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id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Diversity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mycology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mycology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Mycology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mycology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mycology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mycology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Microscopic_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microscopic_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Microscopic structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microscopic_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Macroscopic_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macroscopic_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Macroscopic structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macroscopic_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth_and_physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_and_physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Growth and physiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_and_physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Reproduction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reproduction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Asexual_reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asexual_reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Asexual reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asexual_reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Sexual reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spore_dispersal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spore_dispersal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Spore dispersal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spore_dispersal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homothallism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homothallism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Homothallism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homothallism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_sexual_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_sexual_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Other sexual processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_sexual_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Taxonomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Taxonomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Taxonomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Taxonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Taxonomic_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomic_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Taxonomic groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxonomic_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fungus-like_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fungus-like_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Fungus-like organisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fungus-like_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ecology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Symbiosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbiosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Symbiosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbiosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-With_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#With_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.1</span> <span>With plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-With_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-With_algae_and_cyanobacteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#With_algae_and_cyanobacteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.2</span> <span>With algae and cyanobacteria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-With_algae_and_cyanobacteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-With_insects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#With_insects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.3</span> <span>With insects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-With_insects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_parasites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_parasites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.4</span> <span>As parasites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_parasites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_pathogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_pathogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.5</span> <span>As pathogens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_pathogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_targets_of_mycoparasites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_targets_of_mycoparasites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.6</span> <span>As targets of mycoparasites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_targets_of_mycoparasites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Communication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_impact_on_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_impact_on_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Possible impact on climate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_impact_on_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mycotoxins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mycotoxins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Mycotoxins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mycotoxins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathogenic_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathogenic_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Pathogenic mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathogenic_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Human use</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human use subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Therapeutic_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Therapeutic_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Therapeutic uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Therapeutic_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_chemotherapeutics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_chemotherapeutics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1.1</span> <span>Modern chemotherapeutics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_chemotherapeutics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antibiotics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antibiotics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1.1.1</span> <span>Antibiotics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antibiotics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1.1.2</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traditional_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Traditional medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultured_foods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultured_foods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Cultured foods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultured_foods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_food" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_food"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>In food</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_food-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poisonous_fungi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poisonous_fungi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.5</span> <span>Poisonous fungi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poisonous_fungi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pest_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pest_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.6</span> <span>Pest control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pest_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioremediation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioremediation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.7</span> <span>Bioremediation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioremediation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Model_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Model_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.8</span> <span>Model organisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Model_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.9</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cited_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Cited literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cited_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungus</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 183 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-183" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">183 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swam" title="Swam – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Swam" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilze" title="Pilze – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Pilze" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%88%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%88%E1%88%B5" title="ፈንገስ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ፈንገስ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuobb%C3%A2reh" title="Kuobbâreh – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Kuobbâreh" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Anarâškielâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="फफूंदी – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="फफूंदी" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B7%D8%B1" title="فطر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فطر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%81%E0%A7%B0" title="ভেঁকুৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভেঁকুৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-atj mw-list-item"><a href="https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocockweto" title="Ocockweto – Atikamekw" lang="atj" hreflang="atj" data-title="Ocockweto" data-language-autonym="Atikamekw" data-language-local-name="Atikamekw" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Atikamekw</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urupe" title="Urupe – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Urupe" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6b%C9%99l%C9%99kl%C9%99r" title="Göbələklər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Göbələklər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A4%D8%A8%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%84%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%B1" title="گؤبه‌لکلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="گؤبه‌لکلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95" title="ছত্রাক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ছত্রাক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chin-kh%C3%BAn" title="Chin-khún – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chin-khún" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%99%D1%88%D0%BC%D3%99%D0%BA%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80" title="Бәшмәктәр – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Бәшмәктәр" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Грыбы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Грыбы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Грыбы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Грыбы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Fungus" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%8A%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Гъби – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гъби" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwammal" title="Schwammal – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Schwammal" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gljive" title="Gljive – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Gljive" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%8F%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Һархяаг – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Һархяаг" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fongs" title="Fongs – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fongs" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%C4%83%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Кăмпасем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Кăмпасем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abungawg-uhong" title="Abungawg-uhong – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Abungawg-uhong" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houby" title="Houby – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Houby" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungu" title="Fungu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Fungu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffwng" title="Ffwng – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffwng" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C9%9B%C9%A3u" title="Malɛɣu – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Malɛɣu" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svampe" title="Svampe – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Svampe" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guobbarat" title="Guobbarat – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Guobbarat" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilze" title="Pilze – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pilze" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%CA%BCosh_doo_yit%CA%BC%C3%ADinii_dl%C3%A1%C3%A1d%C3%AD_d%C3%B3%C3%B3_%C3%81bishjaa%CA%BC" title="Chʼosh doo yitʼíinii dláádí dóó Ábishjaaʼ – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Chʼosh doo yitʼíinii dláádí dóó Ábishjaaʼ" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griby" title="Griby – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Griby" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seened" title="Seened – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Seened" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%8D%CE%BA%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Μύκητας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μύκητας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fun%C5%9B" title="Funś – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Funś" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%82" title="Пангт – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Пангт" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungoj" title="Fungoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fungoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onddo" title="Onddo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Onddo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%86" title="قارچ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قارچ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Fungus" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soppar" title="Soppar – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Soppar" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skimmels" title="Skimmels – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Skimmels" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungas" title="Fungas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fungas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungys" title="Fungys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Fungys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungas" title="Fungas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Fungas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungo_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Fungo (bioloxía) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fungo (bioloxía)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%88" title="ЖӀаленускалаш – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="ЖӀаленускалаш" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B4" title="ميش – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="ميش" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%B9%B3%CC%82n-khi%C3%B9n" title="Chṳ̂n-khiùn – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chṳ̂n-khiùn" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D2%A3%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Теңгрин ки – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Теңгрин ки" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Хальмг</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%A0%EA%B3%84" title="균계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="균계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%AF" title="Սունկ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սունկ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6" title="फफूंद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फफूंद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hriby" title="Hriby – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Hriby" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gljive" title="Gljive – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Gljive" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Fungus" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungo" title="Fungo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Fungo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungo" title="Fungo – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Fungo" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%BE%D1%82%C3%A6" title="Зокъотæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Зокъотæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-Fungi" title="I-Fungi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-Fungi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukhunta" title="Ukhunta – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ukhunta" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sveppir" title="Sveppir – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sveppir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="פטריות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פטריות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A7%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಶಿಲೀಂಧ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಶಿಲೀಂಧ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Fungus" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="სოკოები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სოკოები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grz%C3%ABb%C3%AB" title="Grzëbë – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Grzëbë" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D2%A3%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D2%9B%D2%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Саңырауқұлақтар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Саңырауқұлақтар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fong" title="Fong – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Fong" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuvu" title="Kuvu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kuvu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanpiyon" title="Chanpiyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Chanpiyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuv" title="Kuv – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kuv" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%83_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Козу карындар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Козу карындар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonch" title="Fonch – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Fonch" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%93nes" title="Sēnes – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sēnes" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilzer%C3%A4ich" title="Pilzeräich – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Pilzeräich" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%8A%D1%83%D0%B7" title="Къарникъуз – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Къарникъуз" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grybai" title="Grybai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Grybai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4%C3%B6me" title="Käöme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Käöme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liy%C9%9Bb%C3%BA" title="Liyɛbú – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Liyɛbú" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungo" title="Fungo – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Fungo" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sienet" title="Sienet – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Sienet" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomb%C3%A1k" title="Gombák – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gombák" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Габа – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Габа" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holatra" title="Holatra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Holatra" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%BD" title="പൂപ്പൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പൂപ്പൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80" title="बुरशी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बुरशी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="სოკოეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სოკოეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B7%D8%B1" title="فطر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فطر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B4%DA%A9" title="گوشک – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="گوشک" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulat" title="Kulat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kulat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%ADng-k%E1%B9%B3%CC%84ng" title="Cĭng-kṳ̄ng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Cĭng-kṳ̄ng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Панга – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Панга" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF" title="မှို – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မှို" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanacatl" title="Nanacatl – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Nanacatl" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schimmels" title="Schimmels – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Schimmels" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80" title="ढुसी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ढुसी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="फुसा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="फुसा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8F%8C%E9%A1%9E" title="菌類 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="菌類" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaampen_(Fungi)" title="Swaampen (Fungi) – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Swaampen (Fungi)" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopper" title="Sopper – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sopper" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopp" title="Sopp – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sopp" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycota" title="Mycota – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Mycota" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faangasii" title="Faangasii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Faangasii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamburug%CA%BBlar" title="Zamburugʻlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Zamburugʻlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%89%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80" title="ਉੱਲੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਉੱਲੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="الی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="الی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DA%BC%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="چڼاس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="چڼاس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonggos" title="Fonggos – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Fonggos" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sw%C3%A4mme" title="Swämme – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Swämme" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grzyby" title="Grzyby – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Grzyby" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opap%C4%B1%C5%9Flar" title="Opapışlar – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Opapışlar" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnul_Fungi" title="Regnul Fungi – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Regnul Fungi" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%27allampa" title="K'allampa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="K'allampa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Грибы – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Грибы" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%8B" title="Грибы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Грибы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Тэллэйдэр – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Тэллэйдэр" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="कवकम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="कवकम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Fungus" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poagenstoule_(Riek)" title="Poagenstoule (Riek) – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Poagenstoule (Riek)" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ABrpudhat" title="Kërpudhat – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kërpudhat" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funci" title="Funci – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Funci" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%BB" title="දිලීර – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="දිලීර" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Fungus" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B3" title="فنگس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="فنگس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huby" title="Huby – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Huby" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glive" title="Glive – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Glive" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grziby" title="Grziby – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Grziby" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%AF" title="کوارگ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کوارگ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%99%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="Гљиве – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Гљиве" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gljiva" title="Gljiva – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Gljiva" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suung" title="Suung – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Suung" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sienet" title="Sienet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sienet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svampar" title="Svampar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Svampar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halamang-singaw" title="Halamang-singaw – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Halamang-singaw" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88" title="பூஞ்சை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பூஞ்சை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takuffit_n_u%C9%9Baqqay" title="Takuffit n uɛaqqay – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Takuffit n uɛaqqay" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%B1%D3%99%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Гөмбәләр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Гөмбәләр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A7%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="శిలీంధ్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="శిలీంధ్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2" title="เห็ดรา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เห็ดรา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B1%D3%AF%D1%80%D1%83%D2%93%D2%B3%D0%BE" title="Занбӯруғҳо – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Занбӯруғҳо" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to mw-list-item"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talingelinga" title="Talingelinga – Tongan" lang="to" hreflang="to" data-title="Talingelinga" data-language-autonym="Lea faka-Tonga" data-language-local-name="Tongan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lea faka-Tonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%AD%E1%8E%BE%E1%8E%A9" title="ᏭᎾᎩ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏭᎾᎩ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%81" title="ಲಾಂಬು – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಲಾಂಬು" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantarlar" title="Mantarlar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mantarlar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Губи – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Губи" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Гриби – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гриби" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%BE%D9%BE%DA%BE%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF" title="پھپھوند – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پھپھوند" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%95%D9%85%D8%A8%DB%87%D8%B1%DB%87%D8%BA" title="زەمبۇرۇغ – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="زەمبۇرۇغ" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caen%27gin" title="Caen'gin – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Caen'gin" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" title="Fungi – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Fungi" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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hreflang="wa" data-title="Tchampion" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C" title="真菌 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="真菌" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Fungus" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E8%8F%8C" title="真菌 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="真菌" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Biological kingdom, separate from plants and animals</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Fungi" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Fungi_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Fungi (disambiguation)">Fungi (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungus_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Fungus (disambiguation)">Fungus (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(145,250,250)">Fungi<br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: Middle <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> – <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Present</a> (but <a href="#Evolution">see text</a>) <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">460–0 <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:18.073846153846px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.089230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:5.0769230769231px; width:214.92307692308px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:64.307692307692px; width:155.69230769231px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:65.307692307692px; width:153.69230769231px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Fungi_collage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A collage of five fungi (clockwise from top left): a mushroom with a flat red top with white spots and a white stem growing on the ground; a red cup-shaped fungus growing on wood; a stack of green and white moldy bread slices on a plate; a microscopic spherical grey semitransparent cell with a smaller spherical cell beside it; a microscopic view of an elongated cellular structure shaped like a microphone, attached to the larger end is a number of smaller roughly circular elements that collectively form a mass around it" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fungi_collage.jpg/290px-Fungi_collage.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fungi_collage.jpg/435px-Fungi_collage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fungi_collage.jpg/580px-Fungi_collage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="1062" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Clockwise from top left: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria</a></i>, a basidiomycete;</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarcoscypha_coccinea" title="Sarcoscypha coccinea">Sarcoscypha coccinea</a></i>, an ascomycete;</li> <li>bread covered in <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">mold</a>;</li> <li>a <a href="/wiki/Chytrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Chytrid">chytrid</a>;</li> <li>an <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Conidiophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Conidiophore">conidiophore</a>.</li></ul> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(145,250,250)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Fungi" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Obazoa" title="Obazoa">Obazoa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(unranked): </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">Opisthokonta</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Holomycota" title="Holomycota">Holomycota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fungi</a><br /><small><a href="/wiki/R.T.Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="R.T.Moore">R.T.Moore</a> (1980)<sup id="cite_ref-Moore1980_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore1980-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(145,250,250)">Subkingdoms/phyla </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rozellomyceta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rozellomyceta">Rozellomyceta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rozellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rozellomycota">Rozellomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsporidia" title="Microsporidia">Microsporidia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphelidiomyceta" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphelidiomyceta">Aphelidiomyceta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aphelidiomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphelidiomycota">Aphelidiomycota</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amastigomycota" title="Amastigomycota">Eumycota</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chytridiomyceta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chytridiomyceta (page does not exist)">Chytridiomyceta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomyceta" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastocladiomyceta">Blastocladiomyceta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoopagomyceta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zoopagomyceta (page does not exist)">Zoopagomyceta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basidiobolomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidiobolomycota">Basidiobolomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomophthoromycota" title="Entomophthoromycota">Entomophthoromycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kickxellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Kickxellomycota">Kickxellomycota</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortierellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortierellomycota">Mortierellomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucoromyceta" title="Mucoromyceta">Mucoromyceta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcarisporiellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcarisporiellomycota">Calcarisporiellomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucoromycota" title="Mucoromycota">Mucoromycota</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiomycota" title="Symbiomycota">Symbiomycota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entorrhizomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Entorrhizomycota">Entorrhizomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dikarya" title="Dikarya">Dikarya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p>A <b>fungus</b> (<abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr>: fungi<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or funguses<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordDictionary_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordDictionary-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is any member of the group of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> organisms that includes microorganisms such as <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeasts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">molds</a>, as well as the more familiar <a href="/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushrooms</a>. These organisms are classified as one of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)#Six_kingdoms_(1998)" title="Kingdom (biology)">traditional eukaryotic kingdoms</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a>, and either <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protista</a><sup id="cite_ref-Whittaker-1969_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whittaker-1969-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromista" title="Chromista">Chromista</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cavalier-Smith_1998_203–66_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavalier-Smith_1998_203–66-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a> is <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> in their <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell walls</a>. Fungi, like animals, are <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophs</a>; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting <a href="/wiki/Digestive_enzyme" title="Digestive enzyme">digestive enzymes</a> into their environment. Fungi do not <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesize" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthesize">photosynthesize</a>. Growth is their means of <a href="/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">mobility</a>, except for <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> (a few of which are <a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">flagellated</a>), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal <a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">decomposers</a> in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the <i>Eumycota</i> (<i>true fungi</i> or <i>Eumycetes</i>), that share a <a href="/wiki/Common_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Common ancestor">common ancestor</a> (i.e. they form a <i><a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> group</i>), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogenetics</a>. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar <a href="/wiki/Mycetozoa" title="Mycetozoa">myxomycetes</a> (slime molds) and <a href="/wiki/Oomycete" title="Oomycete">oomycetes</a> (water molds). The discipline of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> devoted to the study of fungi is known as <a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">mycology</a> (from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc" style="font-style: normal;">μύκης</span></span> <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">mykes</i></span></i>, mushroom). In the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, although it is now known that fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. </p><p>Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their <a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">cryptic</a> lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include <a href="/wiki/Symbionts" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbionts">symbionts</a> of plants, animals, or other fungi and also <a href="/wiki/Parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasites">parasites</a>. They may become noticeable when <a href="/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporocarp (fungi)">fruiting</a>, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">cycling</a> and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct <a href="/wiki/Fungivore" title="Fungivore">source of human food</a>, in the form of mushrooms and <a href="/wiki/Truffles" class="mw-redirect" title="Truffles">truffles</a>; as a <a href="/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent">leavening agent</a> for bread; and in the <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermentation</a> of various food products, such as <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_in_winemaking" title="Fermentation in winemaking">wine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beer_fermentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Beer fermentation">beer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soy_sauce" title="Soy sauce">soy sauce</a>. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>, and, more recently, various <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> produced by fungi are used <a href="/wiki/Enzyme#Industrial_applications" title="Enzyme">industrially</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Protease#Biodiversity_of_proteases" title="Protease">detergents</a>. Fungi are also used as <a href="/wiki/Biological_pesticide" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological pesticide">biological pesticides</a> to control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. Many species produce <a href="/wiki/Bioactive_compound" title="Bioactive compound">bioactive compounds</a> called <a href="/wiki/Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">mycotoxins</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyketide" title="Polyketide">polyketides</a>, that are toxic to animals, including humans. The fruiting structures of <a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_mushrooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychoactive mushrooms">a few species</a> contain <a href="/wiki/Psychotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychotropic">psychotropic</a> compounds and are consumed <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">recreationally</a> or in traditional <a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">spiritual ceremonies</a>. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_fungus" title="Pathogenic fungus">pathogens</a> of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Rice_blast_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Rice blast disease">rice blast disease</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Food_spoilage" title="Food spoilage">food spoilage</a> can have a large impact on human <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food supplies</a> and local economies. </p><p>The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of <a href="/wiki/Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</a> with varied ecologies, <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a> strategies, and <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphologies</a> ranging from unicellular aquatic <a href="/wiki/Chytrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Chytrid">chytrids</a> to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> of the fungus kingdom, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucking2017_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucking2017-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these, only about 148,000 have been described,<sup id="cite_ref-Cheek_et_al._2020_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cheek_et_al._2020-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with over 8,000 species known to be detrimental to plants and at least 300 that can be pathogenic to humans.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomical</a> works of <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Hendrik_Persoon" title="Christiaan Hendrik Persoon">Christiaan Hendrik Persoon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elias_Magnus_Fries" title="Elias Magnus Fries">Elias Magnus Fries</a>, fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>. Advances in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a> have opened the way for <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA analysis</a> to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">Phylogenetic</a> studies published in the first decade of the 21st century have helped reshape the classification within the fungi kingdom, which is divided into one <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)#Definition_and_associated_terms" title="Kingdom (biology)">subkingdom</a>, seven <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>, and ten <a href="/wiki/Subphyla" class="mw-redirect" title="Subphyla">subphyla</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>The English word <i>fungus</i> is directly adopted from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>fungus</i> (mushroom), used in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Simpson1979_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simpson1979-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This in turn is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> word <i>sphongos</i> (σφόγγος 'sponge'), which refers to the <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAinsworth19762_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAinsworth19762-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a> is also used in other languages, such as the German <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Schwamm#German" class="extiw" title="wikt:Schwamm">Schwamm</a></i> ('sponge') and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Schimmel#German" class="extiw" title="wikt:Schimmel">Schimmel</a></i> ('mold').<sup id="cite_ref-Mitzka1960_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitzka1960-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">mycology</a></i> is derived from the Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">mykes</i></span> (μύκης 'mushroom') and <i>logos</i> (λόγος 'discourse').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell19961_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell19961-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It denotes the scientific study of fungi. The Latin adjectival form of "mycology" (<i>mycologicæ</i>) appeared as early as 1796 in a book on the subject by <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Hendrik_Persoon" title="Christiaan Hendrik Persoon">Christiaan Hendrik Persoon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word appeared in English as early as 1824 in a book by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Kaye_Greville" title="Robert Kaye Greville">Robert Kaye Greville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1836 the English naturalist <a href="/wiki/Miles_Joseph_Berkeley" title="Miles Joseph Berkeley">Miles Joseph Berkeley</a>'s publication <i>The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5.</i> also refers to mycology as the study of fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAinsworth19762_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAinsworth19762-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A group of all the fungi present in a particular region is known as <i><a href="/wiki/Mycobiota" title="Mycobiota">mycobiota</a></i> (plural noun, no singular).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>mycota</i> is often used for this purpose, but many authors use it as a synonym of Fungi. The word <i><a href="/wiki/Funga" title="Funga">funga</a></i> has been proposed as a less ambiguous term morphologically similar to <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuhar_et_al._2018_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuhar_et_al._2018-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Species_Survival_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Species Survival Commission">Species Survival Commission</a> (SSC) of the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) in August 2021 asked that the phrase <i>fauna and flora</i> be replaced by <i>fauna, flora, and funga</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HYPHAE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/HYPHAE.png/300px-HYPHAE.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/HYPHAE.png/450px-HYPHAE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/HYPHAE.png/600px-HYPHAE.png 2x" data-file-width="1364" data-file-height="721" /></a><figcaption><b>Fungal hyphae cells</b> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1256394559">.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ol{margin-left:1.3em;margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media(min-width:300px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key,.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:2}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-narrow{column-count:1}}@media(min-width:450px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:3}}</style><div class="image-key"><ol><li>Hyphal wall</li><li><a href="/wiki/Septum_(cell_biology)" title="Septum (cell biology)">Septum</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">Mitochondrion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ergosterol" title="Ergosterol">Ergosterol</a> crystal</li><li><a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">Ribosome</a></li><li>Nucleus</li><li><a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">Endoplasmic reticulum</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lipid_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipid body">Lipid body</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma membrane">Plasma membrane</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Spitzenk%C3%B6rper" title="Spitzenkörper">Spitzenkörper</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a></li></ol></div> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fungus_cell_cycle-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Fungus_cell_cycle-en.svg/300px-Fungus_cell_cycle-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Fungus_cell_cycle-en.svg/450px-Fungus_cell_cycle-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Fungus_cell_cycle-en.svg/600px-Fungus_cell_cycle-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2310" data-file-height="1491" /></a><figcaption>Fungal cell cycle showing <a href="/wiki/Dikaryon" title="Dikaryon">dikaryons</a> typical of <a href="/wiki/Higher_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher fungi">higher fungi</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Before the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular methods</a> for phylogenetic analysis, <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomists</a> considered fungi to be members of the <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant kingdom</a> because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">immobile</a>, and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Although inaccurate, the common misconception that fungi are plants persists among the general public due to their historical classification, as well as several similarities.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of <a href="/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushrooms</a>, form conspicuous <a href="/wiki/Fruit_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit bodies">fruit bodies</a>, which sometimes resemble plants such as <a href="/wiki/Mosses" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosses">mosses</a>. The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have <a href="/wiki/Genetic_divergence" title="Genetic divergence">diverged</a> around one billion years ago (around the start of the <a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a> Era).<sup id="cite_ref-Bruns2006_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bruns2006-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baldauf1993_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldauf1993-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms: </p><p>Shared features: </p> <ul><li>With other <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>: Fungal cells contain <a href="/wiki/Membrane-bound" class="mw-redirect" title="Membrane-bound">membrane-bound</a> <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nuclei</a> with <a href="/wiki/Chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomes">chromosomes</a> that contain <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> with <a href="/wiki/Noncoding_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Noncoding DNA">noncoding regions</a> called <a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">introns</a> and coding regions called <a href="/wiki/Exons" class="mw-redirect" title="Exons">exons</a>. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic <a href="/wiki/Organelles" class="mw-redirect" title="Organelles">organelles</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sterol" title="Sterol">sterol</a>-containing membranes, and <a href="/wiki/Ribosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ribosomes">ribosomes</a> of the <a href="/wiki/80S" class="mw-redirect" title="80S">80S</a> type.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon20054_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon20054-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including <a href="/wiki/Sugar_alcohol" title="Sugar alcohol">sugar alcohols</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Mannitol" title="Mannitol">mannitol</a>), <a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">disaccharides</a>, (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Trehalose" title="Trehalose">trehalose</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>, which is also found in animals<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon2005128–129_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon2005128–129-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).</li> <li>With animals: Fungi lack <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> and are <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophic</a> organisms and so require preformed <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> as energy sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199628–33_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199628–33-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>With plants: Fungi have a cell wall<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199631–32_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199631–32-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">vacuoles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shoji2006_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shoji2006-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They reproduce by both sexual and asexual means, and like <a href="/wiki/Primitive_(phylogenetics)" title="Primitive (phylogenetics)">basal</a> plant groups (such as <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>) produce <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>. Similar to mosses and algae, fungi typically have <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon200558_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon200558-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>With <a href="/wiki/Euglenoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Euglenoid">euglenoids</a> and bacteria: Higher fungi, euglenoids, and some bacteria produce the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <small>L</small>-lysine in specific <a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">biosynthesis</a> steps, called the <a href="/wiki/%CE%91-aminoadipate_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Α-aminoadipate pathway">α-aminoadipate pathway</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zabriskie2000_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zabriskie2000-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Xu2006_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xu2006-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The cells of most fungi grow as tubular, elongated, and thread-like (filamentous) structures called <a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphae</a>, which may contain multiple nuclei and extend by growing at their tips. Each tip contains a set of aggregated <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicle (biology)">vesicles</a>—cellular structures consisting of <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a>, and other organic molecules—called the <a href="/wiki/Spitzenk%C3%B6rper" title="Spitzenkörper">Spitzenkörper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199627–28_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199627–28-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both fungi and <a href="/wiki/Oomycete" title="Oomycete">oomycetes</a> grow as filamentous hyphal cells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996685_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996685-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, similar-looking organisms, such as filamentous <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>, grow by repeated cell division within a chain of cells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon2005128–129_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon2005128–129-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also single-celled fungi (<a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeasts</a>) that do not form hyphae, and some fungi have both hyphal and yeast forms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199630_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199630-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In common with some plant and animal species, <a href="/wiki/List_of_bioluminescent_fungi" title="List of bioluminescent fungi">more than one hundred fungal species</a> display <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Desjardin_2010_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Desjardin_2010-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Unique features: </p> <ul><li>Some species grow as unicellular yeasts that reproduce by <a href="/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fission_(biology)" title="Fission (biology)">fission</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dimorphic_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimorphic fungi">Dimorphic fungi</a> can switch between a yeast phase and a hyphal phase in response to environmental conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199630_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199630-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The fungal cell wall is made of a <a href="/wiki/Chitin-glucan_complex" title="Chitin-glucan complex">chitin-glucan complex</a>; while <a href="/wiki/Glucans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucans">glucans</a> are also found in plants and <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a> of <a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">arthropods</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199632–33_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199632–33-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> fungi are the only organisms that combine these two structural molecules in their cell wall. Unlike those of plants and oomycetes, fungal cell walls do not contain cellulose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199633_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199633-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gow_et_al._2017_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gow_et_al._2017-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Omphalotus_nidiformis_Binnamittalong_2_email.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A whitish fan or funnel-shaped mushroom growing at the base of a tree." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Omphalotus_nidiformis_Binnamittalong_2_email.jpg/220px-Omphalotus_nidiformis_Binnamittalong_2_email.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Omphalotus_nidiformis_Binnamittalong_2_email.jpg/330px-Omphalotus_nidiformis_Binnamittalong_2_email.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Omphalotus_nidiformis_Binnamittalong_2_email.jpg/440px-Omphalotus_nidiformis_Binnamittalong_2_email.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Omphalotus_nidiformis" title="Omphalotus nidiformis">Omphalotus nidiformis</a></i>, a bioluminescent mushroom</figcaption></figure> <p>Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long-distance transport of water and nutrients, such as the <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a> in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some fungi, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Armillaria" title="Armillaria">Armillaria</a></i>, form <a href="/wiki/Rhizomorphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizomorphs">rhizomorphs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Mikhail2005_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mikhail2005-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which resemble and perform functions similar to the <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a> of plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a <a href="/wiki/Biochemical_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemical pathway">biosynthetic pathway</a> for producing <a href="/wiki/Terpene" title="Terpene">terpenes</a> that uses <a href="/wiki/Mevalonic_acid" title="Mevalonic acid">mevalonic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyrophosphate" title="Pyrophosphate">pyrophosphate</a> as <a href="/wiki/Precursor_(chemistry)" title="Precursor (chemistry)">chemical building blocks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Keller2005_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keller2005-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure that fungi and animals do not have.<sup id="cite_ref-Wu2007_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wu2007-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi produce several <a href="/wiki/Secondary_metabolite" title="Secondary metabolite">secondary metabolites</a> that are similar or identical in structure to those made by plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Keller2005_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keller2005-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in <a href="/wiki/Peptide_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptide sequence">sequence</a> and other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a> of these enzymes in the fungi and plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Keller2005_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keller2005-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tudzynski2005_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tudzynski2005-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diversity">Diversity</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fungus_in_a_Wood.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Fungus_in_a_Wood.JPG/220px-Fungus_in_a_Wood.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Fungus_in_a_Wood.JPG/330px-Fungus_in_a_Wood.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Fungus_in_a_Wood.JPG/440px-Fungus_in_a_Wood.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bracket_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bracket fungi">Bracket fungi</a> on a tree stump</figcaption></figure> <p>Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as <a href="/wiki/Desert_fungi" title="Desert fungi">deserts</a> or areas with high salt concentrations<sup id="cite_ref-Vaupotic2008_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vaupotic2008-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Dadachova2007_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dadachova2007-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">deep sea</a> sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-Raghukumar1998_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raghukumar1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some can survive the intense <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">UV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic radiation">cosmic radiation</a> encountered during space travel.<sup id="cite_ref-Sancho2007_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sancho2007-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the <a href="/wiki/Chytrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Chytrid">chytrid</a> fungi <i><a href="/wiki/Batrachochytrium_dendrobatidis" title="Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis">Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Batrachochytrium_salamandrivorans" title="Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans">B. salamandrivorans</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a> that have been responsible for a worldwide decline in <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibian</a> populations. These organisms spend part of their life cycle as a motile <a href="/wiki/Zoospore" title="Zoospore">zoospore</a>, enabling them to propel themselves through water and enter their amphibian host.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher_et_al._2020_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher_et_al._2020-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal">hydrothermal</a> areas of the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-Vargas-Gastélum_&_Riquelme_2020_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vargas-Gastélum_&_Riquelme_2020-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:White_fungus_in_wood_chips.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/White_fungus_in_wood_chips.jpg/220px-White_fungus_in_wood_chips.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/White_fungus_in_wood_chips.jpg/330px-White_fungus_in_wood_chips.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/White_fungus_in_wood_chips.jpg/440px-White_fungus_in_wood_chips.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Widespread white fungus in wood chip mulch in an <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a> garden<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><p> As of 2020,<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fungus&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> around 148,000 species of fungi have been <a href="/wiki/Species_description" title="Species description">described</a> by <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomists</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Cheek_et_al._2020_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cheek_et_al._2020-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood.<sup id="cite_ref-Mueller2006_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mueller2006-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2017 estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and 3.8 million species.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucking2017_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucking2017-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of new fungi species discovered yearly has increased from 1,000 to 1,500 per year about 10 years ago, to about 2,000 with a peak of more than 2,500 species in 2016. In the year 2019, 1,882 new species of fungi were described, and it was estimated that more than 90% of fungi remain unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-Cheek_et_al._2020_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cheek_et_al._2020-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following year, 2,905 new species were described—the highest annual record of new fungus names.<sup id="cite_ref-Wang_et_al._2021_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang_et_al._2021-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In mycology, species have historically been distinguished by a variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a> characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008489_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008489-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Species may also be distinguished by their <a href="/wiki/Biochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemical">biochemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological">physiological</a> characteristics, such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their reaction to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_tests_in_mushroom_identification" title="Chemical tests in mushroom identification">chemical tests</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Biological_species_concept" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological species concept">biological species concept</a> discriminates species based on their ability to <a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">mate</a>. The application of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular</a> tools, such as <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a> and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution and added robustness to estimates of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> within various taxonomic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Hibbett2007_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hibbett2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mycology">Mycology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pier_Antonio_Micheli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pier_Antonio_Micheli.jpg/150px-Pier_Antonio_Micheli.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pier_Antonio_Micheli.jpg/225px-Pier_Antonio_Micheli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Pier_Antonio_Micheli.jpg/300px-Pier_Antonio_Micheli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>In 1729, <a href="/wiki/Pier_Antonio_Micheli" title="Pier Antonio Micheli">Pier Antonio Micheli</a> first published descriptions of fungi.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a> is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> concerned with the systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and <a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">psychotropic substances</a> consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of <a href="/wiki/Phytopathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytopathology">phytopathology</a>, the study of plant diseases, is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-Struck2006_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Struck2006-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; <a href="/wiki/%C3%96tzi_the_Iceman" class="mw-redirect" title="Ötzi the Iceman">Ötzi the Iceman</a>, a well-preserved mummy of a 5,300-year-old <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried two species of <a href="/wiki/Polypore" title="Polypore">polypore</a> mushrooms that may have been used as <a href="/wiki/Tinder" title="Tinder">tinder</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Fomes_fomentarius" title="Fomes fomentarius">Fomes fomentarius</a></i>), or for medicinal purposes (<i><a href="/wiki/Piptoporus_betulinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Piptoporus betulinus">Piptoporus betulinus</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Peintner1998_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peintner1998-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources—often unknowingly—for millennia, in the preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAinsworth19761_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAinsworth19761-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3></div> <p>Mycology became a systematic science after the development of the <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> in the 17th century. Although fungal spores were first observed by <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_della_Porta" title="Giambattista della Porta">Giambattista della Porta</a> in 1588, the seminal work in the development of mycology is considered to be the publication of <a href="/wiki/Pier_Antonio_Micheli" title="Pier Antonio Micheli">Pier Antonio Micheli</a>'s 1729 work <i>Nova plantarum genera</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell19961–2_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell19961–2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAinsworth197618_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAinsworth197618-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extending the use of the <a href="/wiki/Binomial_system_of_nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="Binomial system of nomenclature">binomial system of nomenclature</a> introduced by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Species_plantarum" class="mw-redirect" title="Species plantarum">Species plantarum</a></i> (1753), the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Hendrik_Persoon" title="Christiaan Hendrik Persoon">Christiaan Hendrik Persoon</a> (1761–1836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, <a href="/wiki/Elias_Magnus_Fries" title="Elias Magnus Fries">Elias Magnus Fries</a> (1794–1878) further elaborated the <a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">classification</a> of fungi, using spore color and microscopic characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today. Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th–19th and early 20th centuries include <a href="/wiki/Miles_Joseph_Berkeley" title="Miles Joseph Berkeley">Miles Joseph Berkeley</a>, <a href="/wiki/August_Carl_Joseph_Corda" title="August Carl Joseph Corda">August Carl Joseph Corda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anton_de_Bary" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton de Bary">Anton de Bary</a>, the brothers <a href="/wiki/Louis_Ren%C3%A9_Tulasne" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis René Tulasne">Louis René</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tulasne" title="Charles Tulasne">Charles Tulasne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Henry_Reginald_Buller" title="Arthur Henry Reginald Buller">Arthur H. R. Buller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Curtis_Gates_Lloyd" title="Curtis Gates Lloyd">Curtis G. Lloyd</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pier_Andrea_Saccardo" title="Pier Andrea Saccardo">Pier Andrea Saccardo</a>. In the 20th and 21st centuries, advances in <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a>, and phylogenetic analysis have provided new insights into fungal relationships and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, and have challenged traditional morphology-based groupings in fungal <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hawksworth2006_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawksworth2006-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microscopic_structures">Microscopic structures</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Penicillium_labeled_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Monochrome micrograph showing Penicillium hyphae as long, transparent, tube-like structures a few micrometres across. Conidiophores branch out laterally from the hyphae, terminating in bundles of phialides on which spherical condidiophores are arranged like beads on a string. Septa are faintly visible as dark lines crossing the hyphae." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Penicillium_labeled_cropped.jpg/330px-Penicillium_labeled_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Penicillium_labeled_cropped.jpg/495px-Penicillium_labeled_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Penicillium_labeled_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>An environmental isolate of <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium" title="Penicillium">Penicillium</a></i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1256394559"><div class="image-key"><ol><li><a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">Hypha</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conidiophore" class="mw-redirect" title="Conidiophore">Conidiophore</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Phialide" title="Phialide">Phialide</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Conidia">Conidia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Septum" title="Septum">Septa</a></li></ol></div> </figcaption></figure> <p>Most fungi grow as <a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphae</a>, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10<span class="nowrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/%CE%9Cm" class="mw-redirect" title="Μm">μm</a> in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called <i>branching</i>, or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae.<sup id="cite_ref-Harris2008_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris2008-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or <a href="/wiki/Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">anastomosis</a>). These growth processes lead to the development of a <a href="/wiki/Mycelium" title="Mycelium">mycelium</a>, an interconnected network of hyphae.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199630_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199630-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hyphae can be either <a href="/wiki/Septate" class="mw-redirect" title="Septate">septate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Coenocytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Coenocytic">coenocytic</a>. Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that are formed at <a href="/wiki/Right_angle" title="Right angle">right angles</a> to the cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon200551_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon200551-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Septa have <a href="/wiki/Pit_connection#Characteristics" title="Pit connection">pores</a> that allow <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a>, and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the <a href="/wiki/Dolipore_septum" title="Dolipore septum">dolipore septum</a> in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon200557_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon200557-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coenocytic hyphae are in essence <a href="/wiki/Multinucleate" title="Multinucleate">multinucleate</a> supercells.<sup id="cite_ref-Chang2004_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chang2004-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include <a href="/wiki/Haustoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Haustoria">haustoria</a> in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla,<sup id="cite_ref-Bozkurt_et_al._2020_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bozkurt_et_al._2020-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Arbuscular_mycorrhiza" title="Arbuscular mycorrhiza">arbuscules</a> of several <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhizal</a> fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-Parniske2008_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parniske2008-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although fungi are <a href="/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">opisthokonts</a>—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagellum</a>—all phyla except for the <a href="/wiki/Chytrids" class="mw-redirect" title="Chytrids">chytrids</a> have lost their posterior flagella.<sup id="cite_ref-Steenkamp2006_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steenkamp2006-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to <a href="/wiki/Glucan" title="Glucan">glucans</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/%CE%92-1,3-glucan" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-1,3-glucan">β-1,3-glucan</a>) and other typical components, also contains the <a href="/wiki/Biopolymer" title="Biopolymer">biopolymer</a> chitin.<sup id="cite_ref-Gow_et_al._2017_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gow_et_al._2017-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macroscopic_structures">Macroscopic structures</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Armillaria_ostoyae_MO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A cluster of large, thick-stem, light-brown gilled mushrooms growing at the base of a tree" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Armillaria_ostoyae_MO.jpg/220px-Armillaria_ostoyae_MO.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Armillaria_ostoyae_MO.jpg/330px-Armillaria_ostoyae_MO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Armillaria_ostoyae_MO.jpg/440px-Armillaria_ostoyae_MO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Armillaria_solidipes" class="mw-redirect" title="Armillaria solidipes">Armillaria solidipes</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on various surfaces and <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biology)" title="Substrate (biology)">substrates</a>, such as damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly called <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">molds</a>. Mycelia grown on solid <a href="/wiki/Agar" title="Agar">agar</a> media in laboratory <a href="/wiki/Petri_dish" title="Petri dish">petri dishes</a> are usually referred to as <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a>. These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors (due to spores or <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">pigmentation</a>) that can be used as diagnostic features in the identification of species or groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanson2008127–141_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson2008127–141-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a <a href="/wiki/Clone_(cell_biology)" title="Clone (cell biology)">clonal</a> colony of <i><a href="/wiki/Armillaria_solidipes" class="mw-redirect" title="Armillaria solidipes">Armillaria solidipes</a></i>, which extends over an area of more than 900<span class="nowrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">ha</a> (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000<span class="nowrap"> </span>years.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferguson2003_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferguson2003-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Apothecium" class="mw-redirect" title="Apothecium">apothecium</a>—a specialized structure important in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> in the ascomycetes—is a cup-shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the <a href="/wiki/Hymenium" title="Hymenium">hymenium</a>, a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing cells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996204–205_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996204–205-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes (<a href="/wiki/Basidiocarp" title="Basidiocarp">basidiocarps</a>) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as <a href="/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushrooms</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Growth_and_physiology">Growth and physiology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:DecayingPeachSmall.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Time-lapse photography sequence of a peach becoming progressively discolored and disfigured" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/DecayingPeachSmall.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="190" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="190" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">Mold</a> growth covering a decaying <a href="/wiki/Peach" title="Peach">peach</a>. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart over a period of six days.</figcaption></figure> <p>The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high <a href="/wiki/Surface_area_to_volume_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface area to volume ratio">surface area to volume ratios</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Moss1986_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moss1986-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biology)" title="Substrate (biology)">substrates</a> and tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-Penalva2002_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penalva2002-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant pathogen">plant pathogens</a>, including <i><a href="/wiki/Magnaporthe_grisea" title="Magnaporthe grisea">Magnaporthe grisea</a></i>, form a structure called an <a href="/wiki/Appressorium" title="Appressorium">appressorium</a> that evolved to puncture plant tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard1991_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard1991-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pressure generated by the appressorium, directed against the plant <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">epidermis</a>, can exceed 8 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">megapascals</a> (1,200 psi).<sup id="cite_ref-Howard1991_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard1991-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The filamentous fungus <i><a href="/wiki/Paecilomyces_lilacinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paecilomyces lilacinus">Paecilomyces lilacinus</a></i> uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Money1997_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Money1997-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular <a href="/wiki/Turgor" class="mw-redirect" title="Turgor">turgor</a> by producing <a href="/wiki/Osmolyte" title="Osmolyte">osmolytes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wang2005_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang2005-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adaptations such as these are complemented by <a href="/wiki/Cellulase" title="Cellulase">hydrolytic enzymes</a> secreted into the environment to digest large organic molecules—such as <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a>—into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-Pereira2007_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pereira2007-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schaller2007_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schaller2007-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Farrar1985_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farrar1985-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one direction) by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha.<sup id="cite_ref-Fischer2008_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischer2008-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension (longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below the apex) as in the case of some <a href="/wiki/Endophytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endophytic">endophytic</a> fungi,<sup id="cite_ref-Christensen2008_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christensen2008-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom <a href="/wiki/Stipe_(mycology)" title="Stipe (mycology)">stipes</a> and other large organs.<sup id="cite_ref-Money2002_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Money2002-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Growth of fungi as <a href="/wiki/Multicellularity" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellularity">multicellular structures</a> consisting of <a href="/wiki/Somatic_(biology)" title="Somatic (biology)">somatic</a> and reproductive cells—a feature independently evolved in animals and plants<sup id="cite_ref-Willensdorfer2009_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willensdorfer2009-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—has several functions, including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilms</a> for substrate colonization and <a href="/wiki/Intercellular_communication" title="Intercellular communication">intercellular communication</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniels2006_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniels2006-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fungi are traditionally considered <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophs</a>, organisms that rely solely on <a href="/wiki/Biological_carbon_fixation" title="Biological carbon fixation">carbon fixed</a> by other organisms for <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>. Fungi have <a href="/wiki/Evolved" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolved">evolved</a> a high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acetate" title="Acetate">acetate</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tudzynski_2014_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tudzynski_2014-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heynes1994_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heynes1994-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some species the pigment <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a> may play a role in extracting energy from <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma radiation">gamma radiation</a>. This form of "<a href="/wiki/Radiotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotrophic">radiotrophic</a>" growth has been described for only a few species, the effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying <a href="/wiki/Biophysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical">biophysical</a> and biochemical processes are not well known.<sup id="cite_ref-Dadachova2007_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dadachova2007-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process might bear similarity to CO<sub>2</sub> fixation via <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible light</a>, but instead uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy.<sup id="cite_ref-Dadachova2008_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dadachova2008-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polyporus_squamosus_Molter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two thickly stemmed brownish mushrooms with scales on the upper surface, growing out of a tree trunk" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Polyporus_squamosus_Molter.jpg/220px-Polyporus_squamosus_Molter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Polyporus_squamosus_Molter.jpg/330px-Polyporus_squamosus_Molter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Polyporus_squamosus_Molter.jpg/440px-Polyporus_squamosus_Molter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2612" data-file-height="1959" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Polyporus_squamosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyporus squamosus">Polyporus squamosus</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199648–56_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell199648–56-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a> of a species, the <a href="/wiki/Teleomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleomorph">teleomorph</a> (sexual reproduction) and the <a href="/wiki/Anamorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Anamorph">anamorph</a> (asexual reproduction).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008633_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008633-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing <a href="/wiki/Propagule" title="Propagule">propagules</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asexual_reproduction">Asexual reproduction</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">Asexual reproduction</a> occurs via vegetative spores (<a href="/wiki/Conidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Conidia">conidia</a>) or through <a href="/wiki/Fragmentation_(reproduction)" title="Fragmentation (reproduction)">mycelial fragmentation</a>. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain <a href="/wiki/Clone_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clone (genetics)">clonal</a> populations adapted to a specific <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a>, and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-Heitman2005_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heitman2005-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "Fungi imperfecti" (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or <a href="/wiki/Deuteromycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteromycota">Deuteromycota</a> comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-Alcamo2004_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alcamo2004-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deuteromycota (alternatively known as Deuteromycetes, conidial fungi, or mitosporic fungi) is not an accepted taxonomic clade and is now taken to mean simply fungi that lack a known sexual stage.<sup id="cite_ref-Ulloa_&_Hanlin_2014_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ulloa_&_Hanlin_2014-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_reproduction">Sexual reproduction</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">Mating in fungi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Sexual selection in fungi</a></div> <p>Sexual reproduction with <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> has been directly observed in all fungal phyla except <a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a><sup id="cite_ref-Redecker2006_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redecker2006-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-Guarro1999_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guarro1999-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2000_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2000-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on the basis of biological species concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2000_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2000-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing structures, <a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">asci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Basidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidia">basidia</a>, can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. Fungi employ two <a href="/wiki/Mating_system" title="Mating system">mating systems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Heterothallic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterothallic">heterothallic</a> species allow mating only between individuals of the opposite <a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">mating type</a>, whereas <a href="/wiki/Homothallic" class="mw-redirect" title="Homothallic">homothallic</a> species can mate, and sexually reproduce, with any other individual or itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Metzenberg1990_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Metzenberg1990-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most fungi have both a <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network; this process, <a href="/wiki/Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">anastomosis</a>, is required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a <a href="/wiki/Dikaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Dikaryotic">dikaryotic</a> stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see <a href="/wiki/Heterokaryosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterokaryosis">heterokaryosis</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenningsLysek1996107–114_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenningsLysek1996107–114-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morelasci.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Microscopic view of numerous translucent or transparent elongated sac-like structures each containing eight spheres lined up in a row" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Morelasci.jpg/220px-Morelasci.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Morelasci.jpg/330px-Morelasci.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Morelasci.jpg/440px-Morelasci.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1388" data-file-height="1040" /></a><figcaption>The 8-spore <a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">asci</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Morchella_elata" title="Morchella elata">Morchella elata</a></i>, viewed with <a href="/wiki/Phase_contrast_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase contrast microscopy">phase contrast microscopy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the <a href="/wiki/Hymenium" title="Hymenium">hymenium</a> (the spore-bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic <i>hook</i> (crozier) at the hyphal septum. During <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>, the formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural <i>asci</i>) is then formed, in which <a href="/wiki/Karyogamy" title="Karyogamy">karyogamy</a> (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an <a href="/wiki/Ascocarp" title="Ascocarp">ascocarp</a>, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of <a href="/wiki/Ascospore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascospore">ascospores</a>. After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon200531_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon200531-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a <a href="/wiki/Clamp_connection" title="Clamp connection">clamp connection</a>, is formed at each hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996492–493_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996492–493-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Basidiocarp" title="Basidiocarp">basidiocarp</a> is formed in which club-like structures known as <a href="/wiki/Basidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidia">basidia</a> generate haploid <a href="/wiki/Basidiospores" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidiospores">basidiospores</a> after karyogamy and meiosis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenningsLysek1996142_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenningsLysek1996142-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see <a href="#Morphology">Morphology</a> section). </p><p>In fungi formerly classified as <a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a>, haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a <a href="/wiki/Gametangium" title="Gametangium">gametangium</a>, a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a>-producing cell. The gametangium develops into a <a href="/wiki/Zygospore" title="Zygospore">zygospore</a>, a thick-walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual <a href="/wiki/Sporangiospore" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporangiospore">sporangiospores</a>. These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon200521–24_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon200521–24-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spore_dispersal">Spore dispersal</h3></div> <p>The spores of most of the researched species of fungi are transported by wind.<sup id="cite_ref-botany.hawaii_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-botany.hawaii-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such species often produce dry or <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophobic">hydrophobic</a> spores that do not absorb water and are readily scattered by raindrops, for example.<sup id="cite_ref-botany.hawaii_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-botany.hawaii-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other species, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through the air over long distances. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyathus_stercoreus_Fruchtk%C3%B6rper.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A brown, cup-shaped fungus with several greyish disc-shaped structures lying within" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Cyathus_stercoreus_Fruchtk%C3%B6rper.JPG/220px-Cyathus_stercoreus_Fruchtk%C3%B6rper.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Cyathus_stercoreus_Fruchtk%C3%B6rper.JPG/330px-Cyathus_stercoreus_Fruchtk%C3%B6rper.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Cyathus_stercoreus_Fruchtk%C3%B6rper.JPG/440px-Cyathus_stercoreus_Fruchtk%C3%B6rper.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1641" data-file-height="1230" /></a><figcaption>The bird's nest fungus <i><a href="/wiki/Cyathus_stercoreus" title="Cyathus stercoreus">Cyathus stercoreus</a></i></figcaption></figure><p> Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore surface structures (such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobin" title="Hydrophobin">hydrophobins</a>), enable efficient spore ejection.<sup id="cite_ref-Linder2005_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linder2005-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the structure of the <a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">spore-bearing cells</a> in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of <a href="/wiki/Osmolyte" title="Osmolyte">substances</a> affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air.<sup id="cite_ref-Trail2007_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trail2007-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The forcible discharge of single spores termed <i>ballistospores</i> involves formation of a small drop of water (Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000<span class="nowrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/G-force" title="G-force">g</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Pringle2005_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pringle2005-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the net result is that the spore is ejected 0.01–0.02<span class="nowrap"> </span>cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the <a href="/wiki/Agaricales" title="Agaricales">gills</a> or <a href="/wiki/Polypore" title="Polypore">pores</a> into the air below.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008495_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008495-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other fungi, like the <a href="/wiki/Puffballs" class="mw-redirect" title="Puffballs">puffballs</a>, rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The <a href="/wiki/Hydnoid_fungi" title="Hydnoid fungi">hydnoid fungi</a> (tooth fungi) produce spores on pendant, tooth-like or spine-like projections.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bird%27s_nest_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bird's nest fungi">bird's nest fungi</a> use the force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped fruiting bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-Brodie1975_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brodie1975-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another strategy is seen in the <a href="/wiki/Phallaceae" title="Phallaceae">stinkhorns</a>, a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996545_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996545-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homothallism">Homothallism</h3></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Homothallic" class="mw-redirect" title="Homothallic">homothallic</a> <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>, two <a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">haploid</a> nuclei derived from the same individual fuse to form a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> that can then undergo <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>. Homothallic fungi include species with an <i>Aspergillus</i>-like asexual stage (anamorphs) occurring in numerous different genera,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> several species of the <a href="/wiki/Ascomycete" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascomycete">ascomycete</a> genus <i><a href="/wiki/Cochliobolus" title="Cochliobolus">Cochliobolus</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the ascomycete <i><a href="/wiki/Pneumocystis_jirovecii" title="Pneumocystis jirovecii">Pneumocystis jirovecii</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest mode of sexual reproduction among eukaryotes was likely homothallism, that is, <a href="/wiki/Autogamy" title="Autogamy">self-fertile unisexual reproduction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Heitman_2015_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heitman_2015-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_sexual_processes">Other sexual processes</h3></div> <p>Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi, such as those in the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium" title="Penicillium">Penicillium</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></i>, may exchange genetic material via <a href="/wiki/Parasexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasexuality">parasexual</a> processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and <a href="/wiki/Plasmogamy" title="Plasmogamy">plasmogamy</a> of fungal cells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenningsLysek1996114–115_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenningsLysek1996114–115-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization<sup id="cite_ref-Furlaneto1992_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Furlaneto1992-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is likely required for hybridization between species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Schardl2003_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schardl2003-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Evolution of fungi</a></div> <p>In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">animals</a>, the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal <a href="/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporocarp (fungi)">fruiting bodies</a>, which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues, and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</a> fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-Donoghue2004_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donoghue2004-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often recovered from a <a href="/wiki/Permineralized" class="mw-redirect" title="Permineralized">permineralized</a> plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with <a href="/wiki/Light_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Light microscopy">light microscopy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Transmission electron microscopy">transmission electron microscopy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor199319_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor199319-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers study <a href="/wiki/Compression_fossil" title="Compression fossil">compression fossils</a> by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning electron microscopy">scanning electron microscopy</a> to examine surface details.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor19937–12_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor19937–12-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg/180px-Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg/270px-Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg/360px-Prototaxites_milwaukeensis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4120" data-file-height="7000" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Prototaxites" title="Prototaxites">Prototaxites</a> milwaukeensis</i> (Penhallow, 1908)—a Middle <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> fungus from <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the <a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic</a> era, some <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=2,400">2,400</a> million years ago</span> (<a href="/wiki/Annum" class="mw-redirect" title="Annum">Ma</a>); these multicellular <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> organisms had filamentous structures capable of <a href="/wiki/Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">anastomosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060<span class="nowrap"> </span>Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucking2009_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucking2009-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest fossilizied mycelium to be identified from its molecular composition is between 715 and 810 million years old.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For much of the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> Era (542–251<span class="nowrap"> </span>Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant <a href="/wiki/Chytrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Chytrid">chytrids</a> in having flagellum-bearing spores.<sup id="cite_ref-James2006b_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-James2006b-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saphrotrophic_nutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Saphrotrophic nutrition">saprobism</a>, and the development of <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a> relationships such as <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhiza</a> and lichenization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor199384–94_&_106–107_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylorTaylor199384–94_&_106–107-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the <a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a> was saprobism, and that independent <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichenization</a> events have occurred multiple times.<sup id="cite_ref-Schoch2009_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schoch2009-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 2019, scientists reported the discovery of a <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossilized</a> fungus, named <i><a href="/wiki/Ourasphaira_giraldae" title="Ourasphaira giraldae">Ourasphaira giraldae</a></i>, in the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Arctic" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Arctic">Canadian Arctic</a>, that may have grown on land a billion years ago, well before <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> were living on land.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20190522_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20190522-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20190522_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20190522-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ars_Technica_2019_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ars_Technica_2019-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pyritized" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyritized">Pyritized</a> fungus-like <a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">microfossils</a> preserved in the basal Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation (~635 Ma) have been reported in South China.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier, it had been presumed that the fungi colonized the land during the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> (542–488.3<span class="nowrap"> </span>Ma), also long before land plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Brundrett2002_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brundrett2002-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> of Wisconsin (460<span class="nowrap"> </span>Ma) resemble modern-day <a href="/wiki/Glomerales" title="Glomerales">Glomerales</a>, and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular <a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">bryophyte</a>-like plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Redecker2000_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redecker2000-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Prototaxites" title="Prototaxites">Prototaxites</a></i>, which was probably a fungus or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>. Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until the early <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> (416–359.2<span class="nowrap"> </span>Ma), when they occur abundantly in the <a href="/wiki/Rhynie_chert" title="Rhynie chert">Rhynie chert</a>, mostly as <a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brundrett2002_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brundrett2002-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor1996_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor1996-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dotzler2009_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dotzler2009-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At about this same time, approximately 400<span class="nowrap"> </span>Ma, the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged,<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2006_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2006-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and all modern <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">classes</a> of fungi were present by the Late <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian</a>, 318.1–299<span class="nowrap"> </span>Ma).<sup id="cite_ref-urlFungi_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlFungi-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 415<span class="nowrap"> </span>Ma;<sup id="cite_ref-Honegger_et_al._2013_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Honegger_et_al._2013-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this date roughly corresponds to the age of the oldest known <a href="/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporocarp (fungi)">sporocarp</a> fossil, a <i><a href="/wiki/Paleopyrenomycites" title="Paleopyrenomycites">Paleopyrenomycites</a></i> species found in the Rhynie Chert.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2005_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2005-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is <i>Palaeoancistrus</i>, found permineralized with a <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">fern</a> from the Pennsylvanian.<sup id="cite_ref-Dennis1970_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dennis1970-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxon</a> roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the <a href="/wiki/Agaricomycetes" title="Agaricomycetes">Agaricomycetes</a>). Two <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a>-preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeomarasmius_leggetti" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeomarasmius leggetti">Archaeomarasmius leggetti</a></i>) appeared during the late <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, 90<span class="nowrap"> </span>Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-Hibbett1995_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hibbett1995-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hibbett1997_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hibbett1997-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some time after the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a> (251.4<span class="nowrap"> </span>Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a>) formed, suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100% of the available <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a> for this period.<sup id="cite_ref-Eshet1995_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eshet1995-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by <a href="/wiki/Algal" class="mw-redirect" title="Algal">algal</a> species is difficult to assess,<sup id="cite_ref-Foster2002_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foster2002-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the spike did not appear worldwide,<sup id="cite_ref-LopezGomez2005_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LopezGomez2005-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Looy2005_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Looy2005-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in many places it did not fall on the Permian–Triassic boundary.<sup id="cite_ref-Ward2005_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ward2005-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sixty-five million years ago, immediately after the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> that famously killed off most dinosaurs, there was a dramatic increase in evidence of fungi; apparently the death of most plant and animal species led to a huge fungal bloom like "a massive compost heap".<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2></div> <p>Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> than to plants and are placed with the animals in the <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> group of <a href="/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">opisthokonts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ShalchianTabrizi2008_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShalchianTabrizi2008-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analyses using <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogenetics</a> support a <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic group">monophyletic</a> origin of fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-Hibbett2007_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hibbett2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Li_et_al_2021_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li_et_al_2021-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> of fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental <a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">matings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent <a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">nomenclature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hibbett2007_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hibbett2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Celio2006_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Celio2006-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until relatively recent (2012) changes to the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi_and_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants">International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants</a>, fungal species could also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-Rossman_2014_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rossman_2014-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Web sites such as <a href="/wiki/Index_Fungorum" title="Index Fungorum">Index Fungorum</a> and <a href="/wiki/MycoBank" title="MycoBank">MycoBank</a> are officially recognized <a href="/wiki/Nomenclature_codes" title="Nomenclature codes">nomenclatural</a> repositories and list current names of fungal species (with cross-references to older <a href="/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">synonyms</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Redhead_&_Norvell_2013_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redhead_&_Norvell_2013-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi is the result of a large-scale collaborative research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Hibbett2007_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hibbett2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It recognizes seven <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>, two of which—the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota—are contained within a branch representing <a href="/wiki/Subkingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Subkingdom">subkingdom</a> <a href="/wiki/Dikarya" title="Dikarya">Dikarya</a>, the most species rich and familiar group, including all the mushrooms, most food-spoilage molds, most plant pathogenic fungi, and the beer, wine, and bread yeasts. The accompanying <a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">cladogram</a> depicts the major fungal <a href="/wiki/Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</a> and their relationship to opisthokont and unikont organisms, based on the work of Philippe Silar,<sup id="cite_ref-Silar2016_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silar2016-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research"<sup id="cite_ref-MycotaVIIS&E_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MycotaVIIS&E-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Tedersoo et al. 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lengths of the branches are not proportional to <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary">evolutionary</a> distances. </p> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade" style="font-size:100%; line-height:80%"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Zoosporia" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoosporia">Zoosporia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Rozellomyceta </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Rozellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rozellomycota">Rozellomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rozellomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rozellomycetes (page does not exist)">Rozellomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Microsporidia" title="Microsporidia">Microsporidiomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mitosporidium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mitosporidium (page does not exist)">Mitosporidium</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paramicrosporidium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paramicrosporidium (page does not exist)">Paramicrosporidium</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Nucleophaga" title="Nucleophaga">Nucleophaga</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Metchnikovellea" class="mw-redirect" title="Metchnikovellea">Metchnikovellea</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Microsporea" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporea">Microsporea</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Aphelidiomyceta </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Aphelidiomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphelidiomycota">Aphelidiomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Aphelidiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphelidiomycetes">Aphelidiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Eumycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Eumycota">Eumycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Chytridiomyceta </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocallimastigomycetes">Neocallimastigomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Monoblepharomycotina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Monoblepharomycotina (page does not exist)">Monoblepharomycotina</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Hyaloraphidiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyaloraphidiomycetes">Hyaloraphidiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Monoblepharidomycetes" title="Monoblepharidomycetes">Monoblepharidomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanchytriomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sanchytriomycetes (page does not exist)">Sanchytriomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chytridiomycotina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chytridiomycotina (page does not exist)">Chytridiomycotina</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesochytriomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mesochytriomycetes (page does not exist)">Mesochytriomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycetes" title="Chytridiomycetes">Chytridiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Blastocladiomyceta </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastocladiomycetes">Blastocladiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Physodermatomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Physodermatomycetes">Physodermatomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Amastigomycota" title="Amastigomycota">Amastigomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Zoopagomyceta </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Basidiobolomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidiobolomycota">Basidiobolomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Basidiobolomycetes" title="Basidiobolomycetes">Basidiobolomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Olpidiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Olpidiomycetes">Olpidiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Entomophthoromycota" title="Entomophthoromycota">Entomophthoromycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Neozygitomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Neozygitomycetes">Neozygitomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Entomophthoromycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Entomophthoromycetes">Entomophthoromycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Kickxellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Kickxellomycota">Kickxellomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Zoopagomycotina" title="Zoopagomycotina">Zoopagomycotina</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Zoopagomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoopagomycetes">Zoopagomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Kickxellomycotina" title="Kickxellomycotina">Kickxellomycotina</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Dimargaritomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimargaritomycetes">Dimargaritomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kickxellomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kickxellomycetes">Kickxellomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Mortierellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortierellomycota">Mortierellomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Mortierellomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortierellomycetes">Mortierellomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Mucoromyceta </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Calcarisporiellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcarisporiellomycota">Calcarisporiellomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Calcarisporiellomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcarisporiellomycetes">Calcarisporiellomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Mucoromycota" title="Mucoromycota">Mucoromycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Umbelopsidomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umbelopsidomycetes (page does not exist)">Umbelopsidomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Mucoromycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucoromycetes">Mucoromycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Symbiomycota" title="Symbiomycota">Symbiomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraglomeromycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paraglomeromycetes (page does not exist)">Paraglomeromycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeosporomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archaeosporomycetes (page does not exist)">Archaeosporomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Glomeromycetes">Glomeromycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Dikarya" title="Dikarya">Dikarya</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Entorrhizomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Entorrhizomycota">Entorrhizomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Entorrhizomycetes" title="Entorrhizomycetes">Entorrhizomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade" style="font-size:100%; line-height:80%"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Pucciniomycotina" title="Pucciniomycotina">Pucciniomycotina</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Tritirachiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tritirachiomycetes">Tritirachiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Mixiomycetes" title="Mixiomycetes">Mixiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Agaricostilbomycetes" title="Agaricostilbomycetes">Agaricostilbomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cystobasidiomycetes" title="Cystobasidiomycetes">Cystobasidiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Classiculaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Classiculaceae">Classiculaceae</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Microbotryomycetes" title="Microbotryomycetes">Microbotryomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cryptomycocolacomycetes" title="Cryptomycocolacomycetes">Cryptomycocolacomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Atractiellomycetes" title="Atractiellomycetes">Atractiellomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Pucciniomycetes" title="Pucciniomycetes">Pucciniomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Orthomycotina" title="Orthomycotina">Orthomycotina</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Ustilaginomycotina" title="Ustilaginomycotina">Ustilaginomycotina</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Monilielliomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Monilielliomycetes">Monilielliomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Malasseziomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Malasseziomycetes">Malasseziomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ustilaginomycetes" title="Ustilaginomycetes">Ustilaginomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Exobasidiomycetes" title="Exobasidiomycetes">Exobasidiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Agaricomycotina" title="Agaricomycotina">Agaricomycotina</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>?<a href="/w/index.php?title=Geminibasidiomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geminibasidiomycetes (page does not exist)">Geminibasidiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>?<a href="/wiki/Wallemiomycetes" title="Wallemiomycetes">Wallemiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Bartheletiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartheletiomycetes">Bartheletiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Tremellomycetes" title="Tremellomycetes">Tremellomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Dacrymycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacrymycetes">Dacrymycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Agaricomycetes" title="Agaricomycetes">Agaricomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade" style="font-size:100%; line-height:80%"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycotina" title="Taphrinomycotina">Taphrinomycotina</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Neolectomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolectomycetes">Neolectomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycetes" title="Taphrinomycetes">Taphrinomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyceta" title="Schizosaccharomyceta">Schizosaccharomyceta</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Archaeorhizomycetes" title="Archaeorhizomycetes">Archaeorhizomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Pneumocystidomycetes" title="Pneumocystidomycetes">Pneumocystidomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomycetes" title="Schizosaccharomycetes">Schizosaccharomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyceta" title="Saccharomyceta">Saccharomyceta</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Saccharomycotina" title="Saccharomycotina">Saccharomycotina</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Saccharomycetes" title="Saccharomycetes">Saccharomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Pezizomycotina" title="Pezizomycotina">Pezizomycotina</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>?<a href="/wiki/Thelocarpales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thelocarpales">Thelocarpales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>?<a href="/wiki/Vezdaeales" class="mw-redirect" title="Vezdaeales">Vezdaeales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>?<a href="/wiki/Lahmiales" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahmiales">Lahmiales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>?<a href="/w/index.php?title=Triblidiales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triblidiales (page does not exist)">Triblidiales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Orbiliomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbiliomycetes">Orbiliomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Pezizomycetes" title="Pezizomycetes">Pezizomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Leotiomyceta" title="Leotiomyceta">Leotiomyceta</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Sordariomyceta" class="mw-redirect" title="Sordariomyceta">Sordariomyceta</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Xylonomycetes" title="Xylonomycetes">Xylonomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Geoglossomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoglossomycetes">Geoglossomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Leotiomycetes" title="Leotiomycetes">Leotiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Laboulbeniomycetes" title="Laboulbeniomycetes">Laboulbeniomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Sordariomycetes" title="Sordariomycetes">Sordariomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Dothideomyceta" class="mw-redirect" title="Dothideomyceta">Dothideomyceta</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Coniocybomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Coniocybomycetes">Coniocybomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Lichinomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichinomycetes">Lichinomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eurotiomycetes" title="Eurotiomycetes">Eurotiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Lecanoromycetes" title="Lecanoromycetes">Lecanoromycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collemopsidiomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Collemopsidiomycetes (page does not exist)">Collemopsidiomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Arthoniomycetes" title="Arthoniomycetes">Arthoniomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Dothideomycetes" title="Dothideomycetes">Dothideomycetes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxonomic_groups">Taxonomic groups</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_fungal_orders" title="List of fungal orders">List of fungal orders</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:02_01_groups_of_Fungi_(M._Piepenbring).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/02_01_groups_of_Fungi_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png/330px-02_01_groups_of_Fungi_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/02_01_groups_of_Fungi_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png/495px-02_01_groups_of_Fungi_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/02_01_groups_of_Fungi_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png/660px-02_01_groups_of_Fungi_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2716" data-file-height="1842" /></a><figcaption>Main groups of fungi</figcaption></figure> <p>The major phyla (sometimes called divisions) of fungi have been classified mainly on the basis of characteristics of their sexual <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproductive</a> structures. As of 2019<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fungus&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, nine major <a href="/wiki/Lineage_(evolution)" title="Lineage (evolution)">lineages</a> have been identified: <a href="/wiki/Opisthosporidia" title="Opisthosporidia">Opisthosporidia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoopagomycotina" title="Zoopagomycotina">Zoopagomycotina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mucoromycota" title="Mucoromycota">Mucoromycota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Naranjo‐Ortiz_&_Gabaldón_2019_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naranjo‐Ortiz_&_Gabaldón_2019-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the <a href="/wiki/Microsporidia" title="Microsporidia">Microsporidia</a>, unicellular parasites of animals and protists, are fairly recent and highly derived <a href="/wiki/Endobiotic" title="Endobiotic">endobiotic</a> fungi (living within the tissue of another species).<sup id="cite_ref-James2006b_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-James2006b-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Previously considered to be "primitive" protozoa, they are now thought to be either a <a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal branch</a> of the Fungi, or a <a href="/wiki/Sister_group" title="Sister group">sister group</a>–each other's closest evolutionary relative.<sup id="cite_ref-Han_et_al._2017_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Han_et_al._2017-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a> are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi are distributed worldwide. Chytrids and their close relatives <a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a> (below) are the only fungi with active motility, producing <a href="/wiki/Zoospore" title="Zoospore">zoospores</a> that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagellum</a>, leading early <a href="/wiki/Taxonomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomist">taxonomists</a> to classify them as <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>. <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogenies" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular phylogenies">Molecular phylogenies</a>, inferred from <a href="/wiki/RRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="RRNA">rRNA</a> sequences in <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosomes</a>, suggest that the Chytrids are a <a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal</a> group divergent from the other fungal phyla, consisting of four major <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a> with suggestive evidence for <a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">paraphyly</a> or possibly <a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">polyphyly</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-James2006_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-James2006-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a> were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Molecular data and <a href="/wiki/Ultrastructural" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultrastructural">ultrastructural</a> characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are <a href="/wiki/Saprotrophs" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprotrophs">saprotrophs</a>, feeding on decomposing organic matter, and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, most of which exhibit <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle#Haplontic_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">zygotic meiosis</a>, the blastocladiomycetes undergo <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle#Haplodiplontic_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">sporic meiosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-James2006b_124-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-James2006b-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a> were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridiomycota. Members of this small phylum are <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">anaerobic organisms</a>, living in the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and in other terrestrial and aquatic environments enriched in cellulose (e.g., domestic waste landfill sites).<sup id="cite_ref-Lockhart2006_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lockhart2006-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They lack <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> but contain <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenosome" title="Hydrogenosome">hydrogenosomes</a> of mitochondrial origin. As in the related chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate.<sup id="cite_ref-Hibbett2007_53-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hibbett2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arbuscular_mycorrhiza_microscope.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Microscopic view of a layer of translucent grayish cells, some containing small dark-color spheres" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Arbuscular_mycorrhiza_microscope.jpg/220px-Arbuscular_mycorrhiza_microscope.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Arbuscular_mycorrhiza_microscope.jpg/330px-Arbuscular_mycorrhiza_microscope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Arbuscular_mycorrhiza_microscope.jpg/440px-Arbuscular_mycorrhiza_microscope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Arbuscular_mycorrhiza" title="Arbuscular mycorrhiza">Arbuscular mycorrhiza</a></i> seen under microscope. <a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">Flax</a> root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ascocarp2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Cross-section of a cup-shaped structure showing locations of developing meiotic asci (upper edge of cup, left side, arrows pointing to two gray cells containing four and two small circles), sterile hyphae (upper edge of cup, right side, arrows pointing to white cells with a single small circle in them), and mature asci (upper edge of cup, pointing to two gray cells with eight small circles in them)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ascocarp2.png/220px-Ascocarp2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ascocarp2.png/330px-Ascocarp2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ascocarp2.png/440px-Ascocarp2.png 2x" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of an <a href="/wiki/Apothecium" class="mw-redirect" title="Apothecium">apothecium</a> (the typical cup-like reproductive structure of Ascomycetes) showing sterile tissues as well as developing and mature asci</figcaption></figure> <p>Members of the <a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a> form <a href="/wiki/Arbuscular_mycorrhizae" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbuscular mycorrhizae">arbuscular mycorrhizae</a>, a form of mutualist <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a> wherein fungal hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit from the resulting increased supply of nutrients. All known Glomeromycota species reproduce asexually.<sup id="cite_ref-Redecker2006_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redecker2006-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Remy1994_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Remy1994-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Formerly part of the <a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a> (commonly known as 'sugar' and 'pin' molds), the Glomeromycota were elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now replace the older phylum Zygomycota.<sup id="cite_ref-Schussler2001_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schussler2001-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi that were placed in the Zygomycota are now being reassigned to the Glomeromycota, or the subphyla <a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">incertae sedis</a> <a href="/wiki/Mucoromycotina" title="Mucoromycotina">Mucoromycotina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kickxellomycotina" title="Kickxellomycotina">Kickxellomycotina</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zoopagomycotina" title="Zoopagomycotina">Zoopagomycotina</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Entomophthoromycotina" class="mw-redirect" title="Entomophthoromycotina">Entomophthoromycotina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hibbett2007_53-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hibbett2007-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some well-known examples of fungi formerly in the Zygomycota include black bread mold (<i><a href="/wiki/Rhizopus_stolonifer" title="Rhizopus stolonifer">Rhizopus stolonifer</a></i>), and <i><a href="/wiki/Pilobolus" title="Pilobolus">Pilobolus</a></i> species, capable of ejecting <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> several meters through the air.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996145_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996145-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medically relevant genera include <i><a href="/wiki/Mucor" title="Mucor">Mucor</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Rhizomucor" title="Rhizomucor">Rhizomucor</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Rhizopus" title="Rhizopus">Rhizopus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Walther_et_al._2019_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walther_et_al._2019-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a>, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008489_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008489-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These fungi form meiotic spores called <a href="/wiki/Ascospore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascospore">ascospores</a>, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an <a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">ascus</a>. This phylum includes <a href="/wiki/Morel" class="mw-redirect" title="Morel">morels</a>, a few <a href="/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushrooms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuber_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuber (genus)">truffles</a>, unicellular <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeasts</a> (e.g., of the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces" title="Saccharomyces">Saccharomyces</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Kluyveromyces" title="Kluyveromyces">Kluyveromyces</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pichia" title="Pichia">Pichia</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida (genus)">Candida</a></i>), and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts (e.g. lichens). Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium" title="Penicillium">Penicillium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fusarium" title="Fusarium">Fusarium</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Claviceps" class="mw-redirect" title="Claviceps">Claviceps</a></i>. Many ascomycete species have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called <a href="/wiki/Anamorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Anamorph">anamorphic</a> species), but analysis of molecular data has often been able to identify their closest <a href="/wiki/Teleomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleomorph">teleomorphs</a> in the Ascomycota.<sup id="cite_ref-Samuels2006_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Samuels2006-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g., <i><a href="/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora crassa</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Aramayo_et_al._2013_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aramayo_et_al._2013-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Members of the <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a>, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called <a href="/wiki/Basidiospore" title="Basidiospore">basidiospores</a> on club-like stalks called <a href="/wiki/Basidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidia">basidia</a>. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as <a href="/wiki/Rust_(fungus)" title="Rust (fungus)">rust</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smut_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Smut fungi">smut fungi</a>, which are major pathogens of grains. Other important basidiomycetes include the <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> pathogen <i><a href="/wiki/Ustilago_maydis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ustilago maydis">Ustilago maydis</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Olicón-Hernández_et_al._2019_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olicón-Hernández_et_al._2019-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> human <a href="/wiki/Commensal" class="mw-redirect" title="Commensal">commensal</a> species of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Malassezia" title="Malassezia">Malassezia</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Rhimi_et_al._2020_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhimi_et_al._2020-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">opportunistic</a> human pathogen, <i><a href="/wiki/Cryptococcus_neoformans" title="Cryptococcus neoformans">Cryptococcus neoformans</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Perfect2006_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perfect2006-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fungus-like_organisms">Fungus-like organisms</h3></div> <p>Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the <a href="/wiki/Slime_mold" title="Slime mold">slime molds</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mycetozoa" title="Mycetozoa">mycetozoans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmodiophorid" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasmodiophorid">plasmodiophorids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acrasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrasid">acrasids</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fonticula" title="Fonticula">Fonticula</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Labyrinthulid" class="mw-redirect" title="Labyrinthulid">labyrinthulids</a>, now in <a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cristidiscoidea" title="Cristidiscoidea">Cristidiscoidea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a>, respectively), water molds (<a href="/wiki/Oomycete" title="Oomycete">oomycetes</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Hyphochytrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyphochytrid">hyphochytrids</a> (both <a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a>) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi, in groups like <a href="/wiki/Mastigomycotina" title="Mastigomycotina">Mastigomycotina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gymnomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Gymnomycota">Gymnomycota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phycomycetes" title="Phycomycetes">Phycomycetes</a>. The slime molds were studied also as <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoans</a>, leading to an <a href="/wiki/Ambiregnal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambiregnal">ambiregnal</a>, duplicated taxonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Leontyev_&_Schnittler_2017_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leontyev_&_Schnittler_2017-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike true fungi, the <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell walls</a> of oomycetes contain <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> and lack <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>. Hyphochytrids have both chitin and cellulose. Slime molds lack a cell wall during the assimilative phase (except labyrinthulids, which have a wall of scales), and take in nutrients by ingestion (<a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a>, except labyrinthulids) rather than absorption (<a href="/wiki/Osmotrophy" title="Osmotrophy">osmotrophy</a>, as fungi, labyrinthulids, oomycetes and hyphochytrids). Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, and, therefore, <a href="/wiki/Taxonomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomist">taxonomists</a> no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi. Nonetheless, studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in <a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">mycology</a> textbooks and primary research literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackwell2004_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackwell2004-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Eccrinales" title="Eccrinales">Eccrinales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amoebidiales" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoebidiales">Amoebidiales</a> are <a href="/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">opisthokont</a> <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>, previously thought to be zygomycete fungi. Other groups now in <a href="/wiki/Opisthokonta" class="mw-redirect" title="Opisthokonta">Opisthokonta</a> (e.g., <i><a href="/wiki/Corallochytrium" title="Corallochytrium">Corallochytrium</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Ichthyosporea" title="Ichthyosporea">Ichthyosporea</a>) were also at given time classified as fungi. The genus <i><a href="/wiki/Blastocystis" title="Blastocystis">Blastocystis</a></i>, now in <a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a>, was originally classified as a yeast. <i><a href="/wiki/Ellobiopsis" title="Ellobiopsis">Ellobiopsis</a></i>, now in <a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a>, was considered a chytrid. The <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> were also included in fungi in some classifications, as the group Schizomycetes. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rozellida" title="Rozellida">Rozellida</a> clade, including the "ex-chytrid" <i><a href="/wiki/Rozella" title="Rozella">Rozella</a></i>, is a genetically disparate group known mostly from environmental DNA sequences that is a sister group to fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-Naranjo‐Ortiz_&_Gabaldón_2019_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naranjo‐Ortiz_&_Gabaldón_2019-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Members of the group that have been isolated lack the chitinous cell wall that is characteristic of fungi. Alternatively, <a href="/wiki/Rozella" title="Rozella">Rozella</a> can be classified as a basal fungal group.<sup id="cite_ref-Li_et_al_2021_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li_et_al_2021-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nucleariid" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleariid">nucleariids</a> may be the next sister group to the eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-ShalchianTabrizi2008_148-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShalchianTabrizi2008-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many <a href="/wiki/Actinomycetales" title="Actinomycetales">Actinomycetales</a> (<a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a>), a group with many filamentous bacteria, were also long believed to be fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PinMould_on_Peach_LowMag_Scale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/PinMould_on_Peach_LowMag_Scale.jpg/220px-PinMould_on_Peach_LowMag_Scale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/PinMould_on_Peach_LowMag_Scale.jpg/330px-PinMould_on_Peach_LowMag_Scale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/PinMould_on_Peach_LowMag_Scale.jpg/440px-PinMould_on_Peach_LowMag_Scale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4193" data-file-height="2399" /></a><figcaption>A pin mold decomposing a peach</figcaption></figure> <p>Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> and play very important roles in most <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a>. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major <a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">decomposers</a> in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycles" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogeochemical cycles">biogeochemical cycles</a><sup id="cite_ref-Gadd2007_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gadd2007-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in many <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food webs</a>. As decomposers, they play an essential role in <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrient cycling">nutrient cycling</a>, especially as <a href="/wiki/Saprotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprotroph">saprotrophs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Symbiont" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiont">symbionts</a>, degrading <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindahl2007_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindahl2007-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Barea2005_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barea2005-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</h3></div> <p>Many fungi have important <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> relationships with organisms from most if not all <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdoms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aanen2006_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aanen2006-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nikoh2000_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nikoh2000-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perotto1997_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perotto1997-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These interactions can be <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a> or antagonistic in nature, or in the case of <a href="/wiki/Commensal" class="mw-redirect" title="Commensal">commensal</a> fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host.<sup id="cite_ref-Arnold2003_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arnold2003-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Paszkowski2006_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paszkowski2006-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hube2004_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hube2004-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="With_plants">With plants</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">Mycorrhizal</a> symbiosis between <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a> and fungi is one of the most well-known plant–fungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems; over 90% of all plant species engage in mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonfante2003_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonfante2003-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neotyphodium_coenophialum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A microscopic view of blue-stained cells, some with dark wavy lines in them" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Neotyphodium_coenophialum.jpg/170px-Neotyphodium_coenophialum.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Neotyphodium_coenophialum.jpg/255px-Neotyphodium_coenophialum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Neotyphodium_coenophialum.jpg/340px-Neotyphodium_coenophialum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1836" data-file-height="2700" /></a><figcaption>The dark filaments are <a href="/wiki/Hyphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyphae">hyphae</a> of the endophytic fungus <i><a href="/wiki/Epichlo%C3%AB_coenophiala" title="Epichloë coenophiala">Epichloë coenophiala</a></i> in the intercellular spaces of <a href="/wiki/Festuca_arundinacea" class="mw-redirect" title="Festuca arundinacea">tall fescue</a> leaf sheath tissue</figcaption></figure> <p>The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating back to at least 400 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-Remy1994_161-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Remy1994-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It often increases the plant's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindahl2007_175-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindahl2007-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heijden2006_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heijden2006-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fungal partners may also mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal_network" title="Mycorrhizal network">mycorrhizal networks</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Selosse2006_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selosse2006-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A special case of mycorrhiza is <a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">myco-heterotrophy</a>, whereby the plant parasitizes the fungus, obtaining all of its nutrients from its fungal symbiont.<sup id="cite_ref-Merckx2009_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merckx2009-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some fungal species inhabit the tissues inside roots, stems, and leaves, in which case they are called endophytes.<sup id="cite_ref-Schulz2005_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schulz2005-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar to mycorrhiza, endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both symbionts; for example, endophytes of grasses impart to their host increased resistance to herbivores and other environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from the plant in return.<sup id="cite_ref-Clay2002_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clay2002-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="With_algae_and_cyanobacteria">With algae and cyanobacteria</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lobaria_pulmonaria_010108a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A green, leaf-like structure attached to a tree, with a pattern of ridges and depression on the bottom surface" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Lobaria_pulmonaria_010108a.jpg/220px-Lobaria_pulmonaria_010108a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Lobaria_pulmonaria_010108a.jpg/330px-Lobaria_pulmonaria_010108a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Lobaria_pulmonaria_010108a.jpg/440px-Lobaria_pulmonaria_010108a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2630" data-file-height="1939" /></a><figcaption>The lichen <i><a href="/wiki/Lobaria_pulmonaria" title="Lobaria pulmonaria">Lobaria pulmonaria</a></i>, a symbiosis of fungal, <a href="/wiki/Algal" class="mw-redirect" title="Algal">algal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacterial</a> species</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Lichens" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichens">Lichens</a> are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>. The photosynthetic partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen terminology as a "photobiont". The fungal part of the relationship is composed mostly of various species of <a href="/wiki/Ascomycete" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascomycete">ascomycetes</a> and a few <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycete" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidiomycete">basidiomycetes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brodo2001_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brodo2001-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in <a href="/wiki/Soil_formation" title="Soil formation">soil formation</a> and the initiation of <a href="/wiki/Biological_succession" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological succession">biological succession</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Raven2005_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raven2005-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are prominent in some extreme environments, including <a href="/wiki/Polar_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar region">polar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alpine_climate" title="Alpine climate">alpine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semiarid_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiarid climate">semiarid</a> desert regions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon2005267_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon2005267-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including bare soil, rocks, <a href="/wiki/Bark_(botany)" title="Bark (botany)">tree bark</a>, wood, shells, barnacles and leaves.<sup id="cite_ref-Purvis2000_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Purvis2000-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As in <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhizas</a>, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> to the fungus, while the fungus provides minerals and water to the photobiont. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008378_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008378-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi; around 27% of known fungi—more than 19,400 species—are lichenized.<sup id="cite_ref-Garrido-Benavent_&_Pérez-Ortega_2017_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garrido-Benavent_&_Pérez-Ortega_2017-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining <a href="/wiki/Organic_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic carbon">organic carbon</a> by photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long-lasting (seasonal) <a href="/wiki/Vegetative_reproduction" title="Vegetative reproduction">vegetative reproductive</a> structures, mineral nutrition obtained largely from airborne sources, and greater tolerance of <a href="/wiki/Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a> than most other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon2005267–276_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon2005267–276-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="With_insects">With insects</h4></div> <p>Many insects also engage in <a href="/wiki/Ant%E2%80%93fungus_mutualism" title="Ant–fungus mutualism">mutualistic relationships</a> with fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order <a href="/wiki/Chaetothyriales" title="Chaetothyriales">Chaetothyriales</a> for several purposes: as a food source, as a structural component of their nests, and as a part of an ant/plant symbiosis in the <a href="/wiki/Domatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Domatia">domatia</a> (tiny chambers in plants that house arthropods).<sup id="cite_ref-Chomicki_&_Renner_2017_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chomicki_&_Renner_2017-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ambrosia_beetles" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrosia beetles">Ambrosia beetles</a> cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest.<sup id="cite_ref-Joseph_&_Keyhani_2021_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joseph_&_Keyhani_2021-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, females of several <a href="/wiki/Wood_wasp" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood wasp">wood wasp</a> species (genus <i><a href="/wiki/Sirex" title="Sirex">Sirex</a></i>) inject their eggs together with spores of the wood-rotting fungus <i><a href="/wiki/Amylostereum_areolatum" title="Amylostereum areolatum">Amylostereum areolatum</a></i> into the <a href="/wiki/Sapwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapwood">sapwood</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pine</a> trees; the growth of the fungus provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of the wasp larvae.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon2005277_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon2005277-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least one species of <a href="/wiki/Stingless_bee" title="Stingless bee">stingless bee</a> has a relationship with a fungus in the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Monascus" title="Monascus">Monascus</a></i>, where the larvae consume and depend on fungus transferred from old to new nests.<sup id="cite_ref-Sci-News2015_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sci-News2015-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Termites" class="mw-redirect" title="Termites">Termites</a> on the African <a href="/wiki/Savannah" class="mw-redirect" title="Savannah">savannah</a> are also known to cultivate fungi,<sup id="cite_ref-Aanen2006_177-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aanen2006-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and yeasts of the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida (genus)">Candida</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lachancea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lachancea (page does not exist)">Lachancea</a></i> inhabit the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gut</a> of a wide range of insects, including <a href="/wiki/Neuroptera" title="Neuroptera">neuropterans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beetle" title="Beetle">beetles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cockroach" title="Cockroach">cockroaches</a>; it is not known whether these fungi benefit their hosts.<sup id="cite_ref-Nguyen2007_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nguyen2007-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi growing in <a href="/wiki/Coarse_woody_debris" title="Coarse woody debris">dead wood</a> are essential for <a href="/wiki/Xylophagy" title="Xylophagy">xylophagous</a> insects (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Woodboring_beetles" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodboring beetles">woodboring beetles</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Nutritional_dynamics_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nutritional_dynamics-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ulyshen_page_429-469_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ulyshen_page_429-469-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ulyshen_page_377-427_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ulyshen_page_377-427-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They deliver nutrients needed by <a href="/wiki/Xylophagy" title="Xylophagy">xylophages</a> to nutritionally scarce dead wood.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ulyshen_page_429-469_204-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ulyshen_page_429-469-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ulyshen_page_377-427_205-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ulyshen_page_377-427-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thanks to this nutritional enrichment the larvae of the woodboring insect is able to grow and develop to adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-Nutritional_dynamics_203-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nutritional_dynamics-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larvae of many families of <a href="/wiki/Fungicolous" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungicolous">fungicolous</a> flies, particularly those within the superfamily <a href="/wiki/Sciaroidea" title="Sciaroidea">Sciaroidea</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Mycetophilidae" title="Mycetophilidae">Mycetophilidae</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Keroplatidae" title="Keroplatidae">Keroplatidae</a> feed on fungal fruiting bodies and sterile <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizae" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycorrhizae">mycorrhizae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jakovlev_2012_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jakovlev_2012-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Parasite"></span><span class="anchor" id="Pathogen"></span><span class="anchor" id="Necrotroph"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_parasites">As parasites</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ophiocordyceps_unilateralis_-_Denis_Zabin_-_407452035.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ophiocordyceps_unilateralis_-_Denis_Zabin_-_407452035.jpeg/220px-Ophiocordyceps_unilateralis_-_Denis_Zabin_-_407452035.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ophiocordyceps_unilateralis_-_Denis_Zabin_-_407452035.jpeg/330px-Ophiocordyceps_unilateralis_-_Denis_Zabin_-_407452035.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ophiocordyceps_unilateralis_-_Denis_Zabin_-_407452035.jpeg/440px-Ophiocordyceps_unilateralis_-_Denis_Zabin_-_407452035.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1638" /></a><figcaption>Zombie ants, infected by the <i><a href="/wiki/Ophiocordyceps_unilateralis" title="Ophiocordyceps unilateralis">Ophiocordyceps unilateralis</a></i> fungus, are predominantly found in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">tropical rainforests</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many fungi are <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a> on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the <a href="/wiki/Rice_blast" class="mw-redirect" title="Rice blast">rice blast</a> fungus <i><a href="/wiki/Magnaporthe_oryzae" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnaporthe oryzae">Magnaporthe oryzae</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Fernandez_&_Orth_2018_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fernandez_&_Orth_2018-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tree pathogens such as <i><a href="/wiki/Ophiostoma_ulmi" title="Ophiostoma ulmi">Ophiostoma ulmi</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ophiostoma_novo-ulmi" title="Ophiostoma novo-ulmi">Ophiostoma novo-ulmi</a></i> causing <a href="/wiki/Dutch_elm_disease" title="Dutch elm disease">Dutch elm disease</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Santini_&_Battisti_2019_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santini_&_Battisti_2019-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Cryphonectria_parasitica" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryphonectria parasitica">Cryphonectria parasitica</a></i> responsible for <a href="/wiki/Chestnut_blight" title="Chestnut blight">chestnut blight</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Rigling_&_Prospero_2018_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rigling_&_Prospero_2018-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Phymatotrichopsis omnivora</i> causing <a href="/wiki/Texas_Root_Rot" class="mw-redirect" title="Texas Root Rot">Texas Root Rot</a>, and plant pathogens in the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Fusarium" title="Fusarium">Fusarium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ustilago" title="Ustilago">Ustilago</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Alternaria" title="Alternaria">Alternaria</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Cochliobolus" title="Cochliobolus">Cochliobolus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Paszkowski2006_181-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paszkowski2006-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivorous fungi">carnivorous fungi</a>, like <i><a href="/wiki/Paecilomyces_lilacinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paecilomyces lilacinus">Paecilomyces lilacinus</a></i>, are <a href="/wiki/Nematophagous_fungus" title="Nematophagous fungus">predators of nematodes</a>, which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets.<sup id="cite_ref-Yang2007_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang2007-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many fungi that are plant pathogens, such as <i>Magnaporthe oryzae</i>, can switch from being biotrophic (parasitic on living plants) to being necrotrophic (feeding on the dead tissues of plants they have killed).<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This same principle is applied to fungi-feeding parasites, including <i><a href="/wiki/Asterotremella_albida" title="Asterotremella albida">Asterotremella albida</a></i>, which feeds on the fruit bodies of other fungi both while they are living and after they are dead.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some fungi <a href="/wiki/Behavior-altering_parasite" title="Behavior-altering parasite">alter the behavior of their animal hosts</a> in ways that spread their spores more effectively (also called "active host transmission"). Examples include <i><a href="/wiki/Ophiocordyceps_unilateralis" title="Ophiocordyceps unilateralis">Ophiocordyceps unilateralis</a></i> and possibly the extinct <i><a href="/wiki/Allocordyceps" title="Allocordyceps">Allocordyceps</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_pathogens">As pathogens</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aecidium_magnellanicum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A thin brown stick positioned horizontally with roughly two dozen clustered orange-red leaves originating from a single point in the middle of the stick. These orange leaves are three to four times larger than the few other green leaves growing out of the stick, and are covered on the lower leaf surface with hundreds of tiny bumps. The background shows the green leaves and branches of neighboring shrubs." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Aecidium_magnellanicum.jpg/220px-Aecidium_magnellanicum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Aecidium_magnellanicum.jpg/330px-Aecidium_magnellanicum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Aecidium_magnellanicum.jpg/440px-Aecidium_magnellanicum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1201" /></a><figcaption>The plant pathogen <i>Puccinia magellanicum</i> (<a href="/wiki/Calafate_rust" class="mw-redirect" title="Calafate rust">calafate rust</a>) causes the defect known as <a href="/wiki/Witch%27s_broom" title="Witch's broom">witch's broom</a>, seen here on a <a href="/wiki/Barberry" class="mw-redirect" title="Barberry">barberry</a> shrub in Chile.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Candida_Gram_stain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Candida_Gram_stain.jpg/220px-Candida_Gram_stain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Candida_Gram_stain.jpg/330px-Candida_Gram_stain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Candida_Gram_stain.jpg/440px-Candida_Gram_stain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gram_stain" title="Gram stain">Gram stain</a> of <i>Candida albicans</i> from a vaginal swab from a woman with <a href="/wiki/Candidiasis" title="Candidiasis">candidiasis</a>, showing hyphae, and chlamydospores, which are 2–4 <a href="/wiki/%CE%9Cm" class="mw-redirect" title="Μm">μm</a> in diameter</figcaption></figure> <p>Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if untreated. These include <a href="/wiki/Aspergillosis" title="Aspergillosis">aspergillosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Candidiasis" title="Candidiasis">candidiasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coccidioidomycosis" title="Coccidioidomycosis">coccidioidomycosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cryptococcosis" title="Cryptococcosis">cryptococcosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Histoplasmosis" title="Histoplasmosis">histoplasmosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eumycetoma" title="Eumycetoma">mycetomas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paracoccidioidomycosis" title="Paracoccidioidomycosis">paracoccidioidomycosis</a>. Furthermore, a person with <a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">immunodeficiency</a> is more susceptible to disease by genera such as <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida (genus)">Candida</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cryptococcus_neoformans" title="Cryptococcus neoformans">Cryptoccocus</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hube2004_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hube2004-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nielsen2007_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2007-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brakhage2005_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brakhage2005-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Histoplasma" title="Histoplasma">Histoplasma</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kauffman2007_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kauffman2007-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pneumocystis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumocystis">Pneumocystis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cushion2007_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cushion2007-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Dermatophytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermatophytic">dermatophytic</a> and keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as <a href="/wiki/Ringworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ringworm">ringworm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Athlete%27s_foot" title="Athlete's foot">athlete's foot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cook2008_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cook2008-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungal spores are also a cause of <a href="/wiki/Allergies" class="mw-redirect" title="Allergies">allergies</a>, and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-SimonNobbe2008_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimonNobbe2008-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_targets_of_mycoparasites">As targets of mycoparasites</h4></div> <p>Organisms that parasitize fungi are known as <a href="/wiki/Mycoparasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycoparasitic">mycoparasitic</a> organisms. About 300 species of fungi and fungus-like organisms, belonging to 13 classes and 113 genera, are used as <a href="/wiki/Biocontrol" class="mw-redirect" title="Biocontrol">biocontrol</a> agents against plant fungal diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Thambugala_et_al._2020_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thambugala_et_al._2020-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or antagonists of other fungi, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Hypomyces_chrysospermus" title="Hypomyces chrysospermus">Hypomyces chrysospermus</a></i>, which grows on <a href="/wiki/Bolete" title="Bolete">bolete</a> mushrooms. Fungi can also become the target of infection by <a href="/wiki/Mycovirus" title="Mycovirus">mycoviruses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearson_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearson-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Boz_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boz-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communication">Communication</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycorrhizal networks">Mycorrhizal networks</a></div> <p>There appears to be electrical communication between fungi in word-like components according to spiking characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_impact_on_climate">Possible impact on climate</h3></div> <p>According to a study published in the academic journal <a href="/wiki/Current_Biology" title="Current Biology">Current Biology</a>, fungi can soak from the atmosphere around 36% of global fossil fuel <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mycotoxins">Mycotoxins</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ergotamine3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="(6aR,9R)-N-((2R,5S,10aS,10bS)-5-benzyl-10b-hydroxy-2-methyl-3,6-dioxooctahydro-2H-oxazolo[3,2-a] pyrrolo[2,1-c]pyrazin-2-yl)-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg] quinoline-9-carboxamide" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ergotamine3.png/220px-Ergotamine3.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ergotamine3.png/330px-Ergotamine3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Ergotamine3.png/440px-Ergotamine3.png 2x" data-file-width="1932" data-file-height="1572" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ergotamine" title="Ergotamine">Ergotamine</a>, a major mycotoxin produced by <i><a href="/wiki/Claviceps" class="mw-redirect" title="Claviceps">Claviceps</a></i> species, which if ingested can cause <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a>, convulsions, and <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Many fungi produce <a href="/wiki/Biological_activity" title="Biological activity">biologically active</a> compounds, several of which are <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxic</a> to animals or plants and are therefore called <a href="/wiki/Mycotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycotoxins">mycotoxins</a>. Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage, and poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the lethal <a href="/wiki/Amatoxin" title="Amatoxin">amatoxins</a> in some <i><a href="/wiki/Amanita" title="Amanita">Amanita</a></i> mushrooms, and <a href="/wiki/Ergotamine" title="Ergotamine">ergot alkaloids</a>, which have a long history of causing serious epidemics of <a href="/wiki/Ergotism" title="Ergotism">ergotism</a> (St Anthony's Fire) in people consuming <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a> or related <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereals</a> contaminated with <a href="/wiki/Sclerotia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclerotia">sclerotia</a> of the ergot fungus, <i><a href="/wiki/Claviceps_purpurea" title="Claviceps purpurea">Claviceps purpurea</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schardl2007_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schardl2007-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other notable mycotoxins include the <a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin" title="Aflatoxin">aflatoxins</a>, which are insidious <a href="/wiki/Hepatotoxicity" title="Hepatotoxicity">liver toxins</a> and highly <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcinogenic">carcinogenic</a> metabolites produced by certain <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></i> species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, <a href="/wiki/Ochratoxin" title="Ochratoxin">ochratoxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patulin" title="Patulin">patulin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trichothecene" title="Trichothecene">trichothecenes</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/T-2_mycotoxin" title="T-2 mycotoxin">T-2 mycotoxin</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Fumonisin" title="Fumonisin">fumonisins</a>, which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Janik_et_al._2020_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janik_et_al._2020-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or <a href="/wiki/Natural_product" title="Natural product">natural products</a>), and research has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-Keller2005_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keller2005-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mycotoxins may provide <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> benefits in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and protection from consumption (<a href="/wiki/Fungivory" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungivory">fungivory</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Demain2000_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demain2000-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rohlfs2007_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rohlfs2007-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many fungal secondary metabolites (or derivatives) are used medically, as described under <a href="#Human_use">Human use below</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathogenic_mechanisms">Pathogenic mechanisms</h2></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Ustilago_maydis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ustilago maydis">Ustilago maydis</a></i> is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes smut disease in maize and <a href="/wiki/Teosinte" class="mw-redirect" title="Teosinte">teosinte</a>. Plants have evolved efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes such as <i>U. maydis</i>. A rapid defense reaction after pathogen attack is the <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_burst" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidative burst">oxidative burst</a> where the plant produces <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a> at the site of the attempted invasion. <i>U. maydis</i> can respond to the oxidative burst with an oxidative stress response, regulated by the gene <i><a href="/wiki/YAP1" title="YAP1">YAP1</a></i>. The response protects <i>U. maydis</i> from the host defense, and is necessary for the pathogen's virulence.<sup id="cite_ref-Molina2007_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molina2007-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, <i>U. maydis</i> has a well-established recombinational <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> system which acts during mitosis and meiosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Kojic2006_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kojic2006-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system may assist the pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host plant's oxidative defensive response to infection.<sup id="cite_ref-Michod2008_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michod2008-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Cryptococcus_neoformans" title="Cryptococcus neoformans">Cryptococcus neoformans</a></i> is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. <i>C.<span class="nowrap"> </span>neoformans</i> usually infects the lungs, where it is phagocytosed by <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_macrophage" title="Alveolar macrophage">alveolar macrophages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fan2005_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fan2005-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <i>C.<span class="nowrap"> </span>neoformans</i> can survive <a href="/wiki/Intracellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracellular">inside</a> macrophages, which appears to be the basis for <a href="/wiki/Latency_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Latency period">latency</a>, disseminated disease, and resistance to antifungal agents. One mechanism by which <i>C.<span class="nowrap"> </span>neoformans</i> survives the hostile macrophage environment is by up-regulating the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response.<sup id="cite_ref-Fan2005_233-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fan2005-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another mechanism involves <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>. The majority of <i>C.<span class="nowrap"> </span>neoformans</i> are mating "type a". Filaments of mating "type a" ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion) to form <a href="/wiki/Blastospore" title="Blastospore">blastospores</a>. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed.<sup id="cite_ref-Lin2005_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lin2005-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. This process requires a gene called <i><a href="/wiki/DMC1" class="mw-redirect" title="DMC1">DMC1</a></i>, which is a conserved homologue of genes <i><a href="/wiki/RecA" title="RecA">recA</a></i> in bacteria and <i><a href="/wiki/RAD51" title="RAD51">RAD51</a></i> in eukaryotes, that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Thus, <i>C.<span class="nowrap"> </span>neoformans</i> can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence.<sup id="cite_ref-Michod2008_232-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michod2008-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lin2005_234-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lin2005-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_use">Human use</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_interactions_with_fungi" title="Human interactions with fungi">Human interactions with fungi</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Microscopic view of five spherical structures; one of the spheres is considerably smaller than the rest and attached to one of the larger spheres" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/190px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/285px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/380px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1560" data-file-height="1560" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i> cells shown with <a href="/wiki/DIC_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="DIC microscopy">DIC microscopy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history. <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Mushroom farming">Mushroom farming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_gathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Mushroom gathering">mushroom gathering</a> are large industries in many countries. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as <a href="/wiki/Ethnomycology" title="Ethnomycology">ethnomycology</a>. Because of the capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of <a href="/wiki/Natural_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural products">natural products</a> with <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">antimicrobial</a> or other biological activities, many species have long been used or are being developed for industrial <a href="/wiki/Production_of_antibiotics" title="Production of antibiotics">production of antibiotics</a>, vitamins, and <a href="/wiki/Taxol#Production" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxol">anti-cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lovastatin" title="Lovastatin">cholesterol-lowering</a> drugs. Methods have been developed for <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a> of fungi,<sup id="cite_ref-Finsham1989_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finsham1989-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> enabling <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_engineering" title="Metabolic engineering">metabolic engineering</a> of fungal species. For example, genetic modification of yeast species<sup id="cite_ref-Baghban_et_al._2019_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baghban_et_al._2019-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—which are easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vessels—has opened up ways of <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical">pharmaceutical</a> production that are potentially more efficient than production by the original source organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Huang2008_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huang2008-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi-based industries are sometimes considered to be a major part of a growing <a href="/wiki/Bioeconomy" title="Bioeconomy">bioeconomy</a>, with applications under <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> including use for textiles, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat</a> substitution and general fungal biotechnology.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Therapeutic_uses">Therapeutic uses</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Penicillium_rubens_(type_specimen).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Penicillium_rubens_%28type_specimen%29.png/220px-Penicillium_rubens_%28type_specimen%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Penicillium_rubens_%28type_specimen%29.png/330px-Penicillium_rubens_%28type_specimen%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Penicillium_rubens_%28type_specimen%29.png 2x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption>The mold <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_rubens" title="Penicillium rubens">Penicillium rubens</a></i> was the source of <a href="/wiki/Penicillin_G" class="mw-redirect" title="Penicillin G">penicillin G</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32973216_243-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32973216-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_chemotherapeutics">Modern chemotherapeutics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicinal fungi">Medicinal fungi</a></div> <p>Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacologically</a> active drugs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Antibiotics">Antibiotics</h5></div> <p>Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillins</a>, a structurally related group of <a href="/wiki/%CE%92-lactam_antibiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-lactam antibiotic">β-lactam antibiotics</a> that are synthesized from small <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a>. Although naturally occurring penicillins such as <a href="/wiki/Penicillin_G" class="mw-redirect" title="Penicillin G">penicillin G</a> (produced by <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_chrysogenum" title="Penicillium chrysogenum">Penicillium chrysogenum</a></i>) have a relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other penicillins can be produced by <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">chemical modification</a> of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are <a href="/wiki/Semisynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semisynthetic">semisynthetic</a> compounds, obtained initially from <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">fermentation</a> cultures, but then structurally altered for specific desirable properties.<sup id="cite_ref-Brakhage2004_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brakhage2004-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other antibiotics produced by fungi include: <a href="/wiki/Ciclosporin" title="Ciclosporin">ciclosporin</a>, commonly used as an <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressant" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunosuppressant">immunosuppressant</a> during <a href="/wiki/Transplant_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Transplant surgery">transplant surgery</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Fusidic_acid" title="Fusidic acid">fusidic acid</a>, used to help control infection from <a href="/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus">methicillin-resistant <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i></a> bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-Pan2008_245-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pan2008-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases, such as <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>, and others began in the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature, antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species-rich environments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Rhizosphere_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizosphere (ecology)">rhizosphere</a>, and at low concentrations as <a href="/wiki/Quorum-sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Quorum-sensing">quorum-sensing</a> molecules for intra- or interspecies signaling.<sup id="cite_ref-Fajardo2008_246-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fajardo2008-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Other">Other</h5></div> <p>Other drugs produced by fungi include <a href="/wiki/Griseofulvin" title="Griseofulvin">griseofulvin</a> isolated from <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_griseofulvum" title="Penicillium griseofulvum">Penicillium griseofulvum</a></i>, used to treat fungal infections,<sup id="cite_ref-Loo2006_247-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loo2006-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Statin" title="Statin">statins</a> (<a href="/wiki/HMG-CoA_reductase" title="HMG-CoA reductase">HMG-CoA reductase</a> inhibitors), used to inhibit <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholesterol synthesis">cholesterol synthesis</a>. Examples of statins found in fungi include <a href="/wiki/Mevastatin" title="Mevastatin">mevastatin</a> from <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_citrinum" title="Penicillium citrinum">Penicillium citrinum</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Lovastatin" title="Lovastatin">lovastatin</a> from <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_terreus" title="Aspergillus terreus">Aspergillus terreus</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Pleurotus_ostreatus" title="Pleurotus ostreatus">oyster mushroom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Manzoni2002_248-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manzoni2002-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">Psilocybin</a> from <a href="/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom" title="Psilocybin mushroom">fungi</a> is investigated <a href="/wiki/Psilocybin_therapy" title="Psilocybin therapy">for therapeutic use</a> and appears to cause <a href="/wiki/Brain_connectivity_estimators" title="Brain connectivity estimators">global increases in brain</a> <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_brain_network" title="Large-scale brain network">network</a> <a href="/wiki/Functional_integration_(neurobiology)" title="Functional integration (neurobiology)">integration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi produce compounds that inhibit <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a><sup id="cite_ref-elMekkawy1998_250-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elMekkawy1998-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ElDine2008_251-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ElDine2008-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cancer_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer cells">cancer cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hetland2008_252-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hetland2008-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specific metabolites, such as <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide-K" title="Polysaccharide-K">polysaccharide-K</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ergotamine" title="Ergotamine">ergotamine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/%CE%92-lactam_antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-lactam antibiotics">β-lactam antibiotics</a>, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The <a href="/wiki/Shiitake" title="Shiitake">shiitake</a> mushroom is a source of <a href="/wiki/Lentinan" title="Lentinan">lentinan</a>, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries, including <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sullivan2006_253-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sullivan2006-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Halpern2002_254-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halpern2002-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Europe and Japan, <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide-K" title="Polysaccharide-K">polysaccharide-K</a> (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from <i><a href="/wiki/Trametes_versicolor" title="Trametes versicolor">Trametes versicolor</a></i>, is an approved <a href="/wiki/Adjuvant" title="Adjuvant">adjuvant</a> for cancer therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-Fritz_et_al._2015_255-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fritz_et_al._2015-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional_medicine">Traditional medicine</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:328px;max-width:328px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ganoderma_lucidum_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Upper surface view of a kidney-shaped fungus, brownish-red with a lighter yellow-brown margin, and a somewhat varnished or shiny appearance" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Ganoderma_lucidum_01.jpg/140px-Ganoderma_lucidum_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Ganoderma_lucidum_01.jpg/210px-Ganoderma_lucidum_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Ganoderma_lucidum_01.jpg/280px-Ganoderma_lucidum_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CordycepsSinensis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two dried yellow-orange caterpillars, one with a curly grayish fungus growing out of one of its ends. The grayish fungus is roughly equal to or slightly greater in length than the caterpillar, and tapers in thickness to a narrow end." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/CordycepsSinensis.jpg/180px-CordycepsSinensis.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/CordycepsSinensis.jpg/270px-CordycepsSinensis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/CordycepsSinensis.jpg/360px-CordycepsSinensis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1948" data-file-height="1136" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The fungi <i><a href="/wiki/Ganoderma_lucidum" title="Ganoderma lucidum">Ganoderma lucidum</a></i> (left) and <i><a href="/wiki/Ophiocordyceps_sinensis" title="Ophiocordyceps sinensis">Ophiocordyceps sinensis</a></i> (right) are used in traditional medicine practices</div></div></div></div> <p>Certain mushrooms are used as supposed therapeutics in <a href="/wiki/Folk_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk medicine">folk medicine</a> practices, such as <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a>. Mushrooms with a history of such use include <i><a href="/wiki/Agaricus_subrufescens" title="Agaricus subrufescens">Agaricus subrufescens</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hetland2008_252-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hetland2008-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Firenzuoli2008_256-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Firenzuoli2008-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Ganoderma_lucidum" title="Ganoderma lucidum">Ganoderma lucidum</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Lu_et_al._2020_257-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lu_et_al._2020-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ophiocordyceps_sinensis" title="Ophiocordyceps sinensis">Ophiocordyceps sinensis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Olatunji_et_al._2018_258-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olatunji_et_al._2018-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultured_foods">Cultured foods</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast">Baker's yeast</a> or <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i>, a unicellular fungus, is used to make <a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a> and other wheat-based products, such as <a href="/wiki/Pizza" title="Pizza">pizza</a> dough and <a href="/wiki/Dumpling" title="Dumpling">dumplings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kulp2000_259-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kulp2000-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yeast species of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces" title="Saccharomyces">Saccharomyces</a></i> are also used to produce <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcoholic beverages</a> through fermentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Piskur2006_260-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Piskur2006-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shoyu koji mold (<i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_oryzae" title="Aspergillus oryzae">Aspergillus oryzae</a></i>) is an essential ingredient in brewing <a href="/wiki/Shoyu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoyu">Shoyu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soy_sauce" title="Soy sauce">soy sauce</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sake" title="Sake">sake</a>, and the preparation of <a href="/wiki/Miso" title="Miso">miso</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Abe2006_261-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abe2006-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <i><a href="/wiki/Rhizopus" title="Rhizopus">Rhizopus</a></i> species are used for making <a href="/wiki/Tempeh" title="Tempeh">tempeh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hachmeister1993_262-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hachmeister1993-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several of these fungi are <a href="/wiki/Domesticated" class="mw-redirect" title="Domesticated">domesticated</a> species that were <a href="/wiki/Breeding_program" title="Breeding program">bred</a> or selected according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins (see below), which are produced by very closely related <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_flavus" title="Aspergillus flavus">Aspergilli</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jorgensen2007_263-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jorgensen2007-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Quorn_(food_product)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quorn (food product)">Quorn</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Meat_substitute" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat substitute">meat substitute</a>, is made from <i><a href="/wiki/Fusarium_venenatum" title="Fusarium venenatum">Fusarium venenatum</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-ODonnell1998_264-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODonnell1998-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_food">In food</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asian_mushrooms.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Asian_mushrooms.jpg/300px-Asian_mushrooms.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Asian_mushrooms.jpg/450px-Asian_mushrooms.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Asian_mushrooms.jpg/600px-Asian_mushrooms.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="564" /></a><figcaption>A selection of <a href="/wiki/Edible_mushroom" title="Edible mushroom">edible mushrooms</a> eaten in Asia</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Edible_mushroom" title="Edible mushroom">Edible mushrooms</a> include commercially raised and wild-harvested fungi. <i><a href="/wiki/Agaricus_bisporus" title="Agaricus bisporus">Agaricus bisporus</a></i>, sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when larger, is the most widely cultivated species in the West, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have increased in popularity in the West. They are often available fresh in <a href="/wiki/Grocery_store" title="Grocery store">grocery stores</a> and markets, including straw mushrooms (<i><a href="/wiki/Volvariella_volvacea" title="Volvariella volvacea">Volvariella volvacea</a></i>), oyster mushrooms (<i><a href="/wiki/Pleurotus_ostreatus" title="Pleurotus ostreatus">Pleurotus ostreatus</a></i>), shiitakes (<i><a href="/wiki/Lentinula_edodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lentinula edodes">Lentinula edodes</a></i>), and <a href="/wiki/Enokitake" class="mw-redirect" title="Enokitake">enokitake</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Flammulina" title="Flammulina">Flammulina</a></i> spp.).<sup id="cite_ref-Stamets2000_265-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stamets2000-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A corner of cheese with greenish streaks through it" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg/220px-Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg/330px-Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg/440px-Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg 2x" data-file-width="903" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stilton_cheese" title="Stilton cheese">Stilton cheese</a> veined with <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_roqueforti" title="Penicillium roqueforti">Penicillium roqueforti</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Many other mushroom species are <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_hunting" title="Mushroom hunting">harvested from the wild</a> for personal consumption or commercial sale. <a href="/wiki/Lactarius_deliciosus" title="Lactarius deliciosus">Milk mushrooms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morel" class="mw-redirect" title="Morel">morels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chanterelle" title="Chanterelle">chanterelles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Truffles" class="mw-redirect" title="Truffles">truffles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Craterellus" title="Craterellus">black trumpets</a>, and <i>porcini</i> mushrooms (<i><a href="/wiki/Boletus_edulis" title="Boletus edulis">Boletus edulis</a></i>) (also known as king boletes) demand a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall200313–26_266-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall200313–26-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds with fungal species that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Blue_cheese" title="Blue cheese">blue</a> color in cheeses such as <a href="/wiki/Stilton_cheese" title="Stilton cheese">Stilton</a> or <a href="/wiki/Roquefort" title="Roquefort">Roquefort</a>, which are made by inoculation with <i><a href="/wiki/Penicillium_roqueforti" title="Penicillium roqueforti">Penicillium roqueforti</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kinsella1976_267-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kinsella1976-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molds used in cheese production are non-toxic and are thus safe for human consumption; however, mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, <a href="/wiki/Roquefortine_C" title="Roquefortine C">roquefortine C</a>, patulin, or others) may accumulate because of growth of other fungi during cheese ripening or storage.<sup id="cite_ref-Erdogan2004_268-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erdogan2004-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poisonous_fungi">Poisonous fungi</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two light yellow-green mushrooms with stems and caps, one smaller and still in the ground, the larger one pulled out and laid beside the other to show its bulbous stem with a ring" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG/170px-Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG/255px-Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG/340px-Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Amanita_phalloides" title="Amanita phalloides">Amanita phalloides</a></i> accounts for the majority of fatal <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_poisoning" title="Mushroom poisoning">mushroom poisonings</a> worldwide. It sometimes lacks the greenish color seen here.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many mushroom species are <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_poisoning" title="Mushroom poisoning">poisonous</a> to humans and cause a range of reactions including slight digestive problems, <a href="/wiki/Allergic" class="mw-redirect" title="Allergic">allergic</a> reactions, <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a>, severe organ failure, and death. Genera with mushrooms containing deadly toxins include <i><a href="/wiki/Conocybe" title="Conocybe">Conocybe</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Galerina" title="Galerina">Galerina</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Lepiota" title="Lepiota">Lepiota</a></i> and the most infamous, <i><a href="/wiki/Amanita" title="Amanita">Amanita</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Orr1979_269-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orr1979-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter genus includes the destroying angel <i>(<a href="/wiki/Amanita_virosa" title="Amanita virosa">A.<span class="nowrap"> </span>virosa</a>)</i> and the death cap <i>(<a href="/wiki/Amanita_phalloides" title="Amanita phalloides">A.<span class="nowrap"> </span>phalloides</a>)</i>, the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning.<sup id="cite_ref-Vetter1998_270-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vetter1998-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The false morel (<i><a href="/wiki/Gyromitra_esculenta" title="Gyromitra esculenta">Gyromitra esculenta</a></i>) is occasionally considered a delicacy when cooked, yet can be highly toxic when eaten raw.<sup id="cite_ref-Leathem2007_271-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leathem2007-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Tricholoma_equestre" title="Tricholoma equestre">Tricholoma equestre</a></i> was considered edible until it was implicated in serious poisonings causing <a href="/wiki/Rhabdomyolysis" title="Rhabdomyolysis">rhabdomyolysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KarlsonStiber2003_272-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KarlsonStiber2003-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fly_agaric" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly agaric">Fly agaric</a> mushrooms (<i>Amanita muscaria</i>) also cause occasional non-fatal poisonings, mostly as a result of ingestion for its <a href="/wiki/Hallucinogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hallucinogenic">hallucinogenic</a> properties. Historically, fly agaric was used by different peoples in Europe and Asia and its present usage for religious or <a href="/wiki/Shamanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Shamanic">shamanic</a> purposes is reported from some ethnic groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Koryak_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Koryak people">Koryak people</a> of northeastern <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Michelot2003_273-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michelot2003-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As it is difficult to accurately identify a safe mushroom without proper training and knowledge, it is often advised to assume that a wild mushroom is poisonous and not to consume it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall20037_274-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall20037-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ammirati1987_275-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ammirati1987-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pest_control">Pest control</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biological_pest_control#Fungi" title="Biological pest control">Biological pest control § Fungi</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beauveria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two dead grasshoppers with a whitish fuzz growing on them" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Beauveria.jpg/220px-Beauveria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Beauveria.jpg/330px-Beauveria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Beauveria.jpg/440px-Beauveria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1166" /></a><figcaption>Grasshoppers killed by <i><a href="/wiki/Beauveria_bassiana" title="Beauveria bassiana">Beauveria bassiana</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>In agriculture, fungi may be useful if they actively compete for nutrients and space with <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogenic</a> microorganisms such as bacteria or other fungi via the <a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">competitive exclusion principle</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-LopezGomez2006_276-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LopezGomez2006-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or if they are <a href="/wiki/Parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasites">parasites</a> of these pathogens. For example, certain species eliminate or suppress the growth of harmful plant pathogens, such as insects, <a href="/wiki/Mites" class="mw-redirect" title="Mites">mites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weed" title="Weed">weeds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nematodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematodes">nematodes</a>, and other fungi that cause diseases of important <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">crop</a> plants.<sup id="cite_ref-urlUSDA_Biocontrol_277-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlUSDA_Biocontrol-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has generated strong interest in practical applications that use these fungi in the <a href="/wiki/Biological_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological control">biological control</a> of these agricultural pests. <a href="/wiki/Entomopathogenic_fungus" title="Entomopathogenic fungus">Entomopathogenic fungi</a> can be used as <a href="/wiki/Biopesticide" title="Biopesticide">biopesticides</a>, as they actively kill insects.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandler_2017_278-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandler_2017-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples that have been used as <a href="/wiki/Biological_insecticide" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological insecticide">biological insecticides</a> are <i><a href="/wiki/Beauveria_bassiana" title="Beauveria bassiana">Beauveria bassiana</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Metarhizium" title="Metarhizium">Metarhizium</a></i> spp., <i><a href="/wiki/Hirsutella" title="Hirsutella">Hirsutella</a></i> spp., <i><a href="/wiki/Paecilomyces" title="Paecilomyces">Paecilomyces</a></i> (<i>Isaria</i>) spp., and <i><a href="/wiki/Lecanicillium_lecanii" title="Lecanicillium lecanii">Lecanicillium lecanii</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Deshpande1999_279-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deshpande1999-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>279<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thomas2007_280-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas2007-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>280<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Endophytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endophytic">Endophytic</a> fungi of grasses of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Epichlo%C3%AB" title="Epichloë">Epichloë</a></i>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Epichlo%C3%AB_coenophiala" title="Epichloë coenophiala">E. coenophiala</a></i>, produce alkaloids that are toxic to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate <a href="/wiki/Herbivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivores">herbivores</a>. These alkaloids protect grass plants from <a href="/wiki/Herbivory" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivory">herbivory</a>, but several endophyte alkaloids can poison grazing animals, such as cattle and sheep.<sup id="cite_ref-Guerre_2015_281-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guerre_2015-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>281<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infecting cultivars of <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a> or <a href="/wiki/Forage" title="Forage">forage</a> grasses with <i>Epichloë</i> endophytes is one approach being used in <a href="/wiki/Plant_breeding" title="Plant breeding">grass breeding</a> programs; the fungal strains are selected for producing only alkaloids that increase resistance to herbivores such as insects, while being non-toxic to livestock.<sup id="cite_ref-Bouton2002_282-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bouton2002-282"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Parish2003_283-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parish2003-283"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>283<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mycoremediation" title="Mycoremediation">Mycoremediation</a></div> <p>Certain fungi, in particular <a href="/wiki/White_rot" class="mw-redirect" title="White rot">white-rot</a> fungi, can degrade <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">insecticides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pentachlorophenol" title="Pentachlorophenol">pentachlorophenol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creosote" title="Creosote">creosote</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coal_tar" title="Coal tar">coal tars</a>, and heavy fuels and turn them into <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, water, and basic elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhuo_&_Fan_2021_284-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhuo_&_Fan_2021-284"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>284<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi have been shown to <a href="/wiki/Biomineralize" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomineralize">biomineralize</a> <a href="/wiki/Uranium#Oxides" title="Uranium">uranium oxides</a>, suggesting they may have application in the <a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">bioremediation</a> of radioactively polluted sites.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC2008_285-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC2008-285"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>285<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fomina2007_286-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fomina2007-286"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>286<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fomina2008_287-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fomina2008-287"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>287<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Model_organisms">Model organisms</h3></div> <p>Several pivotal discoveries in biology were made by researchers using fungi as <a href="/wiki/Model_organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Model organisms">model organisms</a>, that is, fungi that grow and sexually reproduce rapidly in the laboratory. For example, the <a href="/wiki/One_gene-one_enzyme_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="One gene-one enzyme hypothesis">one gene-one enzyme hypothesis</a> was formulated by scientists using the bread mold <i><a href="/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora crassa</a></i> to test their biochemical theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Beadle1941_288-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beadle1941-288"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>288<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other important model fungi are <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_nidulans" title="Aspergillus nidulans">Aspergillus nidulans</a></i> and the yeasts <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Schizosaccharomyces pombe</a></i>, each of which with a long history of use to investigate issues in eukaryotic <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">cell cycle</a> regulation, <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a> structure, and <a href="/wiki/Gene_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene regulation">gene regulation</a>. Other fungal models have emerged that address specific biological questions relevant to <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">plant pathology</a>, and industrial uses; examples include <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a></i>, a dimorphic, opportunistic human pathogen,<sup id="cite_ref-Datta1989_289-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Datta1989-289"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>289<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Magnaporthe_grisea" title="Magnaporthe grisea">Magnaporthe grisea</a></i>, a plant pathogen,<sup id="cite_ref-Dean2005_290-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dean2005-290"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>290<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Pichia_pastoris" class="mw-redirect" title="Pichia pastoris">Pichia pastoris</a></i>, a yeast widely used for eukaryotic <a href="/wiki/Protein_production" title="Protein production">protein production</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Karbalaei_et_al._2020_291-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karbalaei_et_al._2020-291"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>291<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3></div> <p>Fungi are used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">citric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gluconic_acid" title="Gluconic acid">gluconic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malic_acid" title="Malic acid">malic</a> acids,<sup id="cite_ref-Schlegel1993_292-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schlegel1993-292"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>292<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_enzyme" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial enzyme">industrial enzymes</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Lipase" title="Lipase">lipases</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Biological_detergent" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological detergent">biological detergents</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Joseph2008_293-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joseph2008-293"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>293<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cellulase" title="Cellulase">cellulases</a> used in making <a href="/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanol" title="Cellulosic ethanol">cellulosic ethanol</a><sup id="cite_ref-Kumar2008_294-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kumar2008-294"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>294<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Stonewashed_jeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Stonewashed jeans">stonewashed jeans</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-nysaes_295-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nysaes-295"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>295<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">amylases</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-OlempskaBeer2006_296-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OlempskaBeer2006-296"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Invertase" title="Invertase">invertases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">proteases</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xylanase" title="Xylanase">xylanases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Polizeli2005_297-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polizeli2005-297"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>297<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/25px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/38px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/51px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png 2x" data-file-width="1105" data-file-height="1215" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Fungi" title="Portal:Fungi">Fungi portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_fungi" title="Conservation of fungi">Conservation of fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantastic_Fungi" title="Fantastic Fungi">Fantastic Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mycology" title="Glossary of mycology">Glossary of mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_infection" title="Fungal infection">Fungal infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_fungi" title="Outline of fungi">Outline of fungi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_lichens" title="Outline of lichens">Outline of lichens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungi_in_art" title="Fungi in art">Fungi in art</a></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Moore1980-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moore1980_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMoore1980" class="citation journal cs1">Moore RT (1980). "Taxonomic proposals for the classification of marine yeasts and other yeast-like fungi including the smuts". <i>Botanica Marina</i>. <b>23</b> (6): 361–373. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fbot-1980-230605">10.1515/bot-1980-230605</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanica+Marina&rft.atitle=Taxonomic+proposals+for+the+classification+of+marine+yeasts+and+other+yeast-like+fungi+including+the+smuts&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=361-373&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fbot-1980-230605&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=RT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=90154">"Record Details: Fungi R.T. Moore, Bot. Mar. 23(6): 371 (1980)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Index_Fungorum" title="Index Fungorum">Index Fungorum</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240618201249/https://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=90154">Archived</a> from the original on 18 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Record+Details%3A+Fungi+R.T.+Moore%2C+Bot.+Mar.+23%286%29%3A+371+%281980%29&rft.pub=Index+Fungorum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indexfungorum.org%2FNames%2FNamesRecord.asp%3FRecordID%3D90154&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/dc\/En-us-fungi.ogg\/En-us-fungi.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-fungi.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dc/En-us-fungi.ogg/En-us-fungi.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-fungi.ogg" title="File:En-us-fungi.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="/ŋ/: 'ng' in 'sing'">ŋ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/50\/En-us-fungi-2.ogg\/En-us-fungi-2.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-fungi-2.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/50/En-us-fungi-2.ogg/En-us-fungi-2.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-fungi-2.ogg" title="File:En-us-fungi-2.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="/ŋ/: 'ng' in 'sing'">ŋ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-3" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/0\/08\/En-us-fungi-3.ogg\/En-us-fungi-3.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-fungi-3.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/08/En-us-fungi-3.ogg/En-us-fungi-3.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-fungi-3.ogg" title="File:En-us-fungi-3.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span> or <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-4" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/e\/e9\/En-us-fungi-4.ogg\/En-us-fungi-4.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-fungi-4.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e9/En-us-fungi-4.ogg/En-us-fungi-4.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-fungi-4.ogg" title="File:En-us-fungi-4.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>. The first two pronunciations are favored more in the US and the others in the UK, however all pronunciations can be heard in any English-speaking country.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OxfordDictionary-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OxfordDictionary_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120728023308/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/fungus">"Fungus"</a>. <i>Oxford Dictionaries</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/fungus">the original</a> on 28 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Dictionaries&rft.atitle=Fungus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Ffungus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whittaker-1969-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whittaker-1969_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittaker1969" class="citation journal cs1">Whittaker R (January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>163</b> (3863): 150–60. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969Sci...163..150W">1969Sci...163..150W</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.403.5430">10.1.1.403.5430</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.163.3863.150">10.1126/science.163.3863.150</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5762760">5762760</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=New+concepts+of+kingdoms+or+organisms.+Evolutionary+relations+are+better+represented+by+new+classifications+than+by+the+traditional+two+kingdoms&rft.volume=163&rft.issue=3863&rft.pages=150-60&rft.date=1969-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.403.5430%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5762760&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.163.3863.150&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969Sci...163..150W&rft.aulast=Whittaker&rft.aufirst=R.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cavalier-Smith_1998_203–66-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cavalier-Smith_1998_203–66_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavalier-Smith1998" class="citation journal cs1">Cavalier-Smith T (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=685">"A revised six-kingdom system of life"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Biological_Reviews" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological Reviews">Biological Reviews</a></i>. <b>73</b> (3): 203–66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x">10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9809012">9809012</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6557779">6557779</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160820015246/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online">Archived</a> from the original on 20 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Reviews&rft.atitle=A+revised+six-kingdom+system+of+life&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=203-66&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6557779%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9809012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x&rft.aulast=Cavalier-Smith&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.cambridge.org%2Faction%2FdisplayAbstract%3FfromPage%3Donline%26aid%3D685&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucking2017-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lucking2017_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lucking2017_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawksworthLücking2017" class="citation journal cs1">Hawksworth DL, Lücking R (July 2017). 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(2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fppp3.10148">"New scientific discoveries: Plants and fungi"</a>. <i>Plants, People, Planet</i>. <b>2</b> (5): 371–388. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fppp3.10148">10.1002/ppp3.10148</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-8705210">1854/LU-8705210</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plants%2C+People%2C+Planet&rft.atitle=New+scientific+discoveries%3A+Plants+and+fungi&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=371-388&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1854%2FLU-8705210&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fppp3.10148&rft.aulast=Cheek&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Nic+Lughadha%2C+Eimear&rft.au=Kirk%2C+Paul&rft.au=Lindon%2C+Heather&rft.au=Carretero%2C+Julia&rft.au=Looney%2C+Brian&rft.au=Douglas%2C+Brian&rft.au=Haelewaters%2C+Danny&rft.au=Gaya%2C+Ester&rft.au=Llewellyn%2C+Theo&rft.au=Ainsworth%2C+A.+Martyn&rft.au=Gafforov%2C+Yusufjon&rft.au=Hyde%2C+Kevin&rft.au=Crous%2C+Pedro&rft.au=Hughes%2C+Mark&rft.au=Walker%2C+Barnaby+E.&rft.au=Campostrini+Forzza%2C+Rafaela&rft.au=Wong%2C+Khoon+Meng&rft.au=Niskanen%2C+Tuula&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fppp3.10148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmicrobiol.2017.120">"Stop neglecting fungi"</a>. <i>Nature Microbiology</i>. <b>2</b> (8): 17120. 25 July 2017. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmicrobiol.2017.120">10.1038/nmicrobiol.2017.120</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28741610">28741610</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Stop+neglecting+fungi&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=17120&rft.date=2017-07-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnmicrobiol.2017.120&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28741610&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnmicrobiol.2017.120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simpson1979-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Simpson1979_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson1979" class="citation book cs1">Simpson DP (1979). <i>Cassell's Latin Dictionary</i> (5 ed.). London, UK: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-52257-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-304-52257-6"><bdi>978-0-304-52257-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cassell%27s+Latin+Dictionary&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=883&rft.edition=5&rft.pub=Cassell+Ltd&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-304-52257-6&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=DP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAinsworth19762-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAinsworth19762_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAinsworth19762_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAinsworth1976">Ainsworth 1976</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mitzka1960-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mitzka1960_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitzka1960" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mitzka W, ed. (1960). <i>Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache</i> [<i>Etymological dictionary of the German language</i>] (in German). Berlin: <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymologisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch+der+deutschen+Sprache&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1960&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell19961-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell19961_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996">Alexopoulos, Mims & Blackwell 1996</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPersoon1796" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Persoon CH (1796). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131219091343/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=5680"><i>Observationes Mycologicae: Part 1</i></a> (in Latin). Leipzig, (Germany): Peter Philipp Wolf. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=5680">the original</a> on 19 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Observationes+Mycologicae%3A+Part+1&rft.place=Leipzig%2C+%28Germany%29&rft.pub=Peter+Philipp+Wolf&rft.date=1796&rft.aulast=Persoon&rft.aufirst=Christiaan+Hendrik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbibdigital.rjb.csic.es%2Fing%2FLibro.php%3FLibro%3D5680&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreville1824" class="citation book cs1">Greville RK (1824). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433008943957;view=1up;seq=45"><i>Scottish Cryptogamie Flora: Or Coloured Figures and Descriptions of Cryptogamic Plants, Belonging Chiefly to the Order Fungi</i></a>. Vol. 2. Edinburgh, Scotland: Maclachland and Stewart. p. 65. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190522230034/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433008943957;view=1up;seq=45">Archived</a> from the original on 22 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scottish+Cryptogamie+Flora%3A+Or+Coloured+Figures+and+Descriptions+of+Cryptogamic+Plants%2C+Belonging+Chiefly+to+the+Order+Fungi&rft.place=Edinburgh%2C+Scotland&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Maclachland+and+Stewart&rft.date=1824&rft.aulast=Greville&rft.aufirst=Robert+Kaye&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dnyp.33433008943957%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span> From p. 65: "This little plant will probably not prove rare in Great Britain, when mycology shall be more studied."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1836" class="citation book cs1">Smith JE (1836). Hooker WJ, Berkeley MJ (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=msu.31293010136830;view=1up;seq=403"><i>The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith</i></a>. Vol. 5, part II: "Class XXIV. Cryptogamia". London, England: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman. p. 7. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200530032849/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=msu.31293010136830&view=1up&seq=403">Archived</a> from the original on 30 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326135053/http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/dhibbett/AFTOL/documents/AFTOL%20class%20mss%2023%2C%2024/AFTOL%20CLASS%20MS%20resub.pdf">"A higher-level phylogenetic classification of the Fungi"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Mycological_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycological Research">Mycological Research</a></i>. <b>111</b> (Pt 5): 509–47. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.626.9582">10.1.1.626.9582</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mycres.2007.03.004">10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17572334">17572334</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4686378">4686378</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/dhibbett/AFTOL/documents/AFTOL%20class%20mss%2023,%2024/AFTOL%20CLASS%20MS%20resub.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mycological+Research&rft.atitle=A+higher-level+phylogenetic+classification+of+the+Fungi&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=Pt+5&rft.pages=509-47&rft.date=2007-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.626.9582%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4686378%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17572334&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mycres.2007.03.004&rft.aulast=Hibbett&rft.aufirst=DS&rft.au=Binder%2C+M&rft.au=Bischoff%2C+JF&rft.au=Blackwell%2C+M&rft.au=Cannon%2C+PF&rft.au=Eriksson%2C+OE&rft.au=Huhndorf%2C+S&rft.au=James%2C+T&rft.au=Kirk%2C+PM&rft.au=L%C3%BCcking%2C+R&rft.au=Thorsten+Lumbsch%2C+H&rft.au=Lutzoni%2C+F&rft.au=Matheny%2C+PB&rft.au=McLaughlin%2C+DJ&rft.au=Powell%2C+MJ&rft.au=Redhead%2C+S&rft.au=Schoch%2C+CL&rft.au=Spatafora%2C+JW&rft.au=Stalpers%2C+JA&rft.au=Vilgalys%2C+R&rft.au=Aime%2C+MC&rft.au=Aptroot%2C+A&rft.au=Bauer%2C+R&rft.au=Begerow%2C+D&rft.au=Benny%2C+GL&rft.au=Castlebury%2C+LA&rft.au=Crous%2C+PW&rft.au=Dai%2C+YC&rft.au=Gams%2C+W&rft.au=Geiser%2C+DM&rft.au=Griffith%2C+GW&rft.au=Gueidan%2C+C&rft.au=Hawksworth%2C+DL&rft.au=Hestmark%2C+G&rft.au=Hosaka%2C+K&rft.au=Humber%2C+RA&rft.au=Hyde%2C+KD&rft.au=Ironside%2C+JE&rft.au=K%C3%B5ljalg%2C+U&rft.au=Kurtzman%2C+CP&rft.au=Larsson%2C+KH&rft.au=Lichtwardt%2C+R&rft.au=Longcore%2C+J&rft.au=Miadlikowska%2C+J&rft.au=Miller%2C+A&rft.au=Moncalvo%2C+JM&rft.au=Mozley-Standridge%2C+S&rft.au=Oberwinkler%2C+F&rft.au=Parmasto%2C+E&rft.au=Reeb%2C+V&rft.au=Rogers%2C+JD&rft.au=Roux%2C+C&rft.au=Ryvarden%2C+L&rft.au=Sampaio%2C+JP&rft.au=Sch%C3%BCssler%2C+A&rft.au=Sugiyama%2C+J&rft.au=Thorn%2C+RG&rft.au=Tibell%2C+L&rft.au=Untereiner%2C+WA&rft.au=Walker%2C+C&rft.au=Wang%2C+Z&rft.au=Weir%2C+A&rft.au=Weiss%2C+M&rft.au=White%2C+MM&rft.au=Winka%2C+K&rft.au=Yao%2C+YJ&rft.au=Zhang%2C+N&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clarku.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fdhibbett%2FAFTOL%2Fdocuments%2FAFTOL%2520class%2520mss%252023%2C%252024%2FAFTOL%2520CLASS%2520MS%2520resub.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Struck2006-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Struck2006_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to one 2001 estimate, some 10,000 fungal diseases are known. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStruck2006" class="citation book cs1">Struck C (2006). "Infection strategies of plant parasitic fungi". In Cooke BM, Jones DG, Kaye B (eds.). <i>The Epidemiology of Plant Diseases</i>. Berlin, Germany: Springer. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4580-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4580-6"><bdi>978-1-4020-4580-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Infection+strategies+of+plant+parasitic+fungi&rft.btitle=The+Epidemiology+of+Plant+Diseases&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Germany&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4580-6&rft.aulast=Struck&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peintner1998-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Peintner1998_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeintnerPöderPümpel1998" class="citation journal cs1">Peintner U, Pöder R, Pümpel T (1998). "The Iceman's fungi". <i><a href="/wiki/Mycological_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycological Research">Mycological Research</a></i>. <b>102</b> (10): 1153–1162. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0953756298006546">10.1017/S0953756298006546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mycological+Research&rft.atitle=The+Iceman%27s+fungi&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1153-1162&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0953756298006546&rft.aulast=Peintner&rft.aufirst=U&rft.au=P%C3%B6der%2C+R&rft.au=P%C3%BCmpel%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAinsworth19761-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAinsworth19761_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAinsworth1976">Ainsworth 1976</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell19961–2-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell19961–2_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996">Alexopoulos, Mims & Blackwell 1996</a>, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAinsworth197618-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAinsworth197618_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAinsworth1976">Ainsworth 1976</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hawksworth2006-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hawksworth2006_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawksworth2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hawksworth DL (September 2006). 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href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC45331">45331</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11607500">11607500</a>.</cite><span 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mycological+Research&rft.atitle=A+new+fungal+phylum%2C+the+Glomeromycota%3A+phylogeny+and+evolution&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1413-1421&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0953756201005196&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A82128210%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%BCssler&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Schwarzott%2C+D&rft.au=Walker%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996145-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996145_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996">Alexopoulos, Mims & Blackwell 1996</a>, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walther_et_al._2019-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6958464">6958464</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31739583">31739583</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Fungi&rft.atitle=Updates+on+the+taxonomy+of+Mucorales+with+an+emphasis+on+clinically+important+taxa&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=106&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6958464%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31739583&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fjof5040106&rft.aulast=Walther&rft.aufirst=Grit&rft.au=Wagner%2C+Lysett&rft.au=Kurzai%2C+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fjof5040106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Samuels2006-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Samuels2006_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an example, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuels2006" class="citation journal cs1">Samuels GJ (February 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1235933">"<i>Trichoderma</i>: systematics, the sexual state, and ecology"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Phytopathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytopathology">Phytopathology</a></i>. <b>96</b> (2): 195–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1094%2FPHYTO-96-0195">10.1094/PHYTO-96-0195</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 July</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biological+Control%3A+A+Guide+to+Natural+Enemies+in+North+America&rft.atitle=Trichoderma+spp.%2C+including+T.+harzianum%2C+T.+viride%2C+T.+koningii%2C+T.+hamatum+and+other+spp.+Deuteromycetes%2C+Moniliales+%28asexual+classification+system%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biocontrol.entomology.cornell.edu%2Fpathogens%2Ftrichoderma.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OlempskaBeer2006-296"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OlempskaBeer2006_296-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlempska-BeerMerkerDittoDiNovi2006" class="citation journal cs1">Olempska-Beer ZS, Merker RI, Ditto MD, DiNovi MJ (July 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1259499">"Food-processing enzymes from recombinant microorganisms--a review"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_Toxicology_and_Pharmacology" title="Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology">Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology</a></i>. <b>45</b> (2): 144–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yrtph.2006.05.001">10.1016/j.yrtph.2006.05.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16769167">16769167</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190703164318/https://zenodo.org/record/1259499">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Regulatory+Toxicology+and+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Food-processing+enzymes+from+recombinant+microorganisms--a+review&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=144-158&rft.date=2006-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.yrtph.2006.05.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16769167&rft.aulast=Olempska-Beer&rft.aufirst=ZS&rft.au=Merker%2C+RI&rft.au=Ditto%2C+MD&rft.au=DiNovi%2C+MJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1259499&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Polizeli2005-297"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Polizeli2005_297-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolizeliRizzattiMontiTerenzi2005" class="citation journal cs1">Polizeli ML, Rizzatti AC, Monti R, Terenzi HF, Jorge JA, Amorim DS (June 2005). "Xylanases from fungi: properties and industrial applications". <i><a href="/wiki/Applied_Microbiology_and_Biotechnology" title="Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology">Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology</a></i>. <b>67</b> (5): 577–91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00253-005-1904-7">10.1007/s00253-005-1904-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15944805">15944805</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22956">22956</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Microbiology+and+Biotechnology&rft.atitle=Xylanases+from+fungi%3A+properties+and+industrial+applications&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=577-91&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22956%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15944805&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00253-005-1904-7&rft.aulast=Polizeli&rft.aufirst=ML&rft.au=Rizzatti%2C+AC&rft.au=Monti%2C+R&rft.au=Terenzi%2C+HF&rft.au=Jorge%2C+JA&rft.au=Amorim%2C+DS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cited_literature">Cited literature</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAinsworth1976" class="citation book cs1">Ainsworth GC (1976). <i>Introduction to the History of Mycology</i>. Cambridge, UK: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11295-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11295-6"><bdi>978-0-521-11295-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+History+of+Mycology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-521-11295-6&rft.aulast=Ainsworth&rft.aufirst=GC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996" class="citation book cs1">Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M (1996). <i>Introductory Mycology</i>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-52229-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-52229-4"><bdi>978-0-471-52229-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introductory+Mycology&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-471-52229-4&rft.aulast=Alexopoulos&rft.aufirst=CJ&rft.au=Mims%2C+CW&rft.au=Blackwell%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeacon2005" class="citation book cs1">Deacon J (2005). <i>Fungal Biology</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishers">Blackwell Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3066-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3066-0"><bdi>978-1-4051-3066-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fungal+Biology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3066-0&rft.aulast=Deacon&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2003" class="citation book cs1">Hall IR (2003). <i>Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World</i>. Portland, Oregon: <a href="/wiki/Timber_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber Press">Timber Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88192-586-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88192-586-9"><bdi>978-0-88192-586-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edible+and+Poisonous+Mushrooms+of+the+World&rft.place=Portland%2C+Oregon&rft.pub=Timber+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-88192-586-9&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=IR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson2008" class="citation book cs1">Hanson JR (2008). <i>The Chemistry of Fungi</i>. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Chemistry" title="Royal Society of Chemistry">Royal Society of Chemistry</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85404-136-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85404-136-7"><bdi>978-0-85404-136-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chemistry+of+Fungi&rft.pub=Royal+Society+of+Chemistry&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-85404-136-7&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=JR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenningsLysek1996" class="citation book cs1">Jennings DH, Lysek G (1996). <i>Fungal Biology: Understanding the Fungal Lifestyle</i>. Guildford, UK: Bios Scientific Publishers Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85996-150-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85996-150-6"><bdi>978-1-85996-150-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fungal+Biology%3A+Understanding+the+Fungal+Lifestyle&rft.place=Guildford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Bios+Scientific+Publishers+Ltd&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-85996-150-6&rft.aulast=Jennings&rft.aufirst=DH&rft.au=Lysek%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008" class="citation book cs1">Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). <i>Dictionary of the Fungi</i> (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85199-826-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85199-826-8"><bdi>978-0-85199-826-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Fungi&rft.place=Wallingford%2C+UK&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=CAB+International&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-85199-826-8&rft.aulast=Kirk&rft.aufirst=PM&rft.au=Cannon%2C+PF&rft.au=Minter%2C+DW&rft.au=Stalpers%2C+JA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorTaylor1993" class="citation book cs1">Taylor EL, Taylor TN (1993). <i>The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants</i>. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Prentice_Hall" title="Prentice Hall">Prentice Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-651589-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-651589-0"><bdi>978-0-13-651589-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biology+and+Evolution+of+Fossil+Plants&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-13-651589-0&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=EL&rft.au=Taylor%2C+TN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFungus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolbert,_Elizabeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolbert, Elizabeth">Kolbert, Elizabeth</a>, "Spored to Death" (review of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Emily_Monosson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emily Monosson (page does not exist)">Emily Monosson</a>, <i>Blight: Fungi and the Coming Pandemic</i>, Norton, 253 pp.; and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alison_Pouliot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alison Pouliot (page does not exist)">Alison Pouliot</a>, <i>Meetings with Remarkable Mushrooms: Forays with Fungi Across Hemispheres</i>, University of Chicago Press, 278 pp.), <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>, vol. LXX, no.14 (21 September 2023), pp. 41–42. "Fungi sicken us and fungi sustain us. In either case, we ignore them at our peril." (p. 42.)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Fungus</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fungus" class="extiw" title="wikt:fungus">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Fungi" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Fungi">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/23px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/35px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/46px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="1103" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fungi" class="extiw" title="species:Fungi">Taxa</a> from Wikispecies</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M._C._Cooke" class="mw-redirect" title="M. C. Cooke">M. C. Cooke</a> (1875), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/30181">Fungi: Their Nature and Uses</a>, (2009)</li> <li>---- (1872), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63416">Rust, Smut, Mildew, & Mould</a>: An Introduction to the Study of Microscopic Fungi, (2020)</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Fungus</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Fungi&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Fungi">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Fungi&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolweb.org/fungi">Tree of Life web project: Fungi</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210125081408/http://tolweb.org/fungi">Archived</a> 25 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eol.org/pages/5559">Encyclopedia of Life: Fungus</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/BotDermFolder/FUNGI.html">FUNGI</a> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/index.html">BoDD – Botanical Dermatology 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<dt><span class="nobold">(major groups</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptista" title="Template:Cryptista">Cryptista</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rozellomyceta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cryptomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptomycota">Rozellomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rozellomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rozellomycetes (page does not exist)">Rozellomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microsporidia" title="Microsporidia">Microsporidiomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Morellosporales</li> <li>Nucleophagales</li> <li>Paramicrosporidiales</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Microsporidia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiopsidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Chytridiopsidea">Chytridiopsidea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metchnikovellea" class="mw-redirect" title="Metchnikovellea">Metchnikovellea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsporea" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporea">Microsporea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aphelidiomyceta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Aphelidiomycota" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aphelidiomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphelidiomycota">Aphelidiomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aphelida" title="Aphelida">Aphelidea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eumycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Eumycota">Eumycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zoospore" title="Zoospore">Zoosporic</a> fungi<br />(paraphyletic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocallimastigomycetes">Neocallimastigomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Monoblepharomycota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Monoblepharomycota (page does not exist)">Monoblepharomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyaloraphidiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyaloraphidiomycetes">Hyaloraphidiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoblepharidomycetes" title="Monoblepharidomycetes">Monoblepharidomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>?<a href="/w/index.php?title=Caulochytriomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caulochytriomycetes (page does not exist)">Caulochytriomycetes</a></li> <li>?<a href="/w/index.php?title=Coenomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coenomycetes (page does not exist)">Coenomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanchytriomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sanchytriomycetes (page does not exist)">Sanchytriomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycetes" title="Chytridiomycetes">Chytridiomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physodermatomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Physodermatomycetes">Physodermatomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastocladiomycetes">Blastocladiomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a><br />(paraphyletic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Olpidiomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Olpidiomycota">Olpidiomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olpidiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Olpidiomycetes">Olpidiomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basidiobolomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidiobolomycota">Basidiobolomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basidiobolomycetes" title="Basidiobolomycetes">Basidiobolomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Entomophthoromycota" title="Entomophthoromycota">Entomophthoromycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neozygitomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Neozygitomycetes">Neozygitomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomophthoromycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Entomophthoromycetes">Entomophthoromycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kickxellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Kickxellomycota">Kickxellomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoopagomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoopagomycetes">Zoopagomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimargaritomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimargaritomycetes">Dimargaritomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ramicandelaberomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ramicandelaberomycetes (page does not exist)">Ramicandelaberomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kickxellomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kickxellomycetes">Kickxellomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mortierellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortierellomycota">Mortierellomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mortierellomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortierellomycetes">Mortierellomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Calcarisporiellomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcarisporiellomycota">Calcarisporiellomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcarisporiellomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcarisporiellomycetes">Calcarisporiellomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mucoromycota" title="Mucoromycota">Mucoromycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endogonomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogonomycetes">Endogonomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucoromycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mucoromycetes">Mucoromycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/w/index.php?title=Palaeovesiarbusmycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Palaeovesiarbusmycetes (page does not exist)">Palaeovesiarbusmycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paraglomeromycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paraglomeromycetes (page does not exist)">Paraglomeromycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeosporomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archaeosporomycetes (page does not exist)">Archaeosporomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Glomeromycetes">Glomeromycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dikarya" title="Dikarya">Dikarya</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Entorrhizomycota" class="mw-redirect" title="Entorrhizomycota">Entorrhizomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entorrhizomycetes" title="Entorrhizomycetes">Entorrhizomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a><br />(sac fungi)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycotina" title="Taphrinomycotina">Taphrinomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeorhizomycetes" title="Archaeorhizomycetes">Archaeorhizomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolecta" title="Neolecta">Neolectomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Novakomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Novakomycetes (page does not exist)">Novakomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumocystis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumocystis">Pneumocystidomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomycetes" title="Schizosaccharomycetes">Schizosaccharomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycetes" title="Taphrinomycetes">Taphrinomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Saccharomycotina" title="Saccharomycotina">Saccharomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alloascoideomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alloascoideomycetes (page does not exist)">Alloascoideomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dipodascomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dipodascomycetes (page does not exist)">Dipodascomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lipomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lipomycetes (page does not exist)">Lipomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pichiomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pichiomycetes (page does not exist)">Pichiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccharomycetes" title="Saccharomycetes">Saccharomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sporopachydermiomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sporopachydermiomycetes (page does not exist)">Sporopachydermiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trigonopsidomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trigonopsidomycetes (page does not exist)">Trigonopsidomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pezizomycotina" title="Pezizomycotina">Pezizomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbiliomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbiliomycetes">Orbiliomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pezizomycetes" title="Pezizomycetes">Pezizomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dothideomyceta" class="mw-redirect" title="Dothideomyceta">Dothideomyceta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candelariomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Candelariomycetes">Candelariomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coniocybomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Coniocybomycetes">Coniocybomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichinomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichinomycetes">Lichinomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthoniomycetes" title="Arthoniomycetes">Arthoniomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Collemopsidiomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Collemopsidiomycetes (page does not exist)">Collemopsidiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dothideomycetes" title="Dothideomycetes">Dothideomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurotiomycetes" title="Eurotiomycetes">Eurotiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecanoromycetes" title="Lecanoromycetes">Lecanoromycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xylobotryomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xylobotryomycetes (page does not exist)">Xylobotryomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sordariomyceta" class="mw-redirect" title="Sordariomyceta">Sordariomyceta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xylonomycetes" title="Xylonomycetes">Xylonomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglossomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoglossomycetes">Geoglossomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leotiomycetes" title="Leotiomycetes">Leotiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboulbeniomycetes" title="Laboulbeniomycetes">Laboulbeniomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sareomycetes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sareomycetes (page does not exist)">Sareomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sordariomycetes" title="Sordariomycetes">Sordariomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a><br />(with <a href="/wiki/Basidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Basidia">basidia</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pucciniomycotina" title="Pucciniomycotina">Pucciniomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tritirachiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tritirachiomycetes">Tritirachiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixiomycetes" title="Mixiomycetes">Mixiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agaricostilbomycetes" title="Agaricostilbomycetes">Agaricostilbomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cystobasidiomycetes" title="Cystobasidiomycetes">Cystobasidiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbotryomycetes" title="Microbotryomycetes">Microbotryomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classiculomycetes" title="Classiculomycetes">Classiculomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomycocolacomycetes" title="Cryptomycocolacomycetes">Cryptomycocolacomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atractiellomycetes" title="Atractiellomycetes">Atractiellomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiculogloeomycetes" title="Spiculogloeomycetes">Spiculogloeomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pucciniomycetes" title="Pucciniomycetes">Pucciniomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ustilaginomycotina" title="Ustilaginomycotina">Ustilaginomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peribolosporomycetes" title="Peribolosporomycetes">Peribolosporomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monilielliomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Monilielliomycetes">Monilielliomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malasseziomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Malasseziomycetes">Malasseziomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ustilaginomycetes" title="Ustilaginomycetes">Ustilaginomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exobasidiomycetes" title="Exobasidiomycetes">Exobasidiomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Agaricomycotina" title="Agaricomycotina">Agaricomycotina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacrymycetales" title="Dacrymycetales">Dacrymycetales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agaricomycetes" title="Agaricomycetes">Agaricomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallemiomycetes" title="Wallemiomycetes">Wallemiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartheletiomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartheletiomycetes">Bartheletiomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremellomycetes" title="Tremellomycetes">Tremellomycetes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also: <a href="/wiki/Fungi_imperfecti" title="Fungi imperfecti">fungi imperfecti</a> (polyphyletic group).</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Microbiology:_Fungus" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungus" title="Template:Fungus"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fungus" title="Template talk:Fungus"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fungus" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fungus"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Microbiology:_Fungus" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a>: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fungus</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_fungi" title="Outline of fungi">Outline of fungi</a> · <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_lichens" title="Outline of lichens">Outline of lichens</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branch</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomycology" title="Ethnomycology">Ethnomycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichenology" title="Lichenology">Lichenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_uses_of_fungi" title="Medicinal uses of fungi">Medicinal fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycosis">Mycosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotoxicology" title="Mycotoxicology">Mycotoxicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reproduction/<a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spore</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Teleomorph,_anamorph_and_holomorph" title="Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph">teleomorph/sexual</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Zygospore" title="Zygospore">Zygospore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascospore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascospore">Ascospore</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">Ascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiospore" title="Basidiospore">Basidiospore</a>/<a href="/wiki/Basidium" title="Basidium">Basidium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Teliospore" title="Teliospore">Teliospore</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Teleomorph,_anamorph_and_holomorph" title="Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph">anamorph/asexual</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conidium" title="Conidium">Conidium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydospore" title="Chlamydospore">Chlamydospore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oidium_(spore)" title="Oidium (spore)">Oidium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pycniospore" title="Pycniospore">Pycniospore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">Hypha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haustorium" title="Haustorium">Haustorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycelium" title="Mycelium">Mycelium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporocarp (fungi)">Sporocarp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Growth patterns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dimorphic_fungus" title="Dimorphic fungus">Dimorphic fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mold" title="Mold">Mold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">Yeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">Mushroom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mycology" title="Glossary of mycology">Glossary of mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fungal_orders" title="List of fungal orders">List of fungal orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mycologists" title="List of mycologists">List of mycologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mycology_journals" title="List of mycology journals">List of mycology journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fungi" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fungi">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Eukaryote_classification" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eukaryota" title="Template talk:Eukaryota"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eukaryota" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eukaryota"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Eukaryote_classification" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> classification</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Archaea_classification" title="Template:Archaea classification">Archaea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification">Bacteria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></dd> <dt><span class="nobold">(major groups</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptista" title="Template:Cryptista">Cryptista</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Amorphea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-21px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Amoebozoa" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discosea" title="Discosea">Discosea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubulinea" title="Tubulinea">Tubulinea</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Eumycetozoa" title="Eumycetozoa">Eumycetozoa</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variosea" class="mw-redirect" title="Variosea">Variosea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archamoebea" class="mw-redirect" title="Archamoebea">Archamoebea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutosea" title="Cutosea">Cutosea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">   <a href="/wiki/Obazoa" title="Obazoa">Obazoa</a>   </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apusomonadidae" title="Apusomonadidae">Apusomonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Opisthokonta" class="mw-redirect" title="Opisthokonta">Opisthokonta</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Holomycota" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Holomycota" title="Holomycota">Holomycota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cristidiscoidea" title="Cristidiscoidea">Rotosphaerida</a></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fungi</a></b>¹</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><span style="margin:-32px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">   <a href="/wiki/Holozoa" title="Holozoa">Holozoa</a>   </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tunicaraptor" title="Tunicaraptor">Tunicaraptor</a></i></li> <li>†<i><a href="/wiki/Bicellum" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicellum">Bicellum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyosporea" title="Ichthyosporea">Ichthyosporea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluriformea" title="Pluriformea">Pluriformea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Filozoa" title="Filozoa">Filozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filasterea" title="Filasterea">Filasterea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(245,215,255)"><a href="/wiki/Choanozoa" title="Choanozoa">Choanozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellata</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></b>¹</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;"><span style="margin:-34px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centroplasthelida" class="mw-redirect" title="Centroplasthelida">Centroplasthelida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptophyte" title="Haptophyte">Haptophyta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">    <a href="/wiki/TSAR" class="mw-redirect" title="TSAR">TSAR</a>    </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">     <a href="/wiki/SAR_supergroup" title="SAR supergroup">SAR</a>     </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomyxa" title="Endomyxa">Endomyxa</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">Foraminifera</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Radiolaria" title="Radiolaria">Radiolaria</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colponemida" class="mw-redirect" title="Colponemida">Colponemida</a>*</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80); vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/Myzozoa" title="Myzozoa">Myzozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexa</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrompodellid" title="Chrompodellid">Chrompodellida</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellata</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkinsozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Perkinsozoa">Perkinsozoa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Platysulcus" title="Platysulcus">Platysulcus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Bigyra" title="Bigyra">Bigyra</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicosoecea" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicosoecea">Bicosoecida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placidozoa" title="Placidozoa">Placidozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagenista" title="Sagenista">Sagenista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(200,250,80)"><a href="/wiki/Gyrista" title="Gyrista">Gyrista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Developea" class="mw-redirect" title="Developea">Developea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirsoniales" class="mw-redirect" title="Pirsoniales">Pirsoniales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphochytriomycetes" title="Hyphochytriomycetes">Hyphochytriomycetes</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ochrophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochrophyta">Ochrophyta</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Oomycetes">Oomycetes</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinophryida" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinophryida">Actinophryida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);">     <a href="/wiki/CAM_clade" class="mw-redirect" title="CAM clade">CAM</a>     </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Pancryptista" title="Pancryptista">Pancryptista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Microheliella" title="Microheliella">Microheliella</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Palpitomonas" title="Palpitomonas">Palpitomonas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptophyta">Cryptophyta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picozoa" title="Picozoa">Picozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodelphidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodelphidia">Rhodelphidia</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></b></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Viridiplantae(Plants_sensu_lato)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Viridiplantae</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Plant#Alternative_concepts" title="Plant">Plants <i>sensu lato</i></a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prasinodermophyta" title="Prasinodermophyta">Prasinodermophyta</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></b></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Streptophyta" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="/wiki/Streptophyta" title="Streptophyta">Streptophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chlorokybus" title="Chlorokybus">Chlorokybus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mesostigma" title="Mesostigma">Mesostigma</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klebsormidiophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Klebsormidiophyceae">Klebsormidiophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyceae" title="Charophyceae">Charophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coleochaetophyceae" title="Coleochaetophyceae">Coleochaetophyceae</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Zygnematophyceae" title="Zygnematophyceae">Zygnematophyceae</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Embryophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryophyta">Embryophyta</a></b>¹</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;"><span style="margin:-23px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavates</a>*</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jakobida" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobida">Jakobida</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tsukubamonas" title="Tsukubamonas">Tsukubamonas</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Discicristata" title="Discicristata">Discicristata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heterolobosea" title="Heterolobosea">Heterolobosea</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Barthelona" title="Barthelona">Barthelona</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anaeramoebae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anaeramoebae (page does not exist)">Anaeramoebae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaeromonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaeromonada">Anaeromonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fornicata" class="mw-redirect" title="Fornicata">Fornicata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabasalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parabasalia">Parabasalia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malawimonadidae" title="Malawimonadidae">Malawimonadidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imasidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Imasidae">Imasidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.0em;"><span style="margin:-31px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Acritarch" title="Acritarch">Acritarchs</a></li> <li>†<i><a href="/wiki/Grypania" title="Grypania">Grypania</a></i></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Gunflint_chert" title="Gunflint chert">Gunflint microbiota</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Chitinozoan" title="Chitinozoan">Chitinozoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meteora_sporadica" title="Meteora sporadica">Meteora sporadica</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hemimastigophora" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spironematellidae" title="Spironematellidae">Spironematellidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramastigidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramastigidae">Paramastigidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancyromonadidae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ancyromonadidae (page does not exist)">Ancyromonadidae</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Planomonadidae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Planomonadidae (page does not exist)">Planomonadidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collodictyonidae" title="Collodictyonidae">Collodictyonidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantamonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantamonadida">Mantamonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigifilida" title="Rigifilida">Rigifilida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>¹traditional <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdoms</a> excluded from <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a></li> <li>*<a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a> groups</li> <li><b>bold</b> denotes groups with over 1,000 species</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Elements_of_nature" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nature" title="Template:Nature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nature" title="Template talk:Nature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Elements_of_nature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Elements of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">geological</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia_hypothesis" title="Gaia hypothesis">Gaia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere <span style="font-size:85%;">(Earth)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Clouds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin <span style="font-size:85%;">(abiogenesis)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">astrobiology</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protista</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nature" title="Category:Nature">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_on_Earth" title="Template talk:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> phyla/divisions by domain</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bacteria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balneolota" class="mw-redirect" title="Balneolota">Balneolota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferribacteraceae" title="Deferribacteraceae">Deferribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyoglomus_thermophilum" title="Dictyoglomus thermophilum">Dictyoglomota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota">Fusobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignavibacteriota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteriota">Ignavibacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiritimatiellota" title="Kiritimatiellota">Kiritimatiellota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentisphaerota" title="Lentisphaerota">Lentisphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasmatota" title="Mycoplasmatota">Mycoplasmatota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodothermota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermota">Rhodothermota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermomicrobiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermomicrobiota">Thermomicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Archaea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota">Euryarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Korarchaeota" title="Korarchaeota">Korarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota">Nanoarchaeota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrososphaerota" title="Nitrososphaerota">Nitrososphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota">Thermoproteota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_Richmond_Mine_acidophilic_nanoorganisms" title="Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms">Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apusomonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Apusomonadida">Apusomonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakobea" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobea">Jakobea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthocerotophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthocerotophyta">Anthocerotophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">Moss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycopodiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiophyta">Lycopodiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pteridophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophyta">Pteridophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Pinophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">Tardigrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Flatworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotricha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrotricha">Gastrotricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifera">Rotifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulida" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomulida">Gnathostomulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micrognathozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrognathozoa">Micrognathozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycliophora">Cycliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea">Nemertea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures" title="Template:Life, non-cellular life, and comparable structures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures" title="Template talk:Life, non-cellular life, and comparable structures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life, non-cellular life, and comparable structures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Life,_non-cellular_life,_and_comparable_structures" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-cellular_life" title="Non-cellular life">non-cellular life</a>, and comparable structures</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cellular life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryota</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">Mitochondrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LUCA" class="mw-redirect" title="LUCA">LUCA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a></li> <li>'<a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protista</a>'</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_dark_matter#Microbes_with_highly_unusual_DNA" title="Microbial dark matter">Microbes with highly unusual DNA</a> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-cellular life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a> <hr /><a href="/wiki/Viroid" title="Viroid">Viroid</a> <hr /><a href="/wiki/Satellite_(biology)" title="Satellite (biology)">Satellite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Realms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Adnaviria" title="Adnaviria">Adnaviria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Duplodnaviria" title="Duplodnaviria">Duplodnaviria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monodnaviria" title="Monodnaviria">Monodnaviria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Riboviria" title="Riboviria">Riboviria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ribozyviria" title="Ribozyviria">Ribozyviria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Varidnaviria" title="Varidnaviria">Varidnaviria</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unassigned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="/wiki/Naldaviricetes" title="Naldaviricetes">Naldaviricetes</a></i></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alphasatellitidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphasatellitidae">Alphasatellitidae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ampullaviridae" title="Ampullaviridae">Ampullaviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anelloviridae" title="Anelloviridae">Anelloviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Avsunviroidae" title="Avsunviroidae">Avsunviroidae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bicaudaviridae" title="Bicaudaviridae">Bicaudaviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clavaviridae" title="Clavaviridae">Clavaviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Finnlakeviridae" title="Finnlakeviridae">Finnlakeviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fuselloviridae" title="Fuselloviridae">Fuselloviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Globuloviridae" title="Globuloviridae">Globuloviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guttaviridae" title="Guttaviridae">Guttaviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Halspiviridae" title="Halspiviridae">Halspiviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ovaliviridae" title="Ovaliviridae">Ovaliviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plasmaviridae" title="Plasmaviridae">Plasmaviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Polydnaviridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Polydnaviridae">Polydnaviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Portogloboviridae" title="Portogloboviridae">Portogloboviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pospiviroidae" title="Pospiviroidae">Pospiviroidae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spiraviridae" title="Spiraviridae">Spiraviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thaspiviridae" title="Thaspiviridae">Thaspiviridae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tolecusatellitidae" title="Tolecusatellitidae">Tolecusatellitidae</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Genera</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dinodnavirus" title="Dinodnavirus">Dinodnavirus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhizidiovirus" title="Rhizidiovirus">Rhizidiovirus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanobe" title="Nanobe">Nanobe</a> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_(biology)" title="Obelisk (biology)">Obelisk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Comparable<br />structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bio-like_structure" title="Bio-like structure">Bio-like structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_cell" title="Cancer cell">Cancer cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HeLa" title="HeLa">HeLa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonally_transmissible_cancer" title="Clonally transmissible cancer">Clonally transmissible cancer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmid" title="Cosmid">Cosmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defective_interfering_particle" title="Defective interfering particle">Defective interfering particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogenous_viral_element" title="Endogenous viral element">Endogenous viral element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosmid" title="Fosmid">Fosmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_and_conjugative_element" title="Integrative and conjugative element">Integrative and conjugative element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeewanu" title="Jeewanu">Jeewanu</a></li> <li>"<i><a href="/wiki/Nanobacterium" title="Nanobacterium">Nanobacterium</a></i>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phagemid" title="Phagemid">Phagemid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Prion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_prion" title="Fungal prion">Fungal prion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteinoid" title="Proteinoid">Proteinoid</a> <a href="/wiki/Microparticle#Biological_protocells" title="Microparticle">microsphere</a></li> <li>Retroelements not elsewhere classified <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retron" title="Retron">Retron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity-generating_retroelement" title="Diversity-generating retroelement">Diversity-generating retroelement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telomerase_reverse_transcriptase" title="Telomerase reverse transcriptase">Telomerase reverse transcriptase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase-related_cellular_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse transcriptase-related cellular gene">Reverse transcriptase-related cellular gene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">Ribozyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiegelman%27s_Monster" title="Spiegelman's Monster">Spiegelman's Monster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tandem_repeat" title="Tandem repeat">Tandem repeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transposable_element" title="Transposable element">Transposable element</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retroposon" title="Retroposon">Retroposon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpoviron" title="Transpoviron">Transpoviron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobot" title="Xenobot">Xenobot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Fungi</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q764" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q764">Q764</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fungi" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Fungi">Fungi</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/AlgaeBase" title="AlgaeBase">AlgaeBase</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.algaebase.org/browse/taxonomy/detail/?taxonid=92070">92070</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Australian_online_fauna_%26_flora_databases" title="Australian online fauna & flora databases">AusLichen</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.biodiversity.org.au/name/lichen/30016184">30016184</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">CoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/F">F</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/5559">5559</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/1FUNGK">1FUNGK</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/5">5</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/47170">47170</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Index_Fungorum" title="Index Fungorum">IndexFungorum</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=90154">90154</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=555705">555705</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/MycoBank" title="MycoBank">MycoBank</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mycobank.org/MB/90157">90157</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=4751">4751</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">NZOR: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/65e8a38e-0267-43fc-8244-c73a0c8cf3d4">65e8a38e-0267-43fc-8244-c73a0c8cf3d4</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=352914">352914</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=151419">151419</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">PPE: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bladmineerders.nl/parasites/fungi/">fungi</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Index_Fungorum" title="Index Fungorum">SpeciesFungorum</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=90154">90154</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=4">4</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q764#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Pilze"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4046076-9">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Fungi"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85052433">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Champignons"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11931145z">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Champignons"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11931145z">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565853">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="houby"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114706&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX525307">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007555570705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fungus&oldid=1258872411">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fungus&oldid=1258872411</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" 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285.719 1 Template:Automatic_taxobox"," 4.77% 206.543 44 Template:Cite_book"," 4.57% 197.516 1 Template:Taxonbar"," 3.68% 159.173 1 Template:Fungi_classification"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.753","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21778415,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAanen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbeGomiHasegawaMachida2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdamatzky2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAinsworth1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlcamoPommerville2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmmiratiMcKennyStuntz1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmorosoBenimeliCuozzo2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAramayoSelker2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnoldMejíaKylloRojas2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaghbanFarajniaRajabibazlGhasemi2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaldaufPalmer1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBareaPozoAzcónAzcón-Aguilar2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeadleTatum1941\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBecker1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBengtsonRasmussenIvarssonMuhling2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerlinbiotechnologyArtistsArtists2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackwellSpatafora2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackwellVilgalysJamesTaylor2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBonfante2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoutonLatchHillHoveland2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBozarth1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBozkurtKamounLennon-Duménil2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrakhage2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrakhageSpröteAl-AbdallahGehrke2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrodie1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrodoSharnoff2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrundrett2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruns2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasadevallHeitman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavalier-Smith1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCelioPadamseeDentingerBauer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandler2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChang_S-TMiles2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheekNic_LughadhaKirkLindon2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChomickiRenner2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristensenBennettAnsariKoga2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClaySchardl2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCook_GCZumla_AI2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCushionSmulianSlavenSesterhenn2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDadachovaBryanHuangMoadel2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDadachovaCasadevall2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanielsSrikanthaLockhartPujol2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDattaGanesanNatarajan1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawsTimmermannGiribaldiSexton2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeacon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeanTalbotEbboleFarman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDemainFang2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDennis1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeshpande1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDesjardinPerryLodgeStevani2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonoghue_MJCracraft_J2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDotzlerWalkerKringsHass2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyer_PS,_O\u0026#039;Gorman_CM2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFELBEIN2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl_DineEl_HalawanyMaHattori2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErdoganGursesSert2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEshetRampinoVisscher1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsser2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFajardoMartínez2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFanKrausBoilyHeitman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarrar1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFergusonDreisbachParksFilip2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernandezOrth2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFilipiakSobczykWeiner2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFilipiakWeiner2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFincham1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFirenzuoliGoriLombardo2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischerZekertTakeshita2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisherGarner2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFominaCharnockHillierAlvarez2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFominaCharnockHillierAlvarez2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFosterStephensonMarshallLogan2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFritzKennedyIshiiFergusson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurlanetoPizzirani-Kleiner1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGadd2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGanLuoPangZhou2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarrido-BenaventPérez-Ortega2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGowLatgeMunroHeitman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreville1824\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuarroStchigel1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuerre2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHachmeisterFung1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalpernMiller2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanWeissHeitmanStukenbrock2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHassettFischerMoney2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawksworth2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawksworthLücking2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeijden2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeitman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeitman2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHetlandJohnsonLybergBernardshaw2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHibbettBinderBischoffBlackwell2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHibbettGrimaldiDonoghue1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHibbettGrimaldiDonoghue1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoneggerEdwardsAxe2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowardFerrariRoachMoney1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuangGuoYiYu2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHube2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHynes1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJakovlev2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJamesKauffSchochMatheny2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJamesLetcherLongcoreMozley-Standridge2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanikNiemcewiczCeremugaStela2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenningsLysek1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesGandiaJohnBismarck2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJosephKeyhani2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJosephRamtekeThomas2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJørgensen2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarbalaeiRezaeeFarsiani2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarlson-StiberPersson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKauffman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellerTurnerBennett2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimParkGruszewskiSchmale2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinsellaHwang1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoeckHardhamDoddsP.N.2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKojicZhouLisbyHolloman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuharFurciDrechsler-SantosPfister2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulp2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKumarSinghSingh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLange2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeathemDorran2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeontyevSchnittler2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiSteenwykChangWang2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinHullHeitman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindahlIhrmarkBobergTrumbore2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinderSzilvayNakari-SetäläPenttilä2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLockhartVan_DykeBeadleHumphreys2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoo2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLooyTwitchettDilcherVan_Konijnenburg-Van_Cittert2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoronFrançoisRainbirdTurner2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuHeSunZhang2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLópez-GómezMolina-Meyer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLópez-GómezTaylor2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLückingHuhndorfPfisterPlata2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManzoniRollini2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerckxBidartondoHynson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetzenbergGlass1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyerBasenkoBenzBraus2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichelotMelendez-Howell2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichodBernsteinNedelcu2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMihailBruhn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitzka1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMolinaKahmann2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoney1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoney2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoss1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuellerSchmit2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaranjo-OrtizGabaldón2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNguyenSuhBlackwell2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNielsenHeitman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNikohFukatsu2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;DonnellCigelnikCasper1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlatunjiTangTolaAuberon2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlempska-BeerMerkerDittoDiNovi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlicón-HernándezAraiza-VillanuevaPardoAranda2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrrOrr1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanLorenzottiZoncada2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParishMcCannWatsonHoveland2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParniske2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaszkowski2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPathakNowellWilsonRyan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearsonBeeverBoineArthur2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeintnerPöderPümpel1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPereiraNoronhaMillerFranco2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerfect2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerottoBonfante1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPersoon1796\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeñalvaArst2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiskurRozpedowskaPolakovaMerico2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolizeliRizzattiMontiTerenzi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPringlePatekFischerStolze2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPurvis2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaghukumarRaghukumar1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRavenEvertEichhornSE2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedeckerKodnerGraham2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedeckerRaab2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedheadNorvell2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRemyTaylorHassKerp1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhimiTheelenBoekhoutOtranto2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardAlmeida_JmgcfLuraschiNielsen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiglingProspero2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRohlfsAlbertKellerKempken2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossman2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuels2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanchode_la_TorreHorneckAscaso2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSantiniBattisti2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchallerBorelliKortingHube2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchardlCraven2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchardlPanaccioneTudzynski2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlegel1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchochSungLópez-GiráldezTownsend2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchulzBoyle2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchüsslerSchwarzottWalker2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSelosseRichardHeSimard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShalchian-TabriziMingeEspelundOrr2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShojiAriokaKitamoto2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilar2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon-NobbeDenkPöllRid2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1836\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStamets2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteenkampWrightBaldauf2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStruck2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivanSmithRowan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorBerbee2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorHassKerpKrings2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorJacobsonKrokenKasuga2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorTaylor1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorTaylor1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTedersooSanchez-RamırezKoljalgBahram2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThambugalaDaranagamaPhillipsKannangara2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomasRead2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimmer2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrail2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTudzynski2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTudzynski2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUlloa,_MiguelHalin,_Richard_T.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUlyshen2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFVargas-GastélumRiquelme2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaupoticVeranicJenoePlemenitas2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVetter1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaltherWagnerKurzai2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangCaiYao2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangJenkinsonHolcombeSoanes2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWardBothaBuickDe_Kock2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhittaker1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWillensdorfer2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWuSchalkClarkMiles2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXuAndiQianWest2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYangYangAnLiu2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYong2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYunBerbeeYoderTurgeon1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZabriskieJackson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhuoFan2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFel-MekkawyMeselhyNakamuraTezuka1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_der_HeijdenStreitwolf-EngelRiedlSiegrist2006\"] = 1,\n [\"Necrotroph\"] = 1,\n [\"Parasite\"] = 1,\n [\"Pathogen\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Automatic taxobox\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 44,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 194,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 23,\n [\"Clade\"] = 74,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Cs1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Eukaryota\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Fossilrange\"] = 1,\n [\"Fungi classification\"] = 1,\n [\"Fungus structure\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 4,\n [\"Image key\"] = 2,\n [\"Lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Life on Earth\"] = 1,\n [\"Ma\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Nature nav\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 22,\n [\"Organisms et al.\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Plural form\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 45,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Taxonbar\"] = 1,\n [\"Toclimit\"] = 1,\n [\"Transl\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","660","22.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","8.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","180","6.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","180","6.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","6.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","160","5.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntity","140","4.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","4.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","120","4.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","4.1"],["[others]","780","26.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-thm7n","timestamp":"20241125143409","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Fungus","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fungus","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q764","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q764","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-08-15T21:48:58Z","dateModified":"2024-11-22T02:33:52Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/fc\/Fungi_collage.jpg","headline":"biological kingdom, separate from plants and animals"}</script> </body> </html>