CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Taxonomy (biology) - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"5f19cb89-407d-45ca-b33f-2302bd90cd71","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Taxonomy_(biology)","wgTitle":"Taxonomy (biology)","wgCurRevisionId":1252359140,"wgRevisionId":1252359140,"wgArticleId":30463,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1: long volume value","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","CS1 Latin-language sources (la)","CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv)","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use dmy dates from March 2022","Good articles","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2019","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from April 2017", "Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2016","All articles containing potentially dated statements","Pages using div col with small parameter","Webarchive template wayback links","Taxonomy (biology)","Biological nomenclature","Biological classification","Neo-Latin terminology"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Taxonomy_(biology)","wgRelevantArticleId":30463,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Alpha_taxonomy","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true, "watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)#Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy","wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q8269924","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready", "skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions", "wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Taxonomy (biology) - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)#Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)#Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Taxonomy_biology rootpage-Taxonomy_biology skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Taxonomy+%28biology%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Taxonomy+%28biology%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Taxonomy+%28biology%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Taxonomy+%28biology%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Definition </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Definition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Definition subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monograph_and_taxonomic_revision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monograph_and_taxonomic_revision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Monograph and taxonomic revision </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monograph_and_taxonomic_revision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxonomic_characters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomic_characters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Taxonomic characters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxonomic_characters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Alpha and beta taxonomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microtaxonomy_and_macrotaxonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microtaxonomy_and_macrotaxonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Microtaxonomy and macrotaxonomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microtaxonomy_and_macrotaxonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-Linnaean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Linnaean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Pre-Linnaean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Linnaean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_taxonomists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_taxonomists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Early taxonomists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_taxonomists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Ancient times </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Medieval </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance_and_early_modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance_and_early_modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4 Renaissance and early modern </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance_and_early_modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linnaean_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linnaean_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Linnaean era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linnaean_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_digital_era_of_taxonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_digital_era_of_taxonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 The digital era of taxonomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_digital_era_of_taxonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_system_of_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_system_of_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Modern system of classification </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_system_of_classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern system of classification subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_system_of_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kingdoms_and_domains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdoms_and_domains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Kingdoms and domains </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdoms_and_domains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_comprehensive_classifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_comprehensive_classifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Recent comprehensive classifications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_comprehensive_classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Application </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Application-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Application subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Application-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classifying_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classifying_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Classifying organisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classifying_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxonomic_descriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomic_descriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Taxonomic descriptions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxonomic_descriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Author_citation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Author_citation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Author citation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Author_citation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phenetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phenetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Phenetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phenetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Databases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Databases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Databases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Databases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Taxonomy (biology)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 93 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-93" aria-hidden="true" > 93 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenskaplike_klassifikasie" title="Wetenskaplike klassifikasie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Wetenskaplike klassifikasie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomie_(Biologie)" title="Taxonomie (Biologie) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Taxonomie (Biologie)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%81_(%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1)" title="علم التصنيف (أحياء) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم التصنيف (أحياء)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonom%C3%ADa" title="Taxonomía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Taxonomía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A3" title="জীৱবৈজ্ঞানিক বৰ্গীকৰণ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="জীৱবৈজ্ঞানিক বৰ্গীকৰণ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonom%C3%ADa" title="Taxonomía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Taxonomía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_(%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C)" title="تاکسونومی (بیولوژی) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تاکسونومی (بیولوژی)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomi_(biologi)" title="Taksonomi (biologi) – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Taksonomi (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE_(%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8)" title="শ্রেণিবিন্যাসবিদ্যা (জীববিজ্ঞান) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শ্রেণিবিন্যাসবিদ্যা (জীববিজ্ঞান)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hun-l%C5%ABi-ha%CC%8Dk_(seng-bu%CC%8Dt-ha%CC%8Dk)" title="Hun-lūi-ha̍k (seng-bu̍t-ha̍k) – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hun-lūi-ha̍k (seng-bu̍t-ha̍k)" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_(%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8)" title="टैक्सोनॉमी (जीव बिज्ञान) – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="टैक्सोनॉमी (जीव बिज्ञान)" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomiya" title="Taksonomiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Taksonomiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomia" title="Taxonomia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Taxonomia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomie_(biologie)" title="Taxonomie (biologie) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Taxonomie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upangamutowo" title="Upangamutowo – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Upangamutowo" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomie_(Biologie)" title="Taxonomie (Biologie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Taxonomie (Biologie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonom%C3%ADa" title="Taxonomía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Taxonomía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomio" title="Taksonomio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Taksonomio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomia" title="Taxonomia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Taxonomia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_(%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C)" title="آرایه‌شناسی (زیست‌شناسی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آرایه‌شناسی (زیست‌شناسی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomie" title="Taxonomie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Taxonomie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacsanoma%C3%ADocht_(bitheola%C3%ADocht)" title="Tacsanomaíocht (bitheolaíocht) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tacsanomaíocht (bitheolaíocht)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rang-oardraghey_(bea-oaylleeaght)" title="Rang-oardraghey (bea-oaylleeaght) – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Rang-oardraghey (bea-oaylleeaght)" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonom%C3%ADa_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Taxonomía (bioloxía) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Taxonomía (bioloxía)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%97%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%83%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%A3_(%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9E%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8)" title="વર્ગીકૃતનામકરણ (જીવવિજ્ઞાન) – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વર્ગીકૃતનામકરણ (જીવવિજ્ઞાન)" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%84%EB%A5%98%ED%95%99" title="분류학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="분류학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Կենսաբանական դասակարգում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենսաբանական դասակարգում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_(%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8)" title="वर्गिकी (जीवविज्ञान) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वर्गिकी (जीवविज्ञान)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomija_(biologija)" title="Taksonomija (biologija) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Taksonomija (biologija)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomia_(biolohia)" title="Taksonomia (biolohia) – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Taksonomia (biolohia)" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomi_(biologi)" title="Taksonomi (biologi) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Taksonomi (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingqwangqwa_(kumchazampilo)" title="Ingqwangqwa (kumchazampilo) – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ingqwangqwa (kumchazampilo)" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94_(%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94)" title="טקסונומיה (ביולוגיה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טקסונומיה (ביולוגיה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomi_(biologi)" title="Taksonomi (biologi) – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Taksonomi (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF" title="ಟ್ಯಾಕ್ಸಾನಮಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಟ್ಯಾಕ್ಸಾನಮಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%95%DA%98%D9%88%D9%B2%D9%86%D8%A0_(%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%9B%D9%88%D9%97%D8%AF%D9%8F%D8%AA)" title="رٕژوٲنؠ (زیٛوٗدُت) – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="رٕژوٲنؠ (زیٛوٗدُت)" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Таксономия (биология) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Таксономия (биология)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonom%C3%AE_(biyoloj%C3%AE)" title="Taksonomî (biyolojî) – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Taksonomî (biyolojî)" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биологиялык классификация – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Биологиялык классификация" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomija" title="Taksonomija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Taksonomija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomija" title="Taksonomija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Taksonomija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomi_(biologi)" title="Taksonomi (biologi) – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Taksonomi (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonom%C3%AFa" title="Taxonomïa – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Taxonomïa" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomie" title="Taxonomie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Taxonomie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasonomia" title="Tasonomia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Tasonomia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendszertan_(biol%C3%B3gia)" title="Rendszertan (biológia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rendszertan (biológia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_(%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8)" title="ट्याक्सोनोमी (जीव विज्ञान) – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="ट्याक्सोनोमी (जीव विज्ञान)" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Таксономија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Таксономија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ജൈവവർഗ്ഗീകരണശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജൈവവർഗ്ഗീകരണശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomi_(biologi)" title="Taksonomi (biologi) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Taksonomi (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="မျိုးခွဲဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မျိုးခွဲဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomie_(biologie)" title="Taxonomie (biologie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Taxonomie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="प्राणी वर्गीकरण विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्राणी वर्गीकरण विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="分類学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="分類学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomii_faan_diarten_an_plaanten" title="Taksonomii faan diarten an plaanten – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Taksonomii faan diarten an plaanten" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramaddamee(Taxonomy)" title="Ramaddamee(Taxonomy) – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Ramaddamee(Taxonomy)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomiya" title="Taksonomiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Taksonomiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomia" title="Taksonomia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Taksonomia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%89%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A)_%D9%BC%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A(" title="ډلبندي) ټکسونومي( – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ډلبندي) ټکسونومي(" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomia" title="Taksonomia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Taksonomia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomia" title="Taxonomia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Taxonomia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomie_(biologie)" title="Taxonomie (biologie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Taxonomie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Таксономия (биология) – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Таксономия (биология)" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Биологическая таксономия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биологическая таксономия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Биология классификацията – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Биология классификацията" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology) – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Taxonomy (biology)" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomia_(biologji)" title="Taksonomia (biologji) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Taksonomia (biologji)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tassinum%C3%ACa" title="Tassinumìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Tassinumìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%BA_(%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%80_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80)" title="වර්ගීකරණය (ජීව විද්‍යාව) – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වර්ගීකරණය (ජීව විද්‍යාව)" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BD%D9%8A%DA%AA%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A" title="ٽيڪسانومي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ٽيڪسانومي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon%C3%B3mia_(biol%C3%B3gia)" title="Taxonómia (biológia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Taxonómia (biológia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Таксономија (биологија) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Таксономија (биологија)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomija" title="Taksonomija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Taksonomija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasifikasi_ilmiah" title="Klasifikasi ilmiah – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Klasifikasi ilmiah" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomia" title="Taksonomia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Taksonomia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomi" title="Taxonomi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Taxonomi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomiya" title="Taksonomiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Taksonomiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="உயிரியல் வகைப்பாடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிரியல் வகைப்பாடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnmalayt" title="Tasnmalayt – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasnmalayt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasensartut_(tasnudert)" title="Tasensartut (tasnudert) – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasensartut (tasnudert)" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%80_(%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%80)" title="టాక్సానమీ (బయాలజీ) – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="టాక్సానమీ (బయాలజీ)" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="อนุกรมวิธาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อนุกรมวิธาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%AA%E1%8F%AF_%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%83%E1%8E%B7%E1%8F%A9%E1%8F%98%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%A9" title="ᏍᎪᏯ ᏗᏃᎷᏩᏘᏍᎩ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏍᎪᏯ ᏗᏃᎷᏩᏘᏍᎩ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomi_(biyoloji)" title="Taksonomi (biyoloji) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Taksonomi (biyoloji)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F_(%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Таксономія (біологія) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Таксономія (біологія)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_(%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="تصنیفیات (حیاتیات) – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تصنیفیات (حیاتیات)" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A2n_lo%E1%BA%A1i_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Phân loại sinh học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phân loại sinh học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomie_(biologie)" title="Taxonomie (biologie) – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Taxonomie (biologie)" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomiya_(biyolohiya)" title="Taxonomiya (biyolohiya) – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Taxonomiya (biyolohiya)" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="生物分类学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="生物分类学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="生物分類學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="生物分類學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="生物分类学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="生物分类学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasifikasi_Biologi" title="Klasifikasi Biologi – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Klasifikasi Biologi" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8269924#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Taxonomy_(biology)" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)">Read</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taxonomy_(biology)&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taxonomy_(biology)&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taxonomy_(biology)&action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taxonomy_(biology)&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Taxonomy_(biology)" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taxonomy_(biology)&oldid=1252359140" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taxonomy_(biology)&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Taxonomy_%28biology%29&id=1252359140&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FTaxonomy_%28biology%29%23Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FTaxonomy_%28biology%29%23Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Taxonomy_%28biology%29&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taxonomy_(biology)&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Taxonomy_(biology)" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiversity mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(Biology)" hreflang="en">Wikiversity</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8269924" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alpha_taxonomy&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha taxonomy">Alpha taxonomy</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Science of naming, defining and classifying organisms</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #90ee90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#90ee90;padding:0.2em;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/180px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/270px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/360px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1319" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Gould" title="John Gould">John Gould</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of evolutionary biology">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Processes and outcomes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Co-operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coextinction" title="Coextinction">Coextinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Contingency (evolutionary biology)">Contingency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History of evolutionary theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Overview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Before Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">Before synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evo-devo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_research_in_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Current research in evolutionary biology">Current research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_speciation" title="History of speciation">History of speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Fields and applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applications_of_evolution" title="Applications of evolution">Applications of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory" title="Evolutionary game theory">Evolutionary game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">Evolutionary physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_evolution" title="Experimental evolution">Experimental evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_experiments_of_speciation" title="Laboratory experiments of speciation">Speciation experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">Island biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Darwinism" title="Universal Darwinism">Universal Darwinism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Social implications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_as_fact_and_theory" title="Evolution as fact and theory">Evolution as fact and theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory" title="Social effects of evolutionary theory">Social effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Creation–evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">Objections to evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_support_for_evolution" title="Level of support for evolution">Level of support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature-nurture controversy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/16px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/24px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="760" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_biology" title="Template:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_biology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> In <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, taxonomy (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BE%CE%B9%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:τάξις">τάξις</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taxis" title="Taxis">taxis</a>) 'arrangement' and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BD%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:νόμος">-νομία</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-nomy" class="extiw" title="wikt:-nomy">-nomia</a>) '<a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a>') is the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> study of naming, defining (<a href="/wiki/Circumscription_(taxonomy)" title="Circumscription (taxonomy)">circumscribing</a>) and classifying groups of biological <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a> (singular: taxon) and these groups are given a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">taxonomic rank</a>; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> (division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum), <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a>, <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>. The Swedish botanist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a ranked system known as <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a> for categorizing organisms and <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">binomial nomenclature</a> for naming organisms. With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics, the Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> relationships among organisms, both living and extinct. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div> The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkins2011-1">[1]</a> As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below: <ol><li>Theory and practice of grouping individuals into species, arranging species into larger groups, and giving those groups names, thus producing a classification.<a href="#cite_note-Judd-2">[2]</a></li> <li>A field of science (and a major component of <a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">systematics</a>) that encompasses description, identification, <a href="/wiki/Nomenclature" title="Nomenclature">nomenclature</a>, and classification<a href="#cite_note-Simpson-3">[3]</a></li> <li>The science of classification, in biology the arrangement of organisms into a classification<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></li> <li>"The science of classification as applied to living organisms, including the study of means of formation of species, etc."<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></li> <li>"The analysis of an organism's characteristics for the purpose of classification"<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-6">[6]</a></li> <li>"Systematics studies <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a> to provide a pattern that can be translated into the classification and names of the more inclusive field of taxonomy" (listed as a desirable but unusual definition)<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></li></ol> The varied definitions either place taxonomy as a sub-area of systematics (definition 2), invert that relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether <a href="/wiki/Biological_nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological nomenclature">biological nomenclature</a> is considered a part of taxonomy (definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside taxonomy.<a href="#cite_note-Herbarium-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laurin_2023_Advent-9">[9]</a> For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy:<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-6">[6]</a> <ul><li>Systematics: "The study of the identification, taxonomy, and nomenclature of organisms, including the classification of living things with regard to their natural relationships and the study of variation and the evolution of taxa".</li></ul> In 1970, Michener et al. defined "systematic biology" and "taxonomy" (terms that are often confused and used interchangeably) in relation to one another as follows:<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <blockquote> Systematic biology (hereafter called simply systematics) is the field that (a) provides scientific names for organisms, (b) describes them, (c) preserves collections of them, (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys for their identification, and data on their distributions, (e) investigates their evolutionary histories, and (f) considers their environmental adaptations. This is a field with a long history that in recent years has experienced a notable renaissance, principally with respect to theoretical content. Part of the theoretical material has to do with evolutionary areas (topics e and f above), the rest relates especially to the problem of classification. Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above. </blockquote> A whole set of terms including taxonomy, systematic biology, <a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">systematics</a>, scientific classification, biological classification, and <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a> have at times had overlapping meanings – sometimes the same, sometimes slightly different, but always related and intersecting.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkins2011-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Small1989-11">[11]</a> The broadest meaning of "taxonomy" is used here. The term itself was introduced in 1813 by <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Pyramus_de_Candolle" title="Augustin Pyramus de Candolle">de Candolle</a>, in his <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_la_botanique" class="mw-redirect" title="Théorie élémentaire de la botanique">Théorie élémentaire de la botanique</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Lindley" title="John Lindley">John Lindley</a> provided an early definition of systematics in 1830, although he wrote of "systematic botany" rather than using the term "systematics".<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Europeans tend to use the terms "systematics" and "biosystematics" for the study of biodiversity as a whole, whereas North Americans tend to use "taxonomy" more frequently.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> However, taxonomy, and in particular <a href="/wiki/Alpha_taxonomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha taxonomy">alpha taxonomy</a>, is more specifically the identification, description, and naming (i.e., nomenclature) of organisms,<a href="#cite_note-Fortey-15">[15]</a> while "classification" focuses on placing organisms within hierarchical groups that show their relationships to other organisms. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monograph_and_taxonomic_revision">Monograph and taxonomic revision</h3></div> A taxonomic revision or taxonomic review is a novel analysis of the variation patterns in a particular <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxon</a>. This analysis may be executed on the basis of any combination of the various available kinds of characters, such as morphological, <a href="/wiki/Anatomical" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomical">anatomical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palynological" class="mw-redirect" title="Palynological">palynological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Monograph#In_biology" title="Monograph">monograph</a> or complete revision is a revision that is comprehensive for a taxon for the information given at a particular time, and for the entire world. Other (partial) revisions may be restricted in the sense that they may only use some of the available character sets or have a limited spatial scope. A revision results in a conformation of or new insights in the relationships between the subtaxa within the taxon under study, which may lead to a change in the classification of these subtaxa, the identification of new subtaxa, or the merger of previous subtaxa.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxonomic_characters">Taxonomic characters</h3></div> Taxonomic characters are the taxonomic attributes that can be used to provide the evidence from which relationships (the <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a>) between taxa are inferred.<a href="#cite_note-Hennig_1965-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Kinds of taxonomic characters include:<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">Morphological</a> characters <ul><li>General external <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a></li> <li>Special structures (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">genitalia</a>)</li> <li>Internal morphology (<a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyology</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cytological</a> factors</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiological</a> characters <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolic factors</a></li> <li>Body secretions</li> <li>Genic sterility factors</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular</a> characters <ul><li>Immunological distance</li> <li>Electrophoretic differences</li> <li>Amino acid sequences of proteins</li> <li>DNA hybridization</li> <li>DNA and RNA sequences</li> <li>Restriction endonuclease analyses</li> <li>Other molecular differences</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavioral</a> characters <ul><li>Courtship and other ethological isolating mechanisms</li> <li>Other behavior patterns</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecological</a> characters <ul><li>Habit and habitats</li> <li>Food</li> <li>Seasonal variations</li> <li>Parasites and hosts</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geographic</a> characters <ul><li>General <a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">biogeographic distribution</a> patterns</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatry" title="Sympatry">Sympatric</a>-<a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">allopatric</a> relationship of populations</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy">Alpha and beta taxonomy</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Alpha_diversity" title="Alpha diversity">Alpha diversity</a>.</div> The term "alpha taxonomy" is primarily used to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a>, particularly species.<a href="#cite_note-BiologyDiscussion-20">[20]</a> In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, and the products of research through the end of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Bertram_Turrill" title="William Bertram Turrill">William Bertram Turrill</a> introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurrill1938-22">[22]</a><blockquote> ... there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate the possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetics colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable ... Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide a basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress a little way down the Greek alphabet. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a "beta" taxonomy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurrill1938-22">[22]</a></blockquote> Turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurrill1938365–366-23">[23]</a> Later authors have used the term in a different sense, to mean the delimitation of species (not subspecies or taxa of other ranks), using whatever investigative techniques are available, and including sophisticated computational or laboratory techniques.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-BiologyDiscussion-20">[20]</a> Thus, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a> in 1968 defined "beta taxonomy" as the classification of ranks higher than species.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><blockquote>An understanding of the biological meaning of variation and of the evolutionary origin of groups of related species is even more important for the second stage of taxonomic activity, the sorting of species into groups of relatives ("taxa") and their arrangement in a hierarchy of higher categories. This activity is what the term classification denotes; it is also referred to as "beta taxonomy".</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microtaxonomy_and_macrotaxonomy">Microtaxonomy and macrotaxonomy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Species_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Species problem">Species problem</a></div> How species should be defined in a particular group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Species_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Species problem">species problem</a>. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-BiologyDiscussion-20">[20]</a> By extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at the higher <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">taxonomic ranks</a> subgenus and above,<a href="#cite_note-BiologyDiscussion-20">[20]</a> or simply in clades that include more than one taxon considered a species, expressed in terms of <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">phylogenetic nomenclature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cantino_&_de_Queiroz_2020-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, a truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century, with the possible exception of Aristotle, whose works hint at a taxonomy.<a href="#cite_note-Voultsiadou_&_Vafidis_2007-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Voultsiadou_et_al._2017-30">[30]</a> Earlier works were primarily descriptive and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>'s system of sexual classification for plants (Linnaeus's 1735 classification of animals was entitled "<a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a>" ("the System of Nature"), implying that he, at least, believed that it was more than an "artificial system"). Later came systems based on a more complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as "natural systems", such as those of <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Laurent_de_Jussieu" title="Antoine Laurent de Jussieu">de Jussieu</a> (1789), de Candolle (1813) and <a href="/wiki/Bentham_and_Hooker" class="mw-redirect" title="Bentham and Hooker">Bentham and Hooker</a> (1862–1863). These classifications described empirical patterns and were pre-<a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> in thinking. The publication of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a> (1859) led to a new explanation for classifications, based on evolutionary relationships. This was the concept of <a href="/wiki/Phyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phyletic">phyletic</a> systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of <a href="/wiki/August_Eichler" class="mw-redirect" title="August Eichler">Eichler</a> (1883) and <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Engler" title="Adolf Engler">Engler</a> (1886–1892). The advent of <a href="/wiki/Cladistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladistic">cladistic</a> methodology in the 1970s led to classifications based on the sole criterion of <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyly</a>, supported by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Synapomorphies" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphies">synapomorphies</a>. Since then, the evidentiary basis has been expanded with data from <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a> that for the most part complements traditional <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDatta1988-31">[31]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStace1989-32">[32]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStuessy2009-33">[33]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Linnaean">Pre-Linnaean</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_taxonomists">Early taxonomists</h4></div> Naming and classifying human surroundings likely began with the onset of language. Distinguishing poisonous plants from edible plants is integral to the survival of human communities. Medicinal plant illustrations show up in Egyptian wall paintings from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 BC, indicating that the uses of different species were understood and that a basic taxonomy was in place.<a href="#cite_note-Manktelow-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_times">Ancient times</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology#Classification" title="Aristotle's biology">Aristotle's biology § Classification</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg/370px-Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg" decoding="async" width="370" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg/555px-Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg/740px-Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6826" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Description of rare animals (写生珍禽图), by <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> painter <a href="/wiki/Huang_Quan_(painter)" title="Huang Quan (painter)">Huang Quan</a> (903–965)</figcaption></figure> Organisms were first classified by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, 384–322 BC) during his stay on the <a href="/wiki/Lesbos" title="Lesbos">Island of Lesbos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Palaeos-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Britannica_–_Taxonomy-37">[37]</a> He classified beings by their parts, or in modern terms attributes, such as having live birth, having four legs, laying eggs, having blood, or being warm-bodied.<a href="#cite_note-Roanoke-38">[38]</a> He divided all living things into two groups: <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Palaeos-36">[36]</a> Some of his groups of animals, such as Anhaima (animals without blood, translated as <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>) and Enhaima (animals with blood, roughly the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>), as well as groups like the <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cetacean" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetacean">cetaceans</a>, are commonly used.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-von_Lieven_&_Humar_2008-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laurin_&_Humar_2022-41">[41]</a> His student <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> (Greece, 370–285 BC) carried on this tradition, mentioning some 500 plants and their uses in his <a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus)" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)">Historia Plantarum</a>. Several plant <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a> can be traced back to Theophrastus, such as <a href="/wiki/Cornus_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornus (genus)">Cornus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crocus" title="Crocus">Crocus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Narcissus_(plant)" title="Narcissus (plant)">Narcissus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Palaeos-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medieval">Medieval</h4></div> Taxonomy in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> was largely based on the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian system">Aristotelian system</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Roanoke-38">[38]</a> with additions concerning the philosophical and existential order of creatures. This included concepts such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">great chain of being</a> in the Western <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> tradition,<a href="#cite_note-Roanoke-38">[38]</a> again deriving ultimately from Aristotle. The Aristotelian system did not classify plants or <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, due to the lack of microscopes at the time,<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_–_Taxonomy-37">[37]</a> as his ideas were based on arranging the complete world in a single continuum, as per the scala naturae (the Natural Ladder).<a href="#cite_note-Palaeos-36">[36]</a> This, as well, was taken into consideration in the great chain of being.<a href="#cite_note-Palaeos-36">[36]</a> Advances were made by scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timotheus_of_Gaza" title="Timotheus of Gaza">Timotheus of Gaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demetrios_Pepagomenos" title="Demetrios Pepagomenos">Demetrios Pepagomenos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>. Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy.<a href="#cite_note-Palaeos-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Renaissance_and_early_modern">Renaissance and early modern</h4></div> During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, categorizing organisms became more prevalent,<a href="#cite_note-Palaeos-36">[36]</a> and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace the ancient texts. This is sometimes credited to the development of sophisticated optical lenses, which allowed the morphology of organisms to be studied in much greater detail. One of the earliest authors to take advantage of this leap in technology was the Italian physician <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Cesalpino" title="Andrea Cesalpino">Andrea Cesalpino</a> (1519–1603), who has been called "the first taxonomist".<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Masterpiece" title="Masterpiece">magnum opus</a> De Plantis came out in 1583, and described more than 1500 plant species.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Two large plant families that he first recognized are in use: the <a href="/wiki/Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">Asteraceae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brassicaceae" title="Brassicaceae">Brassicaceae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In the 17th century <a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> (<a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, 1627–1705) wrote many important taxonomic works.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_–_Taxonomy-37">[37]</a> Arguably his greatest accomplishment was Methodus Plantarum Nova (1682),<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> in which he published details of over 18,000 plant species. At the time, his classifications were perhaps the most complex yet produced by any taxonomist, as he based his taxa on many combined characters. The next major taxonomic works were produced by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pitton_de_Tournefort" title="Joseph Pitton de Tournefort">Joseph Pitton de Tournefort</a> (France, 1656–1708).<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> His work from 1700, Institutiones Rei Herbariae, included more than 9000 species in 698 genera, which directly influenced Linnaeus, as it was the text he used as a young student.<a href="#cite_note-Manktelow-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linnaean_era">Linnaean era</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linn%C3%A9-Systema_Naturae_1735.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Linn%C3%A9-Systema_Naturae_1735.jpg/170px-Linn%C3%A9-Systema_Naturae_1735.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Linn%C3%A9-Systema_Naturae_1735.jpg/255px-Linn%C3%A9-Systema_Naturae_1735.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Linn%C3%A9-Systema_Naturae_1735.jpg/340px-Linn%C3%A9-Systema_Naturae_1735.jpg 2x" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="1141" /></a><figcaption>Title page of <a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a>, Leiden, 1735</figcaption></figure> The Swedish botanist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> (1707–1778)<a href="#cite_note-Roanoke-38">[38]</a> ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works <a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a> 1st Edition in 1735,<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Species_Plantarum" title="Species Plantarum">Species Plantarum</a> in 1753,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> and <a href="/wiki/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae" title="10th edition of Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae 10th Edition</a>,<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> he revolutionized modern taxonomy. His works implemented a standardized binomial naming system for animal and plant species,<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_–_Linnaean-51">[51]</a> which proved to be an elegant solution to a chaotic and disorganized taxonomic literature. He not only introduced the standard of class, order, genus, and species, but also made it possible to identify plants and animals from his book, by using the smaller parts of the flower (known as the <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Linnaean system">Linnaean system</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_–_Linnaean-51">[51]</a> Plant and animal taxonomists regard Linnaeus' work as the "starting point" for valid names (at 1753 and 1758 respectively).<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Names published before these dates are referred to as "pre-Linnaean", and not considered valid (with the exception of spiders published in <a href="/wiki/Svenska_Spindlar" title="Svenska Spindlar">Svenska Spindlar</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a>). Even taxonomic names published by Linnaeus himself before these dates are considered pre-Linnaean.<a href="#cite_note-Manktelow-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_digital_era_of_taxonomy">The digital era of taxonomy</h3></div> Modern taxonomy is heavily influenced by technology such as <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_database" title="Biological database">databases</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Imaging" title="Imaging">imaging</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_system_of_classification">Modern system of classification</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_nomenclature" title="Phylogenetic nomenclature">Phylogenetic nomenclature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spindle_diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Spindle_diagram.jpg/280px-Spindle_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Spindle_diagram.jpg/420px-Spindle_diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Spindle_diagram.jpg/560px-Spindle_diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="509" /></a><figcaption>Evolution of the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a> at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">evolutionary taxonomy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cladogram_vertebrata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Cladogram_vertebrata.jpg/280px-Cladogram_vertebrata.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Cladogram_vertebrata.jpg/420px-Cladogram_vertebrata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Cladogram_vertebrata.jpg/560px-Cladogram_vertebrata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="337" /></a><figcaption>The same relationship, expressed as a <a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">cladogram</a> typical for <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistics</a></figcaption></figure> A pattern of groups nested within groups was specified by Linnaeus' classifications of plants and animals, and these patterns began to be represented as <a href="/wiki/Dendrograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Dendrograms">dendrograms</a> of the animal and plant <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdoms</a> toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_–_Taxonomy-37">[37]</a> The pattern of the "Natural System" did not entail a generating process, such as evolution, but may have implied it, inspiring early transmutationist thinkers. Among early works exploring the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">transmutation of species</a> were <a href="/wiki/Zoonomia" title="Zoonomia">Zoonomia</a> in 1796 by <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_Darwin" title="Erasmus Darwin">Erasmus Darwin</a> (Charles Darwin's grandfather), and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Philosophie_zoologique" title="Philosophie zoologique">Philosophie zoologique</a> of 1809.<a href="#cite_note-BiologyDiscussion-20">[20]</a> The idea was popularized in the Anglophone world by the speculative but widely read <a href="/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation" title="Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation">Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</a>, published anonymously by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Chambers_(publisher,_born_1802)" title="Robert Chambers (publisher, born 1802)">Robert Chambers</a> in 1844.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance quickly appeared that a classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common descent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_–_since_Linnaeus-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree of life (science)">Tree of life</a> representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of the first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors was birds.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Using the then newly discovered fossils of <a href="/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hesperornis" title="Hesperornis">Hesperornis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Owen" title="Richard Owen">Richard Owen</a> in 1842.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The resulting description, that of dinosaurs "giving rise to" or being "the ancestors of" birds, is the essential hallmark of <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">evolutionary taxonomic</a> thinking. As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">palaeontologists</a> worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> With the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern evolutionary synthesis</a> of the early 1940s, an essentially modern understanding of the evolution of the major groups was in place. As evolutionary taxonomy is based on Linnaean taxonomic ranks, the two terms are largely interchangeable in modern use.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cladistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladistic">cladistic</a> method has emerged since the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_–_since_Linnaeus-55">[55]</a> In 1958, <a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a> used the term clade.<a href="#cite_note-BiologyDiscussion-20">[20]</a> Later, in 1960, Cain and Harrison introduced the term cladistic.<a href="#cite_note-BiologyDiscussion-20">[20]</a> The salient feature is arranging taxa in a hierarchical <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary tree">evolutionary tree</a>, with the desideratum that all named taxa are monophyletic.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_–_since_Linnaeus-55">[55]</a> A taxon is called monophyletic if it includes all the descendants of an ancestral form.<a href="#cite_note-Mike_Taylor-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-NCSE-62">[62]</a> Groups that have descendant groups removed from them are termed <a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Mike_Taylor-61">[61]</a> while groups representing more than one branch from the tree of life are called <a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mike_Taylor-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-NCSE-62">[62]</a> Monophyletic groups are recognized and diagnosed on the basis of <a href="/wiki/Synapomorphies" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphies">synapomorphies</a>, shared derived character states.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Cladistic classifications are compatible with traditional Linnean taxonomy and the Codes of <a href="/wiki/Zoological_nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoological nomenclature">Zoological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a>, to a certain extent.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> An alternative system of nomenclature, the <a href="/wiki/PhyloCode" title="PhyloCode">International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature</a> or PhyloCode has been proposed, which regulates the formal naming of clades.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cantino_&_de_Queiroz_2020-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laurin_2023_Advent-9">[9]</a> Linnaean ranks are optional and have no formal standing under the PhyloCode, which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes.<a href="#cite_note-Cantino_&_de_Queiroz_2020-28">[28]</a> While popularity of phylogenetic nomenclature has grown steadily in the last few decades,<a href="#cite_note-Laurin_2023_Advent-9">[9]</a> it remains to be seen whether a majority of systematists will eventually adopt the PhyloCode or continue using the current systems of nomenclature that have been employed (and modified, but arguably not as much as some systematists wish)<a href="#cite_note-Dubois_2007-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dubois_et_al._2019-67">[67]</a> for over 250 years. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingdoms_and_domains">Kingdoms and domains</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg/170px-Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="425" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg/255px-Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg/340px-Biological_classification_L_Pengo_vflip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The basic scheme of modern classification. Many other levels can be used; domain, the highest level within life, is both new and disputed.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdom (biology)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain (biology)</a></div> Well before Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate Kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-Kingdom_classification-68">[68]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] Linnaeus used this as the top rank, dividing the physical world into the vegetable, animal and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made the classification of microorganisms possible, the number of kingdoms increased, five- and six-kingdom systems being the most common. <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domains</a> are a relatively new grouping. First proposed in 1977, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">three-domain system</a> was not generally accepted until later.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> One main characteristic of the three-domain method is the separation of <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a>, previously grouped into the single kingdom Bacteria (a kingdom also sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Monera" title="Monera">Monera</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Kingdom_classification-68">[68]</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Eukaryota" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a> for all organisms whose cells contain a <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus (biology)">nucleus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> A small number of scientists include a sixth kingdom, Archaea, but do not accept the domain method.<a href="#cite_note-Kingdom_classification-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cavalier-Smith" title="Thomas Cavalier-Smith">Thomas Cavalier-Smith</a>, who published extensively on the classification of <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>, in 2002<a href="#cite_note-pmid11931142-71">[71]</a> proposed that the <a href="/wiki/Neomura" title="Neomura">Neomura</a>, the clade that groups together the Archaea and <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eucarya</a>, would have evolved from Bacteria, more precisely from <a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a>. His 2004 classification treated the <a href="/wiki/Archaeobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobacteria">archaeobacteria</a> as part of a subkingdom of the kingdom Bacteria, i.e., he rejected the three-domain system entirely.<a href="#cite_note-CavalierSmith2004-72">[72]</a> Stefan Luketa in 2012 proposed a five "dominion" system, adding <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Prionobiota</a> (<a href="/wiki/Non-cellular_life" title="Non-cellular life">acellular</a> and without <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acid</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virusobiota</a> (acellular but with nucleic acid) to the traditional three domains.<a href="#cite_note-Luketa2012-73">[73]</a> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> <table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse:collapse;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="padding:4px; border-bottom:solid black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a> 1735<a href="#cite_note-Linnaeus1735-74">[74]</a> </th> <th style="padding:4px; border-bottom:solid black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Haeckel</a> 1866<a href="#cite_note-Haeckel-75">[75]</a> </th> <th style="padding:4px; border-bottom:solid black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Chatton" title="Édouard Chatton">Chatton</a> 1925<a href="#cite_note-Chatton1925-76">[76]</a> </th> <th style="padding:4px; border-bottom:solid black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Copeland_(biologist)" title="Herbert Copeland (biologist)">Copeland</a> 1938<a href="#cite_note-Copeland1938-77">[77]</a> </th> <th style="padding:4px; border-bottom:solid black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Whittaker_(ecologist)" title="Robert Whittaker (ecologist)">Whittaker</a> 1969<a href="#cite_note-Whittaker1969-78">[78]</a> </th> <th style="padding:4px; border-bottom:solid black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Woese</a> et al. 1990<a href="#cite_note-Woese1990-79">[79]</a> </th> <th style="padding:4px; border-bottom:solid black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cavalier-Smith" title="Thomas Cavalier-Smith">Cavalier-Smith</a> 1998,<a href="#cite_note-CavalierSmith2004-72">[72]</a> 2015<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; border-bottom:double black 3px; padding-left:4px; padding-right:4px;">2 kingdoms </td> <td style="text-align:center; border-bottom:double black 3px; border-left:solid black 1px; padding-left:4px; padding-right:4px;">3 kingdoms </td> <td style="text-align:center; border-bottom:double black 3px; border-left:solid black 1px; padding-left:4px; padding-right:4px;"><a href="/wiki/Two-empire_system" title="Two-empire system">2 empires</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; border-bottom:double black 3px; border-left:solid black 1px; padding-left:4px; padding-right:4px;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)#Four_kingdoms" title="Kingdom (biology)">4 kingdoms</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; border-bottom:double black 3px; border-left:solid black 1px; padding-left:4px; padding-right:4px;">5 kingdoms </td> <td style="text-align:center; border-bottom:double black 3px; border-left:solid black 1px; padding-left:4px; padding-right:4px;"><a href="/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">3 domains</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; border-bottom:double black 3px; border-left:solid black 1px; padding-left:4px; padding-right:4px;">2 empires, 6/7 kingdoms </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4" style="padding-left:4px;">(not treated) </td> <td rowspan="4" style="background-color:khaki; padding-left:4px; padding-right:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protista</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color:lightgrey; padding-left:4px; padding-right:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Prokaryota" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryota">Prokaryota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color:lightgrey; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Monera" title="Monera">Monera</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color:lightgrey; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Monera" title="Monera">Monera</a> </td> <td style="background-color:lightgrey; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> </td> <td style="background-color:lightgrey; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:darkgray; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> </td> <td style="background-color:darkgray; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> (2015) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e0d0b0; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryota" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color:khaki; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Protista" class="mw-redirect" title="Protista">Protoctista</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color:khaki; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protista</a> </td> <td rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e0d0b0; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eucarya</a> </td> <td rowspan="1" style="background-color:khaki; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;">"<a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a>" </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1" style="background-color:burlywood; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;">"<a href="/wiki/Chromista" title="Chromista">Chromista</a>" </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color:lightgreen; padding-left:4px;"><a href="/wiki/Vegetabilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetabilia">Vegetabilia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color:lightgreen; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background-color:lightgreen; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a> </td> <td style="background-color:lightgreen; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a> </td> <td style="background-color:lightgreen; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:lightblue; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a> </td> <td style="background-color:lightblue; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:pink; padding-left:4px;"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td> <td style="background-color:pink; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td> <td style="background-color:pink; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td> <td style="background-color:pink; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td> <td style="background-color:pink; padding-left:4px; border-left:dotted black 1px;"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_comprehensive_classifications">Recent comprehensive classifications</h3></div> Partial classifications exist for many individual groups of organisms and are revised and replaced as new information becomes available; however, comprehensive, published treatments of most or all life are rarer; recent examples are that of Adl et al., 2012 and 2019,<a href="#cite_note-Adl-et-al-2012-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adl-et-al-2019-82">[82]</a> which covers eukaryotes only with an emphasis on protists, and Ruggiero et al., 2015,<a href="#cite_note-Ruggiero-et-al-2015-83">[83]</a> covering both eukaryotes and <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a> to the rank of Order, although both exclude fossil representatives.<a href="#cite_note-Ruggiero-et-al-2015-83">[83]</a> A separate compilation (Ruggiero, 2014)<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> covers extant taxa to the rank of Family. Other, database-driven treatments include the <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">Encyclopedia of Life</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">Global Biodiversity Information Facility</a>, the <a href="/wiki/NCBI_taxonomy_database" class="mw-redirect" title="NCBI taxonomy database">NCBI taxonomy database</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">Catalogue of Life</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a> is a resource for fossils. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application">Application</h2></div> Biological taxonomy is a sub-discipline of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, and is generally practiced by biologists known as "taxonomists", though enthusiastic <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">naturalists</a> are also frequently involved in the publication of new taxa.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Because taxonomy aims to describe and organize <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>, the work conducted by taxonomists is essential for the study of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and the resulting field of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classifying_organisms">Classifying organisms</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></div> Biological classification is a critical component of the taxonomic process. As a result, it informs the user as to what the relatives of the taxon are hypothesized to be. Biological classification uses taxonomic ranks, including among others (in order from most inclusive to least inclusive): <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">Phylum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Class</a>, <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">Family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">Genus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strain_(biology)" title="Strain (biology)">Strain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[note 1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxonomic_descriptions">Taxonomic descriptions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Species_description" title="Species description">Species description</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nepenthes_smilesii_type_specimen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Nepenthes_smilesii_type_specimen.jpg/170px-Nepenthes_smilesii_type_specimen.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Nepenthes_smilesii_type_specimen.jpg/255px-Nepenthes_smilesii_type_specimen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Nepenthes_smilesii_type_specimen.jpg/340px-Nepenthes_smilesii_type_specimen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Type_(biology)" title="Type (biology)">Type</a> specimen for <a href="/wiki/Nepenthes_smilesii" title="Nepenthes smilesii">Nepenthes smilesii</a>, a tropical <a href="/wiki/Pitcher_plant" title="Pitcher plant">pitcher plant</a></figcaption></figure> The "definition" of a taxon is encapsulated by its description or its diagnosis or by both combined. There are no set rules governing the definition of taxa, but the naming and publication of new taxa is governed by sets of rules.<a href="#cite_note-Herbarium-8">[8]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nomenclature" title="Nomenclature">nomenclature</a> for the more commonly used ranks (<a href="/wiki/Superfamily_(taxonomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfamily (taxonomy)">superfamily</a> to <a href="/wiki/Subspecies" title="Subspecies">subspecies</a>), is regulated by the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature" title="International Code of Zoological Nomenclature">International Code of Zoological Nomenclature</a> (ICZN Code).<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> In the fields of <a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">phycology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">mycology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, the naming of taxa is governed by the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants</a> (ICN).<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> The initial description of a taxon involves five main requirements:<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> <ol><li>The taxon must be given a name based on the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet (a <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">binomial</a> for new species, or uninomial for other ranks).</li> <li>The name must be unique (i.e. not a <a href="/wiki/Homonym_(biology)" title="Homonym (biology)">homonym</a>).</li> <li>The description must be based on at least one name-bearing <a href="/wiki/Type_species" title="Type species">type specimen</a>.</li> <li>It should include statements about appropriate attributes either to describe (define) the taxon or to differentiate it from other taxa (the diagnosis, ICZN Code, Article 13.1.1, ICN, Article 38, which may or may not be based on morphology<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a>). Both codes deliberately separate defining the content of a taxon (its <a href="/wiki/Circumscription_(taxonomy)" title="Circumscription (taxonomy)">circumscription</a>) from defining its name.</li> <li>These first four requirements must be published in a work that is obtainable in numerous identical copies, as a permanent scientific record.</li></ol> However, often much more information is included, like the geographic range of the taxon, ecological notes, chemistry, behavior, etc. How researchers arrive at their taxa varies: depending on the available data, and resources, methods vary from simple <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative property">quantitative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_property" title="Qualitative property">qualitative</a> comparisons of striking features, to elaborate computer analyses of large amounts of <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">DNA sequence</a> data.<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Author_citation">Author citation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation (botany)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(zoology)" title="Author citation (zoology)">Author citation (zoology)</a></div> An "authority" may be placed after a scientific name.<a href="#cite_note-AJE-95">[94]</a> The authority is the name of the scientist or scientists who first validly published the name.<a href="#cite_note-AJE-95">[94]</a> For example, in 1758 Linnaeus gave the <a href="/wiki/Asian_elephant" title="Asian elephant">Asian elephant</a> the scientific name Elephas maximus, so the name is sometimes written as "Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758".<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> The names of authors are often abbreviated: the abbreviation L., for Linnaeus, is commonly used. In botany, there is, in fact, a regulated list of standard abbreviations (see <a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation" class="mw-redirect" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation">list of botanists by author abbreviation</a>).<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> The system for assigning authorities differs slightly between <a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">botany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(zoology)" title="Author citation (zoology)">zoology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Herbarium-8">[8]</a> However, it is standard that if the genus of a species has been changed since the original description, the original authority's name is placed in parentheses.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phenetics">Phenetics</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phylogenetics.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Phylogenetics.svg/300px-Phylogenetics.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Phylogenetics.svg/450px-Phylogenetics.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Phylogenetics.svg/600px-Phylogenetics.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>A comparison of phylogenetic and phenetic (character-based) concepts</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phenetics" title="Phenetics">Phenetics</a></div> In phenetics, also known as taximetrics, or numerical taxonomy, organisms are classified based on overall similarity, regardless of their phylogeny or evolutionary relationships.<a href="#cite_note-BiologyDiscussion-20">[20]</a> It results in a measure of hypergeometric "distance" between taxa. Phenetic methods have become relatively rare in modern times, largely superseded by <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistic</a> analyses, as phenetic methods do not distinguish shared ancestral (or <a href="/wiki/Plesiomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiomorph">plesiomorphic</a>) traits from shared derived (or <a href="/wiki/Apomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Apomorphic">apomorphic</a>) traits.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> However, certain phenetic methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Neighbor_joining" title="Neighbor joining">neighbor joining</a>, have persisted, as rapid estimators of relationships when more advanced methods (such as <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a>) are too computationally expensive.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Databases">Databases</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_database" title="Taxonomic database">Taxonomic database</a></div> Modern taxonomy uses <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a> technologies to search and catalogue classifications and their documentation.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> While there is no commonly used database, there are comprehensive databases such as the <a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">Catalogue of Life</a>, which attempts to list every documented species.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> The catalogue listed 1.64 million species for all kingdoms as of April 2016<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taxonomy_(biology)&action=edit">[update]</a>, claiming coverage of more than three-quarters of the estimated species known to modern science.<a href="#cite_note-About_the_Catalogue_of_Life-103">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col div-col-small"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automated_species_identification" title="Automated species identification">Automated species identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_taxonomy" title="Bacterial taxonomy">Bacterial taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">Cluster analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consortium_for_the_Barcode_of_Life" title="Consortium for the Barcode of Life">Consortium for the Barcode of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consortium_of_European_Taxonomic_Facilities" title="Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities">Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetypes" title="Genetypes">Genetypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_scientific_naming" title="Glossary of scientific naming">Glossary of scientific naming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identification_(biology)" title="Identification (biology)">Identification (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parataxonomy" title="Parataxonomy">Parataxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenogram" title="Phenogram">Phenogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">Set theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</a> (general)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus_classification" title="Virus classification">Virus classification</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> This ranking system, except for "Strain", can be remembered by the mnemonic "Do Kings Play Chess On Fine Glass Sets?" </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Wilkins2011-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilkins2011_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilkins2011_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilkins2011" class="citation web cs1">Wilkins, J. S. (5 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/">"What is systematics and what is taxonomy?"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 21 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+systematics+and+what+is+taxonomy%3F&rft.date=2011-02-05&rft.aulast=Wilkins&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fevolvingthoughts.net%2F2011%2F02%2Fwhat-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Judd-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Judd_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuddCampbellKelloggStevens2007" class="citation book cs1">Judd, W. S.; Campbell, C. S.; Kellogg, E. A.; Stevens, P. F.; Donoghue, M. J. (2007). "Taxonomy". Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach (3rd ed.). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Taxonomy&rft.btitle=Plant+Systematics%3A+A+Phylogenetic+Approach&rft.place=Sunderland&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Judd&rft.aufirst=W.+S.&rft.au=Campbell%2C+C.+S.&rft.au=Kellogg%2C+E.+A.&rft.au=Stevens%2C+P.+F.&rft.au=Donoghue%2C+M.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simpson-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Simpson_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2010" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, Michael G. (2010). "Chapter 1 Plant Systematics: an Overview". Plant Systematics (2nd ed.). Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123743800" title="Special:BookSources/9780123743800"><bdi>9780123743800</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1+Plant+Systematics%3A+an+Overview&rft.btitle=Plant+Systematics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780123743800&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Michael+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008" class="citation book cs1">Kirk, P. M.; Cannon, P. F.; Minter, D. W.; Stalpers, J. A., eds. (2008). "Taxonomy". Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). CABI.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Taxonomy&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Fungi&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=CABI&rft.date=2008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1988" class="citation book cs1">Walker, P. M. B., ed. (1988). The Wordsworth Dictionary of Science and Technology. W. R. Chambers Ltd. and Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wordsworth+Dictionary+of+Science+and+Technology&rft.pub=W.+R.+Chambers+Ltd.+and+Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Henderson-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Henderson_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Henderson_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence2005" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence, E. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-PLgy6DWe0wC">Henderson's Dictionary Of Biology</a>. Pearson/Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780131273849" title="Special:BookSources/9780131273849"><bdi>9780131273849</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Henderson%27s+Dictionary+Of+Biology&rft.pub=Pearson%2FPrentice+Hall&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780131273849&rft.aulast=Lawrence&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-PLgy6DWe0wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler2004" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Quentin_D._Wheeler" title="Quentin D. Wheeler">Wheeler, Quentin D.</a> (2004). Godfray, H. C. J.; Knapp, S. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693342">"Taxonomic triage and the poverty of phylogeny"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a>. 359: Taxonomy for the twenty-first century (1444): 571–583. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2003.1452">10.1098/rstb.2003.1452</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8436">0962-8436</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693342">1693342</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15253345">15253345</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Taxonomic+triage+and+the+poverty+of+phylogeny&rft.volume=359%3A+Taxonomy+for+the+twenty-first+century&rft.issue=1444&rft.pages=571-583&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1693342%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0962-8436&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15253345&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2003.1452&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=Quentin+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1693342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herbarium-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Herbarium_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herbarium_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herbarium_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161123030604/http://herbarium.usu.edu/teaching/4420/botnom.htm">"Nomenclature, Names, and Taxonomy"</a>. Intermountain Herbarium. Utah State University. 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://herbarium.usu.edu:80/teaching/4420/botnom.htm">the original</a> on 23 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Intermountain+Herbarium&rft.atitle=Nomenclature%2C+Names%2C+and+Taxonomy&rft.date=2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fherbarium.usu.edu%3A80%2Fteaching%2F4420%2Fbotnom.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laurin_2023_Advent-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Laurin_2023_Advent_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Laurin_2023_Advent_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Laurin_2023_Advent_9-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurin2023" class="citation book cs1">Laurin, Michel (3 August 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781003092827/advent-phylocode-michel-laurin">The Advent of PhyloCode: The Continuing Evolution of Biological Nomenclature</a>. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. xv + 209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9781003092827">10.1201/9781003092827</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781003092827" title="Special:BookSources/9781003092827"><bdi>9781003092827</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230905140719/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781003092827/advent-phylocode-michel-laurin">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Advent+of+PhyloCode%3A+The+Continuing+Evolution+of+Biological+Nomenclature&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+Florida&rft.pages=xv+%2B+209&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2023-08-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1201%2F9781003092827&rft.isbn=9781003092827&rft.aulast=Laurin&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2Fmono%2F10.1201%2F9781003092827%2Fadvent-phylocode-michel-laurin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichenerCorlissCowanRaven1970" class="citation book cs1">Michener, Charles D.; Corliss, John O.; Cowan, Richard S.; Raven, Peter H.; Sabrosky, Curtis W.; Squires, Donald S.; Wharton, G. W. (1970). Systematics In Support of Biological Research. Washington, DC: Division of Biology and Agriculture, National Research Council.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systematics+In+Support+of+Biological+Research&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Division+of+Biology+and+Agriculture%2C+National+Research+Council&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Michener&rft.aufirst=Charles+D.&rft.au=Corliss%2C+John+O.&rft.au=Cowan%2C+Richard+S.&rft.au=Raven%2C+Peter+H.&rft.au=Sabrosky%2C+Curtis+W.&rft.au=Squires%2C+Donald+S.&rft.au=Wharton%2C+G.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Small1989-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Small1989_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmall1989" class="citation journal cs1">Small, Ernest (1989). "Systematics of Biological Systematics (Or, Taxonomy of Taxonomy)". Taxon. 38 (3): 335–356. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1222265">10.2307/1222265</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1222265">1222265</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=Systematics+of+Biological+Systematics+%28Or%2C+Taxonomy+of+Taxonomy%29&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=335-356&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1222265&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1222265%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Small&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2004" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Gurcharan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=In_Lv8iMt24C&pg=PA20">Plant systematics: An integrated approach</a>. Science Publishers. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781578083510" title="Special:BookSources/9781578083510"><bdi>9781578083510</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+systematics%3A+An+integrated+approach&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Science+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781578083510&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Gurcharan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIn_Lv8iMt24C%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkins" class="citation web cs1">Wilkins, J. S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/">"What is systematics and what is taxonomy?"</a>. EvolvingThoughts.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/">the original</a> on 27 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EvolvingThoughts.net&rft.atitle=What+is+systematics+and+what+is+taxonomy%3F&rft.aulast=Wilkins&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fevolvingthoughts.net%2F2011%2F02%2Fwhat-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruscaBrusca2003" class="citation book cs1">Brusca, R. C.; Brusca, G. J. (2003). Invertebrates (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invertebrates&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=27&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Brusca&rft.aufirst=R.+C.&rft.au=Brusca%2C+G.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fortey-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Fortey_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortey2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Fortey" title="Richard Fortey">Fortey, Richard</a> (2008). Dry Store Room No. 1: The Secret Life of the Natural History Museum. London: Harper Perennial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780007209897" title="Special:BookSources/9780007209897"><bdi>9780007209897</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dry+Store+Room+No.+1%3A+The+Secret+Life+of+the+Natural+History+Museum&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780007209897&rft.aulast=Fortey&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxted1992" class="citation journal cs1">Maxted, Nigel (1992). "Towards Defining a Taxonomic Revision Methodology". Taxon. 41 (4): 653–660. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1222391">10.2307/1222391</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1222391">1222391</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=Towards+Defining+a+Taxonomic+Revision+Methodology&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=653-660&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1222391&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1222391%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Maxted&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hennig_1965-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Hennig_1965_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHennig1965" class="citation journal cs1">Hennig, Willi (January 1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525">"Phylogenetic Systematics"</a>. Annual Review of Entomology. 10 (1): 97–116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.en.10.010165.000525">10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0066-4170">0066-4170</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101423/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Entomology&rft.atitle=Phylogenetic+Systematics&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-116&rft.date=1965-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.en.10.010165.000525&rft.issn=0066-4170&rft.aulast=Hennig&rft.aufirst=Willi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.en.10.010165.000525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (1991). Principles of Systematic Zoology. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 159.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Systematic+Zoology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Mayr, Ernst (1991), p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-BiologyDiscussion-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BiologyDiscussion_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BiologyDiscussion_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BiologyDiscussion_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BiologyDiscussion_20-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BiologyDiscussion_20-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BiologyDiscussion_20-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BiologyDiscussion_20-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BiologyDiscussion_20-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/taxonomy/taxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role/32373">"Taxonomy: Meaning, Levels, Periods and Role"</a>. Biology Discussion. 27 May 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073645/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/taxonomy/taxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role/32373">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+Discussion&rft.atitle=Taxonomy%3A+Meaning%2C+Levels%2C+Periods+and+Role&rft.date=2016-05-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biologydiscussion.com%2Fanimals-2%2Ftaxonomy%2Ftaxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role%2F32373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosselló-MoraAmann2001" class="citation journal cs1">Rosselló-Mora, Ramon; Amann, Rudolf (1 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x">"The species concept for prokaryotes"</a>. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 25 (1): 39–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x">10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1574-6976">1574-6976</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11152940">11152940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FEMS+Microbiology+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+species+concept+for+prokaryotes&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-67&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft.issn=1574-6976&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11152940&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x&rft.aulast=Rossell%C3%B3-Mora&rft.aufirst=Ramon&rft.au=Amann%2C+Rudolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurrill1938-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurrill1938_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurrill1938_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTurrill1938">Turrill 1938</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurrill1938365–366-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurrill1938365–366_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTurrill1938">Turrill 1938</a>, pp. 365–366. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteyskal1965" class="citation journal cs1">Steyskal, G. C. (1965). "Trend curves of the rate of species description in zoology". Science. 149 (3686): 880–882. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965Sci...149..880S">1965Sci...149..880S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.149.3686.880">10.1126/science.149.3686.880</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17737388">17737388</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36277653">36277653</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Trend+curves+of+the+rate+of+species+description+in+zoology&rft.volume=149&rft.issue=3686&rft.pages=880-882&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.149.3686.880&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36277653%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17737388&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1965Sci...149..880S&rft.aulast=Steyskal&rft.aufirst=G.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1968" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (9 February 1968). "The Role of Systematics in Biology: The study of all aspects of the diversity of life is one of the most important concerns in biology". Science. 159 (3815): 595–599. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1968Sci...159..595M">1968Sci...159..595M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.159.3815.595">10.1126/science.159.3815.595</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4886900">4886900</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Systematics+in+Biology%3A+The+study+of+all+aspects+of+the+diversity+of+life+is+one+of+the+most+important+concerns+in+biology&rft.volume=159&rft.issue=3815&rft.pages=595-599&rft.date=1968-02-09&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4886900&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.159.3815.595&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1968Sci...159..595M&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1982" class="citation book cs1">Mayr, Ernst (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pHThtE2R0UQC">"Chapter 6: Microtaxonomy, the science of species"</a>. The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674364462" title="Special:BookSources/9780674364462"><bdi>9780674364462</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703072557/https://books.google.com/books?id=pHThtE2R0UQC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 15 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Microtaxonomy%2C+the+science+of+species&rft.btitle=The+Growth+of+Biological+Thought%3A+Diversity%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Inheritance&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9780674364462&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpHThtE2R0UQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biological-concepts.com/views/search.php?term=1508">"Result of Your Query"</a>. biological-concepts.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170414/http://www.biological-concepts.com/views/search.php?term=1508">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=biological-concepts.com&rft.atitle=Result+of+Your+Query&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biological-concepts.com%2Fviews%2Fsearch.php%3Fterm%3D1508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantino_&_de_Queiroz_2020-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantino_&_de_Queiroz_2020_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantino_&_de_Queiroz_2020_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantino_&_de_Queiroz_2020_28-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCantinode_Queiroz2020" class="citation book cs1">Cantino, Philip D.; de Queiroz, Kevin (29 April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/International-Code-of-Phylogenetic-Nomenclature-PhyloCode/Queiroz-Cantino/p/book/9781138332829">International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature (PhyloCode): A Phylogenetic Code of Biological Nomenclature</a>. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. xl + 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0429821356" title="Special:BookSources/978-0429821356"><bdi>978-0429821356</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231014042402/https://www.routledge.com/International-Code-of-Phylogenetic-Nomenclature-PhyloCode/Queiroz-Cantino/p/book/9781138332829">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Code+of+Phylogenetic+Nomenclature+%28PhyloCode%29%3A+A+Phylogenetic+Code+of+Biological+Nomenclature&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+Florida&rft.pages=xl+%2B+149&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2020-04-29&rft.isbn=978-0429821356&rft.aulast=Cantino&rft.aufirst=Philip+D.&rft.au=de+Queiroz%2C+Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FInternational-Code-of-Phylogenetic-Nomenclature-PhyloCode%2FQueiroz-Cantino%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781138332829&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Voultsiadou_&_Vafidis_2007-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Voultsiadou_&_Vafidis_2007_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoultsiadouVafidis2007" class="citation journal cs1">Voultsiadou, Eleni; Vafidis, Dimitris (1 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/18759866-07602004">"Marine invertebrate diversity in Aristotle's zoology"</a>. Contributions to Zoology. 76 (2): 103–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18759866-07602004">10.1163/18759866-07602004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1875-9866">1875-9866</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230425063507/https://brill.com/view/journals/ctoz/76/2/article-p103_4.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contributions+to+Zoology&rft.atitle=Marine+invertebrate+diversity+in+Aristotle%27s+zoology&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=103-120&rft.date=2007-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F18759866-07602004&rft.issn=1875-9866&rft.aulast=Voultsiadou&rft.aufirst=Eleni&rft.au=Vafidis%2C+Dimitris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1163%2F18759866-07602004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Voultsiadou_et_al._2017-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Voultsiadou_et_al._2017_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoultsiadouGerovasileiouVandepitteGanias2017" class="citation journal cs1">Voultsiadou, Eleni; Gerovasileiou, Vasilis; Vandepitte, Leen; Ganias, Kostas; Arvanitidis, Christos (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12681%2Fmms.13874">"Aristotle's scientific contributions to the classification, nomenclature and distribution of marine organisms"</a>. Mediterranean Marine Science. 18 (3): 468–478. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12681%2Fmms.13874">10.12681/mms.13874</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1791-6763">1791-6763</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mediterranean+Marine+Science&rft.atitle=Aristotle%27s+scientific+contributions+to+the+classification%2C+nomenclature+and+distribution+of+marine+organisms&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=468-478&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12681%2Fmms.13874&rft.issn=1791-6763&rft.aulast=Voultsiadou&rft.aufirst=Eleni&rft.au=Gerovasileiou%2C+Vasilis&rft.au=Vandepitte%2C+Leen&rft.au=Ganias%2C+Kostas&rft.au=Arvanitidis%2C+Christos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.12681%252Fmms.13874&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDatta1988-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDatta1988_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDatta1988">Datta 1988</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStace1989-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStace1989_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStace1989">Stace 1989</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStuessy2009-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStuessy2009_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStuessy2009">Stuessy 2009</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Manktelow-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Manktelow_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manktelow_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manktelow_34-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManktelow2010" class="citation web cs1">Manktelow, M. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150529020546/http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf">"History of Taxonomy"</a> (PDF). Dept. of Systematic Biology, <a href="/wiki/Uppsala_University" title="Uppsala University">Uppsala University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 29 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Taxonomy&rft.pub=Dept.+of+Systematic+Biology%2C+Uppsala+University&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Manktelow&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fatbi.eu%2Fsummerschool%2Ffiles%2Fsummerschool%2FManktelow_Syllabus.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (1982). The Growth of Biological Thought. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Growth+of+Biological+Thought&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Palaeos-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Palaeos_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palaeos_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palaeos_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palaeos_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palaeos_36-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palaeos_36-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palaeos_36-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170331022648/http://palaeos.com/taxonomy/history.html">"History of Taxonomy"</a>. Palaeos. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://palaeos.com/taxonomy/history.html">the original</a> on 31 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Palaeos&rft.atitle=History+of+Taxonomy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpalaeos.com%2Ftaxonomy%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica_–_Taxonomy-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_–_Taxonomy_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_–_Taxonomy_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_–_Taxonomy_37-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_–_Taxonomy_37-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy">"taxonomy | biology"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075451/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=taxonomy+%7C+biology&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Ftaxonomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roanoke-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roanoke_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roanoke_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roanoke_38-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roanoke_38-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/courses/genomics_course/roanoke/bio101ch20.htm">"Biology 101, Ch 20"</a>. cbs.dtu.dk. 23 March 1998. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170628023508/http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/courses/genomics_course/roanoke/bio101ch20.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cbs.dtu.dk&rft.atitle=Biology+101%2C+Ch+20&rft.date=1998-03-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbs.dtu.dk%2Fcourses%2Fgenomics_course%2Froanoke%2Fbio101ch20.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeroi2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Armand_Marie_Leroi" title="Armand Marie Leroi">Leroi, Armand Marie</a> (2014). <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_Lagoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle's Lagoon">The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science</a>. Bloomsbury. pp. 384–395. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781408836224" title="Special:BookSources/9781408836224"><bdi>9781408836224</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lagoon%3A+How+Aristotle+Invented+Science&rft.pages=384-395&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781408836224&rft.aulast=Leroi&rft.aufirst=Armand+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-von_Lieven_&_Humar_2008-40"><a href="#cite_ref-von_Lieven_&_Humar_2008_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_LievenHumar2008" class="citation journal cs1">von Lieven, Alexander Fürst; Humar, Marcel (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334371">"A Cladistic Analysis of Aristotle's Animal Groups in the "Historia animalium""</a>. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences. 30 (2): 227–262. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0391-9714">0391-9714</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334371">23334371</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19203017">19203017</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221127081940/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334371">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2022. Retrieved 19 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Philosophy+of+the+Life+Sciences&rft.atitle=A+Cladistic+Analysis+of+Aristotle%27s+Animal+Groups+in+the+%22Historia+animalium%22&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=227-262&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=0391-9714&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23334371%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19203017&rft.aulast=von+Lieven&rft.aufirst=Alexander+F%C3%BCrst&rft.au=Humar%2C+Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23334371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laurin_&_Humar_2022-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Laurin_&_Humar_2022_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurinHumar2022" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Laurin, Michel; Humar, Marcel (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5852%2Fcr-palevol2022v21a1">"Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals"</a>. Comptes Rendus Palevol (in French). 21 (1): 1–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5852%2Fcr-palevol2022v21a1">10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+Palevol&rft.atitle=Phylogenetic+signal+in+characters+from+Aristotle%27s+History+of+Animals&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5852%2Fcr-palevol2022v21a1&rft.aulast=Laurin&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft.au=Humar%2C+Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5852%252Fcr-palevol2022v21a1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino">"Andrea Cesalpino | Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075220/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Andrea+Cesalpino+%7C+Italian+physician%2C+philosopher%2C+and+botanist&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FAndrea-Cesalpino&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCesalpinoMarescotti1583" class="citation book cs1">Cesalpino, Andrea; Marescotti, Giorgio (1583). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deplantislibrixv00cesa">De plantis libri XVI</a>. Florence: Apud Georgium Marescottum – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+plantis+libri+XVI&rft.place=Florence&rft.pub=Apud+Georgium+Marescottum&rft.date=1583&rft.aulast=Cesalpino&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft.au=Marescotti%2C+Giorgio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdeplantislibrixv00cesa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino#ref130098">"Andrea Cesalpino | Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075220/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino#ref130098">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Andrea+Cesalpino+%7C+Italian+physician%2C+philosopher%2C+and+botanist&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FAndrea-Cesalpino%23ref130098&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaime2010" class="citation book cs1">Jaime, Prohens (2010). International Edition Vegetables I: Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodicaceae, and Cucurbitaceae (Handbook of Plant Breeding). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441924742" title="Special:BookSources/9781441924742"><bdi>9781441924742</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Edition+Vegetables+I%3A+Asteraceae%2C+Brassicaceae%2C+Chenopodicaceae%2C+and+Cucurbitaceae+%28Handbook+of+Plant+Breeding%29&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781441924742&rft.aulast=Jaime&rft.aufirst=Prohens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn1682" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">John, Ray (1682). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/84226#page/7/mode/1up">Methodus plantarum nova</a> [New Method of Plants] (in Latin). impensis Henrici Faithorne & Joannis Kersey, ad insigne Rofæ Coemeterio D. Pauli. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170929060003/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/84226#page/7/mode/1up">Archived</a> from the original on 29 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Methodus+plantarum+nova&rft.pub=impensis+Henrici+Faithorne+%26+Joannis+Kersey%2C+ad+insigne+Rof%C3%A6+Coemeterio+D.+Pauli&rft.date=1682&rft.aulast=John&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F84226%23page%2F7%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pitton-de-Tournefort">"Joseph Pitton de Tournefort | French botanist and physician"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075951/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pitton-de-Tournefort">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Joseph+Pitton+de+Tournefort+%7C+French+botanist+and+physician&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FJoseph-Pitton-de-Tournefort&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinnaeus1735" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus, Carl</a> (1735). Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species (in Latin). Leiden: Haak.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systema+naturae%2C+sive+regna+tria+naturae+systematice+proposita+per+classes%2C+ordines%2C+genera%2C+%26+species&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Haak&rft.date=1735&rft.aulast=Linnaeus&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinnaeus1753" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus, Carl</a> (1753). Species Plantarum (in Latin). Stockholm.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Species+Plantarum&rft.place=Stockholm&rft.date=1753&rft.aulast=Linnaeus&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinnaeus1758" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus, Carl</a> (1758). Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species (in Latin) (10th ed.). Leiden: Haak.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systema+naturae%2C+sive+regna+tria+naturae+systematice+proposita+per+classes%2C+ordines%2C+genera%2C+%26+species&rft.place=Leiden&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=Haak&rft.date=1758&rft.aulast=Linnaeus&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica_–_Linnaean-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_–_Linnaean_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_–_Linnaean_51-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/The-Linnaean-system">"taxonomy – The Linnaean system | biology"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405074215/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/The-Linnaean-system">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=taxonomy+%E2%80%93+The+Linnaean+system+%7C+biology&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Ftaxonomy%2FThe-Linnaean-system&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonk1957" class="citation journal cs1">Donk, M. A. (December 1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1959/Prop018-019.pdf">"Typification and later starting-points"</a> (PDF). Taxon. 6 (9): 245–256. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1217493">10.2307/1217493</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1217493">1217493</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091529/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1959/Prop018-019.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=Typification+and+later+starting-points&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=245-256&rft.date=1957-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1217493&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1217493%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Donk&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iapt-taxon.org%2Fhistoric%2FCongress%2FIBC_1959%2FProp018-019.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlCarlEricL.1757" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Carl, Clerck; Carl, Bergquist; Eric, Borg; L., Gottman; Lars, Salvius (1757). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/209583#page/7/mode/1up">Svenska spindlar</a> [Swedish Spiders] (in Swedish). Literis Laur. Salvii. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201181959/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/209583#page/7/mode/1up">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Svenska+spindlar&rft.pub=Literis+Laur.+Salvii&rft.date=1757&rft.aulast=Carl&rft.aufirst=Clerck&rft.au=Carl%2C+Bergquist&rft.au=Eric%2C+Borg&rft.au=L.%2C+Gottman&rft.au=Lars%2C+Salvius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F209583%23page%2F7%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSecord2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_A._Secord" title="James A. Secord">Secord, James A.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516224806/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl">Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226744100" title="Special:BookSources/9780226744100"><bdi>9780226744100</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl">the original</a> on 16 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victorian+Sensation%3A+The+Extraordinary+Publication%2C+Reception%2C+and+Secret+Authorship+of+Vestiges+of+the+Natural+History+of+Creation&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780226744100&rft.aulast=Secord&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.press.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fhfs.cgi%2F00%2F14098.ctl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica_–_since_Linnaeus-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_–_since_Linnaeus_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_–_since_Linnaeus_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_–_since_Linnaeus_55-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Classification-since-Linnaeus">"taxonomy – Classification since Linnaeus | biology"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075916/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Classification-since-Linnaeus">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=taxonomy+%E2%80%93+Classification+since+Linnaeus+%7C+biology&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Ftaxonomy%2FClassification-since-Linnaeus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2010" class="citation magazine cs1">Black, Riley (7 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/thomas-henry-huxley-and-the-dinobirds-88519294/">"Thomas Henry Huxley and the Dinobirds"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110094503/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/thomas-henry-huxley-and-the-dinobirds-88519294/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2023. Retrieved 10 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Thomas+Henry+Huxley+and+the+Dinobirds&rft.date=2010-12-07&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Riley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fscience-nature%2Fthomas-henry-huxley-and-the-dinobirds-88519294%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuxley1876" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Huxley, Thomas Henry</a> (1876). "Lectures on Evolution". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628224543/http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE4/LecEvol.html">Collected Essays</a>. Vol. IV. pp. 46–138. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE4/LecEvol.html">the original</a> on 28 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lectures+on+Evolution&rft.btitle=Collected+Essays&rft.pages=46-138&rft.date=1876&rft.aulast=Huxley&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Henry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faleph0.clarku.edu%2Fhuxley%2FCE4%2FLecEvol.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> Original text w/ figures. First published as New York Tribune, Extra no. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Henry-Huxley">"Thomas Henry Huxley | British biologist"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180206114405/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Henry-Huxley">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thomas+Henry+Huxley+%7C+British+biologist&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FThomas-Henry-Huxley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudwick1985" class="citation book cs1">Rudwick, M. J. S. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-NuYXr8BszwC&pg=PA24">The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Palaeontology</a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226731032" title="Special:BookSources/9780226731032"><bdi>9780226731032</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+Fossils%3A+Episodes+in+the+History+of+Palaeontology&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780226731032&rft.aulast=Rudwick&rft.aufirst=M.+J.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-NuYXr8BszwC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaterlini2007" class="citation journal cs1">Paterlini, Marta (September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1973966">"There shall be order. The legacy of Linnaeus in the age of molecular biology"</a>. EMBO Reports. 8 (9): 814–816. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.embor.7401061">10.1038/sj.embor.7401061</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1973966">1973966</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17767191">17767191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EMBO+Reports&rft.atitle=There+shall+be+order.+The+legacy+of+Linnaeus+in+the+age+of+molecular+biology&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=814-816&rft.date=2007-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1973966%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17767191&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.embor.7401061&rft.aulast=Paterlini&rft.aufirst=Marta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1973966&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mike_Taylor-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mike_Taylor_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mike_Taylor_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mike_Taylor_61-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2003" class="citation web cs1">Taylor, Mike (17 July 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/dino/faq/s-class/phyletic/">"What do terms like monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic mean?"</a>. miketaylor.org.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100801072310/http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/dino/faq/s-class/phyletic/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=miketaylor.org.uk&rft.atitle=What+do+terms+like+monophyletic%2C+paraphyletic+and+polyphyletic+mean%3F&rft.date=2003-07-17&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.miketaylor.org.uk%2Fdino%2Ffaq%2Fs-class%2Fphyletic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NCSE-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NCSE_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NCSE_62-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170039/https://ncse.com/book/export/html/2206">"Polyphyletic vs. Monophyletic"</a>. National Center for Science Education. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ncse.com/book/export/html/2206">the original</a> on 5 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Center+for+Science+Education&rft.atitle=Polyphyletic+vs.+Monophyletic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fncse.com%2Fbook%2Fexport%2Fhtml%2F2206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowerSchuh2021" class="citation book cs1">Brower, Andrew V. Z.; Schuh, Randall T. (2021). Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications (3rd ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biological+Systematics%3A+Principles+and+Applications&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pages=13&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Brower&rft.aufirst=Andrew+V.+Z.&rft.au=Schuh%2C+Randall+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuh2003" class="citation journal cs1">Schuh, Randall T. (2003). "The Linnaean system and its 250-year persistence". The Botanical Review. 69 (1): 59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1663%2F0006-8101%282003%29069%5B0059%3ATLSAIY%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1663/0006-8101(2003)069[0059:TLSAIY]2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Botanical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Linnaean+system+and+its+250-year+persistence&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=59&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1663%2F0006-8101%282003%29069%5B0059%3ATLSAIY%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=Schuh&rft.aufirst=Randall+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQueirozde_Cantino" class="citation web cs1">Queiroz, Philip D.; de Cantino, Kevin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160510200022/https://www.ohio.edu/phylocode/">"The PhyloCode"</a>. Ohio.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohio.edu/phylocode/">the original</a> on 10 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ohio.edu&rft.atitle=The+PhyloCode&rft.aulast=Queiroz&rft.aufirst=Philip+D.&rft.au=de+Cantino%2C+Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohio.edu%2Fphylocode%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dubois_2007-66"><a href="#cite_ref-Dubois_2007_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDubois2007" class="citation journal cs1">Dubois, Alain (1 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.007">"Naming taxa from cladograms: A cautionary tale"</a>. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 42 (2): 317–330. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2006.06.007">10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1055-7903">1055-7903</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16949307">16949307</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101502/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790306002375?via%3Dihub">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Naming+taxa+from+cladograms%3A+A+cautionary+tale&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=317-330&rft.date=2007-02-01&rft.issn=1055-7903&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16949307&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2006.06.007&rft.aulast=Dubois&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2006.06.007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dubois_et_al._2019-67"><a href="#cite_ref-Dubois_et_al._2019_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuboisBauerCeríacoDusoulier2019" class="citation journal cs1">Dubois, Alain; Bauer, Aaron M.; Ceríaco, Luis M. P.; Dusoulier, François; Frétey, Thierry; Löbl, Ivan; Lorvelec, Olivier; Ohler, Annemarie; Stopiglia, Renata; Aescht, Erna (17 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11646%2FBIONOMINA.17.1.1">"The Linz Zoocode project: A set of new proposals regarding the terminology, the Principles and Rules of zoological nomenclature. First report of activities (2014‒2019)"</a>. Bionomina. 17 (1): 1–111. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11646%2FBIONOMINA.17.1.1">10.11646/BIONOMINA.17.1.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bionomina&rft.atitle=The+Linz+Zoocode+project%3A+A+set+of+new+proposals+regarding+the+terminology%2C+the+Principles+and+Rules+of+zoological+nomenclature.+First+report+of+activities+%282014%E2%80%922019%29&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-111&rft.date=2019-12-17&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11646%2FBIONOMINA.17.1.1&rft.aulast=Dubois&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft.au=Bauer%2C+Aaron+M.&rft.au=Cer%C3%ADaco%2C+Luis+M.+P.&rft.au=Dusoulier%2C+Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Fr%C3%A9tey%2C+Thierry&rft.au=L%C3%B6bl%2C+Ivan&rft.au=Lorvelec%2C+Olivier&rft.au=Ohler%2C+Annemarie&rft.au=Stopiglia%2C+Renata&rft.au=Aescht%2C+Erna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.11646%252FBIONOMINA.17.1.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kingdom_classification-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kingdom_classification_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kingdom_classification_68-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kingdom_classification_68-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biology/kingdom-classification-of-living-organism/5542">"Kingdom Classification of Living Organism"</a>. Biology Discussion. 2 December 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073641/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biology/kingdom-classification-of-living-organism/5542">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+Discussion&rft.atitle=Kingdom+Classification+of+Living+Organism&rft.date=2014-12-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biologydiscussion.com%2Fbiology%2Fkingdom-classification-of-living-organism%2F5542&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170428163950/http://www.igb.illinois.edu/about/archaea">"Carl Woese | Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology"</a>. www.igb.Illinois.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.igb.illinois.edu/about/archaea">the original</a> on 28 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.igb.Illinois.edu&rft.atitle=Carl+Woese+%7C+Carl+R.+Woese+Institute+for+Genomic+Biology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.igb.illinois.edu%2Fabout%2Farchaea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCracraftDonaghue2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joel_Cracraft" title="Joel Cracraft">Cracraft, Joel</a>; Donaghue, Michael J., eds. (2004). Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford University Press. pp. 45, 78, 555. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195172345" title="Special:BookSources/0195172345"><bdi>0195172345</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assembling+the+Tree+of+Life&rft.pages=45%2C+78%2C+555&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0195172345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid11931142-71"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid11931142_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavalier-Smith2002" class="citation journal cs1">Cavalier-Smith, T. (March 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11931142">"The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa"</a>. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 52 (Pt 2): 297–354. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00207713-52-2-297">10.1099/00207713-52-2-297</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11931142">11931142</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170729113756/http://ijs.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Systematic+and+Evolutionary+Microbiology&rft.atitle=The+phagotrophic+origin+of+eukaryotes+and+phylogenetic+classification+of+Protozoa&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=Pt+2&rft.pages=297-354&rft.date=2002-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2F00207713-52-2-297&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11931142&rft.aulast=Cavalier-Smith&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fijs.sgmjournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fpmidlookup%3Fview%3Dlong%26pmid%3D11931142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CavalierSmith2004-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CavalierSmith2004_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CavalierSmith2004_72-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavalier-Smith1998" class="citation journal cs1">Cavalier-Smith, T. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=685">"A revised six-kingdom system of life"</a>. Biological Reviews. 73 (3): 203–66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x">10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9809012">9809012</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6557779">6557779</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Reviews&rft.atitle=A+revised+six-kingdom+system+of+life&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=203-66&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6557779%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9809012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x&rft.aulast=Cavalier-Smith&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.cambridge.org%2Faction%2FdisplayAbstract%3FfromPage%3Donline%26aid%3D685&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luketa2012-73"><a href="#cite_ref-Luketa2012_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuketa2012" class="citation journal cs1">Luketa, S. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://protistology.ifmo.ru/num7_4/luketa_protistology_7-4.pdf">"New views on the megaclassification of life"</a> (PDF). Protistology. 7 (4): 218–237. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150257/http://protistology.ifmo.ru/num7_4/luketa_protistology_7-4.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Protistology&rft.atitle=New+views+on+the+megaclassification+of+life&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=218-237&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Luketa&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprotistology.ifmo.ru%2Fnum7_4%2Fluketa_protistology_7-4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Linnaeus1735-74"><a href="#cite_ref-Linnaeus1735_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinnaeus1735" class="citation book cs1">Linnaeus, C. (1735). Systemae Naturae, sive regna tria naturae, systematics proposita per classes, ordines, genera & species.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systemae+Naturae%2C+sive+regna+tria+naturae%2C+systematics+proposita+per+classes%2C+ordines%2C+genera+%26+species&rft.date=1735&rft.aulast=Linnaeus&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haeckel-75"><a href="#cite_ref-Haeckel_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaeckel1866" class="citation book cs1">Haeckel, E. (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Reimer, Berlin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generelle+Morphologie+der+Organismen&rft.pub=Reimer%2C+Berlin&rft.date=1866&rft.aulast=Haeckel&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chatton1925-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Chatton1925_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChatton1925" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Chatton, É. (1925). "Pansporella perplexa. Réflexions sur la biologie et la phylogénie des protozoaires". Annales des Sciences Naturelles - Zoologie et Biologie Animale. 10-VII: 1–84.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+des+Sciences+Naturelles+-+Zoologie+et+Biologie+Animale&rft.atitle=Pansporella+perplexa.+R%C3%A9flexions+sur+la+biologie+et+la+phylog%C3%A9nie+des+protozoaires&rft.volume=10-VII&rft.pages=1-84&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Chatton&rft.aufirst=%C3%89.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Copeland1938-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Copeland1938_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCopeland1938" class="citation journal cs1">Copeland, H. (1938). "The kingdoms of organisms". Quarterly Review of Biology. 13 (4): 383–420. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F394568">10.1086/394568</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84634277">84634277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Review+of+Biology&rft.atitle=The+kingdoms+of+organisms&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=383-420&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F394568&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A84634277%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Copeland&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whittaker1969-78"><a href="#cite_ref-Whittaker1969_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittaker1969" class="citation journal cs1">Whittaker, R. H. (January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms of organisms". Science. 163 (3863): 150–60. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969Sci...163..150W">1969Sci...163..150W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.163.3863.150">10.1126/science.163.3863.150</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5762760">5762760</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=New+concepts+of+kingdoms+of+organisms&rft.volume=163&rft.issue=3863&rft.pages=150-60&rft.date=1969-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5762760&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.163.3863.150&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969Sci...163..150W&rft.aulast=Whittaker&rft.aufirst=R.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woese1990-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Woese1990_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoeseKandlerWheelis1990" class="citation journal cs1">Woese, C.; Kandler, O.; Wheelis, M. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC54159">"Towards a natural system of organisms:proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 87 (12): 4576–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990PNAS...87.4576W">1990PNAS...87.4576W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.87.12.4576">10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC54159">54159</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2112744">2112744</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Towards+a+natural+system+of+organisms%3Aproposal+for+the+domains+Archaea%2C+Bacteria%2C+and+Eucarya.&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=4576-9&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC54159%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2112744&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.87.12.4576&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990PNAS...87.4576W&rft.aulast=Woese&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Kandler%2C+O.&rft.au=Wheelis%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC54159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuggieroGordonOrrellBailly2015" class="citation journal cs1">Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M.; Bailly, Nicolas; Bourgoin, Thierry; Brusca, Richard C.; Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Guiry, Michael D.; Kirk, Paul M.; Thuesen, Erik V. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4418965">"A higher level classification of all living organisms"</a>. PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0119248. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PLoSO..1019248R">2015PLoSO..1019248R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0119248">10.1371/journal.pone.0119248</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4418965">4418965</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25923521">25923521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=A+higher+level+classification+of+all+living+organisms&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e0119248&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4418965%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25923521&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0119248&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PLoSO..1019248R&rft.aulast=Ruggiero&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft.au=Gordon%2C+Dennis+P.&rft.au=Orrell%2C+Thomas+M.&rft.au=Bailly%2C+Nicolas&rft.au=Bourgoin%2C+Thierry&rft.au=Brusca%2C+Richard+C.&rft.au=Cavalier-Smith%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Guiry%2C+Michael+D.&rft.au=Kirk%2C+Paul+M.&rft.au=Thuesen%2C+Erik+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4418965&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adl-et-al-2012-81"><a href="#cite_ref-Adl-et-al-2012_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdlSimpsonLaneLukeš2015" class="citation journal cs1">Adl, S. M.; Simpson, A. G. B.; Lane, C. E.; Lukeš, J.; Bass, D.; Bowser, S. S.; et al. (December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3483872">"The revised classification of eukaryotes"</a>. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 59 (5): 429–493. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1550-7408.2012.00644.x">10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3483872">3483872</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23020233">23020233</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Eukaryotic+Microbiology&rft.atitle=The+revised+classification+of+eukaryotes&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=429-493&rft.date=2015-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3483872%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23020233&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1550-7408.2012.00644.x&rft.aulast=Adl&rft.aufirst=S.+M.&rft.au=Simpson%2C+A.+G.+B.&rft.au=Lane%2C+C.+E.&rft.au=Luke%C5%A1%2C+J.&rft.au=Bass%2C+D.&rft.au=Bowser%2C+S.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3483872&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adl-et-al-2019-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Adl-et-al-2019_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdlBassLaneLukeš2019" class="citation journal cs1">Adl, S. M.; Bass, D.; Lane, C. E.; Lukeš, J.; Schoch, C. L.; Smirnov, A.; et al. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6492006">"Revisions to the classification, nomenclature, and diversity of eukaryotes"</a>. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 66 (1): 4–119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjeu.12691">10.1111/jeu.12691</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6492006">6492006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30257078">30257078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Eukaryotic+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Revisions+to+the+classification%2C+nomenclature%2C+and+diversity+of+eukaryotes&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4-119&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6492006%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30257078&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjeu.12691&rft.aulast=Adl&rft.aufirst=S.+M.&rft.au=Bass%2C+D.&rft.au=Lane%2C+C.+E.&rft.au=Luke%C5%A1%2C+J.&rft.au=Schoch%2C+C.+L.&rft.au=Smirnov%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6492006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruggiero-et-al-2015-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ruggiero-et-al-2015_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ruggiero-et-al-2015_83-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuggieroGordonOrrellBailly2015" class="citation journal cs1">Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, D. P.; Orrell, T. M.; Bailly, N.; Bourgoin, T.; Brusca, R. C.; et al. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4418965">"A higher level classification of all living organisms"</a>. PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0119248. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PLoSO..1019248R">2015PLoSO..1019248R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0119248">10.1371/journal.pone.0119248</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4418965">4418965</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25923521">25923521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=A+higher+level+classification+of+all+living+organisms&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e0119248&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4418965%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25923521&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0119248&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PLoSO..1019248R&rft.aulast=Ruggiero&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft.au=Gordon%2C+D.+P.&rft.au=Orrell%2C+T.+M.&rft.au=Bailly%2C+N.&rft.au=Bourgoin%2C+T.&rft.au=Brusca%2C+R.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4418965&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDöring2015" class="citation journal cs1">Döring, Markus (13 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/dataset/8067e0a2-a26d-4831-8a1e-21b9118a299c">"Families of Living Organisms (FALO)"</a>. GBIF. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15468%2Ftfp6yv">10.15468/tfp6yv</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200302232032/https://www.gbif.org/dataset/8067e0a2-a26d-4831-8a1e-21b9118a299c">Archived</a> from the original on 2 March 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GBIF&rft.atitle=Families+of+Living+Organisms+%28FALO%29&rft.date=2015-08-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15468%2Ftfp6yv&rft.aulast=D%C3%B6ring&rft.aufirst=Markus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gbif.org%2Fdataset%2F8067e0a2-a26d-4831-8a1e-21b9118a299c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2017" class="citation web cs1">Jones, Benjamin (7 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-big-ugly-problem-heart-of-taxonomy-180964629/">"A Few Bad Scientists Are Threatening to Topple Taxonomy"</a>. Smithsonian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190208041357/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-big-ugly-problem-heart-of-taxonomy-180964629/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 February 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=A+Few+Bad+Scientists+Are+Threatening+to+Topple+Taxonomy&rft.date=2017-09-07&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fscience-nature%2Fthe-big-ugly-problem-heart-of-taxonomy-180964629%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131001152618/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html">"What is taxonomy?"</a>. London: Natural History Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html">the original</a> on 1 October 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+taxonomy%3F&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Natural+History+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhm.ac.uk%2Fnature-online%2Fscience-of-natural-history%2Ftaxonomy-systematics%2Fwhat-is-taxonomy%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeely2002" class="citation journal cs1">McNeely, Jeffrey A. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171224155349/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b06/e3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf">"The role of taxonomy in conserving biodiversity"</a> (PDF). Journal for Nature Conservation. 10 (3): 145–153. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002JNatC..10..145M">2002JNatC..10..145M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1078%2F1617-1381-00015">10.1078/1617-1381-00015</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16953722">16953722</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b06/e3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 December 2017 – via Semantic Scholar.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+Nature+Conservation&rft.atitle=The+role+of+taxonomy+in+conserving+biodiversity&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=145-153&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16953722%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1078%2F1617-1381-00015&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002JNatC..10..145M&rft.aulast=McNeely&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2F7b06%2Fe3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mnemonic-device.com/biology/taxonomy/domain-kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species/">"Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species"</a>. Mnemonic Device. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170606171902/https://www.mnemonic-device.com/biology/taxonomy/domain-kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mnemonic+Device&rft.atitle=Domain%2C+Kingdom%2C+Phylum%2C+Class%2C+Order%2C+Family%2C+Genus%2C+Species&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mnemonic-device.com%2Fbiology%2Ftaxonomy%2Fdomain-kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221003055350/http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/loadcachedpage?url=animalbase-code.html">"ICZN Code"</a>. AnimalBase. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/loadcachedpage?url=animalbase-code.html">the original</a> on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 8 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AnimalBase&rft.atitle=ICZN+Code&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de%2Fzooweb%2Fservlet%2FAnimalBase%2Floadcachedpage%3Furl%3Danimalbase-code.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php">"International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants"</a>. IAPT-Taxon.org. <a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130111104255/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IAPT-Taxon.org&rft.atitle=International+Code+of+Nomenclature+for+algae%2C+fungi%2C+and+plants&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iapt-taxon.org%2Fnomen%2Fmain.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120306133052/http://iczn.org/content/how-can-i-describe-new-species">"How can I describe new species?"</a>. ICZN.org. <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Zoological_Nomenclature" title="International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature">International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iczn.org/content/how-can-i-describe-new-species">the original</a> on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ICZN.org&rft.atitle=How+can+I+describe+new+species%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ficzn.org%2Fcontent%2Fhow-can-i-describe-new-species&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawleyGamero-MoraMaronnaChiaverano2022" class="citation journal cs1">Lawley, Jonathan W.; Gamero-Mora, Edgar; Maronna, Maximiliano M.; Chiaverano, Luciano M.; Stampar, Sérgio N.; Hopcroft, Russell R.; Collins, Allen G.; Morandini, André C. (19 September 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sajs.co.za/article/view/14495">"Morphology is not always useful for diagnosis, and that's ok: Species hypotheses should not be bound to a class of data. Reply to Brown and Gibbons (S Afr J Sci. 2022;118(9/10), Art. #12590)"</a>. South African Journal of Science. 118 (9/10). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17159%2Fsajs.2022%2F14495">10.17159/sajs.2022/14495</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1996-7489">1996-7489</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252562185">252562185</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221020063714/https://sajs.co.za/article/view/14495">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 20 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+African+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=Morphology+is+not+always+useful+for+diagnosis%2C+and+that%27s+ok%3A+Species+hypotheses+should+not+be+bound+to+a+class+of+data.+Reply+to+Brown+and+Gibbons+%28S+Afr+J+Sci.+2022%3B118%289%2F10%29%2C+Art.+%2312590%29&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=9%2F10&rft.date=2022-09-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252562185%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1996-7489&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17159%2Fsajs.2022%2F14495&rft.aulast=Lawley&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+W.&rft.au=Gamero-Mora%2C+Edgar&rft.au=Maronna%2C+Maximiliano+M.&rft.au=Chiaverano%2C+Luciano+M.&rft.au=Stampar%2C+S%C3%A9rgio+N.&rft.au=Hopcroft%2C+Russell+R.&rft.au=Collins%2C+Allen+G.&rft.au=Morandini%2C+Andr%C3%A9+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsajs.co.za%2Farticle%2Fview%2F14495&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Evaluating-taxonomic-characters">"Taxonomy – Evaluating taxonomic characters"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190422143927/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Evaluating-taxonomic-characters">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Taxonomy+%E2%80%93+Evaluating+taxonomic+characters&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Ftaxonomy%2FEvaluating-taxonomic-characters&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AJE-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AJE_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AJE_95-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aje.com/en/arc/editing-tip-scientific-names-species/">"Editing Tip: Scientific Names of Species"</a>. AJE.com. American Journal Experts, Research Square Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170409021714/http://www.aje.com/en/arc/editing-tip-scientific-names-species/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AJE.com&rft.atitle=Editing+Tip%3A+Scientific+Names+of+Species&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aje.com%2Fen%2Farc%2Fediting-tip-scientific-names-species%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://study.com/academy/lesson/carolus-linnaeus-classification-taxonomy-contributions-to-biology.html">"Carolus Linnaeus: Classification, Taxonomy & Contributions to Biology – Video & Lesson Transcript"</a>. Study.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170409021600/http://study.com/academy/lesson/carolus-linnaeus-classification-taxonomy-contributions-to-biology.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Study.com&rft.atitle=Carolus+Linnaeus%3A+Classification%2C+Taxonomy+%26+Contributions+to+Biology+%E2%80%93+Video+%26+Lesson+Transcript&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstudy.com%2Facademy%2Flesson%2Fcarolus-linnaeus-classification-taxonomy-contributions-to-biology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiocyclopedia.com" class="citation web cs1">Biocyclopedia.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/biological_classification.php">"Biological Classification"</a>. biocyclopedia.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170514164313/http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/biological_classification.php">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=biocyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Biological+Classification&rft.au=Biocyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biocyclopedia.com%2Findex%2Fbiological_classification.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.annelida.net/zootax-tutor.html">"Zoological nomenclature: a basic guide for non-taxonomist authors"</a>. Annelida.net. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170316112709/http://www.annelida.net/zootax-tutor.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Annelida.net&rft.atitle=Zoological+nomenclature%3A+a+basic+guide+for+non-taxonomist+authors&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.annelida.net%2Fzootax-tutor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/evoresources/Evolutionary%20medicine/classification/classification16.htm">"Classification"</a>. <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_State_University" title="North Carolina State University">North Carolina State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170414163250/https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/evoresources/Evolutionary%20medicine/classification/classification16.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Classification&rft.pub=North+Carolina+State+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fprojects.ncsu.edu%2Fproject%2Fevoresources%2FEvolutionary%2520medicine%2Fclassification%2Fclassification16.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonald2008" class="citation web cs1">McDonald, David (Fall 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/mcdgloss.html">"Molecular Marker Glossary"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wyoming" title="University of Wyoming">University of Wyoming</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610123503/http://www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/McDGloss.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Molecular+Marker+Glossary&rft.pub=University+of+Wyoming&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=McDonald&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uwyo.edu%2Fdbmcd%2Fmolmark%2Fmcdgloss.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodKingLandisCourtney2014" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, Dylan; King, Margaret; Landis, Drew; Courtney, William; Wang, Runtang; Kelly, Ross; Turner, Jessica A.; Calhoun, Vince D. (26 August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4144441">"Harnessing modern web application technology to create intuitive and efficient data visualization and sharing tools"</a>. Frontiers in Neuroinformatics. 8: 71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffninf.2014.00071">10.3389/fninf.2014.00071</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1662-5196">1662-5196</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4144441">4144441</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25206330">25206330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Neuroinformatics&rft.atitle=Harnessing+modern+web+application+technology+to+create+intuitive+and+efficient+data+visualization+and+sharing+tools&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=71&rft.date=2014-08-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4144441%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1662-5196&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25206330&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffninf.2014.00071&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Dylan&rft.au=King%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Landis%2C+Drew&rft.au=Courtney%2C+William&rft.au=Wang%2C+Runtang&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Ross&rft.au=Turner%2C+Jessica+A.&rft.au=Calhoun%2C+Vince+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4144441&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theplantlist.org/about/">"About – The Plant List"</a>. theplantlist.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170621190909/http://www.theplantlist.org/about/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=theplantlist.org&rft.atitle=About+%E2%80%93+The+Plant+List&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theplantlist.org%2Fabout%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-About_the_Catalogue_of_Life-103"><a href="#cite_ref-About_the_Catalogue_of_Life_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/about">"About the Catalogue of Life: 2016 Annual Checklist"</a>. Catalogue of Life. <a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">Integrated Taxonomic Information System</a> (ITIS). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160515032942/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/about">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Catalogue+of+Life&rft.atitle=About+the+Catalogue+of+Life%3A+2016+Annual+Checklist&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catalogueoflife.org%2Fannual-checklist%2F2016%2Finfo%2Fabout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDatta1988" class="citation book cs1">Datta, Subhash Chandra (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X7lfMACvjs4C">Systematic Botany</a> (4 ed.). New Delhi: New Age International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788122400137" title="Special:BookSources/9788122400137"><bdi>9788122400137</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101351/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7lfMACvjs4C">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systematic+Botany&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=New+Age+International&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9788122400137&rft.aulast=Datta&rft.aufirst=Subhash+Chandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX7lfMACvjs4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStace1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clive_A._Stace" title="Clive A. Stace">Stace, Clive A.</a> (1989) [1980]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C">Plant taxonomy and biosystematics</a> (2nd. ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521427852" title="Special:BookSources/9780521427852"><bdi>9780521427852</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230113180249/https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 19 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+taxonomy+and+biosystematics&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780521427852&rft.aulast=Stace&rft.aufirst=Clive+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVfQnuwh3bw8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuessy2009" class="citation book cs1">Stuessy, Tod F. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0bYs8F0Mb9gC">Plant Taxonomy: The Systematic Evaluation of Comparative Data</a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231147125" title="Special:BookSources/9780231147125"><bdi>9780231147125</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101356/https://books.google.com/books?id=0bYs8F0Mb9gC">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Taxonomy%3A+The+Systematic+Evaluation+of+Comparative+Data&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780231147125&rft.aulast=Stuessy&rft.aufirst=Tod+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0bYs8F0Mb9gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurrill1938" class="citation journal cs1">Turrill, W. B. (1938). "The Expansion Of Taxonomy With Special Reference To Spermatophyta". Biological Reviews. 13 (4): 342–373. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1938.tb00522.x">10.1111/j.1469-185X.1938.tb00522.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84905335">84905335</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+Expansion+Of+Taxonomy+With+Special+Reference+To+Spermatophyta&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=342-373&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1938.tb00522.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A84905335%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Turrill&rft.aufirst=W.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWileyLieberman2011" class="citation book cs1">Wiley, Edward O.; Lieberman, Bruce S. (2011). Phylogenetics: Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470905968" title="Special:BookSources/9780470905968"><bdi>9780470905968</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phylogenetics%3A+Theory+and+Practice+of+Phylogenetic+Systematics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780470905968&rft.aulast=Wiley&rft.aufirst=Edward+O.&rft.au=Lieberman%2C+Bruce+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaxonomy+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html">What is taxonomy?</a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum London</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/">Taxonomy</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/">NCBI</a> the National Center for Biotechnology Information</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/">Taxonomy</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uniprot.org/">UniProt</a> the Universal Protein Resource</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/">ITIS</a> the Integrated Taxonomic Information System</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cetaf.org/">CETaF</a> the Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://species.wikimedia.org/">Wikispecies</a> free species directory</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thescienceclass.online/2019/10/biological-classification.html">Biological classification.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200813180358/https://www.thescienceclass.online/2019/10/biological-classification.html">Archived</a> 13 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_biology" title="Template talk:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/21px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/42px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Taxonomy (biology) at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/taxonomy" class="extiw" title="wikt:taxonomy">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Taxonomy_(biology)" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Taxonomy (biology)">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" class="extiw" title="q:Taxonomy (biology)">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Taxonomy_(biology)" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Taxonomy (biology)">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(Biology)" class="extiw" title="v:Taxonomy (Biology)">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8269924" class="extiw" title="d:Q8269924">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taxonomy_(biology)&oldid=1252359140#Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taxonomy_(biology)&oldid=1252359140#Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Category:Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy (biology)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biological_nomenclature" title="Category:Biological nomenclature">Biological nomenclature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biological_classification" title="Category:Biological classification">Biological classification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neo-Latin_terminology" title="Category:Neo-Latin terminology">Neo-Latin terminology</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Latin-language_sources_(la)" title="Category:CS1 Latin-language sources (la)">CS1 Latin-language sources (la)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Swedish-language_sources_(sv)" title="Category:CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv)">CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_March_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from March 2022">Use dmy dates from March 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Good_articles" title="Category:Good articles">Good articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2019" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2019">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_April_2017" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from April 2017">Articles lacking reliable references from April 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_April_2016" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2016">Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements" title="Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements">All articles containing potentially dated statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_div_col_with_small_parameter" title="Category:Pages using div col with small parameter">Pages using div col with small parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 October 2024, at 00:22 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taxonomy_(biology)&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile#Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-zb8xp","wgBackendResponseTime":225,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.474","walltime":"1.731","ppvisitednodes":{"value":8290,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":267633,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":13494,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":23,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":23,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":422918,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1505.325 1 -total"," 44.29% 666.754 2 Template:Reflist"," 14.22% 214.026 32 Template:Cite_journal"," 11.56% 174.084 24 Template:Cite_web"," 10.84% 163.123 33 Template:Cite_book"," 8.91% 134.157 1 Template:Evolutionary_biology"," 8.71% 131.132 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 6.34% 95.454 1 Template:Subject_bar"," 5.87% 88.414 6 Template:Sfn"," 4.63% 69.639 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.900","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":10536962,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdlBassLaneLukeš2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdlSimpsonLaneLukeš2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiocyclopedia.com\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowerSchuh2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruscaBrusca2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCantinode_Queiroz2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarlCarlEricL.1757\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavalier-Smith2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCesalpinoMarescotti1583\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCracraftDonaghue2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDatta1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonk1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubois2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuboisBauerCeríacoDusoulier2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDöring2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFortey2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHennig1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuxley1876\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaime2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn1682\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuddCampbellKelloggStevens2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaurin2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaurinHumar2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawleyGamero-MoraMaronnaChiaverano2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawrence2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeroi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinnaeus1735\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinnaeus1753\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinnaeus1758\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuketa2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManktelow2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxted1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1982\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonald2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeely2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichenerCorlissCowanRaven1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaterlini2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQueirozde_Cantino\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosselló-MoraAmann2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudwick1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuggieroGordonOrrellBailly2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuh2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSecord2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmall1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStace1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteyskal1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStuessy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurrill1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoultsiadouGerovasileiouVandepitteGanias2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoultsiadouVafidis2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheeler2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWileyLieberman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkins\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkins2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodKingLandisCourtney2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_LievenHumar2008\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 8,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Biological systems\"] = 1,\n [\"Branches of biology\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 31,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 26,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 24,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 2,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 2,\n [\"Ety\"] = 1,\n [\"Evolutionary biology\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 8,\n [\"NoteFoot\"] = 1,\n [\"NoteTag\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 6,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreliable source?\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-542sp","timestamp":"20241122140429","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Taxonomy (biology)","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taxonomy_(biology)#Alpha_and_beta_taxonomy","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8269924","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q8269924","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-08-10T02:00:11Z","dateModified":"2024-10-21T00:22:17Z","headline":"science of naming, defining and classifying organisms"}</script> </body> </html>