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areas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Main_areas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Main areas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Main_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radiation_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Radiation chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemistry_for_nuclear_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemistry_for_nuclear_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Chemistry for nuclear power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemistry_for_nuclear_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Study_of_nuclear_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Study_of_nuclear_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Study of nuclear reactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Study_of_nuclear_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_nuclear_fuel_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_nuclear_fuel_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>The nuclear fuel cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_nuclear_fuel_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Normal_and_abnormal_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Normal_and_abnormal_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Normal and abnormal conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Normal_and_abnormal_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reprocessing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reprocessing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Reprocessing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reprocessing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2.1</span> <span>Law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-PUREX_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PUREX_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2.2</span> <span>PUREX chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PUREX_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_methods_being_considered_for_future_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_methods_being_considered_for_future_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2.3</span> <span>New methods being considered for future use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_methods_being_considered_for_future_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Absorption_of_fission_products_on_surfaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absorption_of_fission_products_on_surfaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Absorption of fission products on surfaces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absorption_of_fission_products_on_surfaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spinout_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spinout_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Spinout areas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Spinout_areas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Spinout areas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Spinout_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kinetics_(use_within_mechanistic_chemistry)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinetics_(use_within_mechanistic_chemistry)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Kinetics (use within mechanistic chemistry)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinetics_(use_within_mechanistic_chemistry)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses_within_geology,_biology_and_forensic_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses_within_geology,_biology_and_forensic_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Uses within geology, biology and forensic science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uses_within_geology,_biology_and_forensic_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_spectroscopy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_spectroscopy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Nuclear spectroscopy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_spectroscopy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_(NMR)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_(NMR)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_(NMR)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear chemistry</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernchemie" title="Kernchemie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kernchemie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كيمياء نووية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كيمياء نووية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_nuclear" title="Química nuclear – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Química nuclear" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCv%C9%99_kimyas%C4%B1" title="Nüvə kimyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nüvə kimyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="পারমাণবিক রসায়ন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পারমাণবিক রসায়ন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Ядро химияһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ядро химияһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ядзерная хімія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ядзерная хімія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ядрена химия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ядрена химия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_nuclear" title="Química nuclear – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Química nuclear" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadern%C3%A1_chemie" title="Jaderná chemie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jaderná chemie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernchemie" title="Kernchemie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kernchemie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Πυρηνική χημεία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πυρηνική χημεία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_nuclear" title="Química nuclear – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Química nuclear" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklea_kemio" title="Nuklea kemio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nuklea kemio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimika_nuklear" title="Kimika nuklear – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kimika nuklear" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="شیمی هسته‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شیمی هسته‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie_nucl%C3%A9aire" title="Chimie nucléaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chimie nucléaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B5%ED%99%94%ED%95%99" title="핵화학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="핵화학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D6%84%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Միջուկային քիմիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջուկային քիմիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="नाभिकीय रसायन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नाभिकीय रसायन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_kemija" title="Nuklearna kemija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nuklearna kemija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_nuklir" title="Kimia nuklir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kimia nuklir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimica_nucleare" title="Chimica nucleare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Chimica nucleare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="כימיה גרעינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כימיה גרעינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_nuklir" title="Kimia nuklir – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kimia nuklir" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბირთვული ქიმია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბირთვული ქიმია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ядролық химия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ядролық химия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%AEmyaya_nukleer" title="Kîmyaya nukleer – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kîmyaya nukleer" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magk%C3%A9mia" title="Magkémia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Magkémia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia_nuklear" title="Kimia nuklear – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kimia nuklear" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Цөмийн хими – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цөмийн хими" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleaire_chemie" title="Nucleaire chemie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nucleaire chemie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="核化学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="核化学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjernekjemi" title="Kjernekjemi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjernekjemi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadro_kimyosi" title="Yadro kimyosi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yadro kimyosi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemia_j%C4%85drowa" title="Chemia jądrowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chemia jądrowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica_nuclear" title="Química nuclear – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Química nuclear" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie_nuclear%C4%83" title="Chimie nucleară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Chimie nucleară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ядерная химия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ядерная химия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="න්‍යෂ්ටික රසායන විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="න්‍යෂ්ටික රසායන විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nuclear chemistry" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadrov%C3%A1_ch%C3%A9mia" title="Jadrová chémia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jadrová chémia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jedrska_kemija" title="Jedrska kemija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jedrska kemija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="کیمیای ناوکی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کیمیای ناوکی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_hemija" title="Nuklearna hemija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Nuklearna hemija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_hemija" title="Nuklearna hemija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nuklearna hemija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4rnkemi" title="Kärnkemi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kärnkemi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimikang_nukleyar" title="Kimikang nukleyar – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kimikang nukleyar" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%A9%D1%88_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B5" title="Төш химиясе – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Төш химиясе" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="เคมีนิวเคลียร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เคมีนิวเคลียร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCkleer_kimya" title="Nükleer kimya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nükleer kimya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ядерна хімія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ядерна хімія" data-language-autonym="Українська" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, transmutation and other nuclear processes</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alpha_Decay.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Alpha_Decay.svg/220px-Alpha_Decay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Alpha_Decay.svg/330px-Alpha_Decay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Alpha_Decay.svg/440px-Alpha_Decay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="170" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha decay</a> is one type of radioactive decay, in which an atomic nucleus emits an <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particle</a>, and thereby transforms (or "decays") into an atom with a <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">mass number</a> decreased by 4 and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> decreased by 2.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Nuclear chemistry</b> is the sub-field of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> dealing with <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>, nuclear processes, and transformations in the nuclei of atoms, such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutation</a> and nuclear properties. </p><p>It is the chemistry of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> elements such as the <a href="/wiki/Actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinides">actinides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> together with the chemistry associated with equipment (such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>) which are designed to perform nuclear processes. This includes the <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> of surfaces and the behavior under conditions of both normal and abnormal operation (such as during an <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear accidents">accident</a>). An important area is the behavior of objects and materials after being placed into a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear waste">nuclear waste</a> storage or disposal site. </p><p>It includes the study of the chemical effects resulting from the absorption of radiation within living animals, plants, and other materials. The <a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">radiation chemistry</a> controls much of <a href="/wiki/Radiation_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation biology">radiation biology</a> as radiation has an effect on living things at the molecular scale. To explain it another way, the radiation alters the biochemicals within an organism, the alteration of the bio-molecules then changes the chemistry which occurs within the organism; this change in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> then can lead to a biological outcome. As a result, nuclear chemistry greatly assists the understanding of medical treatments (such as <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy">radiotherapy</a>) and has enabled these treatments to improve. </p><p>It includes the study of the production and use of radioactive sources for a range of processes. These include <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy">radiotherapy</a> in medical applications; the use of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_tracer" title="Radioactive tracer">radioactive tracers</a> within industry, science and the environment, and the use of radiation to modify materials such as <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It also includes the study and use of nuclear processes in <i>non-radioactive</i> areas of human activity. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a> (NMR) spectroscopy is commonly used in synthetic <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a> and for structural analysis in <a href="/wiki/Macromolecular_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Macromolecular chemistry">macro-molecular chemistry</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Wilhelm Röntgen</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> in 1895, many scientists began to work on ionizing radiation. One of these was <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a>, who investigated the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Phosphorescence" title="Phosphorescence">phosphorescence</a> and the blackening of <a href="/wiki/Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">photographic plates</a>. When Becquerel (working in France) discovered that, with no external source of energy, the uranium generated rays which could blacken (or <i>fog</i>) the photographic plate, radioactivity was discovered. <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Skłodowska-Curie</a> (working in Paris) and her husband <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a> isolated two new radioactive elements from uranium ore. They used <a href="/wiki/Radiometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiometric">radiometric</a> methods to identify which stream the radioactivity was in after each chemical separation; they separated the uranium ore into each of the different chemical elements that were known at the time, and measured the radioactivity of each fraction. They then attempted to separate these radioactive fractions further, to isolate a smaller fraction with a higher specific activity (radioactivity divided by mass). In this way, they isolated <a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">polonium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>. It was noticed in about 1901 that high doses of radiation could cause an injury in humans. Henri Becquerel had carried a sample of radium in his pocket and as a result he suffered a highly localized dose which resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Radiation_burn" title="Radiation burn">radiation burn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This injury resulted in the biological properties of radiation being investigated, which in time resulted in the development of medical treatment. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a>, working in Canada and England, showed that radioactive decay can be described by a simple equation (a linear first degree derivative equation, now called <a href="/wiki/Rate_equation#First_order" title="Rate equation">first order kinetics</a>), implying that a given radioactive substance has a characteristic "<a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a>" (the time taken for the amount of radioactivity present in a source to diminish by half). He also coined the terms <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma decay">gamma rays</a>, he converted <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> into <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, and most importantly he supervised the students who conducted the <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93Marsden_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Geiger–Marsden experiment">Geiger–Marsden experiment</a> (gold foil experiment) which showed that the '<a href="/wiki/Plum_pudding_model" title="Plum pudding model">plum pudding model</a>' of the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> was wrong. In the plum pudding model, proposed by <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> in 1904, the atom is composed of electrons surrounded by a 'cloud' of positive charge to balance the electrons' negative charge. To Rutherford, the gold foil experiment implied that the positive charge was confined to a very small nucleus leading first to the <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_model" title="Rutherford model">Rutherford model</a>, and eventually to the <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a> of the atom, where the positive nucleus is surrounded by the negative electrons. </p><p>In 1934, <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>'s daughter (<a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène Joliot-Curie</a>) and son-in-law (<a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Frédéric Joliot-Curie</a>) were the first to create <a href="/wiki/Artificial_radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial radioactivity">artificial radioactivity</a>: they bombarded <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> with alpha particles to make the neutron-poor isotope <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-13" title="Nitrogen-13">nitrogen-13</a>; this isotope emitted <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, they bombarded <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> with <a href="/wiki/Neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrons">neutrons</a> to make new radioisotopes. </p><p>In the early 1920s <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> created a new line of research. Using the "emanation method", which he had recently developed, and the "emanation ability", he founded what became known as "applied radiochemistry" for the researching of general chemical and physical-chemical questions. In 1936 Cornell University Press published a book in English (and later in Russian) titled <i><a href="/wiki/Applied_Radiochemistry" title="Applied Radiochemistry">Applied Radiochemistry</a></i>, which contained the lectures given by Hahn when he was a visiting professor at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York" title="Ithaca, New York">Ithaca, New York</a>, in 1933. This important publication had a major influence on almost all nuclear chemists and physicists in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s, laying the foundation for modern nuclear chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hahn and <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> discovered radioactive <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_radium" title="Isotopes of radium">isotopes of radium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_thorium" title="Isotopes of thorium">thorium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_protactinium" title="Isotopes of protactinium">protactinium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_uranium" title="Isotopes of uranium">uranium</a>. He also discovered the phenomena of radioactive recoil and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear isomerism">nuclear isomerism</a>, and pioneered <a href="/wiki/Rubidium%E2%80%93strontium_dating" title="Rubidium–strontium dating">rubidium–strontium dating</a>. In 1938, Hahn, Lise Meitner and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Fritz Strassmann</a> <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">discovered nuclear fission</a>, for which Hahn received the 1944 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Chemistry">Nobel Prize for Chemistry</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a> was the basis for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. Hahn is referred to as the father of nuclear chemistry<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and godfather of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_areas">Main areas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Main areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a> is the chemistry of radioactive materials, in which radioactive <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> of elements are used to study the properties and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a> of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being <i>inactive</i> as the isotopes are <i>stable</i>). </p><p>For further details please see the page on <a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">radiochemistry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation_chemistry">Radiation chemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Radiation chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a> is the study of the chemical effects of radiation on matter; this is very different from radiochemistry as no radioactivity needs to be present in the material which is being chemically changed by the radiation. An example is the conversion of water into <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> gas and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a>. Prior to radiation chemistry, it was commonly believed that pure water could not be destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initial experiments were focused on understanding the effects of radiation on matter. Using a X-ray generator, <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Fricke" class="extiw" title="de:Hugo Fricke">Hugo Fricke</a> studied the biological effects of radiation as it became a common treatment option and diagnostic method.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fricke proposed and subsequently proved that the energy from X - rays were able to convert water into activated water, allowing it to react with dissolved species.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemistry_for_nuclear_power">Chemistry for nuclear power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chemistry for nuclear power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Radiochemistry, radiation chemistry and nuclear chemical engineering play a very important role for uranium and thorium fuel precursors synthesis, starting from ores of these elements, fuel fabrication, coolant chemistry, fuel reprocessing, <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a> treatment and storage, monitoring of radioactive elements release during reactor operation and radioactive geological storage, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Study_of_nuclear_reactions">Study of nuclear reactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Study of nuclear reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear reactions">nuclear reactions</a></div> <p>A combination of radiochemistry and radiation chemistry is used to study nuclear reactions such as fission and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a>. Some early evidence for nuclear fission was the formation of a short-lived radioisotope of <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a> which was isolated from <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> irradiated <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> (<sup>139</sup>Ba, with a half-life of 83 minutes and <sup>140</sup>Ba, with a half-life of 12.8 days, are major <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission products</a> of uranium). At the time, it was thought that this was a new radium isotope, as it was then standard radiochemical practice to use a barium sulfate carrier precipitate to assist in the isolation of radium.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, a combination of radiochemical methods and nuclear physics has been used to try to make new 'superheavy' elements; it is thought that islands of relative stability exist where the nuclides have half-lives of years, thus enabling weighable amounts of the new elements to be isolated. For more details of the original discovery of nuclear fission see the work of <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_nuclear_fuel_cycle">The nuclear fuel cycle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The nuclear fuel cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is the chemistry associated with any part of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">nuclear fuel cycle</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">nuclear reprocessing</a>. The fuel cycle includes all the operations involved in producing fuel, from mining, ore processing and enrichment to fuel production (<i>Front-end of the cycle</i>). It also includes the 'in-pile' behavior (use of the fuel in a reactor) before the <i>back end</i> of the cycle. The <i>back end</i> includes the management of the <a href="/wiki/Used_nuclear_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Used nuclear fuel">used nuclear fuel</a> in either a <a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">spent fuel pool</a> or dry storage, before it is disposed of into an underground waste store or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">reprocessed</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Normal_and_abnormal_conditions">Normal and abnormal conditions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Normal and abnormal conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The nuclear chemistry associated with the nuclear fuel cycle can be divided into two main areas, one area is concerned with operation under the intended conditions while the other area is concerned with maloperation conditions where some alteration from the normal operating conditions has occurred or (<i>more rarely</i>) an accident is occurring. Without this process, none of this would be true. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reprocessing">Reprocessing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reprocessing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Law">Law</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States, it is normal to use fuel once in a power reactor before placing it in a waste store. The long-term plan is currently to place the used civilian reactor fuel in a deep store. This non-reprocessing policy was started in March 1977 because of concerns about <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear weapons proliferation</a>. President <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> issued a <a href="/wiki/Presidential_directive" title="Presidential directive">Presidential directive</a> which indefinitely suspended the commercial reprocessing and recycling of plutonium in the United States. This directive was likely an attempt by the United States to lead other countries by example, but many other nations continue to reprocess spent nuclear fuels. The Russian government under President <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> repealed a law which had banned the import of used nuclear fuel, which makes it possible for Russians to offer a reprocessing service for clients outside Russia (similar to that offered by <a href="/wiki/BNFL" class="mw-redirect" title="BNFL">BNFL</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="PUREX_chemistry">PUREX chemistry</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: PUREX chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The current method of choice is to use the <a href="/wiki/PUREX" title="PUREX">PUREX</a> <a href="/wiki/Liquid-liquid_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid-liquid extraction">liquid-liquid extraction</a> process which uses a <a href="/wiki/Tributyl_phosphate" title="Tributyl phosphate">tributyl phosphate</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> mixture to extract both uranium and plutonium from <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a>. This extraction is of the <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> salts and is classed as being of a <a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">solvation</a> mechanism. For example, the extraction of plutonium by an extraction agent (S) in a nitrate medium occurs by the following reaction. </p> <dl><dd>Pu<sup>4+</sup><sub>aq</sub> + 4NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup><sub>aq</sub> + 2S<sub>organic</sub> → [Pu(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub>S<sub>2</sub>]<sub>organic</sub></dd></dl> <p>A complex bond is formed between the metal cation, the nitrates and the tributyl phosphate, and a model compound of a dioxouranium(VI) complex with two nitrate anions and two triethyl phosphate ligands has been characterised by <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray crystallography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the nitric acid concentration is high the extraction into the organic phase is favored, and when the nitric acid concentration is low the extraction is reversed (the organic phase is <i>stripped</i> of the metal). It is normal to dissolve the used fuel in nitric acid, after the removal of the insoluble matter the uranium and plutonium are extracted from the highly active liquor. It is normal to then back extract the loaded organic phase to create a <i>medium active</i> liquor which contains mostly uranium and plutonium with only small traces of fission products. This medium active aqueous mixture is then extracted again by tributyl phosphate/hydrocarbon to form a new organic phase, the metal bearing organic phase is then stripped of the metals to form an aqueous mixture of only uranium and plutonium. The two stages of extraction are used to improve the purity of the <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinide</a> product, the organic phase used for the first extraction will suffer a far greater dose of radiation. The radiation can degrade the tributyl phosphate into dibutyl hydrogen phosphate. The dibutyl hydrogen phosphate can act as an extraction agent for both the actinides and other metals such as <a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">ruthenium</a>. The dibutyl hydrogen phosphate can make the system behave in a more complex manner as it tends to extract metals by an <a href="/wiki/Ion_exchange" title="Ion exchange">ion exchange</a> mechanism (extraction favoured by low acid concentration), to reduce the effect of the dibutyl hydrogen phosphate it is common for the used organic phase to be washed with <a href="/wiki/Sodium_carbonate" title="Sodium carbonate">sodium carbonate</a> solution to remove the acidic degradation products of the tributyl phosphatioloporus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="New_methods_being_considered_for_future_use">New methods being considered for future use</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: New methods being considered for future use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The PUREX process can be modified to make a UREX (<i>UR</i>anium <i>EX</i>traction) process which could be used to save space inside high level <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear waste">nuclear waste</a> disposal sites, such as <a href="/wiki/Yucca_Mountain_nuclear_waste_repository" title="Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository">Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository</a>, by removing the uranium which makes up the vast majority of the mass and volume of used fuel and recycling it as <a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">reprocessed uranium</a>. </p><p>The UREX process is a PUREX process which has been modified to prevent the plutonium being extracted. This can be done by adding a plutonium reductant before the first metal extraction step. In the UREX process, ~99.9% of the uranium and >95% of <a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">technetium</a> are separated from each other and the other fission products and actinides. The key is the addition of acetohydroxamic acid (AHA) to the extraction and scrubs sections of the process. The addition of AHA greatly diminishes the extractability of plutonium and <a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">neptunium</a>, providing greater proliferation resistance than with the plutonium extraction stage of the PUREX process. </p><p>Adding a second extraction agent, octyl(phenyl)-<i>N</i>,<i>N</i>-dibutyl carbamoylmethyl phosphine oxide (CMPO) in combination with <a href="/wiki/Tributylphosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tributylphosphate">tributylphosphate</a>, (TBP), the PUREX process can be turned into the TRUEX (<i>TR</i>ans<i>U</i>ranic <i>EX</i>traction) process this is a process which was invented in the US by Argonne National Laboratory, and is designed to remove the transuranic metals (Am/Cm) from waste. The idea is that by lowering the alpha activity of the waste, the majority of the waste can then be disposed of with greater ease. In common with PUREX this process operates by a solvation mechanism. </p><p>As an alternative to TRUEX, an extraction process using a malondiamide has been devised. The DIAMEX (<i>DIAM</i>ide<i>EX</i>traction) process has the advantage of avoiding the formation of organic waste which contains elements other than <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. Such an organic waste can be burned without the formation of acidic gases which could contribute to <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>. The DIAMEX process is being worked on in Europe by the French <a href="/wiki/Commissariat_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9nergie_atomique" class="mw-redirect" title="Commissariat à l'énergie atomique">CEA</a>. The process is sufficiently mature that an industrial plant could be constructed with the existing knowledge of the process. In common with PUREX this process operates by a solvation mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Selective Actinide Extraction (SANEX). As part of the management of minor actinides, it has been proposed that the <a href="/wiki/Lanthanides" class="mw-redirect" title="Lanthanides">lanthanides</a> and trivalent minor <a href="/wiki/Actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinides">actinides</a> should be removed from the PUREX <a href="/wiki/Raffinate" title="Raffinate">raffinate</a> by a process such as DIAMEX or TRUEX. In order to allow the actinides such as americium to be either reused in industrial sources or used as fuel the <a href="/wiki/Lanthanides" class="mw-redirect" title="Lanthanides">lanthanides</a> must be removed. The lanthanides have large neutron cross sections and hence they would poison a neutron-driven nuclear reaction. To date, the extraction system for the SANEX process has not been defined, but currently, several different research groups are working towards a process. For instance, the French <a href="/wiki/Commissariat_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A9nergie_atomique" class="mw-redirect" title="Commissariat à l'énergie atomique">CEA</a> is working on a bis-triazinyl pyridine (BTP) based process. </p><p>Other systems such as the dithiophosphinic acids are being worked on by some other workers. </p><p>This is the <i>UNiversal</i> <i>EX</i>traction process which was developed in Russia and the Czech Republic, it is a process designed to remove all of the most troublesome (Sr, Cs and <a href="/wiki/Minor_actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Minor actinides">minor actinides</a>) <a href="/wiki/Radioisotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotopes">radioisotopes</a> from the raffinates left after the extraction of uranium and plutonium from used <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chemistry is based upon the interaction of <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a> with poly <a href="/wiki/Ethylene_oxide" title="Ethylene oxide">ethylene oxide</a> (poly <a href="/wiki/Ethylene_glycol" title="Ethylene glycol">ethylene glycol</a>) and a <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> <a href="/wiki/Carborane" title="Carborane">carborane</a> <a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anion</a> (known as chlorinated cobalt dicarbollide).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The actinides are extracted by CMPO, and the <a href="/wiki/Diluent" title="Diluent">diluent</a> is a polar <a href="/wiki/Aromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic">aromatic</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrobenzene" title="Nitrobenzene">nitrobenzene</a>. Other diluents such as <i>meta</i>-nitrobenzotri<a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a> and phenyl trifluoromethyl <a href="/wiki/Sulfone" title="Sulfone">sulfone</a> have been suggested as well.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Absorption_of_fission_products_on_surfaces">Absorption of fission products on surfaces</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Absorption of fission products on surfaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another important area of nuclear chemistry is the study of how fission products interact with surfaces; this is thought to control the rate of release and migration of fission products both from waste containers under normal conditions and from power reactors under accident conditions. Like <a href="/wiki/Chromate_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromate ion">chromate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molybdate" title="Molybdate">molybdate</a>, the <b><sup>99</sup>TcO<sub>4</sub></b> anion can react with steel surfaces to form a <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> resistant layer. In this way, these metaloxo anions act as <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anodic</a> <a href="/wiki/Corrosion_inhibitor" title="Corrosion inhibitor">corrosion inhibitors</a>. The formation of <sup>99</sup>TcO<sub>2</sub> on steel surfaces is one effect which will retard the release of <sup>99</sup>Tc from nuclear waste drums and nuclear equipment which has been lost before decontamination (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarine</a> reactors lost at sea). This <sup>99</sup>TcO<sub>2</sub> layer renders the steel surface passive, inhibiting the <a href="/wiki/Anodic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anodic">anodic</a> corrosion reaction. The radioactive nature of technetium makes this corrosion protection impractical in almost all situations. It has also been shown that <sup>99</sup>TcO<sub>4</sub> anions react to form a layer on the surface of activated carbon (<a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A short review of the biochemical properties of a series of key long lived radioisotopes can be read on line.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><sup>99</sup>Tc in nuclear waste may exist in chemical forms other than the <sup>99</sup>TcO<sub>4</sub> anion, these other forms have different chemical properties.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the release of iodine-131 in a serious power reactor accident could be retarded by absorption on metal surfaces within the nuclear plant.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the growing use of nuclear medicine, the potential expansion of nuclear power plants, and worries about protection against nuclear threats and the management of the nuclear waste generated in past decades, the number of students opting to specialize in nuclear and radiochemistry has decreased significantly over the past few decades. Now, with many experts in these fields approaching retirement age, action is needed to avoid a workforce gap in these critical fields, for example by building student interest in these careers, expanding the educational capacity of universities and colleges, and providing more specific on-the-job training.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nuclear and Radiochemistry (NRC) is mostly being taught at university level, usually first at the Master- and PhD-degree level. In Europe, as substantial effort is being done to harmonize and prepare the NRC education for the industry's and society's future needs. This effort is being coordinated in a project funded by the Coordinated Action supported by the European Atomic Energy Community's 7th Framework Program.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although NucWik is primarily aimed at teachers, anyone interested in nuclear and radiochemistry is welcome and can find a lot of information and material explaining topics related to NRC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spinout_areas">Spinout areas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Spinout areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some methods first developed within nuclear chemistry and physics have become so widely used within chemistry and other physical sciences that they may be best thought of as separate from <i>normal</i> nuclear chemistry. For example, the isotope effect is used so extensively to investigate chemical mechanisms and the use of cosmogenic isotopes and long-lived unstable isotopes in <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> that it is best to consider much of isotopic chemistry as separate from nuclear chemistry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kinetics_(use_within_mechanistic_chemistry)"><span id="Kinetics_.28use_within_mechanistic_chemistry.29"></span>Kinetics (use within mechanistic chemistry)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Kinetics (use within mechanistic chemistry)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mechanisms of chemical reactions can be investigated by observing how the kinetics of a reaction is changed by making an isotopic modification of a substrate, known as the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_isotope_effect" title="Kinetic isotope effect">kinetic isotope effect</a>. This is now a standard method in <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>. Briefly, replacing normal hydrogen (<a href="/wiki/Protons" class="mw-redirect" title="Protons">protons</a>) by <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> within a molecule causes the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_vibration" title="Molecular vibration">molecular vibrational</a> frequency of X-H (for example C-H, N-H and O-H) bonds to decrease, which leads to a decrease in vibrational <a href="/wiki/Zero-point_energy" title="Zero-point energy">zero-point energy</a>. This can lead to a decrease in the reaction rate if the rate-determining step involves breaking a bond between hydrogen and another atom.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, if the reaction changes in rate when protons are replaced by deuteriums, it is reasonable to assume that the breaking of the bond to hydrogen is part of the step which determines the rate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uses_within_geology,_biology_and_forensic_science"><span id="Uses_within_geology.2C_biology_and_forensic_science"></span>Uses within geology, biology and forensic science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Uses within geology, biology and forensic science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cosmogenic_isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmogenic isotopes">Cosmogenic isotopes</a> are formed by the interaction of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> with the nucleus of an atom. These can be used for dating purposes and for use as natural tracers. In addition, by careful measurement of some ratios of stable isotopes it is possible to obtain new insights into the origin of bullets, ages of ice samples, ages of rocks, and the diet of a person can be identified from a hair or other tissue sample. (See <a href="/wiki/Isotope_geochemistry" title="Isotope geochemistry">Isotope geochemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isotopic_signature" title="Isotopic signature">Isotopic signature</a> for further details). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biology">Biology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Within living things, isotopic labels (both radioactive and nonradioactive) can be used to probe how the complex web of reactions which makes up the <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> of an organism converts one substance to another. For instance a <a href="/wiki/Green_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Green plant">green plant</a> uses light <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> to convert water and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> into glucose by <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. If the oxygen in the water is labeled, then the label appears in the oxygen gas formed by the plant and not in the glucose formed in the <a href="/wiki/Chloroplasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloroplasts">chloroplasts</a> within the plant cells. </p><p>For biochemical and physiological experiments and medical methods, a number of specific isotopes have important applications. </p> <ul><li>Stable isotopes have the advantage of not delivering a radiation dose to the system being studied; however, a significant excess of them in the organ or organism might still interfere with its functionality, and the availability of sufficient amounts for whole-animal studies is limited for many isotopes. Measurement is also difficult, and usually requires <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a> to determine how much of the isotope is present in particular compounds, and there is no means of localizing measurements within the cell.</li> <li><sup>2</sup>H (deuterium), the stable isotope of hydrogen, is a stable tracer, the concentration of which can be measured by mass spectrometry or NMR. It is incorporated into all cellular structures. Specific deuterated compounds can also be produced.</li> <li><sup>15</sup>N, a stable isotope of nitrogen, has also been used. It is incorporated mainly into proteins.</li> <li>Radioactive isotopes have the advantages of being detectable in very low quantities, in being easily measured by <a href="/wiki/Scintillation_counting" class="mw-redirect" title="Scintillation counting">scintillation counting</a> or other radiochemical methods, and in being localizable to particular regions of a cell, and quantifiable by <a href="/wiki/Autoradiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoradiography">autoradiography</a>. Many compounds with the radioactive atoms in specific positions can be prepared, and are widely available commercially. In high quantities they require precautions to guard the workers from the effects of radiation—and they can easily contaminate laboratory glassware and other equipment. For some isotopes the half-life is so short that preparation and measurement is difficult.</li></ul> <p>By organic synthesis it is possible to create a complex molecule with a radioactive label that can be confined to a small area of the molecule. For short-lived isotopes such as <sup>11</sup>C, very rapid synthetic methods have been developed to permit the rapid addition of the radioactive isotope to the molecule. For instance a <a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">palladium</a> catalysed <a href="/wiki/Carbonylation" title="Carbonylation">carbonylation</a> reaction in a <a href="/wiki/Microfluidic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfluidic">microfluidic</a> device has been used to rapidly form amides<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it might be possible to use this method to form radioactive imaging agents for <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</a> imaging.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><sup>3</sup>H (<a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>), the radioisotope of hydrogen, is available at very high specific activities, and compounds with this isotope in particular positions are easily prepared by standard chemical reactions such as hydrogenation of unsaturated precursors. The isotope emits very soft beta radiation, and can be detected by scintillation counting.</li> <li><sup>11</sup>C, carbon-11 is usually produced by <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a> bombardment of <sup>14</sup>N with protons. The resulting nuclear reaction is <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap"><sup class="template-chem2-sup">14</sup>N(p,α)<sup class="template-chem2-sup">11</sup>C</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, carbon-11 can also be made using a <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a>; <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Boric_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Boric oxide">boric oxide</a> is reacted with <a href="/wiki/Protons" class="mw-redirect" title="Protons">protons</a> in a (p,n) reaction. Another alternative route is to react <sup>10</sup>B with deuterons. By rapid organic synthesis, the <sup>11</sup>C compound formed in the cyclotron is converted into the imaging agent which is then used for PET.</li> <li><sup>14</sup>C, carbon-14 can be made (as above), and it is possible to convert the target material into simple inorganic and organic compounds. In most <a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">organic synthesis</a> work it is normal to try to create a product out of two approximately equal sized fragments and to use a convergent route, but when a radioactive label is added, it is normal to try to add the label late in the synthesis in the form of a very small fragment to the molecule to enable the radioactivity to be localised in a single group. Late addition of the label also reduces the number of synthetic stages where radioactive material is used.</li> <li><sup>18</sup>F, fluorine-18 can be made by the reaction of <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a> with deuterons, <sup>20</sup>Ne reacts in a (d,<sup>4</sup>He) reaction. It is normal to use neon gas with a trace of stable <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> (<sup>19</sup>F<sub>2</sub>). The <sup>19</sup>F<sub>2</sub> acts as a carrier which increases the yield of radioactivity from the cyclotron target by reducing the amount of radioactivity lost by absorption on surfaces. However, this reduction in loss is at the cost of the specific activity of the final product.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_spectroscopy">Nuclear spectroscopy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Nuclear spectroscopy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear spectroscopy">Nuclear spectroscopy</a> are methods that use the nucleus to obtain information of the local structure in matter. Important methods are NMR (see below), <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Mössbauer spectroscopy">Mössbauer spectroscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perturbed_angular_correlation" title="Perturbed angular correlation">Perturbed angular correlation</a>. These methods use the interaction of the <a href="/wiki/Hyperfine_structure" title="Hyperfine structure">hyperfine field</a> with the nucleus' spin. The field can be magnetic or/and electric and are created by the electrons of the atom and its surrounding neighbours. Thus, these methods investigate the local structure in matter, mainly <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensed matter">condensed matter</a> in <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state chemistry">solid state chemistry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_(NMR)"><span id="Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_.28NMR.29"></span>Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">NMR spectroscopy</a> uses the net spin of nuclei in a substance upon energy absorption to identify molecules. This has now become a standard spectroscopic tool within <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic chemistry">synthetic chemistry</a>. One major use of NMR is to determine the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">bond</a> connectivity within an organic molecule. </p><p>NMR imaging also uses the net spin of nuclei (commonly protons) for imaging. This is widely used for diagnostic purposes in medicine, and can provide detailed images of the inside of a person without inflicting any radiation upon them. In a medical setting, NMR is often known simply as "magnetic resonance" imaging, as the word 'nuclear' has negative connotations for many people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry#Nuclear_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="List of publications in chemistry">Important publications in nuclear chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear spectroscopy">Nuclear spectroscopy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCloughGillen1989" class="citation conference cs1">Clough, R. 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Crystal and molecular structures of catena-bis(.mu.-di-n-butyl phosphato-O,O')dioxouranium(VI) and bis(.mu.-di-n-butyl phosphato-O,O')bis[(nitrato)(tri-n-butylphosphine oxide)dioxouranium(VI)]", <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i>, 1983, <b>22</b>, 1174-1178</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nea.fr/html/trw/docs/mol98/session2/SIIpaper5.pdf">"INACTIVE DIAMEX TEST WITH THE OPTIMIZED EXTRACTION AGENT DMDOHEMA"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Energy_Agency" title="Nuclear Energy Agency">Nuclear Energy Agency</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Energy+Agency&rft.atitle=INACTIVE+DIAMEX+TEST+WITH+THE+OPTIMIZED+EXTRACTION+AGENT+DMDOHEMA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nea.fr%2Fhtml%2Ftrw%2Fdocs%2Fmol98%2Fsession2%2FSIIpaper5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120220083633/http://www.oecd-nea.org/trw/docs/mol98/session2/SIIpaper2.pdf">"SEPARATION OF MINOR ACTINIDES FROM GENUINE HLLW USING THE DIAMEX PROCESS"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Energy_Agency" title="Nuclear Energy Agency">Nuclear Energy Agency</a></i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ing.unipi.it%2F~dimnp%2FCD%2Fsupporto%2Fpdf%2Fpaci03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Assuring a Future U.S.-Based Nuclear and Radiochemistry Expertise</i>. Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology. 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-22534-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-22534-2"><bdi>978-0-309-22534-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assuring+a+Future+U.S.-Based+Nuclear+and+Radiochemistry+Expertise&rft.pub=Board+on+Chemical+Sciences+and+Technology&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-309-22534-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150813134018/http://cinch-project.eu/index.php">"www.cinch-project.eu"</a>. <i>cinch-project.eu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cinch-project.eu/index.php">the original</a> on 13 August 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cinch-project.eu&rft.atitle=www.cinch-project.eu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcinch-project.eu%2Findex.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span>This project has set up a wiki dedicated to NRC teaching, NucWik at <a href="/wiki/Wikispaces" title="Wikispaces">Wikispaces</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141127212738/http://nucwik.wikispaces.com/">"NucWik - home"</a>. <i>nucwik.wikispaces.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://NucWik.wikispaces.com">the original</a> on 27 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nucwik.wikispaces.com&rft.atitle=NucWik+-+home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2FNucWik.wikispaces.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Atkins and Julio de Paula, Atkins' Physical Chemistry, 8th edn (W.H. Freeman 2006), p.816-8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller PW <i>et al.</i> (2006) <i>Chemical Communications</i> 546-548</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChemistry2015" class="citation web cs1">Chemistry, Royal Society of (22 May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/CC/article.asp?d.oi=b515410b">"Chemical Communications"</a>. <i>www.rsc.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rsc.org&rft.atitle=Chemical+Communications&rft.date=2015-05-22&rft.aulast=Chemistry&rft.aufirst=Royal+Society+of&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsc.org%2FPublishing%2FJournals%2FCC%2Farticle.asp%3Fd.oi%3Db515410b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://intramural.nimh.nih.gov/mib/radio/radiotalk03.pdf">"Production of [11C]-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. National Institute of Mental Health<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Production+of+%5B11C%5D-Labeled+Radiopharmaceuticals&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Mental+Health&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fintramural.nimh.nih.gov%2Fmib%2Fradio%2Fradiotalk03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+chemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_chemistry&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt><i>Handbook of Nuclear Chemistry</i></dt> <dd>Comprehensive handbook in six volumes by 130 international experts. Edited by Attila Vértes, Sándor Nagy, Zoltán Klencsár, Rezső G. Lovas, Frank Rösch. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-0721-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-0721-9">978-1-4419-0721-9</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/chemistry/book/978-1-4419-0719-6">Springer</a>, 2011.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><i>Radioactivity Radionuclides Radiation</i></dt> <dd>Textbook by Magill, Galy. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-21116-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-21116-0">3-540-21116-0</a>, Springer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nucleonica.net/nuclTxtbook.aspx">2005</a>.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><i>Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry, 3rd Ed</i></dt> <dd>Comprehensive textbook by Choppin, <a href="/wiki/Jan-Olov_Liljenzin" title="Jan-Olov Liljenzin">Liljenzin</a> and Rydberg. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7506-7463-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7506-7463-6">0-7506-7463-6</a>, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.abcte.org/exam_preparation/chemistry/nuclear_chemistry_3">[1]</a>.</dd></dl> <dl><dt><i>Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry, 4th Ed</i></dt> <dd>Comprehensive textbook by Choppin, <a href="/wiki/Jan-Olov_Liljenzin" title="Jan-Olov Liljenzin">Liljenzin</a>, Rydberg and Ekberg. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-405897-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-405897-2">978-0-12-405897-2</a>, Elsevier Inc., 2013</dd></dl> <dl><dt><i>Radioactivity, Ionizing radiation and Nuclear Energy</i></dt> <dd>Basic textbook for undergraduates by Jiri Hála and James D Navratil. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/80-7302-053-X" title="Special:BookSources/80-7302-053-X">80-7302-053-X</a>, Konvoj, Brno 2003 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120219025821/http://www.litlit.com/Radioactivity.htm">[2]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><i>The Radiochemical Manual</i></dt> <dd>Overview of the production and uses of both open and sealed sources. Edited by BJ Wilson and written by RJ Bayly, JR Catch, JC Charlton, CC Evans, TT Gorsuch, JC Maynard, LC Myerscough, GR Newbery, H Sheard, CBG Taylor and BJ Wilson. 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id="Nuclear_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">braking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Fuel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">Fertile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">Fissile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">Isotope separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_material" title="Nuclear material">Nuclear material</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">Cross section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">Reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">Fast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron#Fusion_neutrons" title="Neutron">Fusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">by country</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">Scintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">Single-photon emission (SPECT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron-emission tomography (PET)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Therapy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">Fast-neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">Neutron capture therapy of cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_alpha-particle_therapy" title="Targeted alpha-particle therapy">Targeted alpha-particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">Proton-beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotherapy" title="Tomotherapy">Tomotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">Radiosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">Processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_gardening" title="Atomic gardening">Atomic gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_processing" title="Electron-beam processing">Electron-beam processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone_irradiation" title="Gemstone irradiation">Gemstone irradiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Weapons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">Explosion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">high-altitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Underground nuclear weapons testing">underground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNTe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">States with nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_nuclear_weapons_stockpiles_and_nuclear_tests_by_country" title="Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country">Historical stockpiles and tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States">Tests in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">WMD treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-weapon-free_zone" title="Nuclear-weapon-free zone">Weapon-free zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Waste</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">Reprocessed uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Reactor-grade plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activation_product" title="Activation product">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Fission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">LLFP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Disposal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Fuel cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">High-level (HLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">Low-level (LLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">Nuclear decommissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">Repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Reprocessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">cask</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Transmutation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_debate" title="Uranium mining debate">Uranium mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Nuclear_reactors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fission" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fission" title="Nuclear reactor">Fission</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Moderator</a></b></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GE_BWR" title="GE BWR">BWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">ABWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">ESBWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerena boiling water reactor">Kerena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR-1400" title="APR-1400">APR-1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="APR+">APR+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APWR" class="mw-redirect" title="APWR">APWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATMEA1" class="mw-redirect" title="ATMEA1">ATMEA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAP1400" title="CAP1400">CAP1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPR-1000" title="CPR-1000">CPR-1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">HPR-1000</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACPR1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACPR1000">ACPR1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACP1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACP1000">ACP1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPWR-900" title="IPWR-900">IPWR-900</a></li> <li>many others</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical (SCWR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy water</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a> <ul><li>CANDU 6</li> <li>CANDU 9</li> <li>EC6</li> <li>AFCR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACR-1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACR-1000">ACR-1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolinas%E2%80%93Virginia_Tube_Reactor" title="Carolinas–Virginia Tube Reactor">CVTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-220" title="IPHWR-220">IPHWR-220</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR#IPHWR-540" title="IPHWR">IPHWR-540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-700" title="IPHWR-700">IPHWR-700</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Argentina">PHWR KWU</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MZFR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MZFR (page does not exist)">MZFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85gestaverket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ågestaverket">R3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R4_nuclear_reactor" title="R4 nuclear reactor">R4 Marviken</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor"><i>Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz</i> (UNGG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-500" class="mw-redirect" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">None<br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">Integral (IFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fusion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fusion_reactors" title="Nuclear reactor">Fusion</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>by <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion#Confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">confinement</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">Field-reversed configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitated_dipole" title="Levitated dipole">Levitated dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">Reversed field pinch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheromak" title="Spheromak">Spheromak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble <span style="font-size:85%;">(acoustic)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">Fusor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">electrostatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Laser-driven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion" title="Magnetized target fusion">Magnetized-target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Z-pinch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dense_plasma_focus" title="Dense plasma focus">Dense plasma focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" title="Category:Nuclear technology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear technology">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_chemistry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template talk:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss 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title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry" title="Instrumental chemistry">Instrumental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental 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