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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>European Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_measures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_measures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Other measures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_measures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influencing_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influencing_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Influencing factors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influencing_factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Influencing factors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Influencing_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_reasons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_reasons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Economic reasons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_reasons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_preferences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_preferences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Personal preferences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_preferences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Social forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Economic effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economic_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economic effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economic_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Labor_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Labor supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resource_allocation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resource_allocation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Resource allocation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resource_allocation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remittances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remittances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Remittances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remittances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Female_mobility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Female_mobility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Female mobility</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Female_mobility-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Female mobility subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Female_mobility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Empowerment" 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href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="تحرک جغرافیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تحرک جغرافیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobilit%C3%A9_spatiale" title="Mobilité spatiale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mobilité spatiale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobilno%C5%9B%C4%87_ludno%C5%9Bci" title="Mobilność ludności – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mobilność ludności" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" 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tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Population_mobility&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Population mobility">Population mobility</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Measure of how populations and goods move over time</div> <p><b>Geographic mobility</b> is the measure of how populations and goods move over time. Geographic mobility, <b>population mobility</b>, or more simply <b>mobility</b> is also a statistic that measures migration within a population. Commonly used in <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, it may also be used to describe the movement of animals between populations. These moves can be as large scale as international migrations or as small as regional commuting arrangements. Geographic mobility has a large impact on many <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociological factors</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">community</a> and is a current topic of academic research.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvard_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvard-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It varies between different regions depending on both formal policies and established social norms, and has different effects and responses in different societies. Population mobility has implications ranging from administrative changes in government and impacts on local economic growth to housing markets and demand for regional services. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement">Measurement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>National geographic mobility data is available from census and public government records in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and many other countries. International mobility data is available from tourism statistics and transportation carriers information. On the basis of these sources, the Global Transnational Mobility Dataset offers estimates of the number of people moving country-to-country on a yearly basis.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> . </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mobility estimates in the <a href="/wiki/Current_Population_Survey" title="Current Population Survey">Current Population Survey</a> (CPS), produced by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">United States Census Bureau</a>, define mobility status on the basis of a comparison between the place of <a href="/wiki/Dwelling" title="Dwelling">residence</a> of each individual to the time of the March survey and the place of residence one year earlier. Non-movers are all people who were living in the same house at the end of the migration period and the beginning of the migration period. Movers are all people who were living in a different house at the end of the period rather than at the beginning. They are further classified as to whether they were living in the same or different county, state, region, or were movers from abroad. Movers are also categorized by whether they moved within or between central <a href="/wiki/City" title="City">cities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suburb" title="Suburb">suburbs</a>, and non-metropolitan areas of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-CPS_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CPS-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The CPS includes information on reasons for a move. These include work-related factors, such as a job transfer, <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_employment" title="Termination of employment">job loss</a> or looking for work, and wanting to be closer to work. Housing factors include wanting to own a <a href="/wiki/Home" title="Home">home</a>, rather than rent, seeking a better home or better neighborhood, or wanting cheaper housing. Additional mobility factors include attending <a href="/wiki/College" title="College">college</a>, changes in <a href="/wiki/Marital_status" title="Marital status">marital status</a>, <a href="/wiki/Retirement" title="Retirement">retirement</a>, or health-related moves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union">European Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: European Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Eurobarometer" title="Eurobarometer">Eurobarometer</a> survey measures mobility in a similar manner to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Census">US census</a>. Direct comparison of the two is difficult due to social constraints of <a href="/wiki/Travel" title="Travel">traveling</a> between countries in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> not encountered with interstate travel within the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. Differences include language barriers, cultural resistance, and the added hurdle of international <a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">labour laws</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several scholarly surveys have been conducted to measure geographic mobility in China, but no single comprehensive census is available. Since the year 2000 the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">National Bureau of Statistics of China</a> has added migrant worker estimates to their annual household survey.<sup id="cite_ref-Fang_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fang-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese <a href="/wiki/Development_Research_Center_of_the_State_Council" title="Development Research Center of the State Council">Development Research Center of the State Council</a> also undertook a study in 2010 characterizing the scope of migration for work and relevant statistics of that population. The survey measured <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demographics</a> such as age, education level, job type, income, expenses, housing, and leisure activities.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanlin_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanlin-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_measures">Other measures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other measures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Population turnover is a related statistic that measures gross moves in relation to the size of the population, for example movement of residents into and out of a geographic location between <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a> counts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influencing_factors">Influencing factors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Influencing factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_reasons">Economic reasons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Economic reasons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most theoretical models attribute the desire to relocate to the impact of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wages_and_salary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wages and salary (page does not exist)">wages and salary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employment</a> on personal expected earnings.<sup id="cite_ref-Ederveen_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ederveen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prospect of <a href="/wiki/Gainful_employment" title="Gainful employment">gainful employment</a> in another region leads to movement to capitalize on new opportunities and resources unavailable in the original community. <a href="/wiki/Perceptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Perceptions">Perceptions</a>, gaps in prospective incomes, availability of accurate information, and geographic distance all play a part in the decision to migrate.<sup id="cite_ref-Cannizzaro_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cannizzaro-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have shown that <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_rates" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment rates">unemployment rates</a> statistically <a href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation and dependence">correlate</a> to measured migrations in the EU (a relatively mobile society).<sup id="cite_ref-Ederveen_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ederveen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, there is evidence that comparable statistical results can be obtained using labor availability interchangeably with population migration data.<sup id="cite_ref-Ederveen_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ederveen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Surveys show potential movers also face <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a> about the prospects of actually finding a suitable job in their new location.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The capacity to migrate depends on current <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a> or access to <a href="/wiki/Credit_(finance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Credit (finance)">credit</a> to support the move, and is always up to chance.<sup id="cite_ref-Cannizzaro_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cannizzaro-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economists have shown that the decline in <a href="/wiki/Real_estate_pricing" class="mw-redirect" title="Real estate pricing">home values</a> in the US in the late 2000s diminished state-to-state migration, with roughly 110,000 to 150,000 fewer individuals migrating across state lines in any given year.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Socialized unemployment insurance programs help to increase individual liquidity and lessen the burden of search costs and movement risk.<sup id="cite_ref-Tatsiramos_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatsiramos-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research has shown that overall the presence of social insurance does not have a strong effect on the rate of personal movement because while it lowers relative movement costs, it also increases the <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_costs" class="mw-redirect" title="Opportunity costs">opportunity costs</a> of movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Tatsiramos_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tatsiramos-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Current international laws present challenges to ideal geographic mobility. Migrants must have a physical means (legal or illegal) over which to <a href="/wiki/Travel" title="Travel">travel</a> to a new country.<sup id="cite_ref-Cannizzaro_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cannizzaro-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An increase in individual income was shown to increase access to long distance <a href="/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a> and enable individuals more <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_travel" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of travel">freedom of travel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hine_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hine-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seeking a job in another country often requires sponsorship, <a href="/wiki/Visa_(document)" class="mw-redirect" title="Visa (document)">visas</a>, or may not even be possible in a given situation.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Government support is in no way guaranteed for international geographic mobility. Existing <a href="/wiki/Language_barrier" title="Language barrier">language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a> barriers also severely hamper geographic mobility on both regional and national levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_preferences">Personal preferences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Personal preferences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Personal <a href="/wiki/Preference" title="Preference">preference</a> factors besides economic logic can exert a strong influence on an individual's geographic mobility. Concerns such as <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, the strength of regional <a href="/wiki/Real_estate_economics" title="Real estate economics">housing markets</a>, cultural comfort, family, and local social capital all play into the decision to move or not.<sup id="cite_ref-Ederveen_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ederveen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualization</a> of the job market in industrializing countries has led to an increased preference among workers to follow market opportunities.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Media driven self-awareness and highly individualistic symbolism exported from the western world have allowed people to imagine themselves living completely different lifestyles.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western media glamorizes the image of the self-sufficient youth, showing examples of both men and women who lead strong, individualistic, <a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">empowered</a> lifestyles. <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a> has destabilized previously immutable social institutions, shifting cultural value away from old traditions to new more individualistic and market friendly ideas. This combined with a <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a> and individualization of labor has in many ways made fluidity more the norm than structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The availability of geographic mobility can also directly affect an individual's self-empowerment. Large numbers of women in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> are taking advantage of newly available travel opportunities: experiencing life overseas and touring or studying.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In South Korea progressive <a href="/wiki/Education_reform" title="Education reform">educational reforms</a> have led to large numbers of women receiving higher level degrees, but <a href="/wiki/Structural_inequality" title="Structural inequality">structural inequality</a> in the job market makes it difficult for them to get middle or upper class jobs. 93% of women graduate from high school and 63% from college, but only 46.7% of college grads are employed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, those employed women suffer from a 76% <a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">wage differential</a> compared to like qualified men.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Japan has similar structural issues where half of the employed women in the country only work part-time.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geographic <a href="/wiki/Relocation_(personal)" title="Relocation (personal)">relocation</a> presents social opportunities to both seek a more favorable job climate and a social order more accepting of educated women.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prospect of greater control over their own lives and careers draws many of these young women to build their futures away from their immediate surroundings: 80% of Japanese people studying abroad are women.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_forces">Social forces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Social forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social forces can also foster individual geographic mobility. Support from the community can increase the <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> of <a href="/wiki/Relocation_(personal)" title="Relocation (personal)">relocation</a>—it has been shown that the chances of migration in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> improve when groups of houses from the same <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">sub-caste</a> all decide to move together.<sup id="cite_ref-Nancy_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nancy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Worldly exposure also increase one's tendency to be mobile. <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a> studies measured higher geographic mobility among female <a href="/wiki/Sex_worker" title="Sex worker">sex workers</a> who: drank, had experienced violence, had worked for more than four years, and had a regular non-paying partner than those who did not.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramesh_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramesh-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> veterans, who had traveled to distant continents and then returned, were more willing to relocate for jobs than the previous generation of Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Demographics" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics">Demographically</a>, research shows that one's level of education tends to correlate to higher mobility, especially among university graduates.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Youth and a lack of a family or children correlate to increased mobility too, with the peak in mobility occurring in the mid to late 20s for populations surveyed in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_effects">Economic effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Economic effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labor_supply">Labor supply</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Labor supply"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geographical mobility of labor allows the labor supply to respond to regional disparities, limiting <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">economic inefficiencies</a>. Low labor mobility quickly leads to inequality between static economic regions and a misappropriation of <a href="/wiki/Labor_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor force">labor</a> resources.<sup id="cite_ref-Ederveen_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ederveen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geographic mobility can help alleviate asymmetric shocks between regions with diversified economies, like in the European Union.<sup id="cite_ref-Ederveen_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ederveen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A mobile population allows a region to shed workers when jobs are scarce and gives those workers the opportunity seek employment elsewhere where opportunities might be better. While an increase in geographic mobility increases overall <a href="/wiki/Economic_efficiency" title="Economic efficiency">economic efficiency</a>, the increased <a href="/wiki/Competition" title="Competition">competition</a> for jobs on the local level in otherwise prosperous regions could lead to higher unemployment than before the <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">Female</a> labor supply rates actually have larger statistical effect on mobility than <a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">male</a> rates.<sup id="cite_ref-Ederveen_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ederveen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally male jobs in the developing world have much more <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(economics)" title="Elasticity (economics)">inelastic demand</a> than female ones, so the variations in the female rate lead to more drastic changes in employment that more strongly affect mobility.<sup id="cite_ref-Ederveen_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ederveen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resource_allocation">Resource allocation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Resource allocation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Labor mobility theoretically leads to a more balanced and <a href="/wiki/Economically_efficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Economically efficient">economically efficient</a> distribution of jobs and resources overall. Individual employees can better match their skills to potential jobs on the open job market.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can seek out ideal jobs instead of artificially limiting themselves to their geographic areas. The opportunity to <a href="/wiki/Study_abroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Study abroad">study abroad</a> is a major vehicle of entry to western countries for Asian women. Moving to the West to study is a common career move for Asian women in their 20s, allowing them to abandon the traditional <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a> track and pursue economic ventures outside the home.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, mobility can also have negative consequences on a region facing widespread <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigration</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brain_drain" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain drain">Brain drain</a> and labor resource diminishment make it more difficult for troubled regions to recover after an economic stumble.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional people migrating into a region can also place extra stress on existing social infrastructure for services like <a href="/wiki/Healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare">healthcare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">welfare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remittances">Remittances</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Remittances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geographic mobility allows for <a href="/wiki/Remittance" title="Remittance">remittances</a> from distant family members back to support local needs. <a href="/wiki/Loans" class="mw-redirect" title="Loans">Loans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transfer_payment" title="Transfer payment">transfers</a> can flow back from migrated members of a community to sustain those who remain behind.<sup id="cite_ref-Nancy_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nancy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Remittances are one of the primary benefits of migration to the country of origin, not only substantially enhancing local family income but also spilling over into benefits of increased capital flow in the entire local economy.<sup id="cite_ref-Cannizzaro_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cannizzaro-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Remittances play a large role in sustaining the economies of many <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing nations</a>, for example bringing over US$1bn into the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> every month and eclipsing the entire tourism profit of <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Parle_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parle-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Female_mobility">Female mobility</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Female mobility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empowerment">Empowerment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Empowerment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With heightened self-awareness, educated women hope to grasp opportunities from moving, leading to increased <a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">female</a> individualization and <a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">empowerment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given access to travel, international education provides one of few avenues for women in China to live non-traditional personally emancipated lives.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> geographic mobility offers an opportunity to gain real job experience and advance a career too. Japanese society places a significant social pressure on women to get married, but many young women feel the need to “escape” and can find their independent selves in another setting.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many migrants do choose to continue to benefit and rely on older home ties though. These women cannot change behavior too much from social norms or risk being cut off.<sup id="cite_ref-Nancy_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nancy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies show that household choices in India are affected by distance from the ancestral home, especially within the <a href="/wiki/Caste_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Caste system">caste system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nancy_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nancy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also other new risks for women in new locations. Female sex workers have statistically higher sexually transmitted diseases and HIV rates when more mobile.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramesh_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramesh-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also potential for male backlash in a new setting. Domestic violence can be sparked by power struggles when newly empowered women regain some control traditionally held by men.<sup id="cite_ref-Nancy_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nancy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Participation">Participation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Participation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Female labor participation is vital to improving regional disparities in a competitive world and will increase in value over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Ederveen_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ederveen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women's participation and creative energy is vital for the success of economies on a global scale. Female labor participation can act as a substitute for more generalized labor mobility too. In the European Union women provide a dynamic substitute for male labor with fluctuations in the economy. This allows for more geographic stability while maintaining the variability of a flexible labor economy.<sup id="cite_ref-Ederveen_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ederveen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When families do migrate, woman often get employed first and become the breadwinner for the home. Even if this only lasts for a duration of time, the experience is empowering and helps shape social dynamics within the home.<sup id="cite_ref-Nancy_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nancy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Often a relocation is primarily motivated by lack of any better opportunities in their prior situation though. Many of the women go through the trial of moving and starting over due to economic and social circumstances outside of her control.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_12-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research also seems to indicate that women and minorities migrating into a new area often act as economic substitutes for local minorities rather than paving their own new ground.<sup id="cite_ref-Ederveen_7-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ederveen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Female income effects from migration will only kick in if there are sufficient differences between males and females too, so long term changes will likely not happen quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-Nancy_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nancy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation_access">Transportation access</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Transportation access"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Women have traditionally had more limited access to improved means of <a href="/wiki/Personal_transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal transportation">personal transportation</a> and thus had more limited local mobility.<sup id="cite_ref-Hine_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hine-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women surveyed in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> were less likely overall than men to have <a href="/wiki/Drivers_licenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Drivers licenses">drivers licenses</a> and took longer to get to key destinations. Women often seek work closer to home compared to men, taking jobs in a more geographically confined area and relying more on non-<a href="/w/index.php?title=Automobile_transportation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Automobile transportation (page does not exist)">automobile transportation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Naess_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naess-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Access to personal transportation can improve women's choice of feasible destinations and decrease average trip time.<sup id="cite_ref-Hine_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hine-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_children,_family,_and_education"><span id="Effects_on_children.2C_family.2C_and_education"></span>Effects on children, family, and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Effects on children, family, and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Increased geographic mobility can offer new opportunities to previously isolated groups. In <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, increasing mobility allows families the chance to strengthen family ties by sending children to <a href="/wiki/Traditional" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional">traditional</a> homes or expand educational opportunities with options to attend <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban</a> schools.<sup id="cite_ref-Nancy_13-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nancy-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional economic freedom bolstered by additional capital from remittances can allow children to stay in school longer without having to worry about supporting the core family.<sup id="cite_ref-Parle_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parle-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increased geographic mobility and long distance moves do place strains on the household and family.<sup id="cite_ref-Gillespie_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gillespie-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loss of established <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_ties" title="Interpersonal ties">strong ties</a> decreases social support and can lower productivity, especially among adolescents.<sup id="cite_ref-Gillespie2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gillespie2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geographic isolation from previous relationships increases personal dependence on the nuclear family unit and can lead to power unbalances within the household.<sup id="cite_ref-Schoenbaum_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schoenbaum-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Migration for work allows the migrants themselves to develop new skills and receive new technical training abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-Cannizzaro_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cannizzaro-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Migrants surveyed in Australia and the US have lower rates of continual training than their native born peers as a whole, but are likely to continue gaining technical skills after establishing an initial technical aptitude. The appeal of new educational opportunities to migrants also loses appeal with age; older movers see less of an <a href="/wiki/Incentive" title="Incentive">incentive</a> to spend time to improve upon their existing skills.<sup id="cite_ref-Ryan_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ryan-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increased global mobility has helped to destabilize the prospects of young people looking for reliable work and led to a greater assumption of <a href="/wiki/Risk" title="Risk">risk</a> on behalf of young people.<sup id="cite_ref-Blossfeld_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blossfeld-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Coping_strategies" class="mw-redirect" title="Coping strategies">Coping strategies</a> push them to put off long-term commitments, decreasing the formation of <a href="/wiki/Families" class="mw-redirect" title="Families">families</a> and lowering <a href="/wiki/Birth_rates" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth rates">birth rates</a>. Labor market volatility increases the dangers of settling down since incomes are cannot be relied upon long term. Women in the workplace also face more disincentives to having children since they could be more easily replaced if forced to leave their job temporarily. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_culture">Effects on culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Effects on culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_exchange">Cultural exchange</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cultural exchange"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Increased geographic mobility increases the depth and quality of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural exchange">cultural exchange</a> between communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Travel" title="Travel">Travel</a> and cooperation bring people together across cultural divides and facilitate the trade of customs and ideas. New community members bring unique talents and skills that can improve overall services and bring additional opportunity to an area.<sup id="cite_ref-Travers_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Travers-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional population "churn" can also increase diversity and lower tensions that would arise otherwise with large concentrations of particular demographic groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Travers_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Travers-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, accelerated cultural exchange can dilute existing customs and cause social friction between competing immigrating populations too.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonin_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Residents in communities with a large percentage of highly mobile occupants also worry about long term social cohesion.<sup id="cite_ref-Travers_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Travers-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rapid turnover can lead to cultural isolation and sometimes prevents neighbors from building close cohesive relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-Travers_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Travers-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_networks">Social networks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Social networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Increasing long range personal mobility tends to lead to geographic expansion of an individual's support network.<sup id="cite_ref-Frei_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frei-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long-distance connections require more time to visit and minimizes the occurrence of unplanned social interaction. Increased mobility can decrease an individual's attachment to a local community and weaken local support networks. People often turn to <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> to maintain connections across distance, strengthening distance relationships and allowing people to pursue career opportunities despite geographic distance from a partner. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activity_space" title="Activity space">Activity space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">Human migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_migration" title="Circular migration">Circular migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_mobility" title="Labor mobility">Labor mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">Freedom of movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_worker" title="Migrant worker">Migrant worker</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Harvard-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harvard_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Population Mobility:Migration in a Global Economy (2013). Harvard College.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/62326">Recchi, E., Deutschmann, E. and Vespe, M. (2019) Estimating Transnational Human Mobility on a Global Scale. EUI Working Paper RSCAS, 2019/30. 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(2008). Geographic Mobility in the European Union: Optimizing its Economic and Social Benefits. IZA Research Report No. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fang-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fang_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fang, C. (2009). Human Development Research Paper: Migration and Labor Mobility in China.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sanlin-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sanlin_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sanlin, J. (2012). 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"Residential Mobility and Change and Continuity in Parenting Processes". <i>Journal of Research on Adolescence</i>. <b>25</b> (2): 279–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjora.12114">10.1111/jora.12114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Research+on+Adolescence&rft.atitle=Residential+Mobility+and+Change+and+Continuity+in+Parenting+Processes&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=279-94&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjora.12114&rft.aulast=Gillespie&rft.aufirst=Brian+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeographic+mobility" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gillespie2-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gillespie2_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillespie2013" class="citation journal cs1">Gillespie, Brian Joseph (2013). "Adolescent Behavior and Achievement, Social Capital, and the Timing of Geographic Mobility". <i>Advances in Life Course Research</i>. <b>18</b> (3): 223–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.alcr.2013.07.001">10.1016/j.alcr.2013.07.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24796561">24796561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Life+Course+Research&rft.atitle=Adolescent+Behavior+and+Achievement%2C+Social+Capital%2C+and+the+Timing+of+Geographic+Mobility&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=223-33&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.alcr.2013.07.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24796561&rft.aulast=Gillespie&rft.aufirst=Brian+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeographic+mobility" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schoenbaum-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schoenbaum_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoenbaum2012" class="citation journal cs1">Schoenbaum, N (2012). "Mobility Measures". <i>Brigham Young University Law Review</i>. <b>2012</b> (4): 1169.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brigham+Young+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Mobility+Measures&rft.volume=2012&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1169&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Schoenbaum&rft.aufirst=N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeographic+mobility" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ryan-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ryan_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ryan, C., Sinning, M., & National Centre for Vocational Education, R. (2012). The Training Requirements of Foreign-Born Workers in Different Countries. National Centre For Vocational Education Research (NCVER)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blossfeld-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blossfeld_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlossfeld2009" class="citation book cs1">Blossfeld, Hans-Peter (2009). <i>Life Course Inequalities in the Globalisation Process</i>. 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(2007). Population mobility and service provision: a report for London Councils.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frei-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Frei_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrei2009" class="citation book cs1">Frei, Andreas (2009). <i>Mobilities and Social Network Geography: Size and Spatial Dispersion- the Zurich Case Study</i>. Bloomfield, VA: Ashgate. pp. 102–104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7495-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-7495-5"><bdi>978-0-7546-7495-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mobilities+and+Social+Network+Geography%3A+Size+and+Spatial+Dispersion-+the+Zurich+Case+Study&rft.place=Bloomfield%2C+VA&rft.pages=102-104&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-7495-5&rft.aulast=Frei&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeographic+mobility" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geographic_mobility&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External 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