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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2015</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Cryochemistry</b> is the study of chemical interactions at <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperatures</a> below −150 °C (−238 °F; 123 K).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is derived from the Greek word <i>cryos</i>, meaning 'cold'. It overlaps with many other sciences, including <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">cryobiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">astrochemistry</a>. </p><p>Cryochemistry has been a topic of interest since <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a>, which freezes at −210°C, became commonly available.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2015)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic">Cryogenic</a>-temperature chemical interactions are an important mechanism for studying the detailed pathways of chemical reactions by reducing the confusion introduced by thermal fluctuations. Cryochemistry forms the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">cryobiology</a>, which uses slowed or stopped biological processes for medical and research purposes. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Low_temperature_behaviours">Low temperature behaviours</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryochemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Low temperature behaviours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2_Helium.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/2_Helium.png/220px-2_Helium.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/2_Helium.png/330px-2_Helium.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/2_Helium.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="215" /></a><figcaption>When cooled below the <a href="/wiki/Lambda_point" title="Lambda point">Lambda point</a> (2.17 K or −270.98 °C at 1 <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atm</a>), <a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">liquid helium</a> exhibits properties of <a href="/wiki/Superfluidity" title="Superfluidity">superfluidity</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As a material cools, the relative motion of its component molecules/atoms decreases - its temperature decreases. Cooling can continue until all motion ceases, and its <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a>, or energy of motion, disappears. This condition is known as <a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a> and it forms the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">Kelvin</a> <a href="/wiki/Scale_of_temperature" title="Scale of temperature">temperature scale</a>, which measures the temperature above absolute zero. Zero degrees Celsius (°C) coincides with 273 Kelvin. </p><p>At absolute zero most elements become a solid, but not all behave as predictably as this; for instance, helium becomes a <a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">highly unusual liquid</a>. The chemistry between substances, however, does not disappear, even near absolute zero temperatures, since separated molecules/atom can always combine to lower their total energy. Almost every molecule or element will show different properties at different temperatures; if cold enough, some functions are lost entirely. Cryogenic chemistry can lead to very different results compared with standard chemistry, and new chemical routes to substances may be available at cryogenic temperatures, such as the formation of <a href="/wiki/Argon_fluorohydride" title="Argon fluorohydride">argon fluorohydride</a>, which is only a stable compound at or below 17 K (−256.1 °C). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_of_cooling">Methods of cooling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryochemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Methods of cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Laser_cooling" title="Laser cooling">Laser cooling</a></div> <p>One method that used to cool molecules to temperatures near absolute zero is <a href="/wiki/Laser_cooling" title="Laser cooling">laser cooling</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Doppler_cooling" title="Doppler cooling">Doppler cooling</a> process, lasers are used to remove energy from electrons of a given molecule to slow or cool the molecule down. This method has applications in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> and is related to particle traps and the <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a>. All of these methods use a "trap" consisting of lasers pointed at opposite equatorial angles on a specific point in space. The wavelengths from the laser beams eventually hit the gaseous atoms and their outer spinning electrons. This clash of wavelengths decreases the kinetic energy state fraction by fraction to slow or cool the molecules down. Laser cooling has also been used to help improve atomic clocks and atom optics. Ultracold studies are not usually focused on chemical interactions, but rather on fundamental chemical properties.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Because of the extremely low temperatures, diagnosing the chemical status is a major issue when studying low temperature physics and chemistry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (November 2015)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The primary techniques in use today are optical - many types of spectroscopy are available, but these require special apparatus with vacuum windows that provide room temperature access to cryogenic processes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryochemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenics" title="Cryogenics">Cryogenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cryochemistry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Moskovits, M., and Ozin, G.A., (1976) <i>Cryochemistry</i>, J. Wiley & Sons, New York</li> <li>Dillinger, J. R. (1957). <i>Low temperature physics & chemistry</i> (edited by Joseph R. Dillinger.) Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.</li> <li>Naduvalath, B. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130407154905/http://www.accessscience.com/content.aspx?searchStr=ultracold+molecules&id=YB130133">"Ultracold molecules."</a></li> <li>Phillips, W. D. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130407154614/http://www.accessscience.com/content.aspx?searchStr=laser+cooling&id=372175">"Laser cooling"</a></li> <li>Parpia, J. M., & Lee, D.M. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130407155428/http://www.accessscience.com/content.aspx?searchStr=absolute+zero&id=001400">"Absolute zero"</a></li> <li>Hasegawa, Y., Nakamura, D., Murata, M., Yamamoto, H., & Komine, T. (2010). "High-precision temperature control and stabilization using a cryocooler. Review of Scientific Instruments", doi:10.1063/1.3484192</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eng.thesaurus.rusnano.com/wiki/article1041">"cryochemistry"</a>. <i>eng.thesaurus.rusnano.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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