%ABrat%C4%97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ochmański-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Ochmański_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOchmański1986" class="citation book cs1">Ochmański, Jerzy (1986). The National Idea in Lithuania from the 16th to the First Half of the 19th Century: The Problem of Cultural-Linguistic Differentiation. Poznań: Mickiewicz University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+National+Idea+in+Lithuania+from+the+16th+to+the+First+Half+of+the+19th+Century%3A+The+Problem+of+Cultural-Linguistic+Differentiation&rft.place=Pozna%C5%84&rft.pub=Mickiewicz+University&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Ochma%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Jerzy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hoffman--william-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hoffman--william_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hoffman--william_70-1">b</a> William F. Hoffman, "POLISH SURNAMES: ORIGINS AND MEANINGS" (Chicago, Cook county, ILLINOIS, U.S.A.: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pgsa.org/">POLISH GENEALOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA</a>, 1993). </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDmowski1917" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski, Roman Stanisław</a> (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RussianRealitiesAndProblems">"Poland, Old And New"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/James_Duff_Duff" title="James Duff Duff">Duff, James Duff</a> (ed.). RUSSIAN REALITIES & PROBLEMS. Cambridge, East of England, ENGLAND, UNITED KINGDOM: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 91. <q>The Polish nobility, which sprang from this military class and which derived its family names from its landed properties (in the fifteenth century), ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poland%2C+Old+And+New&rft.btitle=RUSSIAN+REALITIES+%26+PROBLEMS&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+East+of+England%2C+ENGLAND%2C+UNITED+KINGDOM&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Dmowski&rft.aufirst=Roman+Stanis%C5%82aw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FRussianRealitiesAndProblems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bruce_Boswell" class="extiw" title="pl:Alexander Bruce Boswell">Boswell, Alexander Bruce</a> [in Polish] (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loBDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109">POLAND AND THE POLES</a> (GOOGLE EBOOK). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NEW YORK</a>, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/Dodd,_Mead_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd, Mead and Company">Dodd, Mead and Company</a>. p. 109. <q>Later on each family began to take the name of some village or town, with the addition of -ski, which is the Polish equivalent for the French de or German von.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND+AND+THE+POLES&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+and+Company&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DloBDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFks._Dariusz_Pater2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">ks. Dariusz Pater (2010). Kapliczki Matki Bożej w Ziemi Przysuskiej znakiem pobożności maryjnej (in Polish). KONTRAST. pp. 214–216. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-930803-0-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-930803-0-4"><bdi>978-83-930803-0-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kapliczki+Matki+Bo%C5%BCej+w+Ziemi+Przysuskiej+znakiem+pobo%C5%BCno%C5%9Bci+maryjnej.&rft.pages=214-216&rft.pub=KONTRAST&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-83-930803-0-4&rft.au=ks.+Dariusz+Pater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bruce_Boswell" class="extiw" title="pl:Alexander Bruce Boswell">Boswell, Alexander Bruce</a> [in Polish] (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loBDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109">POLAND AND THE POLES</a> (GOOGLE EBOOK). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NEW YORK</a>, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/Dodd,_Mead_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd, Mead and Company">Dodd, Mead and Company</a>. p. 109. <q>Thus John of <a href="/wiki/Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Zamość">Zamość</a> called himself John <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zamoyski" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Zamoyski">Zamoyski</a>, Stephen of <a href="/wiki/Potok,_Stasz%C3%B3w_County" title="Potok, Staszów County">Potok</a> called himself <a href="/wiki/House_of_Potocki" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Potocki">Potocki</a>. Although time has scattered most families far from their original home, nearly all the names of the genuinely Polish szlachta can be traced back to some locality.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND+AND+THE+POLES&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+and+Company&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DloBDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bruce_Boswell" class="extiw" title="pl:Alexander Bruce Boswell">Boswell, Alexander Bruce</a> [in Polish] (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loBDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109">POLAND AND THE POLES</a> (GOOGLE EBOOK). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NEW YORK</a>, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/Dodd,_Mead_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd, Mead and Company">Dodd, Mead and Company</a>. p. 109. <q>Originally a member of the Polish szlachta used simply his Christian name, and the title of the coat of arms which was common to all the members of his clan.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND+AND+THE+POLES&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+and+Company&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DloBDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-boniecki-76"><a href="#cite_ref-boniecki_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoniecki_(Fredro-Boniecki),_herbu_Bończa1901" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Boniecki_(heraldyk)" class="extiw" title="pl:Adam Boniecki (heraldyk)">Boniecki</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fredro_(Bo%C5%84cza)" title="Fredro (Bończa)">Fredro</a>-Boniecki), herbu <a href="/wiki/Bo%C5%84cza_coat_of_arms" title="Bończa coat of arms">Bończa</a>, Adam Józef Feliks [in Polish] (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://polona.pl/item/10355910/159/">"DĄBROWSCY h. RADWAN z Dąbrówki"</a> (online book). Herbarz Polski - Część I.; Wiadomości Historyczno-Genealogiczne O Rodach Szlacheckich. IV.. <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Governorate" title="Warsaw Governorate">Warsaw governorate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vistula_Land" title="Vistula Land">Vistula land (Russian POLAND)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">RUSSIAN EMPIRE</a>: <a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebethner_i_Wolff" class="extiw" title="pl:Gebethner i Wolff">Gebethner i Wolff</a>: 147. <q>DĄBROWSCY h. RADWAN z Dąbrówki pod Piasecznem, w ziemi warszawskiej, w różnych stronach osiedli, przeważnie w ziemi rożańskiej. Przydomek ich "Żądło". Żyjący w połowie XV-go wieku Jakub z Dąbrówki, ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Herbarz+Polski+-+Cz%C4%99%C5%9B%C4%87+I.%3B+Wiadomo%C5%9Bci+Historyczno-Genealogiczne+O+Rodach+Szlacheckich.&rft.atitle=D%C4%84BROWSCY+h.+RADWAN+z+D%C4%85br%C3%B3wki&rft.volume=IV.&rft.pages=147&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Boniecki+%28Fredro-Boniecki%29%2C+herbu+Bo%C5%84cza&rft.aufirst=Adam+J%C3%B3zef+Feliks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpolona.pl%2Fitem%2F10355910%2F159%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zadlo-cognomen-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zadlo-cognomen_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zadlo-cognomen_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zadlo-cognomen_77-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkolski1643" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Szymon_Okolski" title="Szymon Okolski">Okolski, Szymon</a> (1643). "RADWAN alias WIRBOW.". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20170608064839/https://books.google.nl/books?id=eKBMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA572&redir_esc=y%23v=onepage&q&f=false">Orbis Polonus</a> (in Latin). Vol. II. <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>: Franciscus Caesarius. p. 572. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eKBMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA572">the original</a> on 8 June 2017. Retrieved 8 June 2017. <q>Dąbrowfcij, cognominati Zedlowie ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=RADWAN+alias+WIRBOW.&rft.btitle=Orbis+Polonus&rft.place=Krak%C3%B3w&rft.pages=572&rft.pub=Franciscus+Caesarius&rft.date=1643&rft.aulast=Okolski&rft.aufirst=Szymon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeKBMAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA572&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bruce_Boswell" class="extiw" title="pl:Alexander Bruce Boswell">Boswell, Alexander Bruce</a> [in Polish] (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loBDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA47">POLAND AND THE POLES</a> (GOOGLE EBOOK). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NEW YORK</a>, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/Dodd,_Mead_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd, Mead and Company">Dodd, Mead and Company</a>. p. 47. <q>The use of the Latin language was universal in Poland well into the eighteenth century, and many words from Latin have been assimilated by the Polish language and have added to its vocabulary and its expressiveness.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND+AND+THE+POLES&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+and+Company&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DloBDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170605081455/https://image.slidesharecdn.com/mikmichalowickilite2-161212085641/95/dwr-dbrowskich-w-michaowicach-nowe-ycie-dworu-wystawa-6-1024.jpg?cb=1481533068">"DWÓR DĄBROWSKICH W MICHAŁOWICACH - "Nowe życie dworu" (wystawa)"</a> [DĄBROWSKI MANOR/MANSION IN MICHAŁOWICE - New Life of the Manor/Mansion (Exhibition)]. <a href="/wiki/SlideShare" title="SlideShare">SlideShare</a> (in Polish). <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ma%C5%82opolska_Institute_of_Culture" title="Małopolska Institute of Culture">Małopolska Institute of Culture</a>. 12 December 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/mikmichalowickilite2-161212085641/95/dwr-dbrowskich-w-michaowicach-nowe-ycie-dworu-wystawa-6-1024.jpg?cb=1481533068">the original</a> on 5 June 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SlideShare&rft.atitle=DW%C3%93R+D%C4%84BROWSKICH+W+MICHA%C5%81OWICACH+-+%22Nowe+%C5%BCycie+dworu%22+%28wystawa%29&rft.date=2016-12-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimage.slidesharecdn.com%2Fmikmichalowickilite2-161212085641%2F95%2Fdwr-dbrowskich-w-michaowicach-nowe-ycie-dworu-wystawa-6-1024.jpg%3Fcb%3D1481533068&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-minakowski-80"><a href="#cite_ref-minakowski_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinakowski" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marek_Jerzy_Minakowski" title="Marek Jerzy Minakowski">Minakowski, Marek Jerzy</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190906175928/http://wielcy.pl/boniecki/en/art/4/261.xml">"Żądło-Dąbrowski z Dąbrówki h. Radwan"</a>. Genealogia Potomków Sejmu Wielkiego. Kraków, POLAND, EU: Dr Minakowski Publikacje Elektroniczne. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wielcy.pl/boniecki/en/art/4/261.xml">the original</a> on 6 September 2019. Retrieved 21 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Genealogia+Potomk%C3%B3w+Sejmu+Wielkiego&rft.atitle=%C5%BB%C4%85d%C5%82o-D%C4%85browski+z+D%C4%85br%C3%B3wki+h.+Radwan&rft.aulast=Minakowski&rft.aufirst=Marek+Jerzy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwielcy.pl%2Fboniecki%2Fen%2Fart%2F4%2F261.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170603191440/https://image.slidesharecdn.com/mikmichalowickilite2-161212085641/95/dwr-dbrowskich-w-michaowicach-nowe-ycie-dworu-wystawa-4-1024.jpg?cb=1481533068">"DWÓR DĄBROWSKICH W MICHAŁOWICACH - "Nowe życie dworu" (wystawa)"</a> [DĄBROWSKI MANOR/MANSION IN MICHAŁOWICE - New Life of the Manor/Mansion (Exhibition)]. <a href="/wiki/SlideShare" title="SlideShare">SlideShare</a> (in Polish). <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_County" title="Kraków County">Kraków county</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship" title="Lesser Poland Voivodeship">Lesser Poland voivodeship</a>, Southern Poland, POLAND: <a href="/wiki/Ma%C5%82opolska_Institute_of_Culture" title="Małopolska Institute of Culture">Małopolska Institute of Culture</a>. 12 December 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/mikmichalowickilite2-161212085641/95/dwr-dbrowskich-w-michaowicach-nowe-ycie-dworu-wystawa-4-1024.jpg?cb=1481533068">the original</a> on 3 June 2017. Retrieved 3 June 2017. <q>Photographs from the family archive of Jan Majewski; Tadeusz Żądło Dąbrowski [herbu Radwan]...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SlideShare&rft.atitle=DW%C3%93R+D%C4%84BROWSKICH+W+MICHA%C5%81OWICACH+-+%22Nowe+%C5%BCycie+dworu%22+%28wystawa%29&rft.date=2016-12-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fimage.slidesharecdn.com%2Fmikmichalowickilite2-161212085641%2F95%2Fdwr-dbrowskich-w-michaowicach-nowe-ycie-dworu-wystawa-4-1024.jpg%3Fcb%3D1481533068&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBajer" class="citation web cs1">Bajer, Piotr Paweł. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160504225306/http://podolska.neostrada.pl/teksty/heraldry.htm">"POLISH NOBILITY AND ITS HERALDRY: AN INTRODUCTION"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masovian_Voivodeship" title="Masovian Voivodeship">Masovian voivodeship</a>, POLAND: podolska.neostrada.pl. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://podolska.neostrada.pl/teksty/heraldry.htm">the original</a> on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2017. <q>This peculiarity may be best illustrated by the example given by Paprocki [50] who mentions the Rosciszewski family which took a surname different from the names of the land properties it had owned. Those of the Rosciszewski family who settled in Chrapunia became known as Chrapunskis; those who settled in Strykwina were known as Strykwinskis; and those who settled in Borkow became known as Borkowskis. Since they shared a common ancestor and belonged to the same clan - they were entitled to bear the same arms as Rosciszewskis.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=POLISH+NOBILITY+AND+ITS+HERALDRY%3A+AN+INTRODUCTION&rft.place=Warsaw%2C+Masovian+voivodeship%2C+POLAND&rft.pub=podolska.neostrada.pl&rft.aulast=Bajer&rft.aufirst=Piotr+Pawe%C5%82&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpodolska.neostrada.pl%2Fteksty%2Fheraldry.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamoyski1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Zamoyski" title="Adam Zamoyski">Zamoyski, Adam</a> (1998) [1987]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/54">The Polish Way: A Thousand-year history of the Poles and their culture</a> (Fourth Printing ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Hippocrene_Books" title="Hippocrene Books">Hippocrene Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousan00zamo/page/54">54</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0200-8"><bdi>0-7818-0200-8</bdi></a>. <q>Fig. 4 A selection of Polish coats-of-arms. These were never personal to the bearers; each was borne by all members of the family, and often by dozens of families of different names which may or may not have shared their origins.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish+Way%3A+A+Thousand-year+history+of+the+Poles+and+their+culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=54&rft.edition=Fourth+Printing&rft.pub=Hippocrene+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7818-0200-8&rft.aulast=Zamoyski&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolishwaythousan00zamo%2Fpage%2F54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost2015" class="citation book cs1">Frost, Robert I. (2015). The Oxford History of Poland-Lithuania: The Making of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, 1385-1569. Oxford University Press. p. 115.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Poland-Lithuania%3A+The+Making+of+the+Polish-Lithuanian+Union%2C+1385-1569&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Robert+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarian2005" class="citation book cs1">Marian, Biskup (2005). "Polish Diplomacy during the Angewin and Jagiellonian Era (1370-1572): X-XX C". The History of Polish Diplomacy: X-XX C. Sejm Publishing Office. p. 79.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Polish+Diplomacy+during+the+Angewin+and+Jagiellonian+Era+%281370-1572%29%3A+X-XX+C&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Polish+Diplomacy%3A+X-XX+C&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Sejm+Publishing+Office&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Marian&rft.aufirst=Biskup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-czajkowski-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-czajkowski_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-czajkowski_86-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-czajkowski_86-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-czajkowski_86-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-czajkowski_86-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJastrzębiec-Czajkowski" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jastrzębiec-Czajkowski, Leszek Jan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305045021/http://www.ornatowski.com/lib/zhistoriiszlachty.htm">"Niektóre dane z historii szlachty i herbu"</a>. Ornatowski.com (in Polish). Warsaw: Artur Ornatowski. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ornatowski.com/lib/zhistoriiszlachty.htm">the original</a> on 5 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ornatowski.com&rft.atitle=Niekt%C3%B3re+dane+z+historii+szlachty+i+herbu&rft.aulast=Jastrz%C4%99biec-Czajkowski&rft.aufirst=Leszek+Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ornatowski.com%2Flib%2Fzhistoriiszlachty.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pudlowski-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pudlowski_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pudlowski_87-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pudlowski_87-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pudlowski_87-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pudlowski_87-4">e</a> <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B3wi%C4%85_wieki" class="mw-redirect" title="Mówią wieki">Mówią wieki</a>, number 5, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030514131154/http://www.anai.org/Conferenza%20europea/abstracts/pudlowski.htm">Leszek Pudłowski</a>, 1988 </li> <li id="cite_note-bajer--polish-noble--2012-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bajer--polish-noble--2012_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bajer--polish-noble--2012_88-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBajer2012" class="citation book cs1">Bajer, Peter Paul (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kzJf9HTGK2kC&pg=PA315">SCOTS IN THE POLISH–LITHUANIAN COMMONWEALTH, 16TH TO 18TH CENTURIES: THE FORMATION AND DISAPPEARANCE OF AN ETHNIC GROUP</a>. Leiden, South Holland province, NETHERLANDS, EU: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. p. 315. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004212473" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004212473"><bdi>978-9004212473</bdi></a>. <q>In 1784, Prince Charles de Ligne from Belgium, who was trying to obtain Polish noble status, supposedly said, 'It is easier to become a duke in Germany, than to be counted among Polish nobles,' quoted in Kulikowski, Heraldyka szlachecka, 27.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SCOTS+IN+THE+POLISH%E2%80%93LITHUANIAN+COMMONWEALTH%2C+16TH+TO+18TH+CENTURIES%3A+THE+FORMATION+AND+DISAPPEARANCE+OF+AN+ETHNIC+GROUP&rft.place=Leiden%2C+South+Holland+province%2C+NETHERLANDS%2C+EU&rft.pages=315&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-9004212473&rft.aulast=Bajer&rft.aufirst=Peter+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkzJf9HTGK2kC%26pg%3DPA315&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bajer--piot-pawel--polish-nobility-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bajer--piot-pawel--polish-nobility_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bajer--piot-pawel--polish-nobility_89-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBajer" class="citation web cs1">Bajer, Piotr Paweł. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160504225306/http://podolska.neostrada.pl/teksty/heraldry.htm">"POLISH NOBILITY AND ITS HERALDRY: AN INTRODUCTION"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masovian_Voivodeship" title="Masovian Voivodeship">Masovian voivodeship</a>, POLAND: podolska.neostrada.pl. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://podolska.neostrada.pl/teksty/heraldry.htm">the original</a> on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2017. <q>It should not be difficult to understand then, why prince Charles de Ligne from Belgium, who in 1784 was trying to receive the Polish nobility status, supposedly commented that: It is easier to become duke in Germany, then to be counted among Polish nobles [34]. Indeed, from the moment of the prohibition of private adoptions, Polish nobility became a closed cast [<a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>] ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=POLISH+NOBILITY+AND+ITS+HERALDRY%3A+AN+INTRODUCTION&rft.place=Warsaw%2C+Masovian+voivodeship%2C+POLAND&rft.pub=podolska.neostrada.pl&rft.aulast=Bajer&rft.aufirst=Piotr+Pawe%C5%82&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpodolska.neostrada.pl%2Fteksty%2Fheraldry.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJelinska-Marchal1988" class="citation book cs1">Jelinska-Marchal, D. (1988). Judycki, Z. (ed.). THE POLISH ARMORIAL POLANAIS. <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry" title="Château-Thierry">Château-Thierry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aisne" title="Aisne">Aisne department</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hauts-de-France" title="Hauts-de-France">Hauts-de-France region</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">FRANCE</a>: Albi Corvi. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2907771009" title="Special:BookSources/978-2907771009"><bdi>978-2907771009</bdi></a>. <q>In its primary form it was a nobiliary adoption effected by the king (who granted a fragment of his own arms testifying thus an alliance with his family) or by the knight's family who practiced an adoption under their arms, which had to be confirmed by the king.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=THE+POLISH+ARMORIAL+POLANAIS&rft.place=Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry%2C+Aisne+department%2C+Hauts-de-France+region%2C+FRANCE&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Albi+Corvi&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-2907771009&rft.aulast=Jelinska-Marchal&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJelinska-Marchal1988" class="citation book cs1">Jelinska-Marchal, D. (1988). Judycki, Z. (ed.). THE POLISH ARMORIAL POLANAIS. <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry" title="Château-Thierry">Château-Thierry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aisne" title="Aisne">Aisne department</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hauts-de-France" title="Hauts-de-France">Hauts-de-France region</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">FRANCE</a>: Albi Corvi. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2907771009" title="Special:BookSources/978-2907771009"><bdi>978-2907771009</bdi></a>. <q>Since 1669 those who acquired the title of nobility were granted only a 'skartabellat' - that means a limited nobility conferred on foreigners - the title which limited a right to hold offices and to fulfill the duties of deputies up to the third generation only. In 1775 another obligation was imposed on them - they had to possess (to acquire) the real properties.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=THE+POLISH+ARMORIAL+POLANAIS&rft.place=Ch%C3%A2teau-Thierry%2C+Aisne+department%2C+Hauts-de-France+region%2C+FRANCE&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Albi+Corvi&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-2907771009&rft.aulast=Jelinska-Marchal&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171203100415/http://cpx.republika.pl/sytuacja.htm">"FOLWARK SZLACHECKI I CHŁOPI W POLSCE XVI WIEKU"</a>. cpx.republika.pl. POLAND. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cpx.republika.pl:80/sytuacja.htm">the original</a> on 2017-12-03. Retrieved 22 August 2018. <q>Posiadanie ziemi * Ziemia na której gospodarowali chłopi nie stanowiła ich własności. Jej rzeczywistym właścicielem był pan określonych dóbr: król, zwykły szlachcic lub kościół. Chłop był więc tylko użytkownikiem ziemi. Zwyczajowo było to użytkowanie dziedziczne - przekazywane na męskich potomków. Pan wsi mógł zawsze jednak usunąć chłopa z gospodarstwa. (The plot of land on which the peasants lived and resided was not their property. The owner was a particular estate: king, nobleman, or church. Therefore, the peasant was only a land user. Land use and residence was hereditary - the use transmitted to male descendants. However, the village master could always evict the peasant from the plot of land.)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cpx.republika.pl&rft.atitle=FOLWARK+SZLACHECKI+I+CH%C5%81OPI+W+POLSCE+XVI+WIEKU&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcpx.republika.pl%3A80%2Fsytuacja.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkwarczyński1956" class="citation journal cs1">Skwarczyński, Paweł (June 1956). "The Problem of Feudalism in Poland up to the Beginning of the 16th Century". <a href="/wiki/The_Slavonic_and_East_European_Review" title="The Slavonic and East European Review">The Slavonic and East European Review</a>. 34 (83). Salisbury House, Station Road, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridgeshire" title="Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire county</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">ENGLAND</a>: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Humanities_Research_Association" title="Modern Humanities Research Association">Modern Humanities Research Association</a>: 299. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4204744">4204744</a>. <q>The knights, except in the few cases already referred to, possessed full ownership of their land, and the peasant small-holders, apart from an insignificant minority, were tenants, to whom the system of feudal tenure applied.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Feudalism+in+Poland+up+to+the+Beginning+of+the+16th+Century&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=83&rft.pages=299&rft.date=1956-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4204744%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Skwarczy%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Pawe%C5%82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-topor-jakubowski-szlachta-rights-94"><a href="#cite_ref-topor-jakubowski-szlachta-rights_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTopór-Jakubowski" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Top%C3%B3r_coat_of_arms" title="Topór coat of arms">Topór</a>-Jakubowski, Theodore. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020704093315/http://www.ststanislas.org/papers/american_nob.htm">"It's Time to End the Myth That Polish Immigrants Were Peasants"</a>. West European Grand Priory, International Order of St Stanislas. Croxteth House, Liverpool, Lancashire county, Merseyside, North West England, ENGLAND, UNITED KINGDOM: Order of St Stanislas. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ststanislas.org/papers/american_nob.htm">the original</a> on 4 July 2002. Retrieved 24 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=West+European+Grand+Priory%2C+International+Order+of+St+Stanislas&rft.atitle=It%27s+Time+to+End+the+Myth+That+Polish+Immigrants+Were+Peasants&rft.aulast=Top%C3%B3r-Jakubowski&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ststanislas.org%2Fpapers%2Famerican_nob.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ian-95"><a href="#cite_ref-ian_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Bideleux,_Ian_Jeffries1998" class="citation book cs1">Robert Bideleux, Ian Jeffries (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Eh9KQTrOckC&q=polish+lithuanian+nobility+szlachta&pg=PA144">A history of eastern Europe: crisis and change</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 144–145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16111-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16111-4"><bdi>978-0-415-16111-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+eastern+Europe%3A+crisis+and+change&rft.pages=144-145&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-16111-4&rft.au=Robert+Bideleux%2C+Ian+Jeffries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Eh9KQTrOckC%26q%3Dpolish%2Blithuanian%2Bnobility%2Bszlachta%26pg%3DPA144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Leszczyński, R. Osobowość autora - wartość dzieła, [w] Walerian Nekanda Trepka, Liber generationis plebeanorum (Liber chamorum), wyd. 2, opracował, <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a> - <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> - <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> 1995, p. 6-7. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrzej_Rachuba2010" class="citation journal cs1">Andrzej Rachuba (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181201005539/http://mazowsze.hist.pl/16/Kronika_Zamkowa/356/2010/12307/">"Panowie z Ciechanowa"</a>. Kronika Zamkowa: 33. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mazowsze.hist.pl/16/Kronika_Zamkowa/356/2010/12307/">the original</a> on 2018-12-01. Retrieved 2018-11-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kronika+Zamkowa&rft.atitle=Panowie+z+Ciechanowa&rft.pages=33&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Andrzej+Rachuba&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmazowsze.hist.pl%2F16%2FKronika_Zamkowa%2F356%2F2010%2F12307%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> In Polish with an English summary. The author shows it is likely a Ciechanowiecki ancestor either received a fashionable noble title in exchange for money while travelling on the Grand Tour in Western Europe or, simply "conferred it upon himself" to hark back to a former higher status. [retrieved 2018.11.30.] </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Kieniewicz, Jan. (2017). "THE JAGIELLONIAN IDEA AND THE PROJECT FOR THE FUTURE", <a href="/w/index.php?title=Politeja&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Politeja (page does not exist)">Politeja</a>, 6 (51) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://akademicka.pl/ebooks/free/40819e1fff1cbd6d9bee7d2a75425cd1.pdf">http://akademicka.pl/ebooks/free/40819e1fff1cbd6d9bee7d2a75425cd1.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180721023144/http://www.akademicka.pl/ebooks/free/40819e1fff1cbd6d9bee7d2a75425cd1.pdf">Archived</a> 2018-07-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 2018-11-11. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Richard Pipes, Russia under the old regime, page 181 </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Seymour Becker, Nobility and Privilege in late Imperial Russia, page 182 </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe, Jerome Blum, page 391. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Norman Davies, God's playground, pages 182 and 188 </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Aftanazy Roman. Dzieje Rezydencji na dawnych kresach Rzeczpospolitej. Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. Editions. Wroclaw 1991-97 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8304037017" title="Special:BookSources/8304037017">8304037017</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Entry about <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Steinkeller" title="Piotr Steinkeller">Piotr Steinkeller</a>, "King of Zinc" in The Annual Register Or A View of the History of Politics and Literature for the Year 1837, publ. J. Dodsley. London: 1838. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R9s7AQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA264&lpg=RA1-PA264&dq=history+of+wenlock+road+london&source=bl&ots=uW8GppyPPt&sig=9VPCpoOs-DxUyYd9Ke2hicpl84w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiBoYifp5LZAhWHKsAKHetdCKs4FBDoAQgsMAE#v=onepage&q&f=false">https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R9s7AQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA264&lpg=RA1-PA264&dq=history+of+wenlock+road+london&source=bl&ots=uW8GppyPPt&sig=9VPCpoOs-DxUyYd9Ke2hicpl84w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiBoYifp5LZAhWHKsAKHetdCKs4FBDoAQgsMAE#v=onepage&q&f=false</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Association of Polish Knights of Malta: History of the Order in Poland. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.apkmuk.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=60">http://www.apkmuk.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=60</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Encyklopedia Krakowa. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warsaw-Kraków. 2000.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyklopedia+Krakowa&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+Naukowe+PWN%2C+Warsaw-Krak%C3%B3w&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Wojtowicz, Norbert. (1999) Freemasonry in Poland - Formerly and Today. Wrocław. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.legitymizm.org/freemasonry-in-poland">http://www.legitymizm.org/freemasonry-in-poland</a> [accessed 2018-11-08] </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Bogucka Maria. Women in Early Modern Polish Society, Against the European Background. London: Routledge, 2017. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1351871994" title="Special:BookSources/1351871994">1351871994</a>, 9781351871990 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Michniewski, A. " "Do czwartku", Zabawy Przyjemne i Pożyteczne 1772", v. 12, p. 1. Ed. <a href="/wiki/Jan_Kott" title="Jan Kott">J. Kott</a> in Poezja polska wieku Oświecenia, Warsaw. 1954 and 1956 </li> <li id="cite_note-Strybel-350-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Strybel-350_110-0">^</a> Robert Strybel, Maria Strybel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UtA6-pyGJmMC&pg=PA321">Polish Heritage Cookery</a> (Wildfowl and Game). <a href="/wiki/Hippocrene_Books" title="Hippocrene Books">Hippocrene Books</a>. 2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Maria_Dembi%C5%84ska" title="Maria Dembińska">Maria Dembińska</a>, William Woys Weaver. Food and Drink in Medieval Poland: Rediscovering a Cuisine of the Past. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. 1999. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Szymańska, Aleksandra (2018) "Sezon myśliwski we dworze". Rolniczy Magazyn Elektroniczny. Centralna Biblioteka Rolnicza im. Michała Oczapowskiego. (in Polish) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://rme.cbr.net.pl/index.php/archiwum-rme/53-wrzesien-pazdziernik-nr-45/kultura-i-tradycje-ludowe/85-sezon-mysliwski-we-dworze">https://rme.cbr.net.pl/index.php/archiwum-rme/53-wrzesien-pazdziernik-nr-45/kultura-i-tradycje-ludowe/85-sezon-mysliwski-we-dworze</a> [retrieved 2018-11-10] </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Cheda, Jacek. (2010) Łowiectwo i jego rola w życiu społecznym Wielkiej Brytanii i Polski. Civitas Hominibus: rocznik filozoficzno-spoleczny, 5. 91-105. (in Polish) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media//files/Civitas_Hominibus_rocznik_filozoficzno_spoleczny/Civitas_Hominibus_rocznik_filozoficzno_spoleczny-r2010-t5/Civitas_Hominibus_rocznik_filozoficzno_spoleczny-r2010-t5-s91-105/Civitas_Hominibus_rocznik_filozoficzno_spoleczny-r2010-t5-s91-105.pdf">[1]</a> See p.94. [Retrieved 2018-11-19] This is a comparison of hunting as a social activity in Great Britain and Poland. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170316072343/http://klubogarapolskiego.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=58&Itemid=71">"Historia Ogara Polskiego"</a> (in Polish). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://klubogarapolskiego.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=58&Itemid=71">the original</a> on 2017-03-16. Retrieved 2018-11-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historia+Ogara+Polskiego&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fklubogarapolskiego.eu%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D58%26Itemid%3D71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> retrieved 2015-11-24. </li> <li id="cite_note-Frost-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frost_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frost_115-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frost_115-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frost_115-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert2011" class="citation book cs1">Robert, Frost (2011). ""Ut unusquisque qui vellet, ad illum venire possit". Nobility, Citizenship and Corporate Decision-making in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1454-1795". In Leonhard, Jörn; Wieland, Christian (eds.). What Makes the Nobility Noble?: Comparative Perspectives from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 142, 144.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Ut+unusquisque+qui+vellet%2C+ad+illum+venire+possit%22.+Nobility%2C+Citizenship+and+Corporate+Decision-making+in+the+Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian+Commonwealth%2C+1454-1795&rft.btitle=What+Makes+the+Nobility+Noble%3F%3A+Comparative+Perspectives+from+the+Sixteenth+to+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=142%2C+144&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Robert&rft.aufirst=Frost&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sikorska-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sikorska_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sikorska_116-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181103015126/https://repozytorium.lectorium.pl/bitstream/handle/item/832/J.Sikorska-Deklasacja_drobnej_szlachty.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"Polityka caratu wobec drobnej szlachty przed powstaniem listopadowym"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repozytorium.lectorium.pl/bitstream/handle/item/832/J.Sikorska-Deklasacja_drobnej_szlachty.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">the original</a> (PDF) on 2018-11-03. Retrieved 2019-01-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Polityka+caratu+wobec+drobnej+szlachty+przed+powstaniem+listopadowym&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepozytorium.lectorium.pl%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2Fitem%2F832%2FJ.Sikorska-Deklasacja_drobnej_szlachty.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBajer2008" class="citation book cs1">Bajer, Peter Paul (2008). "Scotsmen and the Polish nobility from the sixteenth century to eighteenth century". In Unger, Richard (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/britainpolandlit00unge">Britain and Poland-Lithuania: Contact and Comparison from the Middle Ages to 1795</a>. BRILL. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/britainpolandlit00unge/page/n375">331</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004166233" title="Special:BookSources/9789004166233"><bdi>9789004166233</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scotsmen+and+the+Polish+nobility+from+the+sixteenth+century+to+eighteenth+century&rft.btitle=Britain+and+Poland-Lithuania%3A+Contact+and+Comparison+from+the+Middle+Ages+to+1795&rft.pages=331&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9789004166233&rft.aulast=Bajer&rft.aufirst=Peter+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbritainpolandlit00unge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_75stIZO7WAC&dq=tytu%C5%82y+arystokratyczne+w+polsce&pg=PA72">Historia gospozarcza Polski</a>. Key Text Wydawnictwo. 2010. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788387251710" title="Special:BookSources/9788387251710"><bdi>9788387251710</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+gospozarcza+Polski&rft.pub=Key+Text+Wydawnictwo&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9788387251710&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_75stIZO7WAC%26dq%3Dtytu%25C5%2582y%2Barystokratyczne%2Bw%2Bpolsce%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zsz-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zsz_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zsz_119-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomaszewski" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tomaszewski, Patryk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170517233633/http://konserwatyzm.pl/artykul/1683/zarys-dzialalnosci-zwiazku-szlachty-zagrodowej-w-latach-1938-1939/">"Zarys działalności Związku Szlachty Zagrodowej w latach 1938-1939"</a>. konserwatyzm.pl (in Polish). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://konserwatyzm.pl/artykul/1683/zarys-dzialalnosci-zwiazku-szlachty-zagrodowej-w-latach-1938-1939/">the original</a> on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=konserwatyzm.pl&rft.atitle=Zarys+dzia%C5%82alno%C5%9Bci+Zwi%C4%85zku+Szlachty+Zagrodowej+w+latach+1938-1939&rft.aulast=Tomaszewski&rft.aufirst=Patryk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkonserwatyzm.pl%2Fartykul%2F1683%2Fzarys-dzialalnosci-zwiazku-szlachty-zagrodowej-w-latach-1938-1939%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mika-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Mika_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoińska-Mika2002" class="citation book cs1">Choińska-Mika, Jolanta (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://otworzksiazke.pl/images/ksiazki/miedzy_spoleczenstwem_szlacheckim_a_wladza/miedzy_spoleczenstwem_szlacheckim_a_wladza.pdf">Między społeczeństwem szlacheckim, a władzą. Problemy komunikacji społeczności lokalne — władza w epoce Jana Kazimierza</a> (PDF). Neriton. pp. 20–21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mi%C4%99dzy+spo%C5%82ecze%C5%84stwem+szlacheckim%2C+a+w%C5%82adz%C4%85.+Problemy+komunikacji+spo%C5%82eczno%C5%9Bci+lokalne+%E2%80%94+w%C5%82adza+w+epoce+Jana+Kazimierza&rft.pages=20-21&rft.pub=Neriton&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Choi%C5%84ska-Mika&rft.aufirst=Jolanta&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fotworzksiazke.pl%2Fimages%2Fksiazki%2Fmiedzy_spoleczenstwem_szlacheckim_a_wladza%2Fmiedzy_spoleczenstwem_szlacheckim_a_wladza.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lukowski-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Lukowski_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLukowski2013" class="citation book cs1">Lukowski, Jerzy (2013). Liberty's Folly: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Eighteenth Century 1697-1795. Routledge. p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liberty%27s+Folly%3A+The+Polish-Lithuanian+Commonwealth+in+the+Eighteenth+Century+1697-1795&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Lukowski&rft.aufirst=Jerzy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetronis2007" class="citation book cs1">Petronis, Vytautas (2007). Constructing Lithuania: Ethnic Mapping in Tsarist Russia, ca. 1800-1914. Stockholm University Press. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructing+Lithuania%3A+Ethnic+Mapping+in+Tsarist+Russia%2C+ca.+1800-1914&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Stockholm+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Petronis&rft.aufirst=Vytautas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Struve-123"><a href="#cite_ref-Struve_123-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diva-portal.se/smash/get/diva2:214737/FULLTEXT01.pdf">"Citizenship and National Identity: the Peasants of Galicia during the 19th Century"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Citizenship+and+National+Identity%3A+the+Peasants+of+Galicia+during+the+19th+Century&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.diva-portal.se%2Fsmash%2Fget%2Fdiva2%3A214737%2FFULLTEXT01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Stauter-Halsted, Keely The Nation in the Village. The Genesis of Peasant National Identity in Austrian Poland, 1848–1914 (Ithaca 2001) </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Jan Molenda Chłopi – naród – niepodległość. Kształtowanie się postaw narodowych i obywatelskich chłopów w Galicji i Królestwie Polskim w przededniu odrodzenia Polski (Warsaw 1999) </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Михайлов Грушевський Українська шляхта в Галичині на переломі XVI і XVII в. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://diasporiana.org.ua/wp-content/uploads/books/6515/file.pdf">"Вячеслав Липинський УКРАЇНА НА ПЕРЕЛОМІ 1657—1659"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%92%D1%8F%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2+%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%A3%D0%9A%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%87%D0%9D%D0%90+%D0%9D%D0%90+%D0%9F%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%95%D0%9B%D0%9E%D0%9C%D0%86+1657%E2%80%941659.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiasporiana.org.ua%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fbooks%2F6515%2Ffile.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uamoderna.com/images/archiv/21/UM-21-Pavlyshyn.pdf">"Олег Павлишин Дилема ідентичності, або історія про те, як "латинники" (не) стали українцями/поляками (Галичина, середина XIX – перша половина XX ст.)"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3+%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD+%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0+%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%2C+%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE+%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE+%D1%82%D0%B5%2C+%D1%8F%D0%BA+%22%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%22+%28%D0%BD%D0%B5%29+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8+%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%B8%2F%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8+%28%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0+XIX+%E2%80%93+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0+XX+%D1%81%D1%82.%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuamoderna.com%2Fimages%2Farchiv%2F21%2FUM-21-Pavlyshyn.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211022082353/http://mue.etnolog.org.ua/zmist/2009/301.pdf">"ПОЛЬОВІ ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ ЕТНОСОЦІАЛЬНОГО РОЗВИТКУ ДРІбНОЇ ШЛЯХТИ ГАЛИЧИНИ ВПРОДОВЖ ХІХ – НА ПОЧАТКУ ХХ СТОЛІТТЯ"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mue.etnolog.org.ua/zmist/2009/301.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2021-10-22. Retrieved 2017-05-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9F%D0%9E%D0%9B%D0%AC%D0%9E%D0%92%D0%86+%D0%94%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%9B%D0%86%D0%94%D0%96%D0%95%D0%9D%D0%9D%D0%AF+%D0%95%D0%A2%D0%9D%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%9E%D0%A6%D0%86%D0%90%D0%9B%D0%AC%D0%9D%D0%9E%D0%93%D0%9E+%D0%A0%D0%9E%D0%97%D0%92%D0%98%D0%A2%D0%9A%D0%A3+%D0%94%D0%A0%D0%86%D0%B1%D0%9D%D0%9E%D0%87+%D0%A8%D0%9B%D0%AF%D0%A5%D0%A2%D0%98+%D0%93%D0%90%D0%9B%D0%98%D0%A7%D0%98%D0%9D%D0%98+%D0%92%D0%9F%D0%A0%D0%9E%D0%94%D0%9E%D0%92%D0%96+%D0%A5%D0%86%D0%A5+%E2%80%93+%D0%9D%D0%90+%D0%9F%D0%9E%D0%A7%D0%90%D0%A2%D0%9A%D0%A3+%D0%A5%D0%A5+%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%9E%D0%9B%D0%86%D0%A2%D0%A2%D0%AF&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmue.etnolog.org.ua%2Fzmist%2F2009%2F301.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150510005213/http://mue.etnolog.org.ua/zmist/2009/187.pdf">"ПОЛЯКИ УКРАЇНСЬКОГО ПРАВОбЕРЕЖЖЯ: ДО ПРОбЛЕМИ АСИМІЛЯЦІЇ"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mue.etnolog.org.ua/zmist/2009/187.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2015-05-10. Retrieved 2017-05-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9F%D0%9E%D0%9B%D0%AF%D0%9A%D0%98+%D0%A3%D0%9A%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%87%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%AC%D0%9A%D0%9E%D0%93%D0%9E+%D0%9F%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%92%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%95%D0%96%D0%96%D0%AF%3A+%D0%94%D0%9E+%D0%9F%D0%A0%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%9B%D0%95%D0%9C%D0%98+%D0%90%D0%A1%D0%98%D0%9C%D0%86%D0%9B%D0%AF%D0%A6%D0%86%D0%87&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmue.etnolog.org.ua%2Fzmist%2F2009%2F187.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etalpykla.lituanistikadb.lt/fedora/get/LT-LDB-0001:J.04~2011~1367188778422/DS.002.2.01.ARTIC">"POLACY I LITWINI"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=POLACY+I+LITWINI&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetalpykla.lituanistikadb.lt%2Ffedora%2Fget%2FLT-LDB-0001%3AJ.04~2011~1367188778422%2FDS.002.2.01.ARTIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190214150448/http://www.pan.poznan.pl/nauki/N_211_01_Tazbir.pdf">"Język polski a tożsamość narodowa"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pan.poznan.pl/nauki/N_211_01_Tazbir.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2019-02-14. Retrieved 2017-07-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=J%C4%99zyk+polski+a+to%C5%BCsamo%C5%9B%C4%87+narodowa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pan.poznan.pl%2Fnauki%2FN_211_01_Tazbir.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iht.univ.kiev.ua/library/ks/1892/pdf/kievskaya-starina-1892-2-B-(5309-5326).pdf">"Барская околичная шляхта до к. XVIII в."</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%88%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%B4%D0%BE+%D0%BA.+XVIII+%D0%B2.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiht.univ.kiev.ua%2Flibrary%2Fks%2F1892%2Fpdf%2Fkievskaya-starina-1892-2-B-%285309-5326%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Грушевський М. С. Барська околична шляхта до к[інця] XVIII ст. : Етнографічний нарис / М. С. Грушевський // Грушевський, Михайло Сергійович. Твори: у 50 т. / М. С. Грушевський; редкол.: П. Сохань (голов. ред.), І. Гирич та ін. – Львів: Видавництво "Світ". – 2003. Т. 5. Т. 5. – C. 323 - 336 </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Тимошенко В. У лещатах двоглавого орла (Овруцька околична шляхта ХІХ – на початок ХХ ст.) / В.Тимошенко // Українознавство. – К., 2009 – No 2. – С. 55–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeshchenko-Chopivsky" class="citation book cs1">Feshchenko-Chopivsky, Ivan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shron1.chtyvo.org.ua/Yaremenko_Maksym/Richpospolytska_shliakhta_u_Kyievo-Mohylianskii_akademii.pdf">РІЧПОСПОЛИТСЬКА ШЛЯХТА У КИЄВО-МОГИЛЯНСЬКІЙ АКАДЕМІЇ XVIII ст</a> [ichpospolytska shliakhta u Kyievo-Mohylianskii akademii] (PDF) – via shron1.chtyvo.org.ua.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A0%D0%86%D0%A7%D0%9F%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%9F%D0%9E%D0%9B%D0%98%D0%A2%D0%A1%D0%AC%D0%9A%D0%90+%D0%A8%D0%9B%D0%AF%D0%A5%D0%A2%D0%90+%D0%A3+%D0%9A%D0%98%D0%84%D0%92%D0%9E-%D0%9C%D0%9E%D0%93%D0%98%D0%9B%D0%AF%D0%9D%D0%A1%D0%AC%D0%9A%D0%86%D0%99+%D0%90%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%94%D0%95%D0%9C%D0%86%D0%87+XVIII+%D1%81%D1%82.&rft.aulast=Feshchenko-Chopivsky&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fshron1.chtyvo.org.ua%2FYaremenko_Maksym%2FRichpospolytska_shliakhta_u_Kyievo-Mohylianskii_akademii.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Norman</a> (1982). GOD'S PLAYGROUND: A HISTORY OF POLAND, VOLUME I - THE ORIGINS TO 1795. New York City, NEW YORK, U.S.A.: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-05351-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-05351-7"><bdi>0-231-05351-7</bdi></a>. <q>Social mobility between the estates was fraught with obstacles.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GOD%27S+PLAYGROUND%3A+A+HISTORY+OF+POLAND%2C+VOLUME+I+-+THE+ORIGINS+TO+1795&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NEW+YORK%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-231-05351-7&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoswell1919" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bruce_Boswell" class="extiw" title="pl:Alexander Bruce Boswell">Boswell, Alexander Bruce</a> [in Polish] (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loBDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA47">POLAND AND THE POLES</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dodd,_Mead_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd, Mead and Company">Dodd, Mead and Company</a>. p. 47. <q>It made the Polish gentleman more remote from the peasant, to whom he was not only a master, but a foreign, somewhat exotic, neighbour. The civilization of the manor, even allowing for social and cultural differences, had very little in common with the life of the cottage.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=POLAND+AND+THE+POLES&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+and+Company&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DloBDAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAquinas1265–1274" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas, Thomas</a> (1265–1274). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170507201232/http://www.newadvent.org/summa/5052.htm">"SUMMA THEOLOGIAE: SUPPLEMENT TO THE THIRD PART (SUPPLEMENTUM TERTIÆ PARTIS): QUESTION 52. THE IMPEDIMENT OF THE CONDITION OF SLAVERY"</a>. newadvent.org. <a href="/wiki/Santa_Sabina" title="Santa Sabina">Santa Sabina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aventine_Hill" title="Aventine Hill">Aventine Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ripa_(rione_of_Rome)" title="Ripa (rione of Rome)">Ripa rione (ward)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lazio" title="Lazio">Lazio region</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">ITALY</a>; <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>: Thomas Aquinas. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/summa/5052.htm">the original</a> on 7 May 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2017. <q>Now slavery is a condition of the body, since a slave is to the master a kind of instrument in working; wherefore children follow the mother in freedom and bondage; whereas in matters pertaining to dignity as proceeding from a thing's form, they follow the father, for instance in honors, franchise, inheritance and so forth. The canons are in agreement with this (cap. Liberi, 32, qu. iv, in gloss.: cap. Inducens, De natis ex libero ventre) as also the law of Moses (Exodus 21). ... It is because the son derives honor from his father rather than from his mother that in the genealogies of Scripture, and according to common custom, children are named after their father rather than from their mother. But in matters relating to slavery they follow the mother by preference.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=newadvent.org&rft.atitle=SUMMA+THEOLOGIAE%3A+SUPPLEMENT+TO+THE+THIRD+PART+%28SUPPLEMENTUM+TERTI%C3%86+PARTIS%29%3A+QUESTION+52.+THE+IMPEDIMENT+OF+THE+CONDITION+OF+SLAVERY&rft.date=1265&rft.aulast=Aquinas&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fsumma%2F5052.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161029165305/http://pnaf.us/pnaf-history.html">"An Introduction to The Polish Nobility Association Foundation"</a>. Polish Nobility Association Foundation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pnaf.us/pnaf-history.html">the original</a> on 29 October 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2017. <q>In ancient times, the nobility was the ruling class of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with the exclusive right to enjoy full citizenship. Nobility was hereditary in the male line, and the knight's shield was an outward sign of this.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Polish+Nobility+Association+Foundation&rft.atitle=An+Introduction+to+The+Polish+Nobility+Association+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpnaf.us%2Fpnaf-history.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-porozb-141">^ <a href="#cite_ref-porozb_141-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-porozb_141-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-porozb_141-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-porozb_141-3">d</a> Jakub Wojas, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kurierhistoryczny.pl/artykul/porozbiorowa-szlachecka-drobnica,162">"Porozbiorowa szlachecka drobnica"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421055615/https://kurierhistoryczny.pl/artykul/porozbiorowa-szlachecka-drobnica,162">Archived</a> 2021-04-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ornatowski.com/archiwum/historia/szlachta-zagrodowa-w-polsce-poludniowo-wschodniej/">"Szlachta zagrodowa w Polsce południowo-wschodniej"</a>. Ornatowski.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ornatowski.com&rft.atitle=Szlachta+zagrodowa+w+Polsce+po%C5%82udniowo-wschodniej.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fornatowski.com%2Farchiwum%2Fhistoria%2Fszlachta-zagrodowa-w-polsce-poludniowo-wschodniej%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-deklas-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-deklas_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-deklas_143-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Jolanta_Sikorska-Kulesza" title="Jolanta Sikorska-Kulesza">Jolanta Sikorska-Kulesza</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://otworzksiazke.pl/images/ksiazki/deklasacja_drobnej_szlachty_na_litwie_i_bialorusi_w_XIX_wieku/deklasacja_drobnej_szlachty_na_litwie_i_bialorusi_w_XIX_wieku.pdf">"Deklasacja drobnej szlachty na Litwie i Białorusi w XIX wieku "</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://genealogia.okiem.pl/glossary/glossary.php?word=szlachta%20czynszowa">"Polska Encyklopedia Historyczno-Genealogiczna"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Polska+Encyklopedia+Historyczno-Genealogiczna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgenealogia.okiem.pl%2Fglossary%2Fglossary.php%3Fword%3Dszlachta%2520czynszowa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a>, The Modern World-System II: Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, 1600–1750, With a New Prologue, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kWWn6N1bQwoC&pg=PA143">p.143</a>, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520267583" title="Special:BookSources/0520267583">0520267583</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w-nvAAAAMAAJ&q=sejmiki%20also%20excluded">p.25</a>. Polski Instytut Historyczny. 1977.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=p.25&rft.pub=Polski+Instytut+Historyczny.&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw-nvAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dsejmiki%2520also%2520excluded&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.polskatradycja.pl/historia-polski/wydarzenia/konstytucja-3-maja.html">"Konstytucja 3 maja -1791 r."</a>, Polska Tradycyja </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebuw.uw.edu.pl/dlibra/plain-content?id=7352">"Lwów i Wilno / [publ. by J. Godlewski]. (1948) nr 98"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lw%C3%B3w+i+Wilno+%2F+%26%2391%3Bpubl.+by+J.+Godlewski%26%2393%3B.+%281948%29+nr+98&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Febuw.uw.edu.pl%2Fdlibra%2Fplain-content%3Fid%3D7352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Wasko, Andrzej. (2006) "Sarmatism or the Enlightenment, The Dilemma of Polish Culture". The Sarmatian Review. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/497/wasko.html">http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/497/wasko.html</a>. Retrieved 2018-11-12. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Y8GNIp42ysC">From Da to Yes: Understanding the East Europeans</a>, p. 51, Yale Richmond, 1995 </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rcin.org.pl/Content/12493/WA303_4510_KH113-r2006-R113-nr1_Kwartalnik-Hist%2003%20Grzeskowiak-Krwawicz.pdf">"STAROPOLSKA KONCEPCJA WOLNOŚCI I JEJ EWOLUCJA W MYŚLI POLITYCZNEJ XVIII W. p. 61"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=STAROPOLSKA+KONCEPCJA+WOLNO%C5%9ACI+I+JEJ+EWOLUCJA+W+MY%C5%9ALI+POLITYCZNEJ+XVIII+W.+p.+61&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frcin.org.pl%2FContent%2F12493%2FWA303_4510_KH113-r2006-R113-nr1_Kwartalnik-Hist%252003%2520Grzeskowiak-Krwawicz.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_bibliography">General bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: General bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Br%C3%BCckner" title="Aleksander Brückner">Aleksander Brückner</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C5%82ownik_etymologiczny_j%C4%99zyka_polskiego" title="Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego">Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego</a> (Etymological Dictionary of the Polish Language), first edition, Kraków, Krakowska Spółka Wydawnicza, 1927 (9th edition, Warsaw, Wiedza Powszechna, 2000).</li> <li>(in English) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGórecki1992" class="citation book cs1">Górecki, Piotr (1992). Economy, Society, and Lordship in Medieval Poland: 1100-1250. New York, NEW YORK: Holmes and Meier Publishers, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8419-1318-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8419-1318-8"><bdi>0-8419-1318-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25787903">25787903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economy%2C+Society%2C+and+Lordship+in+Medieval+Poland%3A+1100-1250&rft.place=New+York%2C+NEW+YORK&rft.pub=Holmes+and+Meier+Publishers%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F25787903&rft.isbn=0-8419-1318-8&rft.aulast=G%C3%B3recki&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManteuffel1982" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Manteuffel" title="Tadeusz Manteuffel">Manteuffel, Tadeusz</a> (1982), The Formation of the Polish State: The Period of Ducal Rule, 963–1194, Detroit, MICHIGAN, U.S.A.: Wayne State University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-1682-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-1682-5"><bdi>978-0-8143-1682-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Formation+of+the+Polish+State%3A+The+Period+of+Ducal+Rule%2C+963%E2%80%931194&rft.place=Detroit%2C+MICHIGAN%2C+U.S.A.&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-1682-5&rft.aulast=Manteuffel&rft.aufirst=Tadeusz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988">.</li> <li>Żernicki-Szeliga Emilian v., Der Polnische Adel und die demselben hinzugetretenen andersländischen Adelsfamilien, General-Verzeichnis. Published by Verlag v. Henri Grand. Hamburg 1900. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://archive.org/details/derpolnischeade00szegoog">https://archive.org/details/derpolnischeade00szegoog</a> (Ger). This is a reasonably modern and comprehensive list of 3000 Polish and settler szlachta families and their crests, sourced from, among others, Niesiecki, Paprocki and Boniecki. 598 pages. Accessed 2018-11-02.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nobility_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nobility of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Nobility of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nobility.by/">Association of the Belarusian Nobility</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080115234513/http://www.bajorusajunga.lt/en/index.html">Association of Lithuanian Nobility</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161112212830/https://www.msz.gov.pl/resource/49da65c5-9917-40de-b542-5c89751cacf6:JCR">Central European Superpower</a>, Henryk Litwin, Business Ukraine Magazine (bunews.com.ua), 2016 (PDF file).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120716203137/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/staff/Szlachta.html">CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS 1180-1572: The Inexorable Political Rise of the szlachta</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/">Digital Library of Wielkpolska</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sejm-wielki.pl/en.php">Descendants of the Great Sejm (genealogies of the most important Polish families)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://culture.pl/en/article/the-elegant-downfall-of-the-polish-sarmatians">The Elegant Downfall of the Polish Sarmatians</a> by Wojciech Zembaty on Culture.pl</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lyczkowski.net/en/handbooks/list-of-gentry/ennoblement.html">"Ennoblement"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ennoblement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lyczkowski.net%2Fen%2Fhandbooks%2Flist-of-gentry%2Fennoblement.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> Alphabetical Lists of ennobled persons in Polish-Litvan Commonwealth during 1569-1792 (in English)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lyczkowski.net/en/handbooks/list-of-gentry/indygenat.html">"Noble naturalization"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Noble+naturalization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lyczkowski.net%2Fen%2Fhandbooks%2Flist-of-gentry%2Findygenat.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> Alphabetical Lists of naturalized non-citizens in Polish-Litvan Commonwealth during 1569-1792 (in English)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120314183242/http://www.polishnobles.com/">The Polish Aristocracy: The Titled Families of Poland by Rafal Heydel-Mankoo</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.angelfire.com/mi4/polcrt/PolNobility.html">The Polish Nobility</a> by Margaret: <a href="/wiki/Odrow%C4%85%C5%BC_coat_of_arms" title="Odrowąż coat of arms">Odrowąż</a>-Sypniewska, née Knight</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.szlachta.org.pl/en/">The Polish Nobility Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pnaf.us/">Polish Nobility Association Foundation</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Lyčkoŭski" class="citation web cs1">J. Lyčkoŭski. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lyczkowski.net/pl/informator/rejestr-szlachty/szlachta.html">"Szlachta"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Szlachta&rft.au=J.+Ly%C4%8Dko%C5%ADski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lyczkowski.net%2Fpl%2Finformator%2Frejestr-szlachty%2Fszlachta.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASzlachta" class="Z3988"> (Alphabetical Lists) (in Polish)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nobility_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:European_nobility" title="Template:European nobility"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:European_nobility" title="Template talk:European nobility"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:European_nobility" title="Special:EditPage/Template:European nobility"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nobility_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/European_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="European nobility">Nobility of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Present monarchies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_nobility" title="Belgian nobility">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_nobility" title="Danish nobility">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_nobility" title="Dutch nobility">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_of_Norway" title="Aristocracy of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_nobility" title="Spanish nobility">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_nobility" title="Swedish nobility">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_nobility" title="British nobility">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_nobility" title="Papal nobility">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abolished_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolished monarchy">Former monarchies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_nobility" title="Albanian nobility">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_nobility" title="Armenian nobility">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_nobility" title="Austrian nobility">Austria and Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_nobility" title="Czech nobility">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Bosnian_noble_families" title="Template:Bosnian noble families">Bosnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_nobility" title="Croatian nobility">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_German_nobility" title="Baltic German nobility">Estonia and Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_nobility" title="Finnish nobility">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_nobility" title="French nobility">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_the_First_French_Empire" title="Nobility of the First French Empire">Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Georgia_(country)" title="Nobility of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nobility" title="German nobility">Germany</a></li> <li>Greece <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoi" title="Aristoi">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eupatridae" title="Eupatridae">Attica</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_bureaucracy_and_aristocracy" title="Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phanariots" title="Phanariots">Early Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_nobility" title="Hungarian nobility">Hungary and Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_in_Iceland" title="Nobility in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_nobility" title="Irish nobility">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobility of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_nobility" title="Lithuanian nobility">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_nobility" title="Maltese nobility">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_nobility" title="Montenegrin nobility">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_nobility" title="Portuguese nobility">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boyars_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nobility" title="Russian nobility">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_nobility" title="Serbian nobility">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_nobility" title="Swiss nobility">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_nobility" title="Ruthenian nobility">Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_nobility_of_Galicia" title="Ukrainian nobility of Galicia">Galicia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nobility_by_nation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobility_by_nation" title="Template:Nobility by nation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobility_by_nation" title="Template talk:Nobility by nation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobility_by_nation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobility by nation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nobility_by_nation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">Nobility</a> by nation</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>(*) : state where <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> still exists</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sahib-ul-Ma%27ali" title="Sahib-ul-Ma'ali">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mamluk_titles_and_appellations" title="List of Mamluk titles and appellations">Mamluks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Eswatini" title="List of monarchs of Eswatini">Eswatini</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_aristocratic_and_court_titles" title="Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Chieftaincy" title="Nigerian Chieftaincy">Nigeria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_traditional_rulers" title="Nigerian traditional rulers">Rulers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriana" title="Andriana">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_aristocratic_and_court_titles" title="Somali aristocratic and court titles">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_royal_family" title="Zulu royal family">South Africa (Zulu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharifism" title="Sharifism">Morocco</a>*</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Princely_Hat.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Princely_Hat.svg/70px-Princely_Hat.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Princely_Hat.svg/105px-Princely_Hat.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Princely_Hat.svg/140px-Princely_Hat.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="489" data-file-height="383" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_peers_and_baronets" title="Canadian peers and baronets">Canada</a>*</li> <li>Mexico <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pipiltin" title="Pipiltin">pre-Columbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_nobility" title="Mexican nobility">post-Columbian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban nobility">Cuba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_nobility" title="Brazilian nobility">Brazil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_nobility" title="Lebanese nobility">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ottoman_families" title="Template:Ottoman families">Turkey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nobility" title="Chinese nobility">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_nobility" title="Mongolian nobility">Mongolia</a></li> <li>Japan* <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuge" title="Kuge">Kuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daimy%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Daimyō">Daimyō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazoku" title="Kazoku">Meiji</a></li></ul></li> <li>Korea <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_nobility" title="Korean nobility">Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangban" title="Yangban">Yangban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">Princes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_peers_and_baronets" title="Indian peers and baronets">Indo-European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southeast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Indonesia* <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Kshatriya" title="Balinese Kshatriya">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabang_Atas" title="Cabang Atas">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priyayi" title="Priyayi">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_styles_and_titles" title="Malay styles and titles">Malay</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_styles_and_titles" title="Malay styles and titles">Malaysia</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_styles_and_titles" title="Malay styles and titles">Brunei</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_nobility" title="Khmer nobility">Cambodia</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principal%C3%ADa" title="Principalía">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_nobility" title="Thai nobility">Thailand</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_nobility" title="Vietnamese nobility">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_nobility" title="Danish nobility">Denmark</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_nobility" title="Finnish nobility">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_in_Iceland" title="Nobility in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_of_Norway" title="Aristocracy of Norway">Norway</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_nobility" title="Swedish nobility">Sweden</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_nobility" title="Belgian nobility">Belgium</a>*</li> <li>France <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_nobility" title="French nobility">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_the_First_French_Empire" title="Nobility of the First French Empire">Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_nobility" title="Dutch nobility">The Netherlands</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_nobility" title="Swiss nobility">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_nobility" title="British nobility">United Kingdom</a>* <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_England" title="Peerage of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_Scotland" title="Peerage of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_Great_Britain" title="Peerage of Great Britain">Great Britain</a></li> <li>Ireland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_nobility_of_Ireland" title="Gaelic nobility of Ireland">Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_Ireland" title="Peerage of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normans_in_Ireland" title="Normans in Ireland">Norman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Peerage of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papal_nobility" title="Papal nobility">Holy See</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobility of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Malta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobility of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_nobility" title="Portuguese nobility">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_nobility" title="Spanish nobility">Spain</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central, Eastern and Caucasus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_nobility" title="Albanian nobility">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_nobility" title="Armenian nobility">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus" title="Khanates of the Caucasus">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_nobility" title="Austrian nobility">Austria</a></li> <li>Baltic countries <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_German_nobility" title="Baltic German nobility">Ritterschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_nobility" title="Lithuanian nobility">Lithuania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_nobility" title="Croatian nobility">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_nobility" title="Czech nobility">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Georgia_(country)" title="Nobility of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nobility" title="German nobility">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_nobility" title="Hungarian nobility">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_nobility" title="Montenegrin nobility">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boyars_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nobility" title="Russian nobility">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_nobility" title="Serbian nobility">Serbia</a></li> <li>Ukraine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_nobility" title="Ruthenian nobility">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_nobility_of_Galicia" title="Ukrainian nobility of Galicia">Galicia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_peers_and_baronets" title="Australian peers and baronets">Australia</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ratu" title="Ratu">Fiji</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iroijlaplap" title="Iroijlaplap">Marshall Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ariki" title="Ariki">Polynesia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fa%27amatai" class="mw-redirect" title="Fa'amatai">Samoan Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_nobles" title="Tongan nobles">Tonga</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali%CA%BBi" title="Aliʻi">Hawai‘i</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Polish_heraldry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Heraldry_in_Poland" title="Template:Heraldry in Poland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Heraldry_in_Poland" title="Template talk:Heraldry in Poland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Heraldry_in_Poland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Heraldry in Poland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Polish_heraldry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Polish_heraldry" title="Polish heraldry">Polish heraldry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland" title="Coat of arms of Poland">Coat of arms of Poland</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Herb_Polski.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms"><img alt="Coat of arms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Herb_Polski.svg/75px-Herb_Polski.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Herb_Polski.svg/113px-Herb_Polski.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Herb_Polski.svg/150px-Herb_Polski.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3158" data-file-height="3716" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Coat of arms of Białystok">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_of_Bydgoszcz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms of Bydgoszcz (page does not exist)">Bydgoszcz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Gda%C5%84sk" title="Coat of arms of Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_of_Gdynia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms of Gdynia (page does not exist)">Gdynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Gorz%C3%B3w_Wielkopolski" title="Coat of arms of Gorzów Wielkopolski">Gorzów Wielkopolski</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_of_Katowice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms of Katowice (page does not exist)">Katowice</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_and_flag_of_Kielce&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms and flag of Kielce (page does not exist)">Kielce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Krak%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Coat of arms of Kraków">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Lublin" title="Coat of arms of Lublin">Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="Coat of arms of Łódź">Łódź</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_of_Opole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms of Opole (page does not exist)">Opole</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_of_Olsztyn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms of Olsztyn (page does not exist)">Olsztyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Pozna%C5%84" title="Coat of arms of Poznań">Poznań</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_and_flag_of_Rzesz%C3%B3w&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms and flag of Rzeszów (page does not exist)">Rzeszów</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_of_Sopot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms of Sopot (page does not exist)">Sopot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Szczecin" title="Coat of arms of Szczecin">Szczecin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_of_Toru%C5%84&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms of Toruń (page does not exist)">Toruń</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Warsaw" title="Coat of arms of Warsaw">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Coat of arms of Wrocław">Wrocław</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_of_Zielona_G%C3%B3ra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms of Zielona Góra (page does not exist)">Zielona Góra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Poland" title="Armorial of Poland">Regional</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Greater_Poland_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Greater Poland Voivodeship">Greater Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodeship" class="mw-redirect" title="Coat of arms of the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship">Kuyavian-Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship">Lesser Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Łódź Voivodeship">Łódź</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Lower_Silesian_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship">Lower Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Lublin_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Lublin Voivodeship">Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Lubusz_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Lubusz Voivodeship">Lubusz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Masovian_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Masovian Voivodeship">Masovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Opole_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Opole Voivodeship">Opole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Podlaskie_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Podlaskie Voivodeship">Podlaskie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Pomeranian_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Pomeranian Voivodeship">Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Silesian_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Silesian Voivodeship">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Subcarpathian_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Subcarpathian Voivodeship">Subcarpathian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tokrzyskie_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship">Świętokrzyskie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Warmian%E2%80%93Masurian_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship">Warmian-Masurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_West_Pomeranian_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship">West Pomeranian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural and historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_August%C3%B3w_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Augustów Voivodeship">Augustów Voivodeship</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_of_the_Che%C5%82mno_Voivodeship&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms of the Chełmno Voivodeship (page does not exist)">Chełmno Voivodeship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Central_Lithuania" title="Coat of arms of Central Lithuania">Central Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Congress_Poland" title="Coat of arms of Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piast_Dragon" class="mw-redirect" title="Piast Dragon">Duchy of Czersk</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coat_of_arms_of_the_Kalisz_Voivodeship&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coat of arms of the Kalisz Voivodeship (page does not exist)">Kalisz Voivodeship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Kashubia" title="Coat of arms of Kashubia">Kashubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Kociewie" title="Coat of arms of Kociewie">Kociewie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Sandomierz_Voivodeship" title="Coat of arms of the Sandomierz Voivodeship">Sandomierz Voivodeship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Silesia" title="Coat of arms of Silesia">Silesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Coat of arms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Pomerania" title="Coat of arms of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Prussia" title="Coat of arms of Prussia">Prussia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Noble heraldry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heraldic_clan" title="Heraldic clan">Heraldic clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraldic_adoption" title="Heraldic adoption">Heraldic adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indygenat" title="Indygenat">Indygenat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Test_of_Nobility" title="Test of Nobility">Test of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skartabellat" title="Skartabellat">Skartabellat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Polish_nobility" title="Armorial of Polish nobility">Armorial of Polish nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Polish_coats_of_arms" title="Category:Polish coats of arms">Polish coats of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Polish_heraldists" title="Category:Polish heraldists">Polish heraldists</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Szlachta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_titled_nobility" title="List of Polish titled nobility">List of Polish titled nobility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_landed_gentry" title="Polish landed gentry">Landed gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_names" title="Polish names">Polish names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">Heraldry</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&oldid=1254626118">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&oldid=1254626118</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Polish_nobility" title="Category:Polish nobility">Polish nobility</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ruthenian_nobility_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Category:Ruthenian nobility of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Ruthenian nobility of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lithuanian_nobility" title="Category:Lithuanian nobility">Lithuanian nobility</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ukrainian_nobility" title="Category:Ukrainian nobility">Ukrainian nobility</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_class_in_Poland" title="Category:Social class in Poland">Social class in Poland</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Phonos_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Phonos extension">Pages using the Phonos extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_interwiki-linked_names" title="Category:CS1 interwiki-linked names">CS1 interwiki-linked names</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Polish-language_sources_(pl)" title="Category:CS1 Polish-language sources (pl)">CS1 Polish-language sources (pl)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Latin-language_sources_(la)" title="Category:CS1 Latin-language sources (la)">CS1 Latin-language sources (la)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Lithuanian-language_sources_(lt)" title="Category:CS1 Lithuanian-language sources (lt)">CS1 Lithuanian-language sources (lt)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_February_2022" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from February 2022">Articles lacking reliable references from February 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_locally_defined" title="Category:Commons category link is locally defined">Commons category link is locally defined</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2019" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2019">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2018" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2018">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2017" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2017">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Polish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Polish-language text">Articles containing Polish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2017" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Polish-language_sources_(pl)" title="Category:Articles with Polish-language sources (pl)">Articles with Polish-language sources (pl)</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 31 October 2024, at 22:26 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Szlachta&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6dfcdd5ff5-tg7xm","wgBackendResponseTime":218,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.631","walltime":"3.004","ppvisitednodes":{"value":21470,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":431081,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":21493,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":27,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":562193,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2583.773 1 -total"," 41.40% 1069.771 1 Template:Reflist"," 17.79% 459.646 67 Template:Cite_book"," 7.58% 195.797 19 Template:Fix"," 7.31% 188.895 16 Template:Citation_needed"," 6.89% 177.967 36 Template:Cite_web"," 6.61% 170.673 23 Template:Rp"," 6.31% 163.037 5 Template:Harv"," 6.14% 158.707 23 Template:R/superscript"," 5.90% 152.384 4 Template:Cite_encyclopedia"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.536","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":28518800,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAndrzej_Rachuba2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAquinas1265–1274\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBajer\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBajer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBajer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoniecki_(Fredro-Boniecki),_herbu_Bończa1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoswell1919\"] = 10,\n [\"CITEREFChoińska-Mika2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1982\"] = 5,\n [\"CITEREFDaviesDawsonJasiewiczKondracki2017\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFDmowski1917\"] = 5,\n [\"CITEREFFeshchenko-Chopivsky\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrost2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrost2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGliński2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuzowski2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGóralski1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGórecki1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobbes1651\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuttonBagehot1864\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFJ._Lyčkoŭski\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJakubowski1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJakubowski2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJastrzębiec-Czajkowski\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFJelinska-Marchal1988\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFKamen2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiaupienė2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKidd1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuligowski2017\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLukas2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLukowski2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManteuffel1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarian2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichener1983\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMilewska-Waźbińska2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinakowski\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiesiecki_S.J.de_Bobrowicz1846\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFOchmański1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOkolski1643\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPetronis2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Bideleux,_Ian_Jeffries1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoss1835\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFRoss_(of_Durham)1835\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkwarczyński1956\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFSteinlauf1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStruve2008\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFSulimirski1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzacki1995\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTomaszewski\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTopór-Jakubowski\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFZamoyski1998\"] = 6,\n [\"CITEREFks._Dariusz_Pater2010\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 9,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 16,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 67,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite periodical\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 36,\n [\"Clear\"] = 7,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 2,\n [\"European nobility\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Harv\"] = 5,\n [\"IPAc-pl\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 4,\n [\"Ill\"] = 4,\n [\"In lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Italic title\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Linktext\"] = 3,\n [\"Main\"] = 9,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Nobility by nation\"] = 1,\n [\"Note label\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Poemquote\"] = 3,\n [\"Polish CoA\"] = 1,\n [\"Ref label\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 23,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreliable source?\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","15.3"],["?","260","15.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","220","12.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","180","10.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","160","9.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","4.7"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","4.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","80","4.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","40","2.4"],["type","40","2.4"],["[others]","300","17.6"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-5857dfdcd6-2269k","timestamp":"20241203071028","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Szlachta","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Szlachta","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q311995","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q311995","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-12-02T18:32:48Z","dateModified":"2024-10-31T22:26:05Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/4d\/Szlachta_in_costumes_of_the_Voivodeships_of_the_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.PNG","headline":"noble class of Kingdom of Poland and later in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth"}</script> </body> </html>