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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_and_chemical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Physical and chemical </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_and_chemical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lithium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Lithium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Francium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Francium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Francium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Francium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Nuclear </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Periodic_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Periodic_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Periodic trends </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Periodic_trends-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Periodic trends subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Periodic_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Atomic_and_ionic_radii" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomic_and_ionic_radii"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Atomic and ionic radii </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomic_and_ionic_radii-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_ionisation_energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_ionisation_energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 First ionisation energy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_ionisation_energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Reactivity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronegativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronegativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Electronegativity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronegativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Melting_and_boiling_points" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Melting_and_boiling_points"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Melting and boiling points </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Melting_and_boiling_points-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Density" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Density"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Density </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Compounds </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Compounds-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Compounds subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hydroxides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydroxides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Hydroxides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydroxides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intermetallic_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intermetallic_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Intermetallic compounds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intermetallic_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compounds_with_the_group_13_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compounds_with_the_group_13_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Compounds with the group 13 elements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compounds_with_the_group_13_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compounds_with_the_group_14_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compounds_with_the_group_14_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Compounds with the group 14 elements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compounds_with_the_group_14_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nitrides_and_pnictides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nitrides_and_pnictides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Nitrides and pnictides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nitrides_and_pnictides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxides_and_chalcogenides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxides_and_chalcogenides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Oxides and chalcogenides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxides_and_chalcogenides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Halides,_hydrides,_and_pseudohalides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Halides,_hydrides,_and_pseudohalides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Halides, hydrides, and pseudohalides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Halides,_hydrides,_and_pseudohalides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coordination_complexes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coordination_complexes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Coordination complexes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coordination_complexes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ammonia_solutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ammonia_solutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.9 Ammonia solutions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ammonia_solutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organometallic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organometallic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.10 Organometallic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organometallic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Organolithium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organolithium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.10.1 Organolithium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organolithium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heavier_alkali_metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heavier_alkali_metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.10.2 Heavier alkali metals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heavier_alkali_metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Representative_reactions_of_alkali_metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Representative_reactions_of_alkali_metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Representative reactions of alkali metals </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Representative_reactions_of_alkali_metals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Representative reactions of alkali metals subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Representative_reactions_of_alkali_metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reaction_with_oxygen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_with_oxygen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Reaction with oxygen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_with_oxygen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_with_sulfur" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_with_sulfur"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Reaction with sulfur </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_with_sulfur-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_with_nitrogen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_with_nitrogen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Reaction with nitrogen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_with_nitrogen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_with_hydrogen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_with_hydrogen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Reaction with hydrogen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_with_hydrogen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_with_carbon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_with_carbon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Reaction with carbon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_with_carbon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_with_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_with_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Reaction with water </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_with_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_with_other_salts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_with_other_salts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Reaction with other salts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_with_other_salts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_with_organohalide_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_with_organohalide_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Reaction with organohalide compounds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_with_organohalide_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alkali_metals_in_liquid_ammonia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alkali_metals_in_liquid_ammonia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Alkali metals in liquid ammonia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alkali_metals_in_liquid_ammonia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Extensions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pseudo-alkali_metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pseudo-alkali_metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Pseudo-alkali metals </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pseudo-alkali_metals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pseudo-alkali metals subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pseudo-alkali_metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hydrogen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrogen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Hydrogen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrogen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ammonium_and_derivatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ammonium_and_derivatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Ammonium and derivatives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ammonium_and_derivatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cobaltocene_and_derivatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cobaltocene_and_derivatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Cobaltocene and derivatives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cobaltocene_and_derivatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thallium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thallium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Thallium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thallium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copper,_silver,_and_gold" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copper,_silver,_and_gold"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Copper, silver, and gold </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copper,_silver,_and_gold-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production_and_isolation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production_and_isolation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Production and isolation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production_and_isolation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_role_and_precautions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_role_and_precautions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Biological role and precautions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biological_role_and_precautions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Biological role and precautions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Biological_role_and_precautions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Metals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Ions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Alkali metal</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 112 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-112" aria-hidden="true" > 112 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetaal" title="Alkalimetaal – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Alkalimetaal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B2_%D9%82%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A" title="فلز قلوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلز قلوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_alcal%C3%ADn" title="Metal alcalín – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Metal alcalín" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcal%C3%ADn" title="Alcalín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Alcalín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99l%C9%99vi_metallar" title="Qələvi metallar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qələvi metallar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logam_alkali" title="Logam alkali – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Logam alkali" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81" title="ক্ষার ধাতু – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ক্ষার ধাতু" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%E2%81%BF-kim-sio%CC%8Dk" title="Kiⁿ-kim-sio̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kiⁿ-kim-sio̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B" title="Шчолачныя металы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Шчолачныя металы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B" title="Лужныя мэталы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Лужныя мэталы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81" title="एल्कली धातु – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="एल्कली धातु" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Алкален метал – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Алкален метал" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%85%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BE%95%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%8F%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BE%95%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="བུལ་ཅན་ལྕགས་རིགས།བུལ་ཏོག་ལྕགས་རིགས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="བུལ་ཅན་ལྕགས་རིགས།བུལ་ཏོག་ལྕགས་རིགས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalni_metali" title="Alkalni metali – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Alkalni metali" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metall_alcal%C3%AD" title="Metall alcalí – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Metall alcalí" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%82%C4%95%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Сĕлтĕлле металл – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Сĕлтĕлле металл" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalick%C3%A9_kovy" title="Alkalické kovy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Alkalické kovy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metel_alcal%C3%AFaidd" title="Metel alcalïaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Metel alcalïaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetal" title="Alkalimetal – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Alkalimetal" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetalle" title="Alkalimetalle – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Alkalimetalle" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leelismetallid" title="Leelismetallid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Leelismetallid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Αλκάλια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλκάλια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcalino" title="Alcalino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alcalino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkala_metalo" title="Alkala metalo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Alkala metalo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_alkalino" title="Metal alkalino – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Metal alkalino" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%82%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="فلزهای قلیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلزهای قلیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_dhaatu" title="Alkali dhaatu – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Alkali dhaatu" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9tal_alcalin" title="Métal alcalin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Métal alcalin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalymetaal" title="Alkalymetaal – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Alkalymetaal" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miotal_alcaile" title="Miotal alcaile – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Miotal alcaile" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meain_alkalaih" title="Meain alkalaih – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Meain alkalaih" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meatailt_alcalaidh" title="Meatailt alcalaidh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Meatailt alcalaidh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcalino" title="Alcalino – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Alcalino" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%B9%BC%E9%87%91%E5%B1%AC" title="鹼金屬 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="鹼金屬" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1n-k%C3%AEm-su%CC%8Dk" title="Kán-kîm-su̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Kán-kîm-su̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%8C%EC%B9%BC%EB%A6%AC_%EA%B8%88%EC%86%8D" title="알칼리 금속 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="알칼리 금속" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AC%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ալկալիական մետաղներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ալկալիական մետաղներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81" title="क्षार धातु – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="क्षार धातु" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalijski_metali" title="Alkalijski metali – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Alkalijski metali" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaliatra_metalo" title="Alkaliatra metalo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Alkaliatra metalo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logam_alkali" title="Logam alkali – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Logam alkali" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallos_alcalin" title="Metallos alcalin – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Metallos alcalin" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%C3%A6%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%B7%D0%B3%D1%8A%C3%A6%D1%80%D1%82%C3%A6" title="Фæныкдон згъæртæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Фæныкдон згъæртæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkal%C3%ADm%C3%A1lmur" title="Alkalímálmur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Alkalímálmur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalli_alcalini" title="Metalli alcalini – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Metalli alcalini" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%AA%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA" title="מתכת אלקלית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מתכת אלקלית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logam_alkali" title="Logam alkali – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Logam alkali" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ტუტე ლითონები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტუტე ლითონები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Сілтілік металдар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сілтілік металдар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metali_alikali" title="Metali alikali – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Metali alikali" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_alkalen" title="Metal alkalen – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Metal alkalen" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalla_alcalica" title="Metalla alcalica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Metalla alcalica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%81rmu_met%C4%81li" title="Sārmu metāli – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sārmu metāli" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetall" title="Alkalimetall – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Alkalimetall" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0arminiai_metalai" title="Šarminiai metalai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Šarminiai metalai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetaal" title="Alkalimetaal – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Alkalimetaal" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metall_alcalin" title="Metall alcalin – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Metall alcalin" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alk%C3%A1lif%C3%A9mek" title="Alkálifémek – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Alkálifémek" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Алкален метал – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Алкален метал" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%BE" title="ക്ഷാരലോഹങ്ങൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ക്ഷാരലോഹങ്ങൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%82" title="अल्क धातू – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अल्क धातू" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logam_alkali" title="Logam alkali – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Logam alkali" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%C4%95ng-g%C4%ADng-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%86k" title="Giĕng-gĭng-sṳ̆k – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Giĕng-gĭng-sṳ̆k" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D2%AF%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Шүлтийн металл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шүлтийн металл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF" title="အယ်လ်ကာလီ သတ္တု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အယ်လ်ကာလီ သတ္တု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetaal" title="Alkalimetaal – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Alkalimetaal" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81" title="एल्कालाइ धातु – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="एल्कालाइ धातु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AB%E3%83%AA%E9%87%91%E5%B1%9E" title="アルカリ金属 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アルカリ金属" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaalimetal" title="Alkaalimetal – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Alkaalimetal" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetall" title="Alkalimetall – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Alkalimetall" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetall" title="Alkalimetall – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Alkalimetall" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_alcalin" title="Metal alcalin – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Metal alcalin" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B7%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%80%E0%AD%9F_%E0%AC%A7%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%81" title="କ୍ଷାରୀୟ ଧାତୁ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="କ୍ଷାରୀୟ ଧାତୁ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibiila_alkaalii" title="Sibiila alkaalii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Sibiila alkaalii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishqoriy_metallar" title="Ishqoriy metallar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ishqoriy metallar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4" title="ਖ਼ਾਰੀ ਧਾਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਖ਼ਾਰੀ ਧਾਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D9%84%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="القلي فلزات – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="القلي فلزات" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetall" title="Alkalimetall – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Alkalimetall" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litowce" title="Litowce – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Litowce" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_alcalino" title="Metal alcalino – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Metal alcalino" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetall" title="Alkalimetall – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Alkalimetall" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_alcalin" title="Metal alcalin – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Metal alcalin" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_q%27illay" title="Alkali q'illay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Alkali q'illay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B" title="Алкалны металы – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Алкалны металы" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A9%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8B" title="Щелочные металлы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Щелочные металлы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%85_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Солох метал – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Солох метал" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Alkali metal" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalet_alkaline" title="Metalet alkaline – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Metalet alkaline" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9D%E0%B7%84" title="ක්‍ෂාර ලෝහ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ක්‍ෂාර ලෝහ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Alkali metal" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalick%C3%BD_kov" title="Alkalický kov – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Alkalický kov" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalijska_kovina" title="Alkalijska kovina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Alkalijska kovina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macdin_Alkaliini_ah" title="Macdin Alkaliini ah – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Macdin Alkaliini ah" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Алкални метал – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Алкални метал" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalni_metali" title="Alkalni metali – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Alkalni metali" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logam_alkali" title="Logam alkali – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Logam alkali" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetalli" title="Alkalimetalli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Alkalimetalli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalimetall" title="Alkalimetall – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Alkalimetall" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கார உலோகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கார உலோகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Селтеле металлар – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Селтеле металлар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B7%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0_%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="క్షార లోహము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="క్షార లోహము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%A5" title="โลหะแอลคาไล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โลหะแอลคาไล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Alkali metal" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Лужні метали – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Лужні метали" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_lo%E1%BA%A1i_ki%E1%BB%81m" title="Kim loại kiềm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kim loại kiềm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%B9%BC%E9%87%91%E5%B1%AC" title="鹼金屬 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="鹼金屬" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_alkali" title="Metal alkali – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Metal alkali" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A2%B1%E9%87%91%E5%B1%9E" title="碱金属 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="碱金属" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99_%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9C" title="אלקאלי מעטאל – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אלקאלי מעטאל" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%E1%BA%B9%CC%81t%C3%A0l%C3%AC_%C3%A1lk%C3%A1l%C3%AC" title="Mẹ́tàlì álkálì – Yoruba" lang="yo" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Group_1_element&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Group 1 element">Group 1 element</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Group of highly reactive chemical elements</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">Alkaline earth metal</a>.</div> <table class="infobox" style="text-align:center; border:1px solid #a9a9a9; background:#f8f8f8; padding:2px; width:1em;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#d8d8d8;">Alkali metals </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; width:1em; margin-top:1px; background:transparent; border:1px solid #a9a9a9;"><div style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit; margin:0; padding:0; text-align:center; border:none;"> <table style="empty-cells:hidden; border:none; padding:0; border-spacing:1px; border-collapse:separate; margin:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> </td> <td colspan="30" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">Helium</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Beryllium</a> </td> <td colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">Boron</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Neon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Sodium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a> </td> <td colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Aluminium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Silicon</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Argon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Calcium</a> </td> <td colspan="14" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Scandium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Titanium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">Vanadium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Manganese</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Cobalt</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Gallium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Germanium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">Arsenic</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Selenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Bromine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Krypton</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rubidium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Strontium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;; width:0;"> </td> <td colspan="13" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Yttrium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zirconium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Niobium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Molybdenum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Technetium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ruthenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rhodium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Palladium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cadmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">Indium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Tin</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Antimony</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Tellurium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">Iodine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xenon</a> </td></tr> <tr style="border:none;padding:0;"> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Barium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">Lanthanum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Cerium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Praseodymium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Neodymium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Promethium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Samarium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Europium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gadolinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Terbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dysprosium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Holmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Erbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Thulium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Ytterbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lutetium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hafnium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Tantalum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">Tungsten</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Rhenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Osmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Iridium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Platinum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury (element)</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Thallium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bismuth</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Polonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">Astatine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Radon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Francium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Radium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Actinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Protactinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Neptunium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Americium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Curium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Berkelium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Californium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Einsteinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fermium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Mendelevium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">Nobelium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lawrencium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">Rutherfordium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium">Dubnium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Seaborgium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium">Bohrium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium">Hassium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">Meitnerium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">Darmstadtium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium">Roentgenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium">Copernicium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium">Nihonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">Flerovium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium">Moscovium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium">Livermorium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine">Tennessine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson">Oganesson</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div><div class="nowrap" style="font-size:88%; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gases</a> ←    → <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth metals</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <table border="0" cellpadding="0" style="text-align:left; margin=0;"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">IUPAC group number</a></th> <th>1 </th></tr> <tr> <td>Name by element</td> <td>lithium group </td></tr> <tr> <td>Trivial name</td> <td>alkali metals </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)#CAS_and_old_IUPAC" title="Group (periodic table)">CAS group number</a> (US, pattern A-B-A)</div></td> <td>IA </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)#CAS_and_old_IUPAC" title="Group (periodic table)">old IUPAC number</a> (Europe, pattern A-B)</div></td> <td>IA </td></tr></tbody></table> <hr /> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align:left;">↓ <a href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">Period</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a> </th> <td title="Li, Lithium" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom; width:210px; background:#f0f0f0; border:2px solid #6e6e8e; ;"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Lithium_paraffin.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lithium metal stored under paraffin"><img alt="Image: Lithium metal stored under paraffin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Lithium_paraffin.jpg/210px-Lithium_paraffin.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Lithium_paraffin.jpg/315px-Lithium_paraffin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Lithium_paraffin.jpg/420px-Lithium_paraffin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="333" /></a></div><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> (Li) 3 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a> </th> <td title="Na, Sodium" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom; width:210px; background:#f0f0f0; border:2px solid #6e6e8e; ;"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Na_(Sodium).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sodium metal"><img alt="Image: Sodium metal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg/210px-Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg/315px-Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg/420px-Na_%28Sodium%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></div><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Sodium</a> (Na) 11 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a> </th> <td title="K, Potassium" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom; width:210px; background:#f0f0f0; border:2px solid #6e6e8e; ;"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Potassium-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Potassium metal"><img alt="Image: Potassium metal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Potassium-2.jpg/210px-Potassium-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Potassium-2.jpg/315px-Potassium-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Potassium-2.jpg/420px-Potassium-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="481" data-file-height="394" /></a></div><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a> (K) 19 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a> </th> <td title="Rb, Rubidium" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom; width:210px; background:#f0f0f0; border:2px solid #6e6e8e; ;"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Rb5.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Rubidium metal in a glass ampoule"><img alt="Image: Rubidium metal in a glass ampoule" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Rb5.JPG/210px-Rb5.JPG" decoding="async" width="210" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Rb5.JPG/315px-Rb5.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Rb5.JPG/420px-Rb5.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></div><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rubidium</a> (Rb) 37 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a> </th> <td title="Cs, Caesium" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom; width:210px; background:#f0f0f0; border:2px solid #6e6e8e; ;"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Cesium.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Caesium metal in a glass ampoule"><img alt="Image: Caesium metal in a glass ampoule" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Cesium.jpg/210px-Cesium.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Cesium.jpg/315px-Cesium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Cesium.jpg/420px-Cesium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></div><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium</a> (Cs) 55 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a> </th> <td title="Fr, Francium" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom; width:210px; background:#f0f0f0; border:2px dashed #6e6e8e; ;"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Francium</a> (Fr) 87 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <hr /> Legend <table style="text-align:center; border:0; margin: 0 auto"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:2px solid #6e6e8e; background:#f0f0f0;"><a href="/wiki/Primordial_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Primordial element">primordial</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:2px dashed #6e6e8e; background:#f0f0f0;padding:0 2px;"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">element by radioactive decay</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> The alkali metals consist of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> (Li), <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> (Na), <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> (K),<a href="#cite_note-1">[note 1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a> (Rb), <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> (Cs),<a href="#cite_note-5">[note 2]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">francium</a> (Fr). Together with <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> they constitute <a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)#Group_names" title="Group (periodic table)">group 1</a>,<a href="#cite_note-group-numbering-7">[note 3]</a> which lies in the <a href="/wiki/S-block" class="mw-redirect" title="S-block">s-block</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>. All alkali metals have their outermost electron in an <a href="/wiki/S-orbital" class="mw-redirect" title="S-orbital">s-orbital</a>: this shared electron configuration results in their having very similar characteristic properties.<a href="#cite_note-8">[note 4]</a> Indeed, the alkali metals provide the best example of <a href="/wiki/Periodic_trends" title="Periodic trends">group trends</a> in properties in the periodic table, with elements exhibiting well-characterised <a href="/wiki/Homologous_series" title="Homologous series">homologous</a> behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> This family of elements is also known as the lithium family after its leading element. The alkali metals are all shiny, <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">soft</a>, highly <a href="/wiki/Reactivity_(chemistry)" title="Reactivity (chemistry)">reactive</a> <a href="/wiki/Metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Metals">metals</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">standard temperature and pressure</a> and readily lose their <a href="/wiki/Valence_electron" title="Valence electron">outermost electron</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Cations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cations">cations</a> with <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">charge</a> +1. They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> by atmospheric moisture and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (and in the case of lithium, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>). Because of their high reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air, and are found naturally only in <a href="/wiki/Salts" class="mw-redirect" title="Salts">salts</a> and never as the free elements. Caesium, the fifth alkali metal, is the most reactive of all the metals. All the alkali metals react with water, with the heavier alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones. All of the discovered alkali metals occur in nature as their compounds: in order of <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">abundance</a>, sodium is the most abundant, followed by potassium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, and finally francium, which is very rare due to its extremely high <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>; francium occurs only in minute <a href="/wiki/Trace_radioisotope" title="Trace radioisotope">traces</a> in nature as an intermediate step in some obscure side branches of the natural <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chains</a>. Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Element_119" class="mw-redirect" title="Element 119">element 119</a>, which is likely to be the next member of the group; none were successful. However, ununennium may not be an alkali metal due to <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic effects">relativistic effects</a>, which are predicted to have a large influence on the chemical properties of <a href="/wiki/Superheavy_element" title="Superheavy element">superheavy elements</a>; even if it does turn out to be an alkali metal, it is predicted to have some differences in physical and chemical properties from its lighter homologues. Most alkali metals have many different applications. One of the best-known applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in <a href="/wiki/Atomic_clock" title="Atomic clock">atomic clocks</a>, of which caesium atomic clocks form the basis of the second. A common application of the compounds of sodium is the <a href="/wiki/Sodium-vapour_lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium-vapour lamp">sodium-vapour lamp</a>, which emits light very efficiently. <a href="/wiki/Table_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Table salt">Table salt</a>, or sodium chloride, has been used since antiquity. <a href="/wiki/Lithium_(medication)" title="Lithium (medication)">Lithium</a> finds use as a psychiatric medication and as an <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lithium_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium batteries">lithium batteries</a>. Sodium, potassium and possibly lithium are <a href="/wiki/Essential_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Essential element">essential elements</a>, having major biological roles as <a href="/wiki/Electrolytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrolytes">electrolytes</a>, and although the other alkali metals are not essential, they also have various effects on the body, both beneficial and harmful. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petalite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A sample of petalite" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Petalite.jpg/220px-Petalite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Petalite.jpg/330px-Petalite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Petalite.jpg/440px-Petalite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2054" data-file-height="1543" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Petalite" title="Petalite">Petalite</a>, the lithium mineral from which lithium was first isolated</figcaption></figure> Sodium compounds have been known since ancient times; salt (<a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>) has been an important commodity in human activities. While <a href="/wiki/Potash" title="Potash">potash</a> has been used since ancient times, it was not understood for most of its history to be a fundamentally different substance from sodium mineral salts. <a href="/wiki/Georg_Ernst_Stahl" title="Georg Ernst Stahl">Georg Ernst Stahl</a> obtained experimental evidence which led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702,<a href="#cite_note-1702Suspect-10">[6]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henri-Louis_Duhamel_du_Monceau" title="Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau">Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau</a> was able to prove this difference in 1736.<a href="#cite_note-11">[7]</a> The exact chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known then, and thus <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> did not include either alkali in his list of chemical elements in 1789.<a href="#cite_note-weeks-12">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-disco-13">[9]</a> Pure potassium was first isolated in 1807 in England by <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a>, who derived it from <a href="/wiki/Caustic_potash" class="mw-redirect" title="Caustic potash">caustic potash</a> (KOH, potassium hydroxide) by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly invented <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a>. Previous attempts at electrolysis of the aqueous salt were unsuccessful due to potassium's extreme reactivity.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 68  Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis.<a href="#cite_note-Enghag2004-15">[11]</a> Later that same year, Davy reported extraction of sodium from the similar substance <a href="/wiki/Caustic_soda" class="mw-redirect" title="Caustic soda">caustic soda</a> (NaOH, lye) by a similar technique, demonstrating the elements, and thus the salts, to be different.<a href="#cite_note-weeks-12">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-disco-13">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davy1807-16">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-200disco-17">[13]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg/170px-Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg/255px-Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg/340px-Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="642" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner" title="Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner">Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner</a> was among the first to notice similarities between what are now known as the alkali metals.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Petalite" title="Petalite">Petalite</a> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Li</a><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Al</a><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Si</a>4<a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a>10) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Bonif%C3%A1cio_de_Andrada" class="mw-redirect" title="José Bonifácio de Andrada">José Bonifácio de Andrada</a> in a mine on the island of <a href="/wiki/Ut%C3%B6,_Sweden" title="Utö, Sweden">Utö, Sweden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mindat-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-webelementshistory-19">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-discovery-20">[16]</a> However, it was not until 1817 that <a href="/wiki/Johan_August_Arfwedson" title="Johan August Arfwedson">Johan August Arfwedson</a>, then working in the laboratory of the chemist <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_chemical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Discovery of the chemical elements">detected</a> the presence of a new element while analysing petalite <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-uwis-21">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-vanderkrogt-22">[18]</a> This new element was noted by him to form compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its <a href="/wiki/Lithium_carbonate" title="Lithium carbonate">carbonate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide" title="Lithium hydroxide">hydroxide</a> were less <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">soluble in water</a> and more <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">alkaline</a> than the other alkali metals.<a href="#cite_note-compounds-23">[19]</a> Berzelius gave the unknown material the name lithion/lithina, from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> word λιθoς (transliterated as lithos, meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material lithium.<a href="#cite_note-krebs-24">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-webelementshistory-19">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-vanderkrogt-22">[18]</a> Lithium, sodium, and potassium were part of the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodicity</a>, as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same <a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">group</a> that were noted by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_D%C3%B6bereiner" title="Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner">Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner</a> in 1850 as having similar properties.<a href="#cite_note-meta-synthesis2-25">[21]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lepidolite-76774.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A sample of lepidolite" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Lepidolite-76774.jpg/170px-Lepidolite-76774.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Lepidolite-76774.jpg/255px-Lepidolite-76774.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Lepidolite-76774.jpg/340px-Lepidolite-76774.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lepidolite" title="Lepidolite">Lepidolite</a>, the rubidium mineral from which rubidium was first isolated</figcaption></figure> Rubidium and caesium were the first elements to be discovered using the <a href="/wiki/Spectroscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectroscope">spectroscope</a>, invented in 1859 by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bunsen" title="Robert Bunsen">Robert Bunsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Gustav Kirchhoff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-caesium-26">[22]</a> The next year, they discovered caesium in the <a href="/wiki/Mineral_water" title="Mineral water">mineral water</a> from <a href="/wiki/Bad_D%C3%BCrkheim" title="Bad Dürkheim">Bad Dürkheim</a>, Germany. Their discovery of rubidium came the following year in <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg" title="Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a>, Germany, finding it in the mineral <a href="/wiki/Lepidolite" title="Lepidolite">lepidolite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BuKi1861-27">[23]</a> The names of rubidium and caesium come from the most prominent lines in their <a href="/wiki/Emission_spectra" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission spectra">emission spectra</a>: a bright red line for rubidium (from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word rubidus, meaning dark red or bright red), and a sky-blue line for caesium (derived from the Latin word caesius, meaning sky-blue).<a href="#cite_note-Weeks-28">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[25]</a> Around 1865 <a href="/wiki/John_Alexander_Reina_Newlands" class="mw-redirect" title="John Alexander Reina Newlands">John Newlands</a> produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the <a href="/wiki/Octave" title="Octave">octaves</a> of music, where notes an octave apart have similar musical functions.<a href="#cite_note-30">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[27]</a> His version put all the alkali metals then known (lithium to caesium), as well as copper, silver, and <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a> (which show the +1 oxidation state characteristic of the alkali metals), together into a group. His table placed hydrogen with the <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-meta-synthesis2-25">[21]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png/390px-Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png/585px-Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Mendelejevs_periodiska_system_1871.png 2x" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a>'s periodic system proposed in 1871 showing hydrogen and the alkali metals as part of his group I, along with copper, silver, and gold</figcaption></figure> After 1869, <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a> proposed his periodic table placing lithium at the top of a group with sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and thallium.<a href="#cite_note-32">[28]</a> Two years later, Mendeleev revised his table, placing hydrogen in group 1 above lithium, and also moving thallium to the <a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">boron group</a>. In this 1871 version, copper, silver, and gold were placed twice, once as part of <a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">group IB</a>, and once as part of a "group VIII" encompassing today's groups <a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a> to 11.<a href="#cite_note-Jensen-33">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[note 5]</a> After the introduction of the 18-column table, the group IB elements were moved to their current position in the <a href="/wiki/D-block" class="mw-redirect" title="D-block">d-block</a>, while alkali metals were left in group IA. Later the group's name was changed to group 1 in 1988.<a href="#cite_note-fluck-6">[4]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Trivial_name" title="Trivial name">trivial name</a> "alkali metals" comes from the fact that the hydroxides of the group 1 elements are all strong <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkalis</a> when dissolved in water.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> There were at least four erroneous and incomplete discoveries<a href="#cite_note-fontani-35">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-vanderkrogt-Fr-36">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[33]</a> before <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_Perey" title="Marguerite Perey">Marguerite Perey</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Curie_Institute_(Paris)" title="Curie Institute (Paris)">Curie Institute</a> in Paris, France discovered francium in 1939 by purifying a sample of <a href="/wiki/Actinium-227" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinium-227">actinium-227</a>, which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220 <a href="/wiki/KeV" class="mw-redirect" title="KeV">keV</a>. However, Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80 keV. Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product, one that was separated during purification, but emerged again out of the pure <a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">actinium</a>-227. Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>, lead, <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a>. The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal (such as coprecipitating with caesium salts), which led Perey to believe that it was element 87, caused by the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a> of actinium-227.<a href="#cite_note-chemeducator-39">[34]</a> Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> to alpha decay in actinium-227. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6%, a figure that she later revised to 1%.<a href="#cite_note-mcgraw-40">[35]</a> <dl><dd>227 89Ac α (1.38%)→21.77 y 223 87Fr β−→22 min 223 88Ra α→11.4 d219 86Rn </dd></dl> The next element below francium (<a href="/wiki/Mendeleev%27s_predicted_elements" title="Mendeleev's predicted elements">eka</a>-francium) in the periodic table would be <a href="/wiki/Ununennium" title="Ununennium">ununennium</a> (Uue), element 119.<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1730  The synthesis of ununennium was first attempted in 1985 by bombarding a target of <a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">einsteinium</a>-254 with <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>-48 ions at the superHILAC accelerator at the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> in Berkeley, California. No atoms were identified, leading to a limiting yield of 300 <a href="/wiki/Barn_(unit)" title="Barn (unit)">nb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-link-42">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-vanderkrogt-uue-43">[38]</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium-254" class="mw-redirect" title="Einsteinium-254">254 99Es </a> + <a href="/wiki/Calcium-48" title="Calcium-48">48 20Ca </a> → 302 119Uue * → no atoms<a href="#cite_note-44">[note 6]</a></dd></dl> It is highly unlikely<a href="#cite_note-link-42">[37]</a> that this reaction will be able to create any atoms of ununennium in the near future, given the extremely difficult task of making sufficient amounts of einsteinium-254, which is favoured for production of <a href="/wiki/Superheavy_element" title="Superheavy element">ultraheavy elements</a> because of its large mass, relatively long half-life of 270 days, and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms,<a href="#cite_note-45">[39]</a> to make a large enough target to increase the sensitivity of the experiment to the required level; einsteinium has not been found in nature and has only been produced in laboratories, and in quantities smaller than those needed for effective synthesis of superheavy elements. However, given that ununennium is only the first <a href="/wiki/Period_8_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Period 8 element">period 8 element</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table" title="Extended periodic table">extended periodic table</a>, it may well be discovered in the near future through other reactions, and indeed an attempt to synthesise it is currently ongoing in Japan.<a href="#cite_note-Enyo-46">[40]</a> Currently, none of the period 8 elements has been discovered yet, and it is also possible, due to <a href="/wiki/Nucleon_drip_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleon drip line">drip instabilities</a>, that only the lower period 8 elements, up to around element 128, are physically possible.<a href="#cite_note-EB-47">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-emsley-48">[42]</a> No attempts at synthesis have been made for any heavier alkali metals: due to their extremely high atomic number, they would require new, more powerful methods and technology to make.<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1737–1739  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occurrence">Occurrence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Occurrence">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Solar_System">In the Solar System</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: In the Solar System">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SolarSystemAbundances.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/SolarSystemAbundances.svg/550px-SolarSystemAbundances.svg.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/SolarSystemAbundances.svg/825px-SolarSystemAbundances.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/SolarSystemAbundances.svg/1100px-SolarSystemAbundances.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Estimated abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar system. Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>. The next three elements (lithium, <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>) are rare because they are poorly synthesised in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier. Iron is especially common because it represents the minimum-energy nuclide that can be made by fusion of helium in supernovae.<a href="#cite_note-lodders-49">[43]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Oddo%E2%80%93Harkins_rule" title="Oddo–Harkins rule">Oddo–Harkins rule</a> holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability.<a href="#cite_note-oddo-50">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-harkins-51">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-north-52">[46]</a> All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gases</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth metals</a>) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernovae</a> and not in <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar nucleosynthesis</a>. Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a> and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a>, and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the <a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">triple-alpha process</a>, fusing three helium nuclei to form <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, and skipping over those three elements.<a href="#cite_note-lodders-49">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_Earth">On Earth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: On Earth">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg/170px-Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg/255px-Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg/340px-Spodumene-usa59abg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="524" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spodumene" title="Spodumene">Spodumene</a>, an important lithium mineral</figcaption></figure> The Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_solar_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Formation and evolution of the solar system">formation and evolution of the solar system</a>. In turn, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">natural history of the Earth</a> caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements. The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98×1024 kg. It is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (30.1%), <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> (15.1%), <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> (13.9%), <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> (2.9%), <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> (1.8%), <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to <a href="/wiki/Planetary_differentiation" title="Planetary differentiation">planetary differentiation</a>, the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.<a href="#cite_note-pnas71_12_6973-53">[47]</a> The alkali metals, due to their high reactivity, do not occur naturally in pure form in nature. They are <a href="/wiki/Goldschmidt_classification" title="Goldschmidt classification">lithophiles</a> and therefore remain close to the Earth's surface because they combine readily with <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and so associate strongly with <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a>, forming relatively low-density minerals that do not sink down into the Earth's core. Potassium, rubidium and caesium are also <a href="/wiki/Incompatible_element" title="Incompatible element">incompatible elements</a> due to their large <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radii" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic radii">ionic radii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-albarede-54">[48]</a> Sodium and potassium are very abundant on Earth, both being among the ten <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust" title="Abundance of elements in Earth's crust">most common elements in Earth's crust</a>;<a href="#cite_note-webelements-occurrence-55">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-IsraelScience&Technology-56">[50]</a> sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of the Earth's crust measured by weight, making it the <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">sixth most abundant element</a> overall<a href="#cite_note-RubberBible86th-57">[51]</a> and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element.<a href="#cite_note-RubberBible86th-57">[51]</a> Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include <a href="/wiki/Halite" title="Halite">halite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphibole" title="Amphibole">amphibole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cryolite" title="Cryolite">cryolite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitratine" title="Nitratine">nitratine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zeolite" title="Zeolite">zeolite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RubberBible86th-57">[51]</a> Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Great_Salt_Lake" title="Great Salt Lake">Great Salt Lake</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 69  Despite their near-equal abundance in Earth's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 69  Despite its chemical similarity, lithium typically does not occur together with sodium or potassium due to its smaller size.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 69  Due to its relatively low reactivity, it can be found in seawater in large amounts; it is estimated that lithium concentration in seawater is approximately 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm)<a href="#cite_note-58">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-enc-59">[53]</a> or 25 <a href="/wiki/Micromolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Micromolar">micromolar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[54]</a> Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferromagnesium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ferromagnesium (page does not exist)">ferromagnesium</a> minerals, where its crustal concentration is about 18 <a href="/wiki/Parts_per_million" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per million">ppm</a>, comparable to that of <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</a>. Commercially, the most important lithium mineral is <a href="/wiki/Spodumene" title="Spodumene">spodumene</a>, which occurs in large deposits worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 69  Rubidium is approximately as abundant as <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> and more abundant than copper. It occurs naturally in the minerals <a href="/wiki/Leucite" title="Leucite">leucite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollucite" title="Pollucite">pollucite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carnallite" title="Carnallite">carnallite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinnwaldite" title="Zinnwaldite">zinnwaldite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lepidolite" title="Lepidolite">lepidolite</a>,<a href="#cite_note-61">[55]</a> although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 70  Caesium is more abundant than some commonly known elements, such as <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>, but is much less abundant than rubidium.<a href="#cite_note-pubs.usgs-62">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francium-223" class="mw-redirect" title="Francium-223">Francium-223</a>, the only naturally occurring isotope of francium,<a href="#cite_note-atomicweights2007-63">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-atomicweights2009-64">[58]</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">product</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a> of actinium-227 and can be found in trace amounts in <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> minerals.<a href="#cite_note-CRC2006-65">[59]</a> In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 1018 uranium atoms.<a href="#cite_note-nbb-66">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-elemental-67">[61]</a> It has been calculated that there are at most 30 grams of francium in the <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">earth's crust</a> at any time, due to its extremely short <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of 22 minutes.<a href="#cite_note-Winter-68">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-itselemental-69">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Properties">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_and_chemical">Physical and chemical</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Physical and chemical">edit</a>]</div> The physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be readily explained by their having an ns1 valence <a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">electron configuration</a>, which results in weak <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bonding" title="Metallic bonding">metallic bonding</a>. Hence, all the alkali metals are soft and have low <a href="/wiki/Densities" class="mw-redirect" title="Densities">densities</a>,<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting</a><a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling points</a>,<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_sublimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of sublimation">heats of sublimation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heat_of_vaporization" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of vaporization">vaporisation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(chemistry)" title="Dissociation (chemistry)">dissociation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 74  They all crystallise in the <a href="/wiki/Body-centered_cubic" class="mw-redirect" title="Body-centered cubic">body-centered cubic</a> crystal structure,<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 73  and have distinctive <a href="/wiki/Flame_test" title="Flame test">flame colours</a> because their outer s electron is very easily excited.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 75  Indeed, these flame test colours are the most common way of identifying them since all their salts with common ions are soluble.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 75  The ns1 configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large <a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">atomic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radii" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic radii">ionic radii</a>, as well as very high <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">electrical conductivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 75  Their chemistry is dominated by the loss of their lone valence electron in the outermost s-orbital to form the +1 oxidation state, due to the ease of ionising this electron and the very high second ionisation energy.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 76  Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its extreme <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>;<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> thus, the presentation of its properties here is limited. What little is known about francium shows that it is very close in behaviour to caesium, as expected. The physical properties of francium are even sketchier because the bulk element has never been observed; hence any data that may be found in the literature are certainly speculative extrapolations.<a href="#cite_note-RubberBible84th-70">[64]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Properties of the alkali metals<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 75 <a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Name </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Sodium</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rubidium</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Francium</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">Atomic number</a> </td> <td>3</td> <td>11</td> <td>19</td> <td>37</td> <td>55</td> <td>87 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight" title="Standard atomic weight">Standard atomic weight</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[note 7]</a><a href="#cite_note-atomicweights2007-63">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-atomicweights2009-64">[58]</a> </td> <td>6.94(1)<a href="#cite_note-74">[note 8]</a></td> <td>22.98976928(2)</td> <td>39.0983(1)</td> <td>85.4678(3)</td> <td>132.9054519(2)</td> <td>[223]<a href="#cite_note-75">[note 9]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">Electron configuration</a> </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a>] 2s1</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Ne</a>] 3s1</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Ar</a>] 4s1</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Kr</a>] 5s1</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xe</a>] 6s1</td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Rn</a>] 7s1 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a> (°C) </td> <td>180.54</td> <td>97.72</td> <td>63.38</td> <td>39.31</td> <td>28.44</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</a> (°C) </td> <td>1342</td> <td>883</td> <td>759</td> <td>688</td> <td>671</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">Density</a> (g·cm−3) </td> <td>0.534</td> <td>0.968</td> <td>0.89</td> <td>1.532</td> <td>1.93</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Heat_of_fusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of fusion">Heat of fusion</a> (kJ·mol−1) </td> <td>3.00</td> <td>2.60</td> <td>2.321</td> <td>2.19</td> <td>2.09</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Heat_of_vaporisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of vaporisation">Heat of vaporisation</a> (kJ·mol−1) </td> <td>136</td> <td>97.42</td> <td>79.1</td> <td>69</td> <td>66.1</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Heat_of_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of formation">Heat of formation</a> of monatomic gas (kJ·mol−1) </td> <td>162</td> <td>108</td> <td>89.6</td> <td>82.0</td> <td>78.2</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistivity">Electrical resistivity</a> at 25 °C (n<a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">Ω</a>·cm) </td> <td>94.7</td> <td>48.8</td> <td>73.9</td> <td>131</td> <td>208</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">Atomic radius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Picometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Picometer">pm</a>) </td> <td>152</td> <td>186</td> <td>227</td> <td>248</td> <td>265</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ionic_radius" title="Ionic radius">Ionic radius</a> of hexacoordinate M+ ion (pm) </td> <td>76</td> <td>102</td> <td>138</td> <td>152</td> <td>167</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;">First <a href="/wiki/Ionisation_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionisation energy">ionisation energy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kilojoule_per_mole" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilojoule per mole">kJ·mol−1</a>) </td> <td>520.2</td> <td>495.8</td> <td>418.8</td> <td>403.0</td> <td>375.7</td> <td>392.8<a href="#cite_note-andreev-76">[67]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity" title="Electron affinity">Electron affinity</a> (kJ·mol−1) </td> <td>59.62</td> <td>52.87</td> <td>48.38</td> <td>46.89</td> <td>45.51</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enthalpy_of_dissociation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enthalpy of dissociation (page does not exist)">Enthalpy of dissociation</a> of M2 (kJ·mol−1) </td> <td>106.5</td> <td>73.6</td> <td>57.3</td> <td>45.6</td> <td>44.77</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;">Pauling <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a> </td> <td>0.98</td> <td>0.93</td> <td>0.82</td> <td>0.82</td> <td>0.79</td> <td>?<a href="#cite_note-Fr-electronegativity-79">[note 10]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;">Allen <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a> </td> <td>0.91 </td> <td>0.87 </td> <td>0.73 </td> <td>0.71 </td> <td>0.66 </td> <td>0.67 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential" title="Standard electrode potential">Standard electrode potential</a> (E°(M+→M0); <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">V</a>)<a href="#cite_note-van92-80">[70]</a> </td> <td>−3.04</td> <td>−2.71</td> <td>−2.93</td> <td>−2.98</td> <td>−3.03</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Flame_test" title="Flame test">Flame test</a> colour Principal emission/absorption wavelength (<a href="/wiki/Nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometer">nm</a>) </td> <td>Crimson 670.8</td> <td>Yellow 589.2</td> <td>Violet 766.5</td> <td>Red-violet 780.0</td> <td>Blue 455.5</td> <td>? </td></tr></tbody></table> The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other <a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">group</a> are to each other.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> Indeed, the similarity is so great that it is quite difficult to separate potassium, rubidium, and caesium, due to their similar <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radii" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic radii">ionic radii</a>; lithium and sodium are more distinct. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing <a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">atomic radius</a>,<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> decreasing <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> increasing <a href="/wiki/Reactivity_(chemistry)" title="Reactivity (chemistry)">reactivity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> and decreasing melting and boiling points<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 75  In general, their <a href="/wiki/Densities" class="mw-redirect" title="Densities">densities</a> increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> One of the very few properties of the alkali metals that does not display a very smooth trend is their <a href="/wiki/Reduction_potential" title="Reduction potential">reduction potentials</a>: lithium's value is anomalous, being more negative than the others.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 75  This is because the Li+ ion has a very high <a href="/wiki/Hydration_energy" title="Hydration energy">hydration energy</a> in the gas phase: though the lithium ion disrupts the structure of water significantly, causing a higher change in entropy, this high hydration energy is enough to make the reduction potentials indicate it as being the most electropositive alkali metal, despite the difficulty of ionising it in the gas phase.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 75  The stable alkali metals are all silver-coloured metals except for caesium, which has a pale golden tint:<a href="#cite_note-theodoregray-caesium-82">[72]</a> it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured (the other two being copper and gold).<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 74  Additionally, the heavy <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth metals</a> <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>, as well as the divalent <a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">lanthanides</a> <a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">europium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">ytterbium</a>, are pale yellow, though the colour is much less prominent than it is for caesium.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 74  Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv/220px--Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="6" data-mwtitle="Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/43/Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv/Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/43/Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv/Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/43/Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv/Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/43/Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv/Potassium_water_20.theora.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Potassium reacts violently with water at room temperature</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Cesium_water.theora.ogv/220px--Cesium_water.theora.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="15" data-mwtitle="Cesium_water.theora.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Cesium_water.theora.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9b/Cesium_water.theora.ogv/Cesium_water.theora.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Cesium_water.theora.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9b/Cesium_water.theora.ogv/Cesium_water.theora.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9b/Cesium_water.theora.ogv/Cesium_water.theora.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9b/Cesium_water.theora.ogv/Cesium_water.theora.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9b/Cesium_water.theora.ogv/Cesium_water.theora.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Caesium reacts explosively with water even at low temperatures</figcaption></figure> All the alkali metals are highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms in nature.<a href="#cite_note-krebs-24">[20]</a> Because of this, they are usually stored in <a href="/wiki/Mineral_oil" title="Mineral oil">mineral oil</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a> (paraffin oil).<a href="#cite_note-OU-83">[73]</a> They react aggressively with the <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal_halide" title="Alkali metal halide">alkali metal halides</a>, which are white <a href="/wiki/Ionic_crystal" title="Ionic crystal">ionic crystalline</a> compounds that are all <a href="/wiki/Soluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Soluble">soluble</a> in water except <a href="/wiki/Lithium_fluoride" title="Lithium fluoride">lithium fluoride</a> (LiF).<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> The alkali metals also react with water to form strongly <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkaline</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">hydroxides</a> and thus should be handled with great care. The heavier alkali metals react more vigorously than the lighter ones; for example, when dropped into water, caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium if the same number of moles of each metal is used.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-alkalibangs-84">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-pubs.usgs-62">[56]</a> The alkali metals have the lowest first <a href="/wiki/Ionisation_energies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionisation energies">ionisation energies</a> in their respective periods of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a><a href="#cite_note-RubberBible84th-70">[64]</a> because of their low <a href="/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge" title="Effective nuclear charge">effective nuclear charge</a><a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> and the ability to attain a <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gas</a> configuration by losing just one <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> Not only do the alkali metals react with water, but also with proton donors like <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohols</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenols" title="Phenols">phenols</a>, gaseous <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alkyne" title="Alkyne">alkynes</a>, the last demonstrating the phenomenal degree of their reactivity. Their great power as reducing agents makes them very useful in liberating other metals from their oxides or halides.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 76  The second ionisation energy of all of the alkali metals is very high<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-RubberBible84th-70">[64]</a> as it is in a full shell that is also closer to the nucleus;<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> thus, they almost always lose a single electron, forming cations.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 28  The <a href="/wiki/Alkalide" title="Alkalide">alkalides</a> are an exception: they are unstable compounds which contain alkali metals in a −1 oxidation state, which is very unusual as before the discovery of the alkalides, the alkali metals were not expected to be able to form <a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anions</a> and were thought to be able to appear in <a href="/wiki/Salts" class="mw-redirect" title="Salts">salts</a> only as cations. The alkalide anions have filled <a href="/wiki/S-orbital" class="mw-redirect" title="S-orbital">s-subshells</a>, which gives them enough stability to exist. All the stable alkali metals except lithium are known to be able to form alkalides,<a href="#cite_note-85">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[77]</a> and the alkalides have much theoretical interest due to their unusual <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometry</a> and low <a href="/wiki/Ionization_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionization potential">ionisation potentials</a>. Alkalides are chemically similar to the <a href="/wiki/Electride" title="Electride">electrides</a>, which are salts with trapped <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> acting as anions.<a href="#cite_note-Redko-88">[78]</a> A particularly striking example of an alkalide is "inverse <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydride" title="Sodium hydride">sodium hydride</a>", H+Na− (both ions being <a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">complexed</a>), as opposed to the usual sodium hydride, Na+H−:<a href="#cite_note-HNa-89">[79]</a> it is unstable in isolation, due to its high energy resulting from the displacement of two electrons from hydrogen to sodium, although several derivatives are predicted to be <a href="/wiki/Metastable" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastable">metastable</a> or stable.<a href="#cite_note-HNa-89">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-HNa-theory-90">[80]</a> In aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions form <a href="/wiki/Metal_ions_in_aqueous_solution" title="Metal ions in aqueous solution">aqua ions</a> of the formula [M(H2O)n]+, where n is the solvation number. Their <a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">coordination numbers</a> and shapes agree well with those expected from their ionic radii. In aqueous solution the water molecules directly attached to the metal ion are said to belong to the <a href="/wiki/First_coordination_sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="First coordination sphere">first coordination sphere</a>, also known as the first, or primary, solvation shell. The bond between a water molecule and the metal ion is a <a href="/wiki/Dative_covalent_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative covalent bond">dative covalent bond</a>, with the oxygen atom donating both electrons to the bond. Each coordinated water molecule may be attached by <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonds</a> to other water molecules. The latter are said to reside in the second coordination sphere. However, for the alkali metal cations, the second coordination sphere is not well-defined as the +1 charge on the cation is not high enough to <a href="/wiki/Polarizability" title="Polarizability">polarise</a> the water molecules in the primary solvation shell enough for them to form strong hydrogen bonds with those in the second coordination sphere, producing a more stable entity.<a href="#cite_note-91">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Richens-92">[82]</a>: 25  The solvation number for Li+ has been experimentally determined to be 4, forming the <a href="/wiki/Tetrahedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrahedral">tetrahedral</a> [Li(H2O)4]+: while solvation numbers of 3 to 6 have been found for lithium aqua ions, solvation numbers less than 4 may be the result of the formation of contact <a href="/wiki/Ion_pair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion pair">ion pairs</a>, and the higher solvation numbers may be interpreted in terms of water molecules that approach [Li(H2O)4]+ through a face of the tetrahedron, though molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence of an <a href="/wiki/Octahedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Octahedral">octahedral</a> hexaaqua ion. There are also probably six water molecules in the primary solvation sphere of the sodium ion, forming the octahedral [Na(H2O)6]+ ion.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Richens-92">[82]</a>: 126–127  While it was previously thought that the heavier alkali metals also formed octahedral hexaaqua ions, it has since been found that potassium and rubidium probably form the [K(H2O)8]+ and [Rb(H2O)8]+ ions, which have the <a href="/wiki/Square_antiprism" title="Square antiprism">square antiprismatic</a> structure, and that caesium forms the 12-coordinate [Cs(H2O)12]+ ion.<a href="#cite_note-93">[83]</a> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lithium">Lithium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lithium">edit</a>]</div> The chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li+ cation <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">polarises</a> <a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anions</a> and gives its compounds a more <a href="/wiki/Covalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalent">covalent</a> character.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> Lithium and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> have a <a href="/wiki/Diagonal_relationship" title="Diagonal relationship">diagonal relationship</a> due to their similar atomic radii,<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> so that they show some similarities. For example, lithium forms a stable <a href="/wiki/Nitride" title="Nitride">nitride</a>, a property common among all the <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth metals</a> (magnesium's group) but unique among the alkali metals.<a href="#cite_note-alkalireact-94">[84]</a> In addition, among their respective groups, only lithium and magnesium form <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Organometallic compound">organometallic compounds</a> with significant covalent character (e.g. Li<a href="/wiki/Methyl_group" title="Methyl group">Me</a> and MgMe2).<a href="#cite_note-Shriver&Atkins-95">[85]</a> Lithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly soluble in water,<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide" title="Lithium hydroxide">lithium hydroxide</a> is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not <a href="/wiki/Deliquescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Deliquescent">deliquescent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> Conversely, <a href="/wiki/Lithium_perchlorate" title="Lithium perchlorate">lithium perchlorate</a> and other lithium salts with large anions that cannot be polarised are much more stable than the analogous compounds of the other alkali metals, probably because Li+ has a high <a href="/wiki/Solvation_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvation energy">solvation energy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 76  This effect also means that most simple lithium salts are commonly encountered in hydrated form, because the anhydrous forms are extremely <a href="/wiki/Hygroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hygroscopic">hygroscopic</a>: this allows salts like <a href="/wiki/Lithium_chloride" title="Lithium chloride">lithium chloride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium_bromide" title="Lithium bromide">lithium bromide</a> to be used in <a href="/wiki/Dehumidifier" title="Dehumidifier">dehumidifiers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air-conditioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Air-conditioner">air-conditioners</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 76  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Francium">Francium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Francium">edit</a>]</div> Francium is also predicted to show some differences due to its high <a href="/wiki/Atomic_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic weight">atomic weight</a>, causing its electrons to travel at considerable fractions of the speed of light and thus making <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic effects">relativistic effects</a> more prominent. In contrast to the trend of decreasing <a href="/wiki/Electronegativities" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronegativities">electronegativities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionisation_energies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionisation energies">ionisation energies</a> of the alkali metals, francium's electronegativity and ionisation energy are predicted to be higher than caesium's due to the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons; also, its <a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">atomic radius</a> is expected to be abnormally low. Thus, contrary to expectation, caesium is the most reactive of the alkali metals, not francium.<a href="#cite_note-andreev-76">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729 <a href="#cite_note-Thayer-96">[86]</a> All known physical properties of francium also deviate from the clear trends going from lithium to caesium, such as the first ionisation energy, electron affinity, and anion polarisability, though due to the paucity of known data about francium many sources give extrapolated values, ignoring that relativistic effects make the trend from lithium to caesium become inapplicable at francium.<a href="#cite_note-Thayer-96">[86]</a> Some of the few properties of francium that have been predicted taking relativity into account are the electron affinity (47.2 kJ/mol)<a href="#cite_note-Landaualkalis-97">[87]</a> and the enthalpy of dissociation of the Fr2 molecule (42.1 kJ/mol).<a href="#cite_note-Liddle-98">[88]</a> The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs+Fr−, showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell of caesium.<a href="#cite_note-Thayer-96">[86]</a> Additionally, francium superoxide (FrO2) is expected to have significant covalent character, unlike the other alkali metal superoxides, because of bonding contributions from the 6p electrons of francium.<a href="#cite_note-Thayer-96">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear">Nuclear</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nuclear">edit</a>]</div> <div style="float: right; margin: 5px;"> <table class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <caption>Primordial isotopes of the alkali metals </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Z </th> <th>Alkali metal </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">Stable</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Primordial_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Primordial element">Decays</a> </th> <th class="unsortable" colspan="3">unstable: italics<div style="background:pink">odd–odd isotopes coloured pink</div> </th></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_lithium" title="Isotopes of lithium">2</a></td> <td>—</td> <td>7 Li </td> <td style="background:pink;">6 Li </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>11</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_sodium" title="Isotopes of sodium">1</a></td> <td>—</td> <td>23 Na </td> <td> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>19</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_potassium" title="Isotopes of potassium">2</a></td> <td>1</td> <td>39 K </td> <td>41 K </td> <td style="background:pink;">40 K </td></tr> <tr> <td>37</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_rubidium" title="Isotopes of rubidium">1</a></td> <td>1</td> <td>85 Rb </td> <td>87 Rb </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>55</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_caesium" title="Isotopes of caesium">1</a></td> <td>—</td> <td>133 Cs </td> <td> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>87</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">francium</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_francium" title="Isotopes of francium">—</a></td> <td>—</td> <td colspan="3">No primordial isotopes (223 Fr is a <a href="/wiki/Radiogenic_nuclide" title="Radiogenic nuclide">radiogenic nuclide</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7">Radioactive: 40K, <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">t1/2</a> 1.25 × 109 years; 87Rb, t1/2 4.9 × 1010 years; 223Fr, t1/2 22.0 min. </td></tr></tbody></table></div> All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers; hence, their isotopes must be either <a href="/wiki/Odd%E2%80%93odd_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Odd–odd nuclei">odd–odd</a> (both proton and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_number" title="Neutron number">neutron number</a> are odd) or <a href="/wiki/Odd%E2%80%93even_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Odd–even nuclei">odd–even</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proton_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton number">proton number</a> is odd, but neutron number is even). Odd–odd nuclei have even <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">mass numbers</a>, whereas odd–even nuclei have odd mass numbers. Odd–odd <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial nuclides</a> are rare because most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>, because the decay products are even–even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to <a href="/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula#Pairing_term" title="Semi-empirical mass formula">nuclear pairing effects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lide02-99">[89]</a> Due to the great rarity of odd–odd nuclei, almost all the primordial isotopes of the alkali metals are odd–even (the exceptions being the light stable isotope lithium-6 and the long-lived <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotope</a> potassium-40). For a given odd mass number, there can be only a single <a href="/wiki/Beta-decay_stable_isobars" title="Beta-decay stable isobars">beta-stable nuclide</a>, since there is not a difference in binding energy between even–odd and odd–even comparable to that between even–even and odd–odd, leaving other nuclides of the same mass number (<a href="/wiki/Isobar_(nuclide)" title="Isobar (nuclide)">isobars</a>) free to <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> toward the lowest-mass nuclide. An effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd-numbered elements, such as the alkali metals, tend to have fewer stable isotopes than even-numbered elements. Of the 26 <a href="/wiki/Monoisotopic_element" title="Monoisotopic element">monoisotopic elements</a> that have only a single stable isotope, all but one have an odd atomic number and all but one also have an even number of neutrons. <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Beryllium</a> is the single exception to both rules, due to its low atomic number.<a href="#cite_note-Lide02-99">[89]</a> All of the alkali metals except lithium and caesium have at least one naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotope</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sodium-22" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium-22">sodium-22</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sodium-24" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium-24">sodium-24</a> are <a href="/wiki/Trace_radioisotope" title="Trace radioisotope">trace radioisotopes</a> produced <a href="/wiki/Cosmogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmogenic">cosmogenically</a>,<a href="#cite_note-100">[90]</a> potassium-40 and <a href="/wiki/Rubidium-87" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubidium-87">rubidium-87</a> have very long <a href="/wiki/Half-lives" class="mw-redirect" title="Half-lives">half-lives</a> and thus occur naturally,<a href="#cite_note-nuclideschart-101">[91]</a> and all <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_francium" title="Isotopes of francium">isotopes of francium</a> are <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nuclideschart-101">[91]</a> Caesium was also thought to be radioactive in the early 20th century,<a href="#cite_note-Patt1926-102">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kenn1908-103">[93]</a> although it has no naturally occurring radioisotopes.<a href="#cite_note-nuclideschart-101">[91]</a> (Francium had not been discovered yet at that time.) The natural long-lived radioisotope of potassium, potassium-40, makes up about 0.012% of natural potassium,<a href="#cite_note-104">[94]</a> and thus natural potassium is weakly radioactive. This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim of the discovery for element 87 (the next alkali metal after caesium) in 1925.<a href="#cite_note-fontani-35">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-vanderkrogt-Fr-36">[31]</a> Natural rubidium is similarly slightly radioactive, with 27.83% being the long-lived radioisotope rubidium-87.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 74  <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">Caesium-137</a>, with a half-life of 30.17 years, is one of the two principal <a href="/wiki/Medium-lived_fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Medium-lived fission product">medium-lived fission products</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90">strontium-90</a>, which are responsible for most of the <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> of <a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">spent nuclear fuel</a> after several years of cooling, up to several hundred years after use. It constitutes most of the radioactivity still left from the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl accident">Chernobyl accident</a>. Caesium-137 undergoes high-energy beta decay and eventually becomes stable <a href="/wiki/Barium-137" class="mw-redirect" title="Barium-137">barium-137</a>. It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation. Caesium-137 has a very low rate of neutron capture and cannot be feasibly disposed of in this way, but must be allowed to decay.<a href="#cite_note-Cs-137-105">[95]</a> Caesium-137 has been used as a <a href="/wiki/Flow_tracer" title="Flow tracer">tracer</a> in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[96]</a> Small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Caesium-134" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesium-134">caesium-134</a> and caesium-137 were released into the environment during nearly all <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapon test">nuclear weapon tests</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear accident">nuclear accidents</a>, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">Goiânia accident</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>. As of 2005, caesium-137 is the principal source of radiation in the <a href="/wiki/Zone_of_alienation" class="mw-redirect" title="Zone of alienation">zone of alienation</a> around the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_nuclear_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl nuclear power plant">Chernobyl nuclear power plant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IAEA-107">[97]</a> Its chemical properties as one of the alkali metals make it one of the most problematic of the short-to-medium-lifetime fission products because it easily moves and spreads in nature due to the high water solubility of its salts, and is taken up by the body, which mistakes it for its essential congeners sodium and potassium.<a href="#cite_note-RPD-108">[98]</a>: 114  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Periodic_trends">Periodic trends</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Periodic trends">edit</a>]</div> The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other <a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">group</a> are to each other.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing <a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">atomic radius</a>,<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> decreasing <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> increasing <a href="/wiki/Reactivity_(chemistry)" title="Reactivity (chemistry)">reactivity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> and decreasing melting and boiling points<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 75  In general, their <a href="/wiki/Densities" class="mw-redirect" title="Densities">densities</a> increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomic_and_ionic_radii">Atomic and ionic radii</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Atomic and ionic radii">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Effective_Nuclear_Charge.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Effective_Nuclear_Charge.svg/250px-Effective_Nuclear_Charge.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Effective_Nuclear_Charge.svg/375px-Effective_Nuclear_Charge.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Effective_Nuclear_Charge.svg/500px-Effective_Nuclear_Charge.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="220" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge" title="Effective nuclear charge">Effective nuclear charge</a> on an atomic electron</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Atomic_radii" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic radii">atomic radii</a> of the alkali metals increase going down the group.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> Because of the <a href="/wiki/Shielding_effect" title="Shielding effect">shielding effect</a>, when an atom has more than one <a href="/wiki/Electron_shell" title="Electron shell">electron shell</a>, each electron feels electric repulsion from the other electrons as well as electric attraction from the nucleus.<a href="#cite_note-shielding-109">[99]</a> In the alkali metals, the <a href="/wiki/Valence_electron" title="Valence electron">outermost electron</a> only feels a net charge of +1, as some of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear charge">nuclear charge</a> (which is equal to the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a>) is cancelled by the inner electrons; the number of inner electrons of an alkali metal is always one less than the nuclear charge. Therefore, the only factor which affects the atomic radius of the alkali metals is the number of electron shells. Since this number increases down the group, the atomic radius must also increase down the group.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radii" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic radii">ionic radii</a> of the alkali metals are much smaller than their atomic radii. This is because the outermost electron of the alkali metals is in a different <a href="/wiki/Electron_shell" title="Electron shell">electron shell</a> than the inner electrons, and thus when it is removed the resulting atom has one fewer electron shell and is smaller. Additionally, the <a href="/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge" title="Effective nuclear charge">effective nuclear charge</a> has increased, and thus the electrons are attracted more strongly towards the nucleus and the ionic radius decreases.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_ionisation_energy">First ionisation energy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: First ionisation energy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Ionization_Energy_blocks.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/First_Ionization_Energy_blocks.svg/590px-First_Ionization_Energy_blocks.svg.png" decoding="async" width="590" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/First_Ionization_Energy_blocks.svg/885px-First_Ionization_Energy_blocks.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/First_Ionization_Energy_blocks.svg/1180px-First_Ionization_Energy_blocks.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="190" /></a><figcaption>Periodic trend for ionisation energy: each period begins at a minimum for the alkali metals, and ends at a maximum for the <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gases</a>. Predicted values are used for elements beyond 104.</figcaption></figure> The first <a href="/wiki/Ionisation_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionisation energy">ionisation energy</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a> or <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> is the energy required to move the most loosely held electron from one <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">mole</a> of gaseous atoms of the element or molecules to form one mole of gaseous ions with <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> +1. The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear charge">nuclear charge</a>, the amount of <a href="/wiki/Shielding_effect" title="Shielding effect">shielding</a> by the inner electrons and the distance from the most loosely held electron from the nucleus, which is always an outer electron in <a href="/wiki/Main_group_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Main group element">main group elements</a>. The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most loosely held electron feels. Since the outermost electron of alkali metals always feels the same effective nuclear charge (+1), the only factor which affects the first ionisation energy is the distance from the outermost electron to the nucleus. Since this distance increases down the group, the outermost electron feels less attraction from the nucleus and thus the first ionisation energy decreases.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> This trend is broken in francium due to the <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_quantum_chemistry" title="Relativistic quantum chemistry">relativistic</a> stabilisation and contraction of the 7s orbital, bringing francium's valence electron closer to the nucleus than would be expected from non-relativistic calculations. This makes francium's outermost electron feel more attraction from the nucleus, increasing its first ionisation energy slightly beyond that of caesium.<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729  The second ionisation energy of the alkali metals is much higher than the first as the second-most loosely held electron is part of a fully filled <a href="/wiki/Electron_shell" title="Electron shell">electron shell</a> and is thus difficult to remove.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reactivity">Reactivity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Reactivity">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Reactivity_(chemistry)" title="Reactivity (chemistry)">reactivities</a> of the alkali metals increase going down the group. This is the result of a combination of two factors: the first ionisation energies and <a href="/wiki/Atomisation_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomisation energy">atomisation energies</a> of the alkali metals. Because the first ionisation energy of the alkali metals decreases down the group, it is easier for the outermost electron to be removed from the atom and participate in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a>, thus increasing reactivity down the group. The atomisation energy measures the strength of the <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic bond">metallic bond</a> of an element, which falls down the group as the atoms increase in <a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">radius</a> and thus the metallic bond must increase in length, making the <a href="/wiki/Delocalised_electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Delocalised electrons">delocalised electrons</a> further away from the attraction of the nuclei of the heavier alkali metals. Adding the atomisation and first ionisation energies gives a quantity closely related to (but not equal to) the <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a> of the reaction of an alkali metal with another substance. This quantity decreases going down the group, and so does the activation energy; thus, chemical reactions can occur faster and the reactivity increases down the group.<a href="#cite_note-alkaliwater-110">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electronegativity">Electronegativity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Electronegativity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg/280px-Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg/420px-Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg/560px-Periodic_variation_of_Pauling_electronegativities.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>Periodic variation of Pauling electronegativities as one descends the <a href="/wiki/Main_group_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Main group element">main groups</a> of the periodic table from the <a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">second</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">sixth period</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Electronegativity</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_property" title="Chemical property">chemical property</a> that describes the tendency of an <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">functional group</a> to attract <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Electron_density" title="Electron density">electron density</a>) towards itself.<a href="#cite_note-definition-111">[101]</a> If the bond between <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> were <a href="/wiki/Covalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalent">covalent</a>, the pair of shared electrons would be attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge on the outer electrons is +7 in chlorine but is only +1 in sodium. The electron pair is attracted so close to the chlorine atom that they are practically transferred to the chlorine atom (an <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">ionic bond</a>). However, if the sodium atom was replaced by a lithium atom, the electrons will not be attracted as close to the chlorine atom as before because the lithium atom is smaller, making the electron pair more strongly attracted to the closer effective nuclear charge from lithium. Hence, the larger alkali metal atoms (further down the group) will be less electronegative as the bonding pair is less strongly attracted towards them. As mentioned previously, francium is expected to be an exception.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> Because of the higher electronegativity of lithium, some of its compounds have a more covalent character. For example, <a href="/wiki/Lithium_iodide" title="Lithium iodide">lithium iodide</a> (LiI) will dissolve in <a href="/wiki/Organic_solvent" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic solvent">organic solvents</a>, a property of most covalent compounds.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lithium_fluoride" title="Lithium fluoride">Lithium fluoride</a> (LiF) is the only <a href="/wiki/Alkali_halide" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali halide">alkali halide</a> that is not soluble in water,<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium_hydroxide" title="Lithium hydroxide">lithium hydroxide</a> (LiOH) is the only <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal_hydroxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali metal hydroxide">alkali metal hydroxide</a> that is not <a href="/wiki/Deliquescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Deliquescent">deliquescent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Melting_and_boiling_points">Melting and boiling points</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Melting and boiling points">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> of a substance is the point where it changes <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">state</a> from solid to liquid while the <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a> of a substance (in liquid state) is the point where the <a href="/wiki/Vapour_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Vapour pressure">vapour pressure</a> of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid<a href="#cite_note-112">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[103]</a> and all the liquid changes state to gas. As a metal is heated to its melting point, the <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic bond">metallic bonds</a> keeping the atoms in place weaken so that the atoms can move around, and the metallic bonds eventually break completely at the metal's boiling point.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-metallic-bonding-114">[104]</a> Therefore, the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds of the alkali metals decreases down the group.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> This is because metal atoms are held together by the electromagnetic attraction from the positive ions to the delocalised electrons.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-metallic-bonding-114">[104]</a> As the atoms increase in size going down the group (because their atomic radius increases), the nuclei of the ions move further away from the delocalised electrons and hence the metallic bond becomes weaker so that the metal can more easily melt and boil, thus lowering the melting and boiling points.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> The increased nuclear charge is not a relevant factor due to the shielding effect.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Density">Density</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Density">edit</a>]</div> The alkali metals all have the same <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a> (<a href="/wiki/Body-centred_cubic" class="mw-redirect" title="Body-centred cubic">body-centred cubic</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a> and thus the only relevant factors are the number of atoms that can fit into a certain volume and the mass of one of the atoms, since density is defined as mass per unit volume. The first factor depends on the volume of the atom and thus the atomic radius, which increases going down the group; thus, the volume of an alkali metal atom increases going down the group. The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases going down the group. Thus, the trend for the densities of the alkali metals depends on their atomic weights and atomic radii; if figures for these two factors are known, the ratios between the densities of the alkali metals can then be calculated. The resultant trend is that the densities of the alkali metals increase down the table, with an exception at potassium. Due to having the lowest atomic weight and the largest atomic radius of all the elements in their periods, the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table.<a href="#cite_note-chemguide-81">[71]</a> Lithium, sodium, and potassium are the only three metals in the periodic table that are less dense than water:<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> in fact, lithium is the least dense known solid at <a href="/wiki/Room_temperature" title="Room temperature">room temperature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 75  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compounds">Compounds</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Compounds">edit</a>]</div> The alkali metals form complete series of compounds with all usually encountered anions, which well illustrate group trends. These compounds can be described as involving the alkali metals losing electrons to acceptor species and forming monopositive ions.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 79  This description is most accurate for alkali halides and becomes less and less accurate as cationic and anionic charge increase, and as the anion becomes larger and more polarisable. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">ionic bonding</a> gives way to <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic bond">metallic bonding</a> along the series NaCl, Na2O, Na2S, Na3P, Na3As, Na3Sb, Na3Bi, Na.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 81  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydroxides"><a href="/wiki/Hydroxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxides">Hydroxides</a></h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Hydroxides">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="clear: left; float:left;margin:0 1.5em 1.5em 0;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eaChisV5uR0">Alkali Metals – 20 Reactions of the alkali metals with water</a>, conducted by <a href="/wiki/The_Royal_Society_of_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="The Royal Society of Chemistry">The Royal Society of Chemistry</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Large_Sodium_Explosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large orange-yellow explosion" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Large_Sodium_Explosion.jpg/220px-Large_Sodium_Explosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Large_Sodium_Explosion.jpg/330px-Large_Sodium_Explosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Large_Sodium_Explosion.jpg/440px-Large_Sodium_Explosion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>A reaction of 3 <a href="/wiki/Pound_(mass)" title="Pound (mass)">pounds</a> (≈ 1.4 kg) of sodium with water</figcaption></figure> All the alkali metals react vigorously or explosively with cold water, producing an <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aqueous solution</a> of a strongly <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">basic</a> alkali metal <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">hydroxide</a> and releasing hydrogen gas.<a href="#cite_note-alkaliwater-110">[100]</a> This reaction becomes more vigorous going down the group: lithium reacts steadily with <a href="/wiki/Effervescence" title="Effervescence">effervescence</a>, but sodium and potassium can ignite, and rubidium and caesium sink in water and generate hydrogen gas so rapidly that shock waves form in the water that may shatter glass containers.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> When an alkali metal is dropped into water, it produces an explosion, of which there are two separate stages. The metal reacts with the water first, breaking the hydrogen bonds in the water and producing <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> gas; this takes place faster for the more reactive heavier alkali metals. Second, the heat generated by the first part of the reaction often ignites the hydrogen gas, causing it to burn explosively into the surrounding air. This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl of water, lake or other body of water, not the initial reaction of the metal with water (which tends to happen mostly under water).<a href="#cite_note-alkalibangs-84">[74]</a> The alkali metal hydroxides are the most basic known hydroxides.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 87  Recent research has suggested that the explosive behavior of alkali metals in water is driven by a <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_explosion" title="Coulomb explosion">Coulomb explosion</a> rather than solely by rapid generation of hydrogen itself.<a href="#cite_note-coulomb-115">[105]</a> All alkali metals melt as a part of the reaction with water. Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal, leaving a positively charged metal surface and negatively charged water ions. The attraction between the charged metal and water ions will rapidly increase the surface area, causing an exponential increase of ionisation. When the repulsive forces within the liquid metal surface exceeds the forces of the surface tension, it vigorously explodes.<a href="#cite_note-coulomb-115">[105]</a> The hydroxides themselves are the most basic hydroxides known, reacting with acids to give salts and with alcohols to give <a href="/wiki/Oligomer" title="Oligomer">oligomeric</a> <a href="/wiki/Alkoxide" title="Alkoxide">alkoxides</a>. They easily react with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonates</a>, or with <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfides</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bisulfide" title="Bisulfide">bisulfides</a>, and may be used to separate <a href="/wiki/Thiol" title="Thiol">thiols</a> from petroleum. They react with amphoteric oxides: for example, the oxides of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_oxide" title="Aluminium oxide">aluminium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc_oxide" title="Zinc oxide">zinc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tin(IV)_oxide" title="Tin(IV) oxide">tin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lead_dioxide" title="Lead dioxide">lead</a> react with the alkali metal hydroxides to give aluminates, zincates, stannates, and plumbates. <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">Silicon dioxide</a> is acidic, and thus the alkali metal hydroxides can also attack <a href="/wiki/Silicate_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicate glass">silicate glass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 87  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intermetallic_compounds">Intermetallic compounds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Intermetallic compounds">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NaK_alloy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/NaK_alloy.jpg/220px-NaK_alloy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/NaK_alloy.jpg/330px-NaK_alloy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/NaK_alloy.jpg/440px-NaK_alloy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Liquid NaK alloy at room temperature</figcaption></figure> The alkali metals form many <a href="/wiki/Intermetallic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermetallic compound">intermetallic compounds</a> with each other and the elements from groups <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2</a> to <a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13</a> in the periodic table of varying stoichiometries,<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 81  such as the <a href="/wiki/Sodium_amalgam" title="Sodium amalgam">sodium amalgams</a> with <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, including Na5Hg8 and Na3Hg.<a href="#cite_note-116">[106]</a> Some of these have ionic characteristics: taking the alloys with gold, the most electronegative of metals, as an example, NaAu and KAu are metallic, but RbAu and <a href="/wiki/CsAu" class="mw-redirect" title="CsAu">CsAu</a> are semiconductors.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 81  <a href="/wiki/NaK" class="mw-redirect" title="NaK">NaK</a> is an alloy of sodium and potassium that is very useful because it is liquid at room temperature, although precautions must be taken due to its extreme reactivity towards water and air. The <a href="/wiki/Eutectic_mixture" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic mixture">eutectic mixture</a> melts at −12.6 °C.<a href="#cite_note-basf-ds-NaK-117">[107]</a> An alloy of 41% caesium, 47% sodium, and 12% potassium has the lowest known melting point of any metal or alloy, −78 °C.<a href="#cite_note-caesium-26">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compounds_with_the_group_13_elements">Compounds with the group 13 elements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Compounds with the group 13 elements">edit</a>]</div> The intermetallic compounds of the alkali metals with the heavier group 13 elements (aluminium, <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">indium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a>), such as NaTl, are poor <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductors</a> or <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>, unlike the normal alloys with the preceding elements, implying that the alkali metal involved has lost an electron to the <a href="/wiki/Zintl_phase" title="Zintl phase">Zintl anions</a> involved.<a href="#cite_note-Sevov-118">[108]</a> Nevertheless, while the elements in group 14 and beyond tend to form discrete anionic clusters, group 13 elements tend to form polymeric ions with the alkali metal cations located between the giant ionic lattice. For example, NaTl consists of a polymeric anion (—Tl−—)n with a covalent <a href="/wiki/Diamond_cubic" title="Diamond cubic">diamond cubic</a> structure with Na+ ions located between the anionic lattice. The larger alkali metals cannot fit similarly into an anionic lattice and tend to force the heavier group 13 elements to form anionic clusters.<a href="#cite_note-Kauzlarich-119">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">Boron</a> is a special case, being the only nonmetal in group 13. The alkali metal <a href="/wiki/Boride" title="Boride">borides</a> tend to be boron-rich, involving appreciable boron–boron bonding involving <a href="/wiki/Deltahedron" title="Deltahedron">deltahedral</a> structures,<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 147–8  and are thermally unstable due to the alkali metals having a very high <a href="/wiki/Vapour_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Vapour pressure">vapour pressure</a> at elevated temperatures. This makes direct synthesis problematic because the alkali metals do not react with boron below 700 °C, and thus this must be accomplished in sealed containers with the alkali metal in excess. Furthermore, exceptionally in this group, reactivity with boron decreases down the group: lithium reacts completely at 700 °C, but sodium at 900 °C and potassium not until 1200 °C, and the reaction is instantaneous for lithium but takes hours for potassium. Rubidium and caesium borides have not even been characterised. Various phases are known, such as LiB10, NaB6, NaB15, and KB6.<a href="#cite_note-120">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[111]</a> Under high pressure the boron–boron bonding in the lithium borides changes from following <a href="/wiki/Wade%27s_rules" class="mw-redirect" title="Wade's rules">Wade's rules</a> to forming Zintl anions like the rest of group 13.<a href="#cite_note-122">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compounds_with_the_group_14_elements">Compounds with the group 14 elements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Compounds with the group 14 elements">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-A.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-A.png/150px-Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-A.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-A.png/225px-Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-A.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-A.png/300px-Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-A.png 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="1100" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-B.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-B.png/150px-Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-B.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-B.png/225px-Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-B.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-B.png/300px-Potassium-graphite-xtal-3D-SF-B.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="838" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Side (left) and top (right) views of the <a href="/wiki/Graphite_intercalation_compound" title="Graphite intercalation compound">graphite intercalation compound</a> KC8</div></div></div></div> Lithium and sodium react with <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Acetylide" title="Acetylide">acetylides</a>, Li2C2 and Na2C2, which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal with <a href="/wiki/Acetylene" title="Acetylene">acetylene</a>. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium react with <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a>; their atoms are <a href="/wiki/Intercalation_(chemistry)" title="Intercalation (chemistry)">intercalated</a> between the hexagonal graphite layers, forming <a href="/wiki/Graphite_intercalation_compound" title="Graphite intercalation compound">graphite intercalation compounds</a> of formulae MC60 (dark grey, almost black), MC48 (dark grey, almost black), MC36 (blue), MC24 (steel blue), and MC8 (bronze) (M = K, Rb, or Cs). These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite, suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers (e.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">M+C−8).<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> Upon heating of KC8, the elimination of potassium atoms results in the conversion in sequence to KC24, KC36, KC48 and finally KC60. KC8 is a very strong <a href="/wiki/Reducing_agent" title="Reducing agent">reducing agent</a> and is pyrophoric and explodes on contact with water.<a href="#cite_note-InorgChem-123">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[114]</a> While the larger alkali metals (K, Rb, and Cs) initially form MC8, the smaller ones initially form MC6, and indeed they require reaction of the metals with graphite at high temperatures around 500 °C to form.<a href="#cite_note-cac6-125">[115]</a> Apart from this, the alkali metals are such strong reducing agents that they can even reduce <a href="/wiki/Buckminsterfullerene" title="Buckminsterfullerene">buckminsterfullerene</a> to produce solid <a href="/wiki/Fulleride" title="Fulleride">fullerides</a> MnC60; sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium can form fullerides where n = 2, 3, 4, or 6, and rubidium and caesium additionally can achieve n = 1.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 285  When the alkali metals react with the heavier elements in the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">carbon group</a> (<a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, and lead), ionic substances with cage-like structures are formed, such as the <a href="/wiki/Silicide" title="Silicide">silicides</a> M4<a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Si</a>4 (M = K, Rb, or Cs), which contains M+ and tetrahedral <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Si4−4 ions.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> The chemistry of alkali metal <a href="/wiki/Germanide" title="Germanide">germanides</a>, involving the germanide ion <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Ge</a>4− and other cluster (<a href="/wiki/Zintl_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Zintl ion">Zintl</a>) ions such as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Ge2−4, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Ge4−9, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Ge2−9, and [(Ge9)2]6−, is largely analogous to that of the corresponding silicides.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 393  Alkali metal <a href="/wiki/Stannide" title="Stannide">stannides</a> are mostly ionic, sometimes with the stannide ion (<a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Sn</a>4−),<a href="#cite_note-Kauzlarich-119">[109]</a> and sometimes with more complex Zintl ions such as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Sn4−9, which appears in tetrapotassium nonastannide (K4Sn9).<a href="#cite_note-Hoch-126">[116]</a> The monatomic <a href="/wiki/Plumbide" title="Plumbide">plumbide</a> ion (<a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Pb</a>4−) is unknown, and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions, such as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Pb4−9. These alkali metal germanides, stannides, and plumbides may be produced by reducing germanium, tin, and lead with sodium metal in liquid ammonia.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 394  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nitrides_and_pnictides">Nitrides and pnictides</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Nitrides and pnictides">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png/220px-Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png/330px-Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png/440px-Lithium-nitride-xtal-CM-3D-polyhedra.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="953" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Unit_cell" title="Unit cell">Unit cell</a> <a href="/wiki/Ball-and-stick_model" title="Ball-and-stick model">ball-and-stick model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lithium_nitride" title="Lithium nitride">lithium nitride</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[117]</a> On the basis of size a <a href="/wiki/Tetrahedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrahedral">tetrahedral</a> structure would be expected, but that would be geometrically impossible: thus lithium nitride takes on this unique crystal structure.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 76 </figcaption></figure> Lithium, the lightest of the alkali metals, is the only alkali metal which reacts with <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard conditions">standard conditions</a>, and its <a href="/wiki/Nitride" title="Nitride">nitride</a> is the only stable alkali metal nitride. Nitrogen is an <a href="/wiki/Unreactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Unreactive">unreactive</a> gas because breaking the strong <a href="/wiki/Triple_bond" title="Triple bond">triple bond</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Dinitrogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinitrogen">dinitrogen</a> molecule (N2) requires a lot of energy. The formation of an alkali metal nitride would consume the ionisation energy of the alkali metal (forming M+ ions), the energy required to break the triple bond in N2 and the formation of N3− ions, and all the energy released from the formation of an alkali metal nitride is from the <a href="/wiki/Lattice_energy" title="Lattice energy">lattice energy</a> of the alkali metal nitride. The lattice energy is maximised with small, highly charged ions; the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions, only forming ions with a charge of +1, so only lithium, the smallest alkali metal, can release enough lattice energy to make the reaction with nitrogen <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a>, forming <a href="/wiki/Lithium_nitride" title="Lithium nitride">lithium nitride</a>. The reactions of the other alkali metals with nitrogen would not release enough lattice energy and would thus be <a href="/wiki/Endothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic">endothermic</a>, so they do not form nitrides at standard conditions.<a href="#cite_note-alkalireact-94">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sodium_nitride" title="Sodium nitride">Sodium nitride</a> (Na3N) and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_nitride" title="Potassium nitride">potassium nitride</a> (K3N), while existing, are extremely unstable, being prone to decomposing back into their constituent elements, and cannot be produced by reacting the elements with each other at standard conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Jansen1-128">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jansen2-129">[119]</a> Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium or caesium nitride.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 417  However, sodium and potassium form colourless <a href="/wiki/Azide" title="Azide">azide</a> salts involving the linear <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">N−3 anion; due to the large size of the alkali metal cations, they are thermally stable enough to be able to melt before decomposing.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 417  All the alkali metals react readily with <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Phosphide" title="Phosphide">phosphides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arsenide" title="Arsenide">arsenides</a> with the formula M3Pn (where M represents an alkali metal and Pn represents a <a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">pnictogen</a> – phosphorus, arsenic, <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>). This is due to the greater size of the P3− and As3− ions, so that less lattice energy needs to be released for the salts to form.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> These are not the only phosphides and arsenides of the alkali metals: for example, potassium has nine different known phosphides, with formulae K3P, K4P3, K5P4, KP, K4P6, K3P7, K3P11, KP10.3, and KP15.<a href="#cite_note-Schnering-130">[120]</a> While most metals form arsenides, only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides. The structure of Na3As is complex with unusually short Na–Na distances of 328–330 pm which are shorter than in sodium metal, and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding cannot be straightforwardly ionic.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a> Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula M3As are known, such as LiAs, which has a metallic lustre and electrical conductivity indicating the presence of some <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic bond">metallic bonding</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Antimonide" title="Antimonide">antimonides</a> are unstable and reactive as the Sb3− ion is a strong reducing agent; reaction of them with acids form the toxic and unstable gas <a href="/wiki/Stibine" title="Stibine">stibine</a> (SbH3).<a href="#cite_note-131">[121]</a> Indeed, they have some metallic properties, and the alkali metal antimonides of stoichiometry MSb involve antimony atoms bonded in a spiral Zintl structure.<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bismuthide" title="Bismuthide">Bismuthides</a> are not even wholly ionic; they are <a href="/wiki/Intermetallic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermetallic compound">intermetallic compounds</a> containing partially metallic and partially ionic bonds.<a href="#cite_note-133">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oxides_and_chalcogenides">Oxides and chalcogenides</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Oxides and chalcogenides">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali metal oxide">Alkali metal oxide</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Rb9O2_cluster.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The ball-and-stick diagram shows two regular octahedra which are connected to each other by one face. All nine vertices of the structure are purple spheres representing rubidium, and at the centre of each octahedron is a small red sphere representing oxygen." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Rb9O2_cluster.png/150px-Rb9O2_cluster.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Rb9O2_cluster.png/225px-Rb9O2_cluster.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Rb9O2_cluster.png/300px-Rb9O2_cluster.png 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="909" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Rb9O2 cluster, composed of two regular <a href="/wiki/Octahedra" class="mw-redirect" title="Octahedra">octahedra</a> connected to each other by one face</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Cs11O3_cluster.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The ball-and-stick diagram shows three regular octahedra where each octahedron is connected to both of the others by one face each. All three octahedra have one edge in common. All eleven vertices of the structure are violet spheres representing caesium, and at the centre of each octahedron is a small red sphere representing oxygen." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Cs11O3_cluster.png/150px-Cs11O3_cluster.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Cs11O3_cluster.png/225px-Cs11O3_cluster.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Cs11O3_cluster.png/300px-Cs11O3_cluster.png 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="539" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Cs11O3 cluster, composed of three regular octahedra where each octahedron is connected to both of the others by one face each. All three octahedra have one edge in common.</div></div></div></div></div> All the alkali metals react vigorously with <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> at standard conditions. They form various types of oxides, such as simple <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</a> (containing the O2− ion), <a href="/wiki/Peroxide" title="Peroxide">peroxides</a> (containing the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">O2−2 ion, where there is a <a href="/wiki/Single_bond" title="Single bond">single bond</a> between the two oxygen atoms), <a href="/wiki/Superoxide" title="Superoxide">superoxides</a> (containing the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">O−2 ion), and many others. Lithium burns in air to form <a href="/wiki/Lithium_oxide" title="Lithium oxide">lithium oxide</a>, but sodium reacts with oxygen to form a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_oxide" title="Sodium oxide">sodium oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_peroxide" title="Sodium peroxide">sodium peroxide</a>. Potassium forms a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Potassium_peroxide" title="Potassium peroxide">potassium peroxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_superoxide" title="Potassium superoxide">potassium superoxide</a>, while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively. Their reactivity increases going down the group: while lithium, sodium and potassium merely burn in air, rubidium and caesium are <a href="/wiki/Pyrophoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrophoric">pyrophoric</a> (spontaneously catch fire in air).<a href="#cite_note-alkalireact-94">[84]</a> The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions (the peroxide and superoxide) due to their small size. This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms, forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom. This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature. This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium, allowing them to form the less stable peroxides. Rubidium and caesium, at the bottom of the group, are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form. Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed, the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised. The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist, but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions.<a href="#cite_note-alkalireact-94">[84]</a> In addition, the small size of the Li+ and O2− ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure. Under controlled conditions, however, all the alkali metals, with the exception of francium, are known to form their oxides, peroxides, and superoxides. The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful <a href="/wiki/Oxidising_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidising agent">oxidising agents</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sodium_peroxide" title="Sodium peroxide">Sodium peroxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_superoxide" title="Potassium superoxide">potassium superoxide</a> react with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas, which allows them to be used in <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarine</a> air purifiers; the presence of <a href="/wiki/Water_vapour" class="mw-redirect" title="Water vapour">water vapour</a>, naturally present in breath, makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[124]</a> All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red <a href="/wiki/Ozonide" title="Ozonide">ozonides</a> (MO3) through low-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a>: the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>. They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen, and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 85  Potassium, rubidium, and caesium also form sesquioxides M2O3, which may be better considered peroxide disuperoxides, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">[(M+)4(O2−2)(O−2)2].<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 85  Rubidium and caesium can form a great variety of suboxides with the metals in formal oxidation states below +1.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 85  Rubidium can form Rb6O and Rb9O2 (copper-coloured) upon oxidation in air, while caesium forms an immense variety of oxides, such as the ozonide CsO3<a href="#cite_note-135">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[126]</a> and several brightly coloured <a href="/wiki/Suboxide" title="Suboxide">suboxides</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Simon-137">[127]</a> such as Cs7O (bronze), Cs4O (red-violet), Cs11O3 (violet), Cs3O (dark green),<a href="#cite_note-138">[128]</a> CsO, Cs3O2,<a href="#cite_note-139">[129]</a> as well as Cs7O2.<a href="#cite_note-140">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[131]</a> The last of these may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs2O.<a href="#cite_note-pubs.usgs-62">[56]</a> The alkali metals can also react analogously with the heavier chalcogens (<a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">tellurium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">polonium</a>), and all the alkali metal chalcogenides are known (with the exception of francium's). Reaction with an excess of the chalcogen can similarly result in lower chalcogenides, with chalcogen ions containing chains of the chalcogen atoms in question. For example, sodium can react with sulfur to form the <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sodium_sulfide" title="Sodium sulfide">Na2S</a>) and various <a href="/wiki/Polysulfide" title="Polysulfide">polysulfides</a> with the formula Na2Sx (x from 2 to 6), containing the S2− x ions.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> Due to the basicity of the Se2− and Te2− ions, the alkali metal <a href="/wiki/Selenide" title="Selenide">selenides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tellurides" class="mw-redirect" title="Tellurides">tellurides</a> are alkaline in solution; when reacted directly with selenium and tellurium, alkali metal polyselenides and polytellurides are formed along with the selenides and tellurides with the Se2− x and Te2− x ions.<a href="#cite_note-house2008-142">[132]</a> They may be obtained directly from the elements in liquid ammonia or when air is not present, and are colourless, water-soluble compounds that air oxidises quickly back to selenium or tellurium.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 766  The alkali metal <a href="/wiki/Polonide" title="Polonide">polonides</a> are all ionic compounds containing the Po2− ion; they are very chemically stable and can be produced by direct reaction of the elements at around 300–400 °C.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 766 <a href="#cite_note-AEC-chem-143">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bagnall-144">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Halides,_hydrides,_and_pseudohalides">Halides, hydrides, and pseudohalides</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Halides, hydrides, and pseudohalides">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal_halide" title="Alkali metal halide">Alkali metal halide</a></div> The alkali metals are among the most <a href="/wiki/Electropositive" class="mw-redirect" title="Electropositive">electropositive</a> elements on the periodic table and thus tend to <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">bond ionically</a> to the most <a href="/wiki/Electronegative" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronegative">electronegative</a> elements on the periodic table, the <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">bromine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">astatine</a>), forming <a href="/wiki/Salts" class="mw-redirect" title="Salts">salts</a> known as the alkali metal halides. The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 76  All twenty stable alkali metal halides are known; the unstable ones are not known, with the exception of sodium astatide, because of the great instability and rarity of astatine and francium. The most well-known of the twenty is certainly <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>, otherwise known as common salt. All of the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen. They are all white ionic crystalline solids that have high melting points.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-alkalireact-94">[84]</a> All the alkali metal halides are <a href="/wiki/Soluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Soluble">soluble</a> in water except for <a href="/wiki/Lithium_fluoride" title="Lithium fluoride">lithium fluoride</a> (LiF), which is insoluble in water due to its very high <a href="/wiki/Lattice_enthalpy" class="mw-redirect" title="Lattice enthalpy">lattice enthalpy</a>. The high lattice enthalpy of lithium fluoride is due to the small sizes of the Li+ and F− ions, causing the <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic interaction">electrostatic interactions</a> between them to be strong:<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> a similar effect occurs for <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_fluoride" title="Magnesium fluoride">magnesium fluoride</a>, consistent with the diagonal relationship between lithium and magnesium.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 76  The alkali metals also react similarly with hydrogen to form ionic alkali metal hydrides, where the <a href="/wiki/Hydride" title="Hydride">hydride</a> anion acts as a <a href="/wiki/Pseudohalogen" title="Pseudohalogen">pseudohalide</a>: these are often used as reducing agents, producing hydrides, complex metal hydrides, or hydrogen gas.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 83 <a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> Other pseudohalides are also known, notably the <a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">cyanides</a>. These are isostructural to the respective halides except for <a href="/wiki/Lithium_cyanide" title="Lithium cyanide">lithium cyanide</a>, indicating that the cyanide ions may rotate freely.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 322  Ternary alkali metal halide oxides, such as Na3ClO, K3BrO (yellow), Na4Br2O, Na4I2O, and K4Br2O, are also known.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 83  The polyhalides are rather unstable, although those of rubidium and caesium are greatly stabilised by the feeble polarising power of these extremely large cations.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 835  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coordination_complexes">Coordination complexes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Coordination complexes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:18-crown-6-potassium-3D-balls-A.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/18-crown-6-potassium-3D-balls-A.png/150px-18-crown-6-potassium-3D-balls-A.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/18-crown-6-potassium-3D-balls-A.png/225px-18-crown-6-potassium-3D-balls-A.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/18-crown-6-potassium-3D-balls-A.png/300px-18-crown-6-potassium-3D-balls-A.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1096" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/18-crown-6" class="mw-redirect" title="18-crown-6">18-crown-6</a> coordinating a potassium ion</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Cryptate_of_potassium_cation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cryptate_of_potassium_cation.jpg/150px-Cryptate_of_potassium_cation.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cryptate_of_potassium_cation.jpg/225px-Cryptate_of_potassium_cation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cryptate_of_potassium_cation.jpg/300px-Cryptate_of_potassium_cation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="757" data-file-height="645" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Structure of <a href="/wiki/2.2.2-Cryptand" title="2.2.2-Cryptand">2.2.2-Cryptand</a> encapsulating a potassium cation (purple). At crystalline state, obtained with an X-ray diffraction.<a href="#cite_note-145">[135]</a></div></div></div></div></div> Alkali metal cations do not usually form <a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">coordination complexes</a> with simple <a href="/wiki/Lewis_base" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis base">Lewis bases</a> due to their low charge of just +1 and their relatively large size; thus the Li+ ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less (though exceptions occur for weak complexes).<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 90  Lithium in particular has a very rich coordination chemistry in which it exhibits <a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">coordination numbers</a> from 1 to 12, although octahedral hexacoordination is its preferred mode.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 90–1  In <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aqueous solution</a>, the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes [M(H2O)6]+, with the exception of the lithium ion, which due to its small size forms tetrahedral tetrahydrate complexes [Li(H2O)4]+; the alkali metals form these complexes because their ions are attracted by electrostatic forces of attraction to the polar water molecules. Because of this, <a href="/wiki/Anhydrous" title="Anhydrous">anhydrous</a> salts containing alkali metal cations are often used as <a href="/wiki/Desiccant" title="Desiccant">desiccants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> Alkali metals also readily form complexes with <a href="/wiki/Crown_ether" title="Crown ether">crown ethers</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/12-crown-4" class="mw-redirect" title="12-crown-4">12-crown-4</a> for Li+, <a href="/wiki/15-crown-5" class="mw-redirect" title="15-crown-5">15-crown-5</a> for Na+, <a href="/wiki/18-crown-6" class="mw-redirect" title="18-crown-6">18-crown-6</a> for K+, and <a href="/wiki/21-crown-7" class="mw-redirect" title="21-crown-7">21-crown-7</a> for Rb+) and <a href="/wiki/Cryptand" title="Cryptand">cryptands</a> due to electrostatic attraction.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ammonia_solutions">Ammonia solutions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Ammonia solutions">edit</a>]</div> The alkali metals dissolve slowly in liquid <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, forming ammoniacal solutions of solvated metal cation M+ and <a href="/wiki/Solvated_electron" title="Solvated electron">solvated electron</a> e−, which react to form hydrogen gas and the <a href="/wiki/Metal_amide#Alkali_metal_amides" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal amide">alkali metal amide</a> (MNH2, where M represents an alkali metal): this was first noted by <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> in 1809 and rediscovered by W. Weyl in 1864. The process may be speeded up by a <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalyst</a>. Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth metals</a> <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>, as well as the divalent <a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">lanthanides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">europium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">ytterbium</a>. The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of solution, leaving intensely coloured ammonia solutions of the alkali metals. In 1907, <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Kraus" title="Charles A. Kraus">Charles A. Kraus</a> identified the colour as being due to the presence of <a href="/wiki/Solvated_electron" title="Solvated electron">solvated electrons</a>, which contribute to the high electrical conductivity of these solutions. At low concentrations (below 3 M), the solution is dark blue and has ten times the conductivity of aqueous <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>; at higher concentrations (above 3 M), the solution is copper-coloured and has approximately the conductivity of liquid metals like <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-c&w-146">[136]</a> In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons, such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation (M+), the neutral alkali metal atom (M), <a href="/wiki/Diatomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatomic">diatomic</a> alkali metal molecules (M2) and alkali metal anions (M−). These are unstable and eventually become the more thermodynamically stable alkali metal amide and hydrogen gas. Solvated electrons are powerful <a href="/wiki/Reducing_agent" title="Reducing agent">reducing agents</a> and are often used in chemical synthesis.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organometallic">Organometallic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Organometallic">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Organolithium">Organolithium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Organolithium">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Organolithium_reagent" title="Organolithium reagent">Organolithium reagent</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png/250px-Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png/375px-Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png/500px-Butyllithium-hexamer-from-xtal-3D-balls-A.png 2x" data-file-width="1088" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>Structure of the octahedral <a href="/wiki/N-butyllithium" class="mw-redirect" title="N-butyllithium">n-butyllithium</a> hexamer, (C4H9Li)6.<a href="#cite_note-147">[137]</a> The aggregates are held together by delocalised covalent bonds between lithium and the terminal carbon of the butyl chain.<a href="#cite_note-148">[138]</a> There is no direct lithium–lithium bonding in any organolithium compound.<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a>: 264 </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png/250px-Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png/375px-Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png/500px-Phenyllithium-chain-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="2771" data-file-height="2115" /></a><figcaption>Solid <a href="/wiki/Phenyllithium" title="Phenyllithium">phenyllithium</a> forms monoclinic crystals that can be described as consisting of dimeric Li2(<a href="/wiki/Phenyl_group" title="Phenyl group">C6H5</a>)2 subunits. The lithium atoms and the <a href="/wiki/Arene_substitution_pattern" title="Arene substitution pattern">ipso</a> carbons of the phenyl rings form a planar four-membered ring. The plane of the phenyl groups is perpendicular to the plane of this Li2C2 ring. Additional strong intermolecular bonding occurs between these phenyllithium dimers and the π electrons of the phenyl groups in the adjacent dimers, resulting in an infinite polymeric ladder structure.<a href="#cite_note-149">[139]</a></figcaption></figure> Being the smallest alkali metal, lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Organometallic compound">organometallic compounds</a>, which are bonded covalently. <a href="/wiki/Organolithium" class="mw-redirect" title="Organolithium">Organolithium</a> compounds are electrically non-conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures, and tend to form <a href="/wiki/Oligomer" title="Oligomer">oligomers</a> with the structure (RLi)x where R is the organic group. As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the <a href="/wiki/Charge_density" title="Charge density">charge density</a> of the bond on the carbon atom, effectively creating a <a href="/wiki/Carbanion" title="Carbanion">carbanion</a>, organolithium compounds are extremely powerful <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">bases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nucleophile" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon nucleophile">nucleophiles</a>. For use as bases, <a href="/wiki/Butyllithium" title="Butyllithium">butyllithiums</a> are often used and are commercially available. An example of an organolithium compound is <a href="/wiki/Methyllithium" title="Methyllithium">methyllithium</a> ((CH3Li)x), which exists in tetrameric (x = 4, tetrahedral) and hexameric (x = 6, octahedral) forms.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown1957-150">[140]</a> Organolithium compounds, especially n-butyllithium, are useful reagents in organic synthesis, as might be expected given lithium's diagonal relationship with magnesium, which plays an important role in the <a href="/wiki/Grignard_reaction" title="Grignard reaction">Grignard reaction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 102  For example, alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may be used to synthesise <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehydes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketones</a> by reaction with metal <a href="/wiki/Carbonyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonyl">carbonyls</a>. The reaction with <a href="/wiki/Nickel_tetracarbonyl" title="Nickel tetracarbonyl">nickel tetracarbonyl</a>, for example, proceeds through an unstable acyl nickel carbonyl complex which then undergoes <a href="/wiki/Electrophilic_substitution" title="Electrophilic substitution">electrophilic substitution</a> to give the desired aldehyde (using H+ as the electrophile) or ketone (using an alkyl halide) product.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 105  <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {LiR\ +\ Ni(CO)4\ \longrightarrow Li^{+}[RCONi(CO)3]^{-}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>LiR</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mtext>Ni</mtext> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext> </mtext> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <msup> <mtext>Li</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mtext>RCONi</mtext> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {LiR\ +\ Ni(CO)4\ \longrightarrow Li^{+}[RCONi(CO)3]^{-}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b1783ddc7161bab3c63eb4c179496f65fc6ece16" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:42.58ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {LiR\ +\ Ni(CO)4\ \longrightarrow Li^{+}[RCONi(CO)3]^{-}}}}"></dd> <dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {Li^{+}[RCONi(CO)3]^{-}->[{\ce {H^{+}}}][{\ce {solvent}}]\ Li^{+}\ +\ RCHO\ +\ [(solvent)Ni(CO)3]}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mtext>Li</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mtext>RCONi</mtext> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <munderover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset="-.24em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>solvent</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mpadded> </munderover> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mtext>Li</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mtext>RCHO</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mtext>solvent</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mtext>Ni</mtext> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {Li^{+}[RCONi(CO)3]^{-}->[{\ce {H^{+}}}][{\ce {solvent}}]\ Li^{+}\ +\ RCHO\ +\ [(solvent)Ni(CO)3]}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/048a72890ac48383f7155a9f800660ab7b919d38" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.81ex; margin-top: -0.398ex; margin-bottom: -0.528ex; width:66.204ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {Li^{+}[RCONi(CO)3]^{-}->[{\ce {H^{+}}}][{\ce {solvent}}]\ Li^{+}\ +\ RCHO\ +\ [(solvent)Ni(CO)3]}}}"></dd> <dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {Li^{+}[RCONi(CO)3]^{-}->[{\ce {R^{'}Br}}][{\ce {solvent}}]\ Li^{+}\ +\ RR^{'}CO\ +\ [(solvent)Ni(CO)3]}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mtext>Li</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mtext>RCONi</mtext> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <munderover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset="-.24em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>solvent</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mtext>R</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi></mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mrow> </msup> <mtext>Br</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> </munderover> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mtext>Li</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mtext>RR</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi></mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </mrow> </msup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mtext>solvent</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mtext>Ni</mtext> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {Li^{+}[RCONi(CO)3]^{-}->[{\ce {R^{'}Br}}][{\ce {solvent}}]\ Li^{+}\ +\ RR^{'}CO\ +\ [(solvent)Ni(CO)3]}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7ccae3545edde30fdaec9ebc9a5dde6cbd28d06d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.81ex; margin-top: -0.445ex; margin-bottom: -0.528ex; width:66.935ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {Li^{+}[RCONi(CO)3]^{-}->[{\ce {R^{'}Br}}][{\ce {solvent}}]\ Li^{+}\ +\ RR^{'}CO\ +\ [(solvent)Ni(CO)3]}}}"></dd></dl> Alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may also react with N,N-disubstituted <a href="/wiki/Amide" title="Amide">amides</a> to give aldehydes and ketones, and symmetrical ketones by reacting with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>. They thermally decompose to eliminate a β-hydrogen, producing <a href="/wiki/Alkene" title="Alkene">alkenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium_hydride" title="Lithium hydride">lithium hydride</a>: another route is the reaction of <a href="/wiki/Ether" title="Ether">ethers</a> with alkyl- and aryllithiums that act as strong bases.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 105  In non-polar solvents, aryllithiums react as the carbanions they effectively are, turning carbon dioxide to aromatic <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acids</a> (ArCO2H) and aryl ketones to tertiary carbinols (Ar'2C(Ar)OH). Finally, they may be used to synthesise other organometallic compounds through metal-halogen exchange.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 106  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Heavier_alkali_metals">Heavier alkali metals</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Heavier alkali metals">edit</a>]</div> Unlike the organolithium compounds, the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are predominantly ionic. The application of <a href="/wiki/Organosodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Organosodium">organosodium</a> compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from <a href="/wiki/Organolithium_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Organolithium compound">organolithium compounds</a>, which are commercially available and exhibit more convenient reactivity. The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is <a href="/wiki/Sodium_cyclopentadienide" title="Sodium cyclopentadienide">sodium cyclopentadienide</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sodium_tetraphenylborate" title="Sodium tetraphenylborate">Sodium tetraphenylborate</a> can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups. Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility. A notable reagent is <a href="/wiki/Schlosser%27s_base" title="Schlosser's base">Schlosser's base</a>, a mixture of <a href="/wiki/N-Butyllithium" title="N-Butyllithium">n-butyllithium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_tert-butoxide" title="Potassium tert-butoxide">potassium tert-butoxide</a>. This reagent reacts with <a href="/wiki/Propene" class="mw-redirect" title="Propene">propene</a> to form the compound <a href="/w/index.php?title=Allylpotassium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Allylpotassium (page does not exist)">allylpotassium</a> (KCH2CHCH2). <a href="/wiki/Cis-2-butene" class="mw-redirect" title="Cis-2-butene">cis-2-Butene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trans-2-butene" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-2-butene">trans-2-butene</a> equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals. Whereas <a href="/wiki/Isomerisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomerisation">isomerisation</a> is fast with lithium and sodium, it is slow with the heavier alkali metals. The heavier alkali metals also favour the <a href="/wiki/Steric_hindrance" class="mw-redirect" title="Steric hindrance">sterically</a> congested conformation.<a href="#cite_note-151">[141]</a> Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported, establishing that they, like the sodium compounds, are polymeric.<a href="#cite_note-Klett-152">[142]</a> Organosodium, organopotassium, organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble (or nearly so) in nonpolar solvents.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> Alkyl and aryl derivatives of sodium and potassium tend to react with air. They cause the cleavage of <a href="/wiki/Ether" title="Ether">ethers</a>, generating alkoxides. Unlike alkyllithium compounds, alkylsodiums and alkylpotassiums cannot be made by reacting the metals with alkyl halides because <a href="/wiki/Wurtz_coupling" class="mw-redirect" title="Wurtz coupling">Wurtz coupling</a> occurs:<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a>: 265  <dl><dd>RM + R'X → R–R' + MX</dd></dl> As such, they have to be made by reacting <a href="/wiki/Organomercury_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Organomercury compound">alkylmercury</a> compounds with sodium or potassium metal in inert hydrocarbon solvents. While methylsodium forms tetramers like methyllithium, methylpotassium is more ionic and has the <a href="/wiki/Nickel_arsenide" title="Nickel arsenide">nickel arsenide</a> structure with discrete methyl anions and potassium cations.<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a>: 265  The alkali metals and their hydrides react with acidic hydrocarbons, for example <a href="/wiki/Cyclopentadiene" title="Cyclopentadiene">cyclopentadienes</a> and terminal alkynes, to give salts. Liquid ammonia, ether, or hydrocarbon solvents are used, the most common of which being <a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrofuran" title="Tetrahydrofuran">tetrahydrofuran</a>. The most important of these compounds is <a href="/wiki/Sodium_cyclopentadienide" title="Sodium cyclopentadienide">sodium cyclopentadienide</a>, NaC5H5, an important precursor to many transition metal cyclopentadienyl derivatives.<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a>: 265  Similarly, the alkali metals react with <a href="/wiki/Cyclooctatetraene" title="Cyclooctatetraene">cyclooctatetraene</a> in tetrahydrofuran to give alkali metal <a href="/wiki/Cyclooctatetraenide" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclooctatetraenide">cyclooctatetraenides</a>; for example, <a href="/wiki/Dipotassium_cyclooctatetraenide" title="Dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide">dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide</a> (K2C8H8) is an important precursor to many metal cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives, such as <a href="/wiki/Uranocene" title="Uranocene">uranocene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a>: 266  The large and very weakly polarising alkali metal cations can stabilise large, aromatic, polarisable radical anions, such as the dark-green <a href="/wiki/Sodium_naphthalenide" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium naphthalenide">sodium naphthalenide</a>, Na+[C10H8•]−, a strong reducing agent.<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a>: 266  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Representative_reactions_of_alkali_metals">Representative reactions of alkali metals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Representative reactions of alkali metals">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_with_oxygen">Reaction with oxygen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Reaction with oxygen">edit</a>]</div> Upon reacting with oxygen, alkali metals form <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peroxide" title="Peroxide">peroxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superoxide" title="Superoxide">superoxides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suboxide" title="Suboxide">suboxides</a>. However, the first three are more common. The table below<a href="#cite_note-miessler-153">[143]</a> shows the types of compounds formed in reaction with oxygen. The compound in brackets represents the minor product of combustion. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>Alkali metal</td> <td>Oxide</td> <td>Peroxide</td> <td>Superoxide </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Li</a></td> <td>Li2O</td> <td>(Li2O2)</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a></td> <td>(Na2O)</td> <td>Na2O2</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">K</a></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>KO2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rb</a></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>RbO2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Cs</a></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>CsO2 </td></tr></tbody></table> The alkali metal peroxides are ionic compounds that are unstable in water. The peroxide anion is weakly bound to the cation, and it is hydrolysed, forming stronger covalent bonds. <dl><dd>Na2O2 + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2O2</dd></dl> The other oxygen compounds are also unstable in water. <dl><dd>2KO2 + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2O2 + O2<a href="#cite_note-154">[144]</a></dd> <dd>Li2O + H2O → 2LiOH</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_with_sulfur">Reaction with sulfur</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Reaction with sulfur">edit</a>]</div> With sulfur, they form <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polysulfide" title="Polysulfide">polysulfides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[145]</a> <dl><dd>2Na + 1/8S8 → Na2S + 1/8S8 → Na2S2...Na2S7</dd></dl> Because alkali metal sulfides are essentially salts of a weak acid and a strong base, they form basic solutions. <dl><dd>S2- + H2O → HS− + HO−</dd> <dd>HS− + H2O → H2S + HO−</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_with_nitrogen">Reaction with nitrogen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Reaction with nitrogen">edit</a>]</div> Lithium is the only metal that combines directly with nitrogen at room temperature. <dl><dd>3Li + 1/2N2 → Li3N</dd></dl> Li3N can react with water to liberate ammonia. <dl><dd>Li3N + 3H2O → 3LiOH + NH3</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_with_hydrogen">Reaction with hydrogen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Reaction with hydrogen">edit</a>]</div> With hydrogen, alkali metals form saline <a href="/wiki/Hydride" title="Hydride">hydrides</a> that hydrolyse in water. <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {2 Na \ + H2 \ ->[{\ce {\Delta}}] \ 2 NaH}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>Na</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> </mrow> </mpadded> </mover> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>NaH</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {2 Na \ + H2 \ ->[{\ce {\Delta}}] \ 2 NaH}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/31df93df654a7b734a6adf394ab9bc5b69484a3a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-top: -0.441ex; width:22.016ex; height:4.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {2 Na \ + H2 \ ->[{\ce {\Delta}}] \ 2 NaH}}}"></dd> <dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {2NaH\ +\ 2H2O\ \longrightarrow \ 2NaOH\ +\ H2\uparrow }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>NaH</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>NaOH</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">↑</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {2NaH\ +\ 2H2O\ \longrightarrow \ 2NaOH\ +\ H2\uparrow }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/87d6c6ce762a61f04e5efe1aa64cf8798337ea92" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:39.225ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {2NaH\ +\ 2H2O\ \longrightarrow \ 2NaOH\ +\ H2\uparrow }}}"></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_with_carbon">Reaction with carbon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Reaction with carbon">edit</a>]</div> Lithium is the only metal that reacts directly with carbon to give <a href="/wiki/Dilithium_acetylide" class="mw-redirect" title="Dilithium acetylide">dilithium acetylide</a>. Na and K can react with <a href="/wiki/Acetylene" title="Acetylene">acetylene</a> to give <a href="/wiki/Acetylide" title="Acetylide">acetylides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[146]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {2Li\ +\ 2C\ \longrightarrow \ Li2C2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>Li</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>C</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <msubsup> <mtext>Li</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>C</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {2Li\ +\ 2C\ \longrightarrow \ Li2C2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/852f130b88236a90d3c926228d364704d03eb37d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:23.022ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {2Li\ +\ 2C\ \longrightarrow \ Li2C2}}}"></dd> <dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {2Na\ +\ 2C2H2\ ->[{\ce {150\ ^{o}C}}]\ 2NaC2H\ +\ H2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>Na</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>C</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>150</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>o</mtext> </mrow> </msup> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> </mover> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>NaC</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {2Na\ +\ 2C2H2\ ->[{\ce {150\ ^{o}C}}]\ 2NaC2H\ +\ H2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a763ecb3a7dd778b986b68bdebab4f5b5a28ce7a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-top: -0.424ex; width:40.493ex; height:4.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {2Na\ +\ 2C2H2\ ->[{\ce {150\ ^{o}C}}]\ 2NaC2H\ +\ H2}}}"></dd> <dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {2Na\ +\ 2NaC2H\ ->[{\ce {220\ ^{o}C}}]\ 2Na2C2\ +\ H2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mtext>Na</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>NaC</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>220</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msup> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>o</mtext> </mrow> </msup> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> </mover> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msubsup> <mtext>Na</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>C</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext> </mtext> <mo>+</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {2Na\ +\ 2NaC2H\ ->[{\ce {220\ ^{o}C}}]\ 2Na2C2\ +\ H2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5dee10d9e2a8694d6b12badfe5ee74aa5e4d66c0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-top: -0.424ex; width:41.655ex; height:4.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {2Na\ +\ 2NaC2H\ ->[{\ce {220\ ^{o}C}}]\ 2Na2C2\ +\ H2}}}"></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_with_water">Reaction with water</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Reaction with water">edit</a>]</div> On reaction with water, they generate <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">hydroxide</a> ions and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> gas. This reaction is vigorous and highly exothermic and the hydrogen resulted may ignite in air or even explode in the case of Rb and Cs.<a href="#cite_note-miessler-153">[143]</a> <dl><dd>Na + H2O → NaOH + 1/2H2</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_with_other_salts">Reaction with other salts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Reaction with other salts">edit</a>]</div> The alkali metals are very good reducing agents. They can reduce metal cations that are less electropositive. <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Titanium</a> is produced industrially by the reduction of <a href="/wiki/Titanium_tetrachloride" title="Titanium tetrachloride">titanium tetrachloride</a> with Na at 400 °C (<a href="/wiki/Van_Arkel%E2%80%93de_Boer_process" title="Van Arkel–de Boer process">van Arkel–de Boer process</a>). <dl><dd>TiCl4 + 4Na → 4NaCl + Ti</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_with_organohalide_compounds">Reaction with organohalide compounds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Reaction with organohalide compounds">edit</a>]</div> Alkali metals react with halogen derivatives to generate hydrocarbon via the <a href="/wiki/Wurtz_reaction" title="Wurtz reaction">Wurtz reaction</a>. <dl><dd>2CH3-Cl + 2Na → H3C-CH3 + 2NaCl</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alkali_metals_in_liquid_ammonia">Alkali metals in liquid ammonia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Alkali metals in liquid ammonia">edit</a>]</div> Alkali metals dissolve in liquid <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> or other donor solvents like aliphatic <a href="/wiki/Amine" title="Amine">amines</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hexamethylphosphoramide" title="Hexamethylphosphoramide">hexamethylphosphoramide</a> to give blue solutions. These solutions are believed to contain free electrons.<a href="#cite_note-miessler-153">[143]</a> <dl><dd>Na + xNH3 → Na+ + e(NH3)x−</dd></dl> Due to the presence of <a href="/wiki/Solvated_electron" title="Solvated electron">solvated electrons</a>, these solutions are very powerful reducing agents used in organic synthesis. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Na_in_lie._am.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Na_in_lie._am.jpg/280px-Na_in_lie._am.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Na_in_lie._am.jpg/420px-Na_in_lie._am.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Na_in_lie._am.jpg/560px-Na_in_lie._am.jpg 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="356" /></a><figcaption>Reduction reactions using sodium in liquid ammonia</figcaption></figure> Reaction 1) is known as <a href="/wiki/Birch_reduction" title="Birch reduction">Birch reduction</a>. Other reductions<a href="#cite_note-miessler-153">[143]</a> that can be carried by these solutions are: <dl><dd>S8 + 2e− → S82-</dd> <dd>Fe(CO)5 + 2e− → Fe(CO)42- + CO</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extensions">Extensions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Extensions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_radius_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Atomic_radius_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg/250px-Atomic_radius_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Atomic_radius_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg/375px-Atomic_radius_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Atomic_radius_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg/500px-Atomic_radius_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1967" data-file-height="1750" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical</a> (Na–Cs, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Fr–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) atomic radius of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the <a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">third</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Period_9_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Period 9 element">ninth period</a>, measured in <a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">angstroms</a><a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1730 <a href="#cite_note-pyykko-157">[147]</a></figcaption></figure> Although francium is the heaviest alkali metal that has been discovered, there has been some theoretical work predicting the physical and chemical characteristics of hypothetical heavier alkali metals. Being the first <a href="/wiki/Period_8_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Period 8 element">period 8 element</a>, the undiscovered element <a href="/wiki/Ununennium" title="Ununennium">ununennium</a> (element 119) is predicted to be the next alkali metal after francium and behave much like their lighter <a href="/wiki/Congener_(chemistry)" title="Congener (chemistry)">congeners</a>; however, it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkali metals in some properties.<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1730  Its chemistry is predicted to be closer to that of potassium<a href="#cite_note-EB-47">[41]</a> or rubidium<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1730  instead of caesium or francium. This is unusual as <a href="/wiki/Periodic_trends" title="Periodic trends">periodic trends</a>, ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium to be even more reactive than caesium and francium. This lowered <a href="/wiki/Reactivity_(chemistry)" title="Reactivity (chemistry)">reactivity</a> is due to the relativistic stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron, increasing ununennium's first ionisation energy and decreasing the <a href="/wiki/Metallic_radius" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic radius">metallic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radii" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic radii">ionic radii</a>;<a href="#cite_note-EB-47">[41]</a> this effect is already seen for francium.<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1730  This assumes that ununennium will behave chemically as an alkali metal, which, although likely, may not be true due to relativistic effects.<a href="#cite_note-tanm-158">[148]</a> The relativistic stabilisation of the 8s orbital also increases ununennium's <a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity" title="Electron affinity">electron affinity</a> far beyond that of caesium and francium; indeed, ununennium is expected to have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals lighter than it. Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in the <a href="/wiki/Polarisability" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarisability">polarisability</a> of ununennium.<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1730  On the other hand, ununennium is predicted to continue the trend of melting points decreasing going down the group, being expected to have a melting point between 0 °C and 30 °C.<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1724  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Electron_affinity_of_alkali_metals.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Electron_affinity_of_alkali_metals.svg/220px-Electron_affinity_of_alkali_metals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="368" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Electron_affinity_of_alkali_metals.svg/330px-Electron_affinity_of_alkali_metals.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Electron_affinity_of_alkali_metals.svg/440px-Electron_affinity_of_alkali_metals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2676" /></a><figcaption>Empirical (Na–Fr) and predicted (Uue) electron affinity of the alkali metals from the third to the <a href="/wiki/Period_8_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Period 8 element">eighth period</a>, measured in <a href="/wiki/Electron_volt" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron volt">electron volts</a><a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1730 <a href="#cite_note-pyykko-157">[147]</a></figcaption></figure> The stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron and thus the contraction of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to be lowered to 240 <a href="/wiki/Picometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Picometer">pm</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1730  very close to that of rubidium (247 pm),<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> so that the chemistry of ununennium in the +1 oxidation state should be more similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium. On the other hand, the ionic radius of the Uue+ ion is predicted to be larger than that of Rb+, because the 7p orbitals are destabilised and are thus larger than the p-orbitals of the lower shells. Ununennium may also show the +3<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1730  and +5 <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation states</a>,<a href="#cite_note-159">[149]</a> which are not seen in any other alkali metal,<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 28  in addition to the +1 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals: this is because of the destabilisation and expansion of the 7p3/2 spinor, causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionisation energy than what would otherwise be expected.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 28 <a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1730  Indeed, many ununennium compounds are expected to have a large <a href="/wiki/Covalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalent">covalent</a> character, due to the involvement of the 7p3/2 electrons in the bonding.<a href="#cite_note-Thayer-96">[86]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ionization_energy_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Ionization_energy_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg/220px-Ionization_energy_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Ionization_energy_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg/330px-Ionization_energy_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Ionization_energy_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg/440px-Ionization_energy_of_alkali_metals_and_alkaline_earth_metals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1750" data-file-height="2424" /></a><figcaption>Empirical (Na–Fr, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Uue–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) ionisation energy of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the third to the ninth period, measured in electron volts<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1730 <a href="#cite_note-pyykko-157">[147]</a></figcaption></figure> Not as much work has been done predicting the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium. Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table (by the <a href="/wiki/Aufbau_principle" title="Aufbau principle">Aufbau principle</a>) would put element 169, unhexennium, under ununennium, Dirac-Fock calculations predict that the next element after ununennium with alkali-metal-like properties may be element 165, unhexpentium, which is predicted to have the electron configuration [Og] 5g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p1/22 9s1.<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1730 <a href="#cite_note-pyykko-157">[147]</a> This element would be intermediate in properties between an alkali metal and a <a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">group 11 element</a>, and while its physical and atomic properties would be closer to the former, its chemistry may be closer to that of the latter. Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond caesium, having an ionisation energy comparable to that of sodium, and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium, having an atomic radius comparable to that of potassium.<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1730  However, the 7d electrons of unhexpentium may also be able to participate in chemical reactions along with the 9s electron, possibly allowing oxidation states beyond +1, whence the likely transition metal behaviour of unhexpentium.<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1732–1733 <a href="#cite_note-BFricke-160">[150]</a> Due to the alkali and <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth metals</a> both being <a href="/wiki/S-block" class="mw-redirect" title="S-block">s-block</a> elements, these predictions for the trends and properties of ununennium and unhexpentium also mostly hold quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals <a href="/wiki/Unbinilium" title="Unbinilium">unbinilium</a> (Ubn) and unhexhexium (Uhh).<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1733  Unsepttrium, element 173, may be an even better heavier homologue of ununennium; with a predicted electron configuration of [Usb] 6g1, it returns to the alkali-metal-like situation of having one easily removed electron far above a closed p-shell in energy, and is expected to be even more reactive than caesium.<a href="#cite_note-BFricke1977-161">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-primefan-162">[152]</a> The probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unsepttrium have not been explored yet as of 2019, and they may or may not be able to exist.<a href="#cite_note-pyykko-157">[147]</a> In periods 8 and above of the periodic table, relativistic and shell-structure effects become so strong that extrapolations from lighter congeners become completely inaccurate. In addition, the relativistic and shell-structure effects (which stabilise the s-orbitals and destabilise and expand the d-, f-, and g-orbitals of higher shells) have opposite effects, causing even larger difference between relativistic and non-relativistic calculations of the properties of elements with such high atomic numbers.<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1732–1733  Interest in the chemical properties of ununennium, unhexpentium, and unsepttrium stems from the fact that they are located close to the expected locations of <a href="/wiki/Island_of_stability" title="Island of stability">islands of stability</a>, centered at elements 122 (306Ubb) and 164 (482Uhq).<a href="#cite_note-Kratz-163">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pseudo-alkali_metals">Pseudo-alkali metals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Pseudo-alkali metals">edit</a>]</div> Many other substances are similar to the alkali metals in their tendency to form monopositive cations. Analogously to the <a href="/wiki/Pseudohalogen" title="Pseudohalogen">pseudohalogens</a>, they have sometimes been called "pseudo-alkali metals". These substances include some elements and many more <a href="/wiki/Polyatomic_ion" title="Polyatomic ion">polyatomic ions</a>; the polyatomic ions are especially similar to the alkali metals in their large size and weak polarising power.<a href="#cite_note-pseudo-166">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Hydrogen">edit</a>]</div> The element <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, with one electron per neutral atom, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table because of its electron configuration. But hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal.<a href="#cite_note-iupac-167">[157]</a> <a href="/wiki/Metallic_hydrogen" title="Metallic hydrogen">Metallic hydrogen</a>, which only exists at very high pressures, is known for its electrical and magnetic properties, not its chemical properties.<a href="#cite_note-Folden-168">[158]</a> Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists as a <a href="/wiki/Diatomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatomic">diatomic</a> gas consisting of two atoms per molecule (H2);<a href="#cite_note-169">[159]</a> however, the alkali metals form diatomic molecules (such as <a href="/wiki/Dilithium" title="Dilithium">dilithium</a>, Li2) only at high temperatures, when they are in the gaseous state.<a href="#cite_note-170">[160]</a> Hydrogen, like the alkali metals, has one <a href="/wiki/Valence_electron" title="Valence electron">valence electron</a><a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a> and reacts easily with the <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a>,<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a> but the similarities mostly end there because of the small size of a bare proton H+ compared to the alkali metal cations.<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a> Its placement above lithium is primarily due to its <a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">electron configuration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-iupac-167">[157]</a> It is sometimes placed above <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> due to their similar chemical properties, though the resemblance is likewise not absolute.<a href="#cite_note-hydrogen-171">[161]</a> The first ionisation energy of hydrogen (1312.0 <a href="/wiki/KJ/mol" class="mw-redirect" title="KJ/mol">kJ/mol</a>) is much higher than that of the alkali metals.<a href="#cite_note-huheey-172">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-macmillan-173">[163]</a> As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen often behaves like a halogen, forming the negative <a href="/wiki/Hydride" title="Hydride">hydride</a> ion, and is very occasionally considered to be a halogen on that basis. (The alkali metals can also form negative ions, known as <a href="/wiki/Alkalide" title="Alkalide">alkalides</a>, but these are little more than laboratory curiosities, being unstable.)<a href="#cite_note-HNa-89">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-HNa-theory-90">[80]</a> An argument against this placement is that formation of hydride from hydrogen is endothermic, unlike the exothermic formation of halides from halogens. The radius of the H− anion also does not fit the trend of increasing size going down the halogens: indeed, H− is very diffuse because its single proton cannot easily control both electrons.<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a>: 15–6  It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties;<a href="#cite_note-hydrogen-171">[161]</a> while this has been shown to not be the case, under extremely high <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressures</a>, such as those found at the cores of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>, hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; in this phase, it is known as <a href="/wiki/Metallic_hydrogen" title="Metallic hydrogen">metallic hydrogen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[164]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistivity">electrical resistivity</a> of liquid <a href="/wiki/Metallic_hydrogen" title="Metallic hydrogen">metallic hydrogen</a> at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal-to-metal transition.<a href="#cite_note-175">[165]</a> The 1s1 electron configuration of hydrogen, while analogous to that of the alkali metals (ns1), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the <a href="/wiki/Hydron_(chemistry)" title="Hydron (chemistry)">hydron</a> H+, or gain one to form the <a href="/wiki/Hydride" title="Hydride">hydride</a> ion H−.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 43  In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 43  Group 14 is also a good fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as <a href="/wiki/Ionisation_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionisation energy">ionisation energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity" title="Electron affinity">electron affinity</a>, but hydrogen cannot be tetravalent. Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory, although group 1 is the most common placement (if one is chosen) because of the electron configuration and the fact that the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species, being the foundation of acid-base chemistry.<a href="#cite_note-hydrogen-171">[161]</a> As an example of hydrogen's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size, the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 <a href="/wiki/Femtometre" title="Femtometre">fm</a> compared to the 50–220 pm size of most other atoms and ions) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in association with other atoms or molecules. Indeed, transferring of protons between chemicals is the basis of <a href="/wiki/Acid-base_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-base chemistry">acid-base chemistry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 43  Also unique is hydrogen's ability to form <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bonds</a>, which are an effect of charge-transfer, <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic">electrostatic</a>, and electron correlative contributing phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-hydrogen-171">[161]</a> While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic.<a href="#cite_note-hydrogen-171">[161]</a> Nevertheless, hydrogen can take on the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals (especially lithium).<a href="#cite_note-176">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ammonium_and_derivatives">Ammonium and derivatives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Ammonium and derivatives">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydrochloric_acid_ammonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Hydrochloric_acid_ammonia.jpg/220px-Hydrochloric_acid_ammonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Hydrochloric_acid_ammonia.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="301" data-file-height="296" /></a><figcaption>Similarly to the alkali metals, <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> reacts with <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> to form the salt <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_chloride" title="Ammonium chloride">ammonium chloride</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a> ion (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">NH+4) has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals, acting as an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium,<a href="#cite_note-pseudo-166">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[168]</a> and is often considered a close relative.<a href="#cite_note-Holleman&Wiberg-179">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-180">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bernal&Massey-181">[171]</a> For example, most alkali metal <a href="/wiki/Salts" class="mw-redirect" title="Salts">salts</a> are <a href="/wiki/Soluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Soluble">soluble</a> in water, a property which ammonium salts share.<a href="#cite_note-182">[172]</a> Ammonium is expected to behave stably as a metal (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">NH+4 ions in a sea of delocalised electrons) at very high pressures (though less than the typical pressure where transitions from insulating to metallic behaviour occur around, 100 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">GPa</a>), and could possibly occur inside the <a href="/wiki/Ice_giant" title="Ice giant">ice giants</a> <a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>, which may have significant impacts on their interior magnetic fields.<a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-180">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bernal&Massey-181">[171]</a> It has been estimated that the transition from a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> and dihydrogen molecules to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25 GPa.<a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-180">[170]</a> Under standard conditions, ammonium can form a metallic amalgam with mercury.<a href="#cite_note-183">[173]</a> Other "pseudo-alkali metals" include the <a href="/wiki/Alkylammonium" title="Alkylammonium">alkylammonium</a> cations, in which some of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonium cation are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_ammonium_cation" title="Quaternary ammonium cation">quaternary ammonium cations</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">NR+4) are very useful since they are permanently charged, and they are often used as an alternative to the expensive Cs+ to stabilise very large and very easily polarisable anions such as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">HI−2.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 812–9  Tetraalkylammonium hydroxides, like alkali metal hydroxides, are very strong bases that react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonates.<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a>: 256  Furthermore, the nitrogen atom may be replaced by a phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony atom (the heavier nonmetallic <a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">pnictogens</a>), creating a <a href="/wiki/Phosphonium" title="Phosphonium">phosphonium</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">PH+4) or <a href="/wiki/Arsonium" title="Arsonium">arsonium</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">AsH+4) cation that can itself be substituted similarly; while <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stibonium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stibonium (page does not exist)">stibonium</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">SbH+4) itself is not known, some of its organic derivatives are characterised.<a href="#cite_note-pseudo-166">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cobaltocene_and_derivatives">Cobaltocene and derivatives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Cobaltocene and derivatives">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Cobaltocene" title="Cobaltocene">Cobaltocene</a>, Co(C5H5)2, is a <a href="/wiki/Metallocene" title="Metallocene">metallocene</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> analogue of <a href="/wiki/Ferrocene" title="Ferrocene">ferrocene</a>. It is a dark purple solid. Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons, one more than usually found in organotransition metal complexes, such as its very stable relative, ferrocene, in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/18-electron_rule" title="18-electron rule">18-electron rule</a>. This additional electron occupies an orbital that is antibonding with respect to the Co–C bonds. Consequently, many chemical reactions of Co(C5H5)2 are characterized by its tendency to lose this "extra" electron, yielding a very stable 18-electron cation known as cobaltocenium. Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts, and cobaltocenium hydroxide is a strong base that absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide to form cobaltocenium carbonate.<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a>: 256  Like the alkali metals, cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent, and <a href="/wiki/Decamethylcobaltocene" title="Decamethylcobaltocene">decamethylcobaltocene</a> is stronger still due to the combined <a href="/wiki/Inductive_effect" title="Inductive effect">inductive effect</a> of the ten methyl groups.<a href="#cite_note-184">[174]</a> Cobalt may be substituted by its heavier congener <a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">rhodium</a> to give <a href="/wiki/Rhodocene" title="Rhodocene">rhodocene</a>, an even stronger reducing agent.<a href="#cite_note-185">[175]</a> <a href="/wiki/Iridocene" class="mw-redirect" title="Iridocene">Iridocene</a> (involving <a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">iridium</a>) would presumably be still more potent, but is not very well-studied due to its instability.<a href="#cite_note-Keller_1967-186">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thallium">Thallium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Thallium">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg/220px-Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg/330px-Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg/440px-Thallium_pieces_in_ampoule.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Very pure thallium pieces in a glass <a href="/wiki/Ampoule" title="Ampoule">ampoule</a>, stored under <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a> gas</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Thallium</a> is the heaviest stable element in group 13 of the periodic table. At the bottom of the periodic table, the <a href="/wiki/Inert-pair_effect" title="Inert-pair effect">inert-pair effect</a> is quite strong, because of the <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic effects">relativistic</a> stabilisation of the 6s orbital and the decreasing bond energy as the atoms increase in size so that the amount of energy released in forming two more bonds is not worth the high ionisation energies of the 6s electrons.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 226–7  It displays the +1 <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a><a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 28  that all the known alkali metals display,<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 28  and thallium compounds with thallium in its +1 <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a> closely resemble the corresponding potassium or silver compounds stoichiometrically due to the similar ionic radii of the Tl+ (164 <a href="/wiki/Picometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Picometer">pm</a>), K+ (152 pm) and Ag+ (129 pm) ions.<a href="#cite_note-Shannon-187">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crookes-188">[178]</a> It was sometimes considered an alkali metal in <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a> (but not in England) in the years immediately following its discovery,<a href="#cite_note-Crookes-188">[178]</a>: 126  and was placed just after caesium as the sixth alkali metal in <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a>'s 1869 <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Lothar_Meyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Lothar Meyer">Julius Lothar Meyer</a>'s 1868 periodic table.<a href="#cite_note-meta-synthesis2-25">[21]</a> Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium in its current position in the <a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">boron group</a> and left the space below caesium blank.<a href="#cite_note-meta-synthesis2-25">[21]</a> However, thallium also displays the oxidation state +3,<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 28  which no known alkali metal displays<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 28  (although ununennium, the undiscovered seventh alkali metal, is predicted to possibly display the +3 oxidation state).<a href="#cite_note-Uue-41">[36]</a>: 1729–1730  The sixth alkali metal is now considered to be francium.<a href="#cite_note-redbook-189">[179]</a> While Tl+ is stabilised by the inert-pair effect, this inert pair of 6s electrons is still able to participate chemically, so that these electrons are <a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">stereochemically</a> active in aqueous solution. Additionally, the thallium halides (except <a href="/wiki/TlF" class="mw-redirect" title="TlF">TlF</a>) are quite insoluble in water, and <a href="/wiki/TlI" class="mw-redirect" title="TlI">TlI</a> has an unusual structure because of the presence of the stereochemically active inert pair in thallium.<a href="#cite_note-190">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copper,_silver,_and_gold">Copper, silver, and gold</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Copper, silver, and gold">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:414px;max-width:414px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:NatCopper.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A crystal of a coppery-colored metal mineral of standing on a white surface" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/NatCopper.jpg/110px-NatCopper.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/NatCopper.jpg/165px-NatCopper.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/NatCopper.jpg/220px-NatCopper.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1534" data-file-height="1452" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Copper</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:134px;max-width:134px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_crystal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A crystal of a silvery metal crystal lying on a grey surface" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Silver_crystal.jpg/132px-Silver_crystal.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Silver_crystal.jpg/198px-Silver_crystal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Silver_crystal.jpg/264px-Silver_crystal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4428" data-file-height="3472" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Silver</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold-crystals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A crystal of a yellow metal lying on a white surface" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Gold-crystals.jpg/160px-Gold-crystals.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Gold-crystals.jpg/240px-Gold-crystals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Gold-crystals.jpg/320px-Gold-crystals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4788" data-file-height="3102" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Gold</div></div></div></div></div> The <a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">group 11 metals</a> (or coinage metals), copper, silver, and gold, are typically categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d-shells. Physically, they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with <a href="/wiki/Post-transition_metal" title="Post-transition metal">post-transition metals</a>. "The filled d subshell and free s electron of Cu, Ag, and Au contribute to their high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between s electrons and the partially filled d subshell that lower electron mobility."<a href="#cite_note-191">[181]</a> Chemically, the group 11 metals behave like main-group metals in their +1 valence states, and are hence somewhat related to the alkali metals: this is one reason for their previously being labelled as "group IB", paralleling the alkali metals' "group IA". They are occasionally classified as post-transition metals.<a href="#cite_note-192">[182]</a> Their spectra are analogous to those of the alkali metals.<a href="#cite_note-Jensen-33">[29]</a> Their monopositive ions are <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramagnetic">paramagnetic</a> and contribute no colour to their salts, like those of the alkali metals.<a href="#cite_note-193">[183]</a> In Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table, copper, silver, and gold are listed twice, once under group VIII (with the <a href="/wiki/Iron_triad" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron triad">iron triad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Platinum_group_metal" class="mw-redirect" title="Platinum group metal">platinum group metals</a>), and once under group IB. Group IB was nonetheless parenthesised to note that it was tentative. Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element: on that basis, the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB, due to the existence of copper(II) and gold(III) compounds being known at that time.<a href="#cite_note-Jensen-33">[29]</a> However, eliminating group IB would make group I the only main group (group VIII was labelled a transition group) to lack an A–B bifurcation.<a href="#cite_note-Jensen-33">[29]</a> Soon afterward, a majority of chemists chose to classify these elements in group IB and remove them from group VIII for the resulting symmetry: this was the predominant classification until the rise of the modern medium-long 18-column periodic table, which separated the alkali metals and group 11 metals.<a href="#cite_note-Jensen-33">[29]</a> The coinage metals were traditionally regarded as a subdivision of the alkali metal group, due to them sharing the characteristic s1 electron configuration of the alkali metals (group 1: p6s1; group 11: d10s1). However, the similarities are largely confined to the <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometries" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoichiometries">stoichiometries</a> of the +1 compounds of both groups, and not their chemical properties.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 1177  This stems from the filled d subshell providing a much weaker shielding effect on the outermost s electron than the filled p subshell, so that the coinage metals have much higher first ionisation energies and smaller ionic radii than do the corresponding alkali metals.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 1177  Furthermore, they have higher melting points, hardnesses, and densities, and lower reactivities and solubilities in liquid <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, as well as having more covalent character in their compounds.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 1177  Finally, the alkali metals are at the top of the <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrochemical series">electrochemical series</a>, whereas the coinage metals are almost at the very bottom.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 1177  The coinage metals' filled d shell is much more easily disrupted than the alkali metals' filled p shell, so that the second and third ionisation energies are lower, enabling higher oxidation states than +1 and a richer coordination chemistry, thus giving the group 11 metals clear <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metal</a> character.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 1177  Particularly noteworthy is gold forming ionic compounds with rubidium and caesium, in which it forms the auride ion (Au−) which also occurs in solvated form in liquid ammonia solution: here gold behaves as a <a href="/wiki/Pseudohalogen" title="Pseudohalogen">pseudohalogen</a> because its 5d106s1 configuration has one electron less than the quasi-closed shell 5d106s2 configuration of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 1177  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production_and_isolation">Production and isolation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Production and isolation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:273px;max-width:273px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Lithium_mine,_Salar_del_Hombre_Muerto,_Argentina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="alt1" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lithium_mine%2C_Salar_del_Hombre_Muerto%2C_Argentina.jpg/160px-Lithium_mine%2C_Salar_del_Hombre_Muerto%2C_Argentina.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lithium_mine%2C_Salar_del_Hombre_Muerto%2C_Argentina.jpg/240px-Lithium_mine%2C_Salar_del_Hombre_Muerto%2C_Argentina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lithium_mine%2C_Salar_del_Hombre_Muerto%2C_Argentina.jpg/320px-Lithium_mine%2C_Salar_del_Hombre_Muerto%2C_Argentina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:107px;max-width:107px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Uyuni_landsat.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="alt2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Uyuni_landsat.JPG/105px-Uyuni_landsat.JPG" decoding="async" width="105" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Uyuni_landsat.JPG/158px-Uyuni_landsat.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Uyuni_landsat.JPG/210px-Uyuni_landsat.JPG 2x" data-file-width="526" data-file-height="526" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Salt_pan_(geology)" title="Salt pan (geology)">Salt flats</a> are rich in lithium, such as these in Salar del Hombre Muerto, Argentina (left) and <a href="/wiki/Salar_de_Uyuni" title="Salar de Uyuni">Uyuni</a>, Bolivia (right). The lithium-rich brine is concentrated by pumping it into <a href="/wiki/Salt_evaporation_pond" title="Salt evaporation pond">solar evaporation ponds</a> (visible in Argentina image).</div></div></div></div> The production of pure alkali metals is somewhat complicated due to their extreme reactivity with commonly used substances, such as water.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> From their <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicate</a> ores, all the stable alkali metals may be obtained the same way: <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> is first used to dissolve the desired alkali metal ion and aluminium(III) ions from the ore (leaching), whereupon basic precipitation removes aluminium ions from the mixture by precipitating it as the <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxide" title="Aluminium hydroxide">hydroxide</a>. The remaining insoluble alkali metal <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> is then precipitated selectively; the salt is then dissolved in <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> to produce the chloride. The result is then left to evaporate and the alkali metal can then be isolated.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> Lithium and sodium are typically isolated through electrolysis from their liquid chlorides, with <a href="/wiki/Calcium_chloride" title="Calcium chloride">calcium chloride</a> typically added to lower the melting point of the mixture. The heavier alkali metals, however, are more typically isolated in a different way, where a reducing agent (typically sodium for potassium and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> for the heaviest alkali metals) is used to reduce the alkali metal chloride. The liquid or gaseous product (the alkali metal) then undergoes <a href="/wiki/Fractional_distillation" title="Fractional distillation">fractional distillation</a> for purification.<a href="#cite_note-generalchemistry-71">[65]</a> Most routes to the pure alkali metals require the use of electrolysis due to their high reactivity; one of the few which does not is the <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> of the corresponding alkali metal <a href="/wiki/Azide" title="Azide">azide</a>, which yields the metal for sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium and the nitride for lithium.<a href="#cite_note-King-132">[122]</a>: 77  Lithium salts have to be extracted from the water of <a href="/wiki/Mineral_spring" title="Mineral spring">mineral springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brine</a> pools, and brine deposits. The metal is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused <a href="/wiki/Lithium_chloride" title="Lithium chloride">lithium chloride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ober-194">[184]</a> Sodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a>,<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> but is now produced through <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700 °C through the use of a <a href="/wiki/Downs_cell" title="Downs cell">Downs cell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pauling-195">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-losal-196">[186]</a> Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_azide" title="Sodium azide">sodium azide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-197">[187]</a> Potassium occurs in many minerals, such as <a href="/wiki/Sylvite" title="Sylvite">sylvite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a>).<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> Previously, potassium was generally made from the electrolysis of <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a> or <a href="/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide" title="Potassium hydroxide">potassium hydroxide</a>,<a href="#cite_note-198">[188]</a> found extensively in places such as Canada, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Israel, United States, and Jordan, in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s.<a href="#cite_note-kirk-199">[189]</a> It can also be produced from <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rsc-9">[5]</a> However, these methods are problematic because the potassium metal tends to dissolve in its molten chloride and vaporises significantly at the operating temperatures, potentially forming the explosive superoxide. As a result, pure potassium metal is now produced by reducing molten potassium chloride with sodium metal at 850 °C.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 74  <dl><dd>Na (g) + KCl (l) ⇌ NaCl (l) + K (g)</dd></dl> Although sodium is less reactive than potassium, this process works because at such high temperatures potassium is more volatile than sodium and can easily be distilled off, so that the equilibrium shifts towards the right to produce more potassium gas and proceeds almost to completion.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 74  Metals like sodium are obtained by electrolysis of molten salts. Rb & Cs obtained mainly as by products of Li processing. To make pure caesium, ores of caesium and rubidium are crushed and heated to 650 °C with sodium metal, generating an alloy that can then be separated via a <a href="/wiki/Fractional_distillation" title="Fractional distillation">fractional distillation</a> technique. Because metallic caesium is too reactive to handle, it is normally offered as <a href="/wiki/Caesium_azide" title="Caesium azide">caesium azide</a> (CsN3). <a href="/wiki/Caesium_hydroxide" title="Caesium hydroxide">Caesium hydroxide</a> is formed when caesium interacts aggressively with water and ice (CsOH).<a href="#cite_note-200">[190]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rubidium</a> is the 16th most abundant element in the earth's crust; however, it is quite rare. Some minerals found in North America, South Africa, Russia, and Canada contain rubidium. Some potassium minerals (<a href="/wiki/Lepidolite" title="Lepidolite">lepidolites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biotite" title="Biotite">biotites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carnallite" title="Carnallite">carnallite</a>) contain it, together with caesium. <a href="/wiki/Pollucite" title="Pollucite">Pollucite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carnallite" title="Carnallite">carnallite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leucite" title="Leucite">leucite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lepidolite" title="Lepidolite">lepidolite</a> are all minerals that contain rubidium. As a by-product of lithium extraction, it is commercially obtained from <a href="/wiki/Lepidolite" title="Lepidolite">lepidolite</a>. Rubidium is also found in potassium rocks and <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brines</a>, which is a commercial supply. The majority of rubidium is now obtained as a byproduct of refining lithium. Rubidium is used in <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Getter" title="Getter">getter</a>, a material that combines with and removes trace gases from vacuum tubes.<a href="#cite_note-201">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[192]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pichblende.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A shiny gray 5-centimeter piece of matter with a rough surface." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Pichblende.jpg/220px-Pichblende.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Pichblende.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="279" /></a><figcaption>This sample of <a href="/wiki/Uraninite" title="Uraninite">uraninite</a> contains about 100,000 atoms (3.3×10−20 g) of francium-223 at any given time.<a href="#cite_note-nbb-66">[60]</a></figcaption></figure> For several years in the 1950s and 1960s, a by-product of the potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium. Alkarb contained 21% rubidium while the rest was potassium and a small fraction of caesium.<a href="#cite_note-203">[193]</a> Today the largest producers of caesium, for example the <a href="/wiki/Tanco_Mine" title="Tanco Mine">Tanco Mine</a> in Manitoba, Canada, produce rubidium as by-product from <a href="/wiki/Pollucite" title="Pollucite">pollucite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-USGS-204">[194]</a> Today, a common method for separating rubidium from potassium and caesium is the <a href="/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(chemistry)" title="Fractional crystallization (chemistry)">fractional crystallisation</a> of a rubidium and caesium <a href="/wiki/Alum" title="Alum">alum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Cs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rb</a>)<a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Al</a>(<a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">SO4</a>)2·12<a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">H2O</a>, which yields pure rubidium alum after approximately 30 recrystallisations.<a href="#cite_note-USGS-204">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[195]</a> The limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limit the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a> per year.<a href="#cite_note-USGS-204">[194]</a> Caesium, however, is not produced from the above reaction. Instead, the mining of <a href="/wiki/Pollucite" title="Pollucite">pollucite</a> ore is the main method of obtaining pure caesium, extracted from the ore mainly by three methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction.<a href="#cite_note-USGS-204">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-Burt-206">[196]</a> Both metals are produced as by-products of lithium production: after 1958, when interest in lithium's thermonuclear properties increased sharply, the production of rubidium and caesium also increased correspondingly.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 71  Pure rubidium and caesium metals are produced by reducing their chlorides with <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> metal at 750 °C and low pressure.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 74  As a result of its extreme rarity in nature,<a href="#cite_note-Winter-68">[62]</a> most francium is synthesised in the nuclear reaction 197<a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Au</a> + 18<a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a> → 210<a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Fr</a> + 5 <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a>, yielding <a href="/wiki/Francium-209" class="mw-redirect" title="Francium-209">francium-209</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francium-210" class="mw-redirect" title="Francium-210">francium-210</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Francium-211" class="mw-redirect" title="Francium-211">francium-211</a>.<a href="#cite_note-207">[197]</a> The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms,<a href="#cite_note-chemnews-208">[198]</a> which were synthesised using the nuclear reaction given above.<a href="#cite_note-chemnews-208">[198]</a> When the only natural isotope francium-223 is specifically required, it is produced as the alpha daughter of actinium-227, itself produced synthetically from the neutron irradiation of natural radium-226, one of the daughters of natural uranium-238.<a href="#cite_note-andyscouse-209">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> Lithium, sodium, and potassium have many useful applications, while rubidium and caesium are very notable in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 68  Lithium is the key ingredient for a <a href="/wiki/Lithium_battery" title="Lithium battery">range of lithium-based batteries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lithium_oxide" title="Lithium oxide">lithium oxide</a> can help process silica. <a href="/wiki/Lithium_stearate" title="Lithium stearate">Lithium stearate</a> is a thickener and can be used to make lubricating greases; it is produced from lithium hydroxide, which is also used to absorb <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> in space capsules and submarines.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 70  <a href="/wiki/Lithium_chloride" title="Lithium chloride">Lithium chloride</a> is used as a brazing alloy for aluminium parts.<a href="#cite_note-210">[200]</a> In medicine, some <a href="/wiki/Lithium_(medication)" title="Lithium (medication)">lithium salts</a> are used as mood-stabilising pharmaceuticals. Metallic lithium is used in alloys with magnesium and aluminium to give very tough and light alloys.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 70  Sodium compounds have many applications, the most well-known being sodium chloride as <a href="/wiki/Table_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Table salt">table salt</a>. Sodium salts of <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a> are used as soap.<a href="#cite_note-211">[201]</a> Pure sodium metal also has many applications, including use in <a href="/wiki/Sodium-vapor_lamp" title="Sodium-vapor lamp">sodium-vapour lamps</a>, which produce very efficient light compared to other types of lighting,<a href="#cite_note-lamp1-212">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-lamp2-213">[203]</a> and can help smooth the surface of other metals.<a href="#cite_note-214">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[205]</a> Being a strong reducing agent, it is often used to reduce many other metals, such as <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a>, from their chlorides. Furthermore, it is very useful as a heat-exchange liquid in <a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_nuclear_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder nuclear reactor">fast breeder nuclear reactors</a> due to its low melting point, viscosity, and <a href="/wiki/Cross-section_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-section (physics)">cross-section</a> towards neutron absorption.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 74  <a href="/wiki/Sodium-ion_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium-ion batteries">Sodium-ion batteries</a> may provide cheaper alternatives to their equivalent lithium-based cells. Both sodium and potassium are commonly used as <a href="/wiki/GRAS" class="mw-redirect" title="GRAS">GRAS</a> counterions to create more water-soluble and hence more bioavailable salt forms of acidic pharmaceuticals.<a href="#cite_note-216">[206]</a> Potassium compounds are often used as <a href="/wiki/Fertiliser" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertiliser">fertilisers</a><a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 73 <a href="#cite_note-217">[207]</a> as potassium is an important element for plant nutrition. <a href="/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide" title="Potassium hydroxide">Potassium hydroxide</a> is a very strong base, and is used to control the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> of various substances.<a href="#cite_note-218">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[209]</a> <a href="/wiki/Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">Potassium nitrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_permanganate" title="Potassium permanganate">potassium permanganate</a> are often used as powerful oxidising agents.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 73  <a href="/wiki/Potassium_superoxide" title="Potassium superoxide">Potassium superoxide</a> is used in breathing masks, as it reacts with carbon dioxide to give potassium carbonate and oxygen gas. Pure potassium metal is not often used, but its alloys with sodium may substitute for pure sodium in fast breeder nuclear reactors.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood&Earnshaw-14">[10]</a>: 74  Rubidium and caesium are often used in <a href="/wiki/Atomic_clock" title="Atomic clock">atomic clocks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-atomic-clocks-220">[210]</a> Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate; if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs, it would be off by less than four seconds (after 80 million years).<a href="#cite_note-pubs.usgs-62">[56]</a> For that reason, caesium atoms are used as the definition of the second.<a href="#cite_note-nist-second-221">[211]</a> Rubidium ions are often used in purple <a href="/wiki/Firework" class="mw-redirect" title="Firework">fireworks</a>,<a href="#cite_note-222">[212]</a> and caesium is often used in drilling fluids in the petroleum industry.<a href="#cite_note-pubs.usgs-62">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[213]</a> Francium has no commercial applications,<a href="#cite_note-nbb-66">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-elemental-67">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[214]</a> but because of francium's relatively simple <a href="/wiki/Atomic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic structure">atomic structure</a>, among other things, it has been used in <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> experiments, leading to more information regarding <a href="/wiki/Energy_level" title="Energy level">energy levels</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Coupling_constant" title="Coupling constant">coupling constants</a> between <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-225">[215]</a> Studies on the light emitted by laser-trapped francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels, similar to those predicted by <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[216]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biological_role_and_precautions">Biological role and precautions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Biological role and precautions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metals">Metals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Metals">edit</a>]</div> Pure alkali metals are dangerously reactive with air and water and must be kept away from heat, fire, oxidising agents, acids, most organic compounds, <a href="/wiki/Halocarbon" title="Halocarbon">halocarbons</a>, plastics, and moisture. They also react with carbon dioxide and carbon tetrachloride, so that normal fire extinguishers are counterproductive when used on alkali metal fires.<a href="#cite_note-osu-227">[217]</a> Some Class D dry powder <a href="/wiki/Fire_extinguisher" title="Fire extinguisher">extinguishers</a> designed for metal fires are effective, depriving the fire of oxygen and cooling the alkali metal.<a href="#cite_note-228">[218]</a> Experiments are usually conducted using only small quantities of a few grams in a <a href="/wiki/Fume_hood" title="Fume hood">fume hood</a>. Small quantities of lithium may be disposed of by reaction with cool water, but the heavier alkali metals should be dissolved in the less reactive <a href="/wiki/Isopropanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Isopropanol">isopropanol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-osu-227">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[219]</a> The alkali metals must be stored under <a href="/wiki/Mineral_oil" title="Mineral oil">mineral oil</a> or an inert atmosphere. The inert atmosphere used may be <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a> or nitrogen gas, except for lithium, which reacts with nitrogen.<a href="#cite_note-osu-227">[217]</a> Rubidium and caesium must be kept away from air, even under oil, because even a small amount of air diffused into the oil may trigger formation of the dangerously explosive peroxide; for the same reason, potassium should not be stored under oil in an oxygen-containing atmosphere for longer than 6 months.<a href="#cite_note-230">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[221]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ions">Ions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Ions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lithium_carbonate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Lithium_carbonate.jpg/220px-Lithium_carbonate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Lithium_carbonate.jpg/330px-Lithium_carbonate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Lithium_carbonate.jpg/440px-Lithium_carbonate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="722" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lithium_carbonate" title="Lithium carbonate">Lithium carbonate</a></figcaption></figure> The bioinorganic chemistry of the alkali metal ions has been extensively reviewed.<a href="#cite_note-232">[222]</a> Solid state crystal structures have been determined for many complexes of alkali metal ions in small peptides, nucleic acid constituents, carbohydrates and ionophore complexes.<a href="#cite_note-233">[223]</a> Lithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role, but does have effects on the body when ingested.<a href="#cite_note-webelements-lithium-234">[224]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lithium_carbonate" title="Lithium carbonate">Lithium carbonate</a> is used as a <a href="/wiki/Mood_stabiliser" class="mw-redirect" title="Mood stabiliser">mood stabiliser</a> in <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a> to treat <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a> (<a href="/wiki/Manic-depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Manic-depression">manic-depression</a>) in daily doses of about 0.5 to 2 grams, although there are side-effects.<a href="#cite_note-webelements-lithium-234">[224]</a> Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness, slurred speech and vomiting, among other symptoms,<a href="#cite_note-webelements-lithium-234">[224]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisons</a> the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>,<a href="#cite_note-webelements-lithium-234">[224]</a> which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage.<a href="#cite_note-webelements-lithium-234">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-theodoregray-lithium-235">[225]</a> Its biochemistry, the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an <a href="/wiki/Essential_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Essential element">essential</a> <a href="/wiki/Trace_element" title="Trace element">trace element</a>, although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified.<a href="#cite_note-236">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[227]</a> Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as <a href="/wiki/Electrolytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrolytes">electrolytes</a> inside and outside <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>.<a href="#cite_note-webelements-potassium-238">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-webelements-sodium-239">[229]</a> Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day.<a href="#cite_note-r31-240">[230]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">Sodium chloride</a> (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for <a href="/wiki/Pickling" title="Pickling">pickling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerky" title="Jerky">jerky</a>; most of it comes from processed foods.<a href="#cite_note-241">[231]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dietary_Reference_Intake" title="Dietary Reference Intake">Dietary Reference Intake</a> for sodium is 1.5 grams per day,<a href="#cite_note-242">[232]</a> but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3 grams per day,<a href="#cite_note-243">[233]</a> the minimum amount that promotes hypertension;<a href="#cite_note-244">[234]</a> this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-245">[235]</a> Potassium is the major <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cation</a> (positive ion) inside <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">animal cells</a>,<a href="#cite_note-webelements-potassium-238">[228]</a> while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells.<a href="#cite_note-webelements-potassium-238">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-webelements-sodium-239">[229]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> differences of these charged particles causes a difference in <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">electric potential</a> between the inside and outside of cells, known as the <a href="/wiki/Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">membrane potential</a>. The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by <a href="/wiki/Ion_transporter" title="Ion transporter">ion transporter</a> proteins in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16253415-246">[236]</a> The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a>—a "spike" of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">neurotransmission</a>, muscle contraction, and heart function.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16253415-246">[236]</a> Disruption of this balance may thus be fatal: for example, ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds can lead to <a href="/wiki/Hyperkalemia" title="Hyperkalemia">hyperkalemia</a> strongly influencing the cardiovascular system.<a href="#cite_note-hyper-247">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[238]</a> Potassium chloride is used in the United States for <a href="/wiki/Lethal_injection" title="Lethal injection">lethal injection</a> executions.<a href="#cite_note-hyper-247">[237]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goi%C3%A2niaRadiationsource.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Goi%C3%A2niaRadiationsource.gif/400px-Goi%C3%A2niaRadiationsource.gif" decoding="async" width="400" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Goi%C3%A2niaRadiationsource.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>A wheel type radiotherapy device which has a long <a href="/wiki/Collimator" title="Collimator">collimator</a> to focus the radiation into a narrow beam. The caesium-137 chloride radioactive source is the blue square, and gamma rays are represented by the beam emerging from the aperture. This was the radiation source involved in the Goiânia accident, containing about 93 grams of caesium-137 chloride.</figcaption></figure> Due to their similar atomic radii, rubidium and caesium in the body mimic potassium and are taken up similarly. Rubidium has no known biological role, but may help stimulate <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-webelements-rubidium-249">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-yale-250">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-jcp.sagepub.com-251">[241]</a> and, similarly to caesium,<a href="#cite_note-webelements-rubidium-249">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-webelements-caesium-252">[242]</a> replace potassium in the body causing <a href="/wiki/Hypokalemia" title="Hypokalemia">potassium deficiency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-webelements-rubidium-249">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-jcp.sagepub.com-251">[241]</a> Partial substitution is quite possible and rather non-toxic: a 70 kg person contains on average 0.36 g of rubidium, and an increase in this value by 50 to 100 times did not show negative effects in test persons.<a href="#cite_note-253">[243]</a> Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of potassium by rubidium.<a href="#cite_note-jcp.sagepub.com-251">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[244]</a> Rubidium (and to a much lesser extent caesium) can function as temporary cures for hypokalemia; while rubidium can adequately physiologically substitute potassium in some systems, caesium is never able to do so.<a href="#cite_note-yale-250">[240]</a> There is only very limited evidence in the form of deficiency symptoms for rubidium being possibly essential in goats; even if this is true, the trace amounts usually present in food are more than enough.<a href="#cite_note-Gottschlich2001-255">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-InselTurner2004-256">[246]</a> Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic. Like rubidium, caesium tends to substitute potassium in the body, but is significantly larger and is therefore a poorer substitute.<a href="#cite_note-webelements-caesium-252">[242]</a> Excess caesium can lead to <a href="/wiki/Hypokalemia" title="Hypokalemia">hypokalemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arrhythmia" title="Arrhythmia">arrhythmia</a>, and acute cardiac arrest,<a href="#cite_note-257">[247]</a> but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources.<a href="#cite_note-pinsky-258">[248]</a> As such, caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant.<a href="#cite_note-pinsky-258">[248]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Median_lethal_dose" title="Median lethal dose">median lethal dose</a> (LD50) value for <a href="/wiki/Caesium_chloride" title="Caesium chloride">caesium chloride</a> in mice is 2.3 g per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD50 values of <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>.<a href="#cite_note-259">[249]</a> Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy,<a href="#cite_note-260">[250]</a> but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients, on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment.<a href="#cite_note-261">[251]</a> <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">Radioisotopes</a> of caesium require special precautions: the improper handling of caesium-137 <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma ray</a> sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries. Perhaps the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987, in which an improperly-disposed-of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of <a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia" title="Goiânia">Goiânia</a>, Brazil, was scavenged from a junkyard, and the glowing <a href="/wiki/Caesium_chloride" title="Caesium chloride">caesium salt</a> sold to curious, uneducated buyers. This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure. Together with <a href="/wiki/Caesium-134" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesium-134">caesium-134</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">iodine-131</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90">strontium-90</a>, caesium-137 was among the isotopes distributed by the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> which constitute the greatest risk to health.<a href="#cite_note-IAEA-107">[97]</a> Radioisotopes of francium would presumably be dangerous as well due to their high decay energy and short half-life, but none have been produced in large enough amounts to pose any serious risk.<a href="#cite_note-andyscouse-209">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> The symbols Na and K for sodium and potassium are derived from their Latin names, natrium and kalium; these are still the origins of the names for the elements in some languages, such as German and Russian. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Caesium is the spelling recommended by the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</a> (IUPAC).<a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) has used the spelling cesium since 1921,<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a> following Webster's Third New International Dictionary. </li> <li id="cite_note-group-numbering-7"><a href="#cite_ref-group-numbering_7-0">^</a> In both the old IUPAC and the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Abstracts_Service" title="Chemical Abstracts Service">CAS</a> systems for group numbering, this group is known as group IA (pronounced as "group one A", as the "I" is a <a href="/wiki/Roman_numeral" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman numeral">Roman numeral</a>).<a href="#cite_note-fluck-6">[4]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> While hydrogen also has this electron configuration, it is not considered an alkali metal as it has very different behaviour owing to the lack of <a href="/wiki/Valence_electron" title="Valence electron">valence</a> p-orbitals in <a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">period 1 elements</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> In the 1869 version of Mendeleev's periodic table, copper and silver were placed in their own group, aligned with hydrogen and <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, while gold was tentatively placed under <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> and the undiscovered <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">eka-aluminium</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">boron group</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Asterisk" title="Asterisk">asterisk</a> denotes an <a href="/wiki/Excited_state" title="Excited state">excited state</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> The number given in <a href="/wiki/Bracket" title="Bracket">parentheses</a> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Standard_uncertainty" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard uncertainty">measurement uncertainty</a>. This uncertainty applies to the <a href="/wiki/Significant_figure" class="mw-redirect" title="Significant figure">least significant figure</a>(s) of the number prior to the parenthesised value (ie. counting from rightmost digit to left). For instance, 1.00794(7) stands for 1.00794±0.00007, while 1.00794(72) stands for 1.00794±0.00072.<a href="#cite_note-72">[66]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> The value listed is the conventional value suitable for trade and commerce; the actual value may range from 6.938 to 6.997 depending on the isotopic composition of the sample.<a href="#cite_note-atomicweights2009-64">[58]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> The element does not have any stable <a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">nuclides</a>, and a value in brackets indicates the <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">mass number</a> of the longest-lived <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> of the element.<a href="#cite_note-atomicweights2007-63">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-atomicweights2009-64">[58]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fr-electronegativity-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Fr-electronegativity_79-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> estimated the electronegativity of francium at 0.7 on the <a href="/wiki/Pauling_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Pauling scale">Pauling scale</a>, the same as caesium;<a href="#cite_note-77">[68]</a> the value for caesium has since been refined to 0.79, although there are no experimental data to allow a refinement of the value for francium.<a href="#cite_note-78">[69]</a> Francium has a slightly higher ionisation energy than caesium,<a href="#cite_note-andreev-76">[67]</a> 392.811(4) kJ/mol as opposed to 375.7041(2) kJ/mol for caesium, as would be expected from <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic effects">relativistic effects</a>, and this would imply that caesium is the less electronegative of the two. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Alkali_metal&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</a> (2005). <a href="/wiki/Nomenclature_of_Inorganic_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry">Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry</a> (IUPAC Recommendations 2005). Cambridge (UK): <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Chemistry" title="Royal Society of Chemistry">RSC</a>–<a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85404-438-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-85404-438-8">0-85404-438-8</a>. pp. 248–49. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://old.iupac.org/publications/books/rbook/Red_Book_2005.pdf">Electronic version.</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoghillGarson2006" class="citation book cs1">Coghill, Anne M.; Garson, Lorrin R., eds. 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class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox_periodic_table" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox periodic table"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Periodic_table" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">Periodic table forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_periodic_tables" title="Types of periodic tables">Alternatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table" title="Extended periodic table">Extended periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;"><a href="/wiki/Names_for_sets_of_chemical_elements" title="Names for sets of chemical elements">Sets of elements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">By periodic table structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">Groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1 (Hydrogen and alkali metals)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2 (Alkaline earth metals)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13 (Triels)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14 (Tetrels)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15 (Pnictogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16 (Chalcogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17 (Halogens)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18 (Noble gases)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">Periods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table" title="Extended periodic table">8+</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table#Aufbau_model" title="Extended periodic table">Aufbau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table#Fricke" title="Extended periodic table">Fricke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_periodic_table#Pyykkö" title="Extended periodic table">Pyykkö</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)" title="Block (periodic table)">Blocks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aufbau_principle" title="Aufbau principle">Aufbau principle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">By <a href="/wiki/Properties_of_metals,_metalloids_and_nonmetals" title="Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals">metallicity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">Metals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">Lanthanides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">Transition metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transition_metal" title="Post-transition metal">Post-transition metals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">Metalloids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_metalloids" title="Lists of metalloids">Lists of metalloids by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dividing_line_between_metals_and_nonmetals" title="Dividing line between metals and nonmetals">Dividing line</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nonmetal" title="Nonmetal">Nonmetals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">Noble gases</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">Other sets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platinum_group" title="Platinum group">Platinum-group metals (PGM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">Rare-earth elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refractory_metals" title="Refractory metals">Refractory metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">Precious metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_metals" title="Coinage metals">Coinage metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_metal" title="Noble metal">Noble metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_element" title="Heavy metal element">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_metal" title="Native metal">Native metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transuranium_element" title="Transuranium element">Transuranium elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheavy_element" title="Superheavy element">Superheavy elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_actinide" title="Major actinide">Major actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Elements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements" title="List of chemical elements">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By: <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements" title="Abundance of the chemical elements">Abundance</a> (<a href="/wiki/Composition_of_the_human_body" title="Composition of the human body">in humans</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elements_by_atomic_properties" title="List of elements by atomic properties">Atomic properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elements_by_stability_of_isotopes" title="List of elements by stability of isotopes">Nuclear stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_symbol" title="Chemical symbol">Symbol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element#Properties" title="Chemical element">Properties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueous_ions_by_element" title="List of aqueous ions by element">Aqueous chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_(crystal_structure)" title="Periodic table (crystal structure)">Crystal structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_(electron_configurations)" title="Periodic table (electron configurations)">Electron configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Electronegativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldschmidt_classification" title="Goldschmidt classification">Goldschmidt classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_symbol" title="Term symbol">Term symbol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: normal;">Data pages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundances_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Abundances of the elements (data page)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_radii_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Atomic radii of the elements (data page)">Atomic radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Boiling points of the elements (data page)">Boiling point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Critical points of the elements (data page)">Critical point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Densities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Densities of the elements (data page)">Density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_properties_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Elastic properties of the elements (data page)">Elasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page)">Electrical resistivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_affinity_(data_page)" title="Electron affinity (data page)">Electron affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_configurations_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electron configurations of the elements (data page)">Electron configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronegativities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Electronegativities of the elements (data page)">Electronegativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardnesses_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Hardnesses of the elements (data page)">Hardness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_capacities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heat capacities of the elements (data page)">Heat capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heats_of_fusion_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heats of fusion of the elements (data page)">Heat of fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heats_of_vaporization_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page)">Heat of vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energies_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Ionization energies of the elements (data page)">Ionization energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting_points_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Melting points of the elements (data page)">Melting point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">Oxidation state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speeds_of_sound_of_the_elements" title="Speeds of sound of the elements">Speed of sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivities_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page)">Thermal conductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansivities_of_the_elements" title="Thermal expansivities of the elements">Thermal expansion coefficient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressures_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Vapor pressures of the elements (data page)">Vapor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_periodic_table" title="History of the periodic table">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">Element discoveries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev#Periodic_table" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">1871 table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendeleev%27s_predicted_elements" title="Mendeleev's predicted elements">1869 predictions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_of_chemical_elements" title="Naming of chemical elements">Naming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_element_name_etymologies" title="List of chemical element name etymologies">etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_element_naming_controversies" title="List of chemical element naming controversies">controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_places" title="List of chemical elements named after places">for places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people" title="List of chemical elements named after people">for people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_elements_in_East_Asian_languages" title="Chemical elements in East Asian languages">in East Asian languages</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group wraplinks" style="width:1%;white-space: normal !important;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_nomenclature" title="Chemical nomenclature">nomenclature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_element_name" title="Systematic element name">systematic element name</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivial_name" title="Trivial name">Trivial name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Periodic_table" title="Category:Periodic table">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Elements" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Elements">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Periodic_table" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Periodic_table_(navbox)" title="Template:Periodic table (navbox)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Periodic_table_(navbox)" title="Template talk:Periodic table (navbox)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Periodic_table_(navbox)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Periodic table (navbox)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Periodic_table" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <table style="table-layout:fixed; width:100%;" aria-describedby="periodic-table-legend"> <tbody><tr> <td style="line-height:100%;"> </td> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2</a> </th> <td colspan="14"> </td> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a> </th> <td title="H, Hydrogen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a> </td> <td colspan="30"> </td> <td title="He, Helium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a> </th> <td title="Li, Lithium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Li</a> </td> <td title="Be, Beryllium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Be</a> </td> <td colspan="24"> </td> <td title="B, Boron" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">B</a> </td> <td title="C, Carbon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">C</a> </td> <td title="N, Nitrogen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">N</a> </td> <td title="O, Oxygen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a> </td> <td title="F, Fluorine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">F</a> </td> <td title="Ne, Neon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Ne</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a> </th> <td title="Na, Sodium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a> </td> <td title="Mg, Magnesium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg</a> </td> <td colspan="24"> </td> <td title="Al, Aluminium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Al</a> </td> <td title="Si, Silicon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Si</a> </td> <td title="P, Phosphorus" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">P</a> </td> <td title="S, Sulfur" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">S</a> </td> <td title="Cl, Chlorine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a> </td> <td title="Ar, Argon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Ar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a> </th> <td title="K, Potassium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">K</a> </td> <td title="Ca, Calcium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Ca</a> </td> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td title="Sc, Scandium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Sc</a> </td> <td title="Ti, Titanium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Ti</a> </td> <td title="V, Vanadium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">V</a> </td> <td title="Cr, Chromium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Cr</a> </td> <td title="Mn, Manganese" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Mn</a> </td> <td title="Fe, Iron" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe</a> </td> <td title="Co, Cobalt" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Co</a> </td> <td title="Ni, Nickel" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Ni</a> </td> <td title="Cu, Copper" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Cu</a> </td> <td title="Zn, Zinc" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zn</a> </td> <td title="Ga, Gallium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Ga</a> </td> <td title="Ge, Germanium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Ge</a> </td> <td title="As, Arsenic" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">As</a> </td> <td title="Se, Selenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Se</a> </td> <td title="Br, Bromine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Br</a> </td> <td title="Kr, Krypton" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Kr</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a> </th> <td title="Rb, Rubidium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rb</a> </td> <td title="Sr, Strontium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Sr</a> </td> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td title="Y, Yttrium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Y</a> </td> <td title="Zr, Zirconium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zr</a> </td> <td title="Nb, Niobium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Nb</a> </td> <td title="Mo, Molybdenum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Mo</a> </td> <td title="Tc, Technetium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Tc</a> </td> <td title="Ru, Ruthenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ru</a> </td> <td title="Rh, Rhodium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rh</a> </td> <td title="Pd, Palladium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Pd</a> </td> <td title="Ag, Silver" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Ag</a> </td> <td title="Cd, Cadmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cd</a> </td> <td title="In, Indium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">In</a> </td> <td title="Sn, Tin" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Sn</a> </td> <td title="Sb, Antimony" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Sb</a> </td> <td title="Te, Tellurium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Te</a> </td> <td title="I, Iodine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">I</a> </td> <td title="Xe, Xenon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xe</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a> </th> <td title="Cs, Caesium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Cs</a> </td> <td title="Ba, Barium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Ba</a> </td> <td title="La, Lanthanum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">La</a> </td> <td title="Ce, Cerium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Ce</a> </td> <td title="Pr, Praseodymium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Pr</a> </td> <td title="Nd, Neodymium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Nd</a> </td> <td title="Pm, Promethium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Pm</a> </td> <td title="Sm, Samarium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Sm</a> </td> <td title="Eu, Europium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Eu</a> </td> <td title="Gd, Gadolinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gd</a> </td> <td title="Tb, Terbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Tb</a> </td> <td title="Dy, Dysprosium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dy</a> </td> <td title="Ho, Holmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Ho</a> </td> <td title="Er, Erbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Er</a> </td> <td title="Tm, Thulium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Tm</a> </td> <td title="Yb, Ytterbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Yb</a> </td> <td title="Lu, Lutetium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lu</a> </td> <td title="Hf, Hafnium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hf</a> </td> <td title="Ta, Tantalum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Ta</a> </td> <td title="W, Tungsten" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">W</a> </td> <td title="Re, Rhenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Re</a> </td> <td title="Os, Osmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Os</a> </td> <td title="Ir, Iridium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Ir</a> </td> <td title="Pt, Platinum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Pt</a> </td> <td title="Au, Gold" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Au</a> </td> <td title="Hg, Mercury" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Hg</a> </td> <td title="Tl, Thallium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Tl</a> </td> <td title="Pb, Lead" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Pb</a> </td> <td title="Bi, Bismuth" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bi</a> </td> <td title="Po, Polonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Po</a> </td> <td title="At, Astatine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">At</a> </td> <td title="Rn, Radon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Rn</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a> </th> <td title="Fr, Francium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Fr</a> </td> <td title="Ra, Radium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Ra</a> </td> <td title="Ac, Actinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Ac</a> </td> <td title="Th, Thorium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Th</a> </td> <td title="Pa, Protactinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Pa</a> </td> <td title="U, Uranium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">U</a> </td> <td title="Np, Neptunium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Np</a> </td> <td title="Pu, Plutonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Pu</a> </td> <td title="Am, Americium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Am</a> </td> <td title="Cm, Curium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Cm</a> </td> <td title="Bk, Berkelium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Bk</a> </td> <td title="Cf, Californium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Cf</a> </td> <td title="Es, Einsteinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Es</a> </td> <td title="Fm, Fermium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fm</a> </td> <td title="Md, Mendelevium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Md</a> </td> <td title="No, Nobelium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">No</a> </td> <td title="Lr, Lawrencium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lr</a> </td> <td title="Rf, Rutherfordium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">Rf</a> </td> <td title="Db, Dubnium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium">Db</a> </td> <td title="Sg, Seaborgium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Sg</a> </td> <td title="Bh, Bohrium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium">Bh</a> </td> <td title="Hs, Hassium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium">Hs</a> </td> <td title="Mt, Meitnerium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">Mt</a> </td> <td title="Ds, Darmstadtium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">Ds</a> </td> <td title="Rg, Roentgenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium">Rg</a> </td> <td title="Cn, Copernicium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium">Cn</a> </td> <td title="Nh, Nihonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium">Nh</a> </td> <td title="Fl, Flerovium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">Fl</a> </td> <td title="Mc, Moscovium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium">Mc</a> </td> <td title="Lv, Livermorium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium">Lv</a> </td> <td title="Ts, Tennessine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine">Ts</a> </td> <td title="Og, Oganesson" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson">Og</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div role="presentation" id="periodic-table-legend" style="border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; width:100%; line-height:120%; text-align:center; vertical-align:top; background:#f8f8f8; margin:0; margin:0;"><div style="padding:0.3em;"> <table style="width:100%; line-height:1.2em; table-layout:fixed; overflow:hidden; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#ff9999;"><a href="/wiki/S-block" class="mw-redirect" title="S-block">s-block</a> </td> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#9bff99;"><a href="/wiki/F-block" class="mw-redirect" title="F-block">f-block</a> </td> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#99ccff;"><a href="/wiki/D-block" class="mw-redirect" title="D-block">d-block</a> </td> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#fdff8c;"><a href="/wiki/P-block" class="mw-redirect" title="P-block">p-block</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alkali_metals" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alkali_metals" title="Template:Alkali metals"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alkali_metals" title="Template talk:Alkali metals"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alkali_metals" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alkali metals"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alkali_metals" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alkali metals</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:16%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> Li Atomic Number: 3 Atomic Weight: 6.941 Melting Point: 453.85 K Boiling Point: 1615 K Specific mass: 0.534 g/cm3 Electronegativity: 0.98 </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:16%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Sodium</a> Na Atomic Number: 11 Atomic Weight: 22.98976928 Melting Point: 371.15 K Boiling Point: 1156 K Specific mass: 0.97 g/cm3 Electronegativity: 0.96 </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:16%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a> K Atomic Number: 19 Atomic Weight: 39.0983 Melting Point: 336.5 K Boiling Point: 1032 K Specific mass: 0.86 g/cm3 Electronegativity: 0.82 </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:16%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rubidium</a> Rb Atomic Number: 37 Atomic Weight: 85.4678 Melting Point: 312.79 K Boiling Point: 961 K Specific mass: 1.53 g/cm3 Electronegativity: 0.82 </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:16%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium</a> Cs Atomic Number: 55 Atomic Weight: 132.9054519 Melting Point: 301.7 K Boiling Point: 944 K Specific mass: 1.93 g/cm3 Electronegativity: 0.79 </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:16%;"><div> <a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Francium</a> Fr Atomic Number: 87 Atomic Weight: [223] Melting Point: ? Boiling Point: ? Specific mass: ? 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