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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meselson–Stahl_experiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meselson–Stahl_experiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Meselson–Stahl experiment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meselson–Stahl_experiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_molecular_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_molecular_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Modern molecular biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_molecular_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_other_biological_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_other_biological_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Relationship to other biological sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_other_biological_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Techniques_of_molecular_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Techniques_of_molecular_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Techniques of molecular biology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Techniques_of_molecular_biology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Techniques of molecular biology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Techniques_of_molecular_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Molecular_cloning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_cloning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Molecular cloning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_cloning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymerase_chain_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymerase_chain_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Polymerase chain reaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymerase_chain_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gel_electrophoresis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gel_electrophoresis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Gel electrophoresis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gel_electrophoresis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Bradford_protein_assay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Bradford_protein_assay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>The Bradford protein assay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Bradford_protein_assay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Macromolecule_blotting_and_probing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macromolecule_blotting_and_probing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Macromolecule blotting and probing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macromolecule_blotting_and_probing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Southern_blotting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_blotting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5.1</span> <span>Southern blotting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_blotting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_blotting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_blotting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5.2</span> <span>Northern blotting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_blotting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_blotting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_blotting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5.3</span> <span>Western blotting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_blotting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_blotting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_blotting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5.4</span> <span>Eastern blotting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_blotting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microarrays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microarrays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Microarrays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microarrays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allele-specific_oligonucleotide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allele-specific_oligonucleotide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span>Allele-specific oligonucleotide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allele-specific_oligonucleotide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet 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Available in 86 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-86" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">86 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul%C3%AAre_biologie" title="Molekulêre biologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Molekulêre biologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="علم الأحياء الجزيئي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الأحياء الجزيئي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_molecular" title="Bioloxía molecular – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Bioloxía molecular" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekulyar_biologiya" title="Molekulyar biologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Molekulyar biologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="আণবিক জীববিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আণবিক জীববিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hun-ch%C3%BA_seng-bu%CC%8Dt-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Hun-chú seng-bu̍t-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hun-chú seng-bu̍t-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Молекуляр биология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Молекуляр биология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Малекулярная біялогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Малекулярная біялогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Молекулярна биология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Молекулярна биология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekularna_biologija" title="Molekularna biologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Molekularna biologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia_molecular" title="Biologia molecular – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Biologia molecular" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BB%C4%83_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Молекулярлă биологи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Молекулярлă биологи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_biologie" title="Molekulární biologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Molekulární biologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioleg_foleciwlaidd" title="Bioleg foleciwlaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bioleg foleciwlaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyl%C3%A6rbiologi" title="Molekylærbiologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Molekylærbiologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekularbiologie" title="Molekularbiologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Molekularbiologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekulaarbioloogia" title="Molekulaarbioloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Molekulaarbioloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Μοριακή βιολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μοριακή βιολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolog%C3%ADa_molecular" title="Biología molecular – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Biología molecular" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula_biologio" title="Molekula biologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Molekula biologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia_molekular" title="Biologia molekular – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Biologia molekular" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C" title="زیست‌شناسی مولکولی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زیست‌شناسی مولکولی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie_mol%C3%A9culaire" title="Biologie moléculaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Biologie moléculaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul%C3%AAre_biology" title="Molekulêre biology – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Molekulêre biology" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologjie_molecol%C3%A2r" title="Biologjie molecolâr – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Biologjie molecolâr" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitheola%C3%ADocht_mh%C3%B3il%C3%ADneach" title="Bitheolaíocht mhóilíneach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bitheolaíocht mhóilíneach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolox%C3%ADa_molecular" title="Bioloxía molecular – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bioloxía molecular" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%84%EC%9E%90%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="분자생물학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="분자생물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մոլեկուլային կենսաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մոլեկուլային կենսաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="अणुजैविकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अणुजैविकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekularna_biologija" title="Molekularna biologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Molekularna biologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi_molekuler" title="Biologi molekuler – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Biologi molekuler" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sameindal%C3%ADffr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Sameindalíffræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sameindalíffræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia_molecolare" title="Biologia molecolare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Biologia molecolare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ביולוגיה מולקולרית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ביולוגיה מולקולרית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi_molekular" title="Biologi molekular – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Biologi molekular" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მოლეკულური ბიოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მოლეკულური ბიოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Молекулалық биология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Молекулалық биология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojia_ya_molekuli" title="Biolojia ya molekuli – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Biolojia ya molekuli" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Молекулалык биология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Молекулалык биология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia_molecularis" title="Biologia molecularis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Biologia molecularis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul%C4%81r%C4%81_biolo%C4%A3ija" title="Molekulārā bioloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Molekulārā bioloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekularbiologie" title="Molekularbiologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Molekularbiologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekulin%C4%97_biologija" title="Molekulinė biologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Molekulinė biologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolojia_moleculal" title="Biolojia moleculal – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Biolojia moleculal" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul%C3%A1ris_biol%C3%B3gia" title="Molekuláris biológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Molekuláris biológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Молекуларна биологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Молекуларна биологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE_%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="തന്മാത്രാ ജീവശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തന്മാത്രാ ജീവശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მოლეკულური ბიოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მოლეკულური ბიოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologi_molekul" title="Biologi molekul – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Biologi molekul" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculaire_biologie" title="Moleculaire biologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Moleculaire biologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="分子生物学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="分子生物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyl%C3%A6rbiologi" title="Molekylærbiologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Molekylærbiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyl%C3%A6rbiologi" title="Molekylærbiologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Molekylærbiologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekulal_biologia" title="Molekulal biologia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Molekulal biologia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia_moleculara" title="Biologia moleculara – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Biologia moleculara" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekulyar_biologiya" title="Molekulyar biologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Molekulyar biologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%BE%DA%91%DA%BE%D8%AA" title="مالیکیولی جیون پڑھت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مالیکیولی جیون پڑھت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia_molekular" title="Biologia molekular – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Biologia molekular" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia_molekularna" title="Biologia molekularna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Biologia molekularna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologia_molecular" title="Biologia molecular – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Biologia molecular" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie_molecular%C4%83" title="Biologie moleculară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Biologie moleculară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Молекулярная биология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Молекулярная биология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologjia_molekulare" title="Biologjia molekulare – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Biologjia molekulare" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%80_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="අණුක ක්ෂුද්‍ර ජීව විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අණුක ක්ෂුද්‍ර ජීව විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Molecular biology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul%C3%A1rna_biol%C3%B3gia" title="Molekulárna biológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Molekulárna biológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekularna_biologija" title="Molekularna biologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Molekularna biologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="ژینناسیی گەردی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ژینناسیی گەردی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Молекуларна биологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Молекуларна биологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekularna_biologija" title="Molekularna biologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Molekularna biologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyylibiologia" title="Molekyylibiologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Molekyylibiologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyl%C3%A4rbiologi" title="Molekylärbiologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Molekylärbiologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolohiyang_molekular" title="Biyolohiyang molekular – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Biyolohiyang molekular" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மூலக்கூற்று உயிரியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மூலக்கூற்று உயிரியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Молекуляр биология – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Молекуляр биология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="อณูชีววิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อณูชีววิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D3%A3" title="Зистшиносии молекулӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Зистшиносии молекулӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molek%C3%BCler_biyoloji" title="Moleküler biyoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Moleküler biyoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Молекулярна біологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Молекулярна біологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="سالماتی حیاتیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سالماتی حیاتیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc_ph%C3%A2n_t%E1%BB%AD" title="Sinh học phân tử – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sinh học phân tử" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyolohiya_molekular" title="Biyolohiya molekular – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Biyolohiya molekular" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="分子生物学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="分子生物学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of biology that studies biological systems at the molecular level</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Biochemical genetics" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see <a href="/wiki/Biochemical_Genetics_(journal)" title="Biochemical Genetics (journal)"><i>Biochemical Genetics</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Molecular microbiology" redirects here. 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #90db90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_simple.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/45px-DNA_simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/68px-DNA_simple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/90px-DNA_simple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="114" data-file-height="270" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><b>Science of life</b></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="background:#ddddff;display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: #e7f4e7;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Glossary</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree"> Phylogeny</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Properties of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)"> Domains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdoms</a> of life</b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Animals">Animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">Plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Protists">Protists</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li>Molecular biology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">Biologist</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_biologists" title="List of biologists">list)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_awards" title="List of biology awards">List of biology awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">List of journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">List of research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology" title="List of unsolved problems in biology">List of unsolved problems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_sciences" title="Biomedical sciences">Biomedical sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharming_(genetics)" title="Pharming (genetics)"> Pharming</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/16px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/24px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p><b>Molecular biology</b> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</span><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> that seeks to understand the <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecular</a> basis of biological activity in and between <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecular</a> synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-cell2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cell2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gannon-2002_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gannon-2002-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though cells and other microscopic structures had been observed in living organisms as early as the 18th century, a detailed understanding of the mechanisms and interactions governing their behavior did not emerge until the 20th century, when technologies used in physics and chemistry had advanced sufficiently to permit their application in the biological sciences. The term 'molecular biology' was first used in 1945 by the English physicist <a href="/wiki/William_Astbury" title="William Astbury">William Astbury</a>, who described it as an approach focused on discerning the underpinnings of biological phenomena—i.e. uncovering the physical and chemical structures and properties of biological molecules, as well as their interactions with other molecules and how these interactions explain observations of so-called classical biology, which instead studies biological processes at larger scales and higher levels of organization.<sup id="cite_ref-Astbury-1961_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Astbury-1961-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1953, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a>, and their colleagues at the <a href="/wiki/MRC_Laboratory_of_Molecular_Biology" title="MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology">Medical Research Council Unit, Cavendish Laboratory</a>, were the first to describe the <a href="/wiki/Double_helix" class="mw-redirect" title="Double helix">double helix</a> model for the chemical structure of <a href="/wiki/Deoxyribonucleic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Deoxyribonucleic acid">deoxyribonucleic acid</a> (DNA), which is often considered a landmark event for the nascent field because it provided a physico-chemical basis by which to understand the previously nebulous idea of nucleic acids as the primary substance of biological inheritance. They proposed this structure based on previous research done by Franklin, which was conveyed to them by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Scitable-franklin_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scitable-franklin-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their work led to the discovery of DNA in other microorganisms, plants, and animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Verma-2004_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verma-2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The field of molecular biology includes techniques which enable scientists to learn about molecular processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Morange-2016_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morange-2016-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These techniques are used to efficiently target new drugs, diagnose disease, and better understand cell physiology.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some clinical research and medical therapies arising from molecular biology are covered under <a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">gene therapy</a>, whereas the use of molecular biology or <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cell_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular cell biology">molecular cell biology</a> in medicine is now referred to as <a href="/wiki/Molecular_medicine" title="Molecular medicine">molecular medicine</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_molecular_biology">History of molecular biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of molecular biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">History of molecular biology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hendiduras_mayor_menor-eo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Hendiduras_mayor_menor-eo.png/220px-Hendiduras_mayor_menor-eo.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Hendiduras_mayor_menor-eo.png/330px-Hendiduras_mayor_menor-eo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Hendiduras_mayor_menor-eo.png/440px-Hendiduras_mayor_menor-eo.png 2x" data-file-width="1002" data-file-height="604" /></a><figcaption>Angle description in DNA structure</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_Structure%2BKey%2BLabelled.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/DNA_Structure%2BKey%2BLabelled.png/220px-DNA_Structure%2BKey%2BLabelled.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/DNA_Structure%2BKey%2BLabelled.png/330px-DNA_Structure%2BKey%2BLabelled.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/DNA_Structure%2BKey%2BLabelled.png/440px-DNA_Structure%2BKey%2BLabelled.png 2x" data-file-width="3075" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Diagrammatic representation of Watson and Crick's DNA structure</figcaption></figure> <p>Molecular biology sits at the intersection of <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>; as these scientific disciplines emerged and evolved in the 20th century, it became clear that they both sought to determine the molecular mechanisms which underlie vital cellular functions.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advances in molecular biology have been closely related to the development of new technologies and their optimization.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molecular biology has been elucidated by the work of many scientists, and thus the history of the field depends on an understanding of these scientists and their experiments.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The field of genetics arose from attempts to understand the set of rules underlying <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a>, and the nature of the hypothetical units of heredity known as <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> pioneered this work in 1866, when he first described the laws of inheritance he observed in his studies of mating crosses in pea plants.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such law of genetic inheritance is the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Segregation">law of segregation</a>, which states that diploid individuals with two <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> for a particular gene will pass one of these alleles to their offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of his critical work, the study of genetic inheritance is commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian genetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major milestone in molecular biology was the discovery of the structure of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>. This work began in 1869 by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Miescher" title="Friedrich Miescher">Friedrich Miescher</a>, a Swiss biochemist who first proposed a structure called <i>nuclein</i>, which we now know to be (deoxyribonucleic acid), or DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Pray-2008_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pray-2008-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He discovered this unique substance by studying the components of pus-filled bandages, and noting the unique properties of the "phosphorus-containing substances".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another notable contributor to the DNA model was <a href="/wiki/Phoebus_Levene" title="Phoebus Levene">Phoebus Levene</a>, who proposed the "polynucleotide model" of DNA in 1919 as a result of his biochemical experiments on yeast.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1950, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Chargaff" title="Erwin Chargaff">Erwin Chargaff</a> expanded on the work of Levene and elucidated a few critical properties of nucleic acids: first, the sequence of nucleic acids varies across species.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second, the total concentration of purines (adenine and guanine) is always equal to the total concentration of pyrimidines (cysteine and thymine).<sup id="cite_ref-Pray-2008_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pray-2008-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is now known as Chargaff's rule. In 1953, <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> published the double helical structure of DNA,<sup id="cite_ref-Watson-1953_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson-1953-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on the <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray crystallography</a> work done by <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a> which was conveyed to them by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Scitable-franklin_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scitable-franklin-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Watson and Crick described the structure of DNA and conjectured about the implications of this unique structure for possible mechanisms of DNA replication.<sup id="cite_ref-Watson-1953_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson-1953-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Watson and Crick were awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1962, along with Wilkins, for proposing a model of the structure of DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Verma-2004_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verma-2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1961, it was demonstrated that when a <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> encodes a <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>, three sequential bases of a gene's DNA specify each successive amino acid of the protein.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a> is a triplet code, where each triplet (called a <a href="/wiki/Codon" class="mw-redirect" title="Codon">codon</a>) specifies a particular amino acid. Furthermore, it was shown that the codons do not overlap with each other in the DNA sequence encoding a protein, and that each sequence is read from a fixed starting point. During 1962–1964, through the use of conditional lethal mutants of a bacterial virus,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> fundamental advances were made in our understanding of the functions and interactions of the proteins employed in the machinery of <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">DNA recombination</a>, and in the assembly of molecular structures.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Griffith's_experiment"><span id="Griffith.27s_experiment"></span>Griffith's experiment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Griffith's experiment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Griffith%27s_experiment" title="Griffith's experiment">Griffith's experiment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:01_dna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/01_dna.jpg/220px-01_dna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/01_dna.jpg/330px-01_dna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/01_dna.jpg/440px-01_dna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2738" data-file-height="1512" /></a><figcaption> Griffith's experiment</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1928, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Griffith" title="Frederick Griffith">Frederick Griffith</a>, encountered a virulence property in <a href="/wiki/Pneumococcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumococcus">pneumococcus</a> bacteria, which was killing lab rats. According to Mendel, prevalent at that time, gene transfer could occur only from parent to daughter cells. Griffith advanced another theory, stating that gene transfer occurring in member of same generation is known as horizontal gene transfer (HGT). This phenomenon is now referred to as genetic transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Griffith's experiment addressed the pneumococcus bacteria, which had two different strains, one virulent and smooth and one avirulent and rough. The smooth strain had glistering appearance owing to the presence of a type of specific polysaccharide – a polymer of glucose and glucuronic acid capsule. Due to this polysaccharide layer of bacteria, a host's immune system cannot recognize the bacteria and it kills the host. The other, avirulent, rough strain lacks this polysaccharide capsule and has a dull, rough appearance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Presence or absence of capsule in the strain, is known to be genetically determined. Smooth and rough strains occur in several different type such as S-I, S-II, S-III, etc. and R-I, R-II, R-III, etc. respectively. All this subtypes of S and R bacteria differ with each other in antigen type they produce.<sup id="cite_ref-Verma-2004_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verma-2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Avery–MacLeod–McCarty_experiment"><span id="Avery.E2.80.93MacLeod.E2.80.93McCarty_experiment"></span>Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Avery%E2%80%93MacLeod%E2%80%93McCarty_experiment" title="Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment">Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment</a></div> <p>The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment was a landmark study conducted in 1944 that demonstrated that DNA, not protein as previously thought, carries genetic information in bacteria. <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Avery" title="Oswald Avery">Oswald Avery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colin_Munro_MacLeod" title="Colin Munro MacLeod">Colin Munro MacLeod</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maclyn_McCarty" title="Maclyn McCarty">Maclyn McCarty</a> used an extract from a <a href="/wiki/Strain_(biology)" title="Strain (biology)">strain</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pneumococcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumococcus">pneumococcus</a> that could cause <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a> in mice. They showed that <a href="/wiki/Genetic_transformation" title="Genetic transformation">genetic transformation</a> in the bacteria could be accomplished by injecting them with purified DNA from the extract. They discovered that when they <a href="/wiki/Digestive_enzyme" title="Digestive enzyme">digested</a> the DNA in the extract with <a href="/wiki/DNase" class="mw-redirect" title="DNase">DNase</a>, transformation of harmless bacteria into virulent ones was lost. This provided strong evidence that DNA was the genetic material, challenging the prevailing belief that proteins were responsible. It laid the basis for the subsequent discovery of its structure by Watson and Crick. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hershey–Chase_experiment"><span id="Hershey.E2.80.93Chase_experiment"></span>Hershey–Chase experiment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hershey–Chase experiment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hershey%E2%80%93Chase_experiment" title="Hershey–Chase experiment">Hershey–Chase experiment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hershey_Chase_experiment.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hershey_Chase_experiment.png/220px-Hershey_Chase_experiment.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hershey_Chase_experiment.png/330px-Hershey_Chase_experiment.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Hershey_Chase_experiment.png/440px-Hershey_Chase_experiment.png 2x" data-file-width="851" data-file-height="673" /></a><figcaption>Hershey–Chase experiment</figcaption></figure> <p>Confirmation that DNA is the genetic material which is cause of infection came from the <a href="/wiki/Hershey%E2%80%93Chase_experiment" title="Hershey–Chase experiment">Hershey–Chase experiment</a>. They used <i>E.coli</i> and bacteriophage for the experiment. This experiment is also known as blender experiment, as kitchen blender was used as a major piece of apparatus. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hershey" title="Alfred Hershey">Alfred Hershey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martha_Chase" title="Martha Chase">Martha Chase</a> demonstrated that the DNA injected by a phage particle into a bacterium contains all information required to synthesize progeny phage particles. They used radioactivity to tag the bacteriophage's protein coat with radioactive sulphur and DNA with radioactive phosphorus, into two different test tubes respectively. After mixing bacteriophage and <i>E.coli</i> into the test tube, the incubation period starts in which phage transforms the genetic material in the <i>E.coli</i> cells. Then the mixture is blended or agitated, which separates the phage from <i>E.coli</i> cells. The whole mixture is centrifuged and the pellet which contains <i>E.coli</i> cells was checked and the supernatant was discarded. The <i>E.coli</i> cells showed radioactive phosphorus, which indicated that the transformed material was DNA not the protein coat. </p><p>The transformed DNA gets attached to the DNA of <i>E.coli</i> and radioactivity is only seen onto the bacteriophage's DNA. This mutated DNA can be passed to the next generation and the theory of Transduction came into existence. Transduction is a process in which the bacterial DNA carry the fragment of bacteriophages and pass it on the next generation. This is also a type of horizontal gene transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-Verma-2004_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verma-2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meselson–Stahl_experiment"><span id="Meselson.E2.80.93Stahl_experiment"></span>Meselson–Stahl experiment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Meselson–Stahl experiment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Meselson%E2%80%93Stahl_experiment" title="Meselson–Stahl experiment">Meselson–Stahl experiment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meselson-stahl_experiment_diagram_en_chiral.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Meselson-stahl_experiment_diagram_en_chiral.svg/220px-Meselson-stahl_experiment_diagram_en_chiral.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Meselson-stahl_experiment_diagram_en_chiral.svg/330px-Meselson-stahl_experiment_diagram_en_chiral.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Meselson-stahl_experiment_diagram_en_chiral.svg/440px-Meselson-stahl_experiment_diagram_en_chiral.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="491" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>Meselson-Stahl experiment</figcaption></figure> <p>The Meselson-Stahl experiment was a landmark experiment in molecular biology that provided evidence for the <a href="/wiki/Semiconservative_replication" title="Semiconservative replication">semiconservative replication</a> of DNA. Conducted in 1958 by <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Meselson" title="Matthew Meselson">Matthew Meselson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Stahl" title="Franklin Stahl">Franklin Stahl</a>, the experiment involved growing <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a></i> bacteria in a medium containing heavy isotope of nitrogen (<sup>15</sup>N) for several generations. This caused all the newly synthesized bacterial DNA to be incorporated with the heavy isotope. </p><p>After allowing the bacteria to replicate in a medium containing normal nitrogen (<sup>14</sup>N), samples were taken at various time points. These samples were then subjected to centrifugation in a density gradient, which separated the DNA molecules based on their density. </p><p>The results showed that after one generation of replication in the <sup>14</sup>N medium, the DNA formed a band of intermediate density between that of pure <sup>15</sup>N DNA and pure <sup>14</sup>N DNA. This supported the semiconservative DNA replication proposed by Watson and Crick, where each strand of the parental DNA molecule serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand, resulting in two daughter DNA molecules, each consisting of one parental and one newly synthesized strand. </p><p>The Meselson-Stahl experiment provided compelling evidence for the semiconservative replication of DNA, which is fundamental to the understanding of genetics and molecular biology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_molecular_biology">Modern molecular biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Modern molecular biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 2020s, molecular biology entered a golden age defined by both vertical and horizontal technical development. Vertically, novel technologies are allowing for real-time monitoring of biological processes at the atomic level.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molecular biologists today have access to increasingly affordable sequencing data at increasingly higher depths, facilitating the development of novel genetic manipulation methods in new non-model organisms. Likewise, synthetic molecular biologists will drive the industrial production of small and macro molecules through the introduction of exogenous metabolic pathways in various prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell lines.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Horizontally, sequencing data is becoming more affordable and used in many different scientific fields. This will drive the development of industries in developing nations and increase accessibility to individual researchers. Likewise, <a href="/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing" title="CRISPR gene editing">CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing</a> experiments can now be conceived and implemented by individuals for under $10,000 in novel organisms, which will drive the development of industrial and medical applications.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_other_biological_sciences">Relationship to other biological sciences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Relationship to other biological sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schematic_relationship_between_biochemistry,_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Schematic_relationship_between_biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg/220px-Schematic_relationship_between_biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Schematic_relationship_between_biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg/330px-Schematic_relationship_between_biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Schematic_relationship_between_biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg/440px-Schematic_relationship_between_biochemistry%2C_genetics_and_molecular_biology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="906" data-file-height="875" /></a><figcaption>Schematic relationship between <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and molecular biology</figcaption></figure> <p>The following list describes a viewpoint on the interdisciplinary relationships between molecular biology and other related fields.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i><b>Molecular biology</b></i> is the study of the molecular underpinnings of the biological phenomena, focusing on molecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms and interactions.</li> <li><i><b>Biochemistry</b></i> is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>. <a href="/wiki/Biochemist" title="Biochemist">Biochemists</a> focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecules</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><b>Genetics</b></i> is the study of how genetic differences affect organisms. <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a> attempts to predict how <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>, individual <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epistasis" title="Epistasis">genetic interactions</a> can affect the expression of a <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>While researchers practice techniques specific to molecular biology, it is common to combine these with methods from <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>. Much of molecular biology is quantitative, and recently a significant amount of work has been done using computer science techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">computational biology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a>, the study of gene structure and function, has been among the most prominent sub-fields of molecular biology since the early 2000s. Other branches of biology are informed by molecular biology, by either directly studying the interactions of molecules in their own right such as in <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental biology</a>, or indirectly, where molecular techniques are used to infer historical attributes of <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">populations</a> or <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, as in fields in <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a>. There is also a long tradition of studying <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecules</a> "from the ground up", or molecularly, in <a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">biophysics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tian_2013_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tian_2013-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques_of_molecular_biology">Techniques of molecular biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Techniques of molecular biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/DNA_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="181" height="313" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="181" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>DNA animation</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For more extensive list on protein methods, see <a href="/wiki/Protein_methods" title="Protein methods">protein methods</a>. For more extensive list on nucleic acid methods, see <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_methods" title="Nucleic acid methods">nucleic acid methods</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_cloning">Molecular cloning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Molecular cloning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloning" title="Molecular cloning">Molecular cloning</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Transduction_image.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Transduction_image.pdf/page1-220px-Transduction_image.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Transduction_image.pdf/page1-330px-Transduction_image.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Transduction_image.pdf/page1-440px-Transduction_image.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>Transduction image</figcaption></figure> <p>Molecular cloning is used to isolate and then transfer a DNA sequence of interest into a plasmid vector.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This recombinant DNA technology was first developed in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this technique, a <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequence coding for a protein of interest is <a href="/wiki/Clone_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clone (genetics)">cloned</a> using <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> (PCR), and/or <a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">restriction enzymes</a>, into a <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Expression_vector" title="Expression vector">expression vector</a>). The plasmid vector usually has at least 3 distinctive features: an origin of replication, a <a href="/wiki/Multiple_cloning_site" title="Multiple cloning site">multiple cloning site</a> (MCS), and a selective marker (usually <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a>). Additionally, upstream of the MCS are the <a href="/wiki/Promoter_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Promoter region">promoter regions</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a> start site, which regulate the expression of cloned gene. </p><p>This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells. Introducing DNA into bacterial cells can be done by <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformation</a> via uptake of naked DNA, <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation" title="Bacterial conjugation">conjugation</a> via cell-cell contact or by <a href="/wiki/Transduction_(genetics)" title="Transduction (genetics)">transduction</a> via viral vector. Introducing DNA into <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> cells, such as animal cells, by physical or chemical means is called <a href="/wiki/Transfection" title="Transfection">transfection</a>. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection, <a href="/wiki/Electroporation" title="Electroporation">electroporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microinjection" title="Microinjection">microinjection</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liposome_transfection" class="mw-redirect" title="Liposome transfection">liposome transfection</a>. The plasmid may be integrated into the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome and expressed temporarily, called a transient transfection.<sup id="cite_ref-cell_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cell-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>DNA coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, and the <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> can now be expressed. A variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell. The protein can be tested for enzymatic activity under a variety of situations, the protein may be crystallized so its <a href="/wiki/Tertiary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary structure">tertiary structure</a> can be studied, or, in the pharmaceutical industry, the activity of new drugs against the protein can be studied.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polymerase_chain_reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Polymerase chain reaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></div><p> Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an extremely versatile technique for copying DNA. In brief, PCR allows a specific <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequence</a> to be copied or modified in predetermined ways. The reaction is extremely powerful and under perfect conditions could amplify one DNA molecule to become 1.07 billion molecules in less than two hours. PCR has many applications, including the study of gene expression, the detection of pathogenic microorganisms, the detection of genetic mutations, and the introduction of mutations to DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The PCR technique can be used to introduce <a href="/wiki/Restriction_site" title="Restriction site">restriction enzyme sites</a> to ends of DNA molecules, or to mutate particular bases of DNA, the latter is a method referred to as <a href="/wiki/Site-directed_mutagenesis" title="Site-directed mutagenesis">site-directed mutagenesis</a>. PCR can also be used to determine whether a particular DNA fragment is found in a <a href="/wiki/CDNA_library" title="CDNA library">cDNA library</a>. PCR has many variations, like reverse transcription PCR (<a href="/wiki/RT-PCR" class="mw-redirect" title="RT-PCR">RT-PCR</a>) for amplification of RNA, and, more recently, <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_PCR" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative PCR">quantitative PCR</a> which allow for quantitative measurement of DNA or RNA molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Two_percent_Agarose_Gel_in_Borate_Buffer_cast_in_a_Gel_Tray_(Front,_angled).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Two_percent_Agarose_Gel_in_Borate_Buffer_cast_in_a_Gel_Tray_%28Front%2C_angled%29.jpg/220px-Two_percent_Agarose_Gel_in_Borate_Buffer_cast_in_a_Gel_Tray_%28Front%2C_angled%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Two_percent_Agarose_Gel_in_Borate_Buffer_cast_in_a_Gel_Tray_%28Front%2C_angled%29.jpg/330px-Two_percent_Agarose_Gel_in_Borate_Buffer_cast_in_a_Gel_Tray_%28Front%2C_angled%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Two_percent_Agarose_Gel_in_Borate_Buffer_cast_in_a_Gel_Tray_%28Front%2C_angled%29.jpg/440px-Two_percent_Agarose_Gel_in_Borate_Buffer_cast_in_a_Gel_Tray_%28Front%2C_angled%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Two percent <a href="/wiki/Agarose" title="Agarose">agarose gel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Borate_buffered_saline" title="Borate buffered saline">borate buffer cast</a> in a gel tray</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gel_electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Gel electrophoresis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SDS-PAGE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/SDS-PAGE.jpg/220px-SDS-PAGE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/SDS-PAGE.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="289" /></a><figcaption>SDS-PAGE</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></div> <p>Gel electrophoresis is a technique which separates molecules by their size using an agarose or polyacrylamide gel.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee-2012_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-2012-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technique is one of the principal tools of molecular biology. The basic principle is that DNA fragments can be separated by applying an electric current across the gel - because the DNA backbone contains negatively charged phosphate groups, the DNA will migrate through the agarose gel towards the positive end of the current.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee-2012_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-2012-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proteins can also be separated on the basis of size using an <a href="/wiki/SDS-PAGE" title="SDS-PAGE">SDS-PAGE</a> gel, or on the basis of size and their <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> by using what is known as a <a href="/wiki/Two-dimensional_gel_electrophoresis" title="Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis">2D gel electrophoresis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coomassie_blue_stained_gel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Coomassie_blue_stained_gel.png/220px-Coomassie_blue_stained_gel.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="478" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Coomassie_blue_stained_gel.png/330px-Coomassie_blue_stained_gel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Coomassie_blue_stained_gel.png/440px-Coomassie_blue_stained_gel.png 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="998" /></a><figcaption>Proteins stained on a PAGE gel using Coomassie blue dye</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Bradford_protein_assay">The Bradford protein assay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The Bradford protein assay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bradford_protein_assay" title="Bradford protein assay">Bradford protein assay</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bradford_assay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bradford assay">Bradford assay</a> is a molecular biology technique which enables the fast, accurate quantitation of protein molecules utilizing the unique properties of a dye called <a href="/wiki/Coomassie_brilliant_blue" title="Coomassie brilliant blue">Coomassie Brilliant Blue</a> G-250.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradford-1976_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradford-1976-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coomassie Blue undergoes a visible color shift from reddish-brown to bright blue upon binding to protein.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradford-1976_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradford-1976-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In its unstable, cationic state, Coomassie Blue has a background wavelength of 465 nm and gives off a reddish-brown color.<sup id="cite_ref-rufrice_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rufrice-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Coomassie Blue binds to protein in an acidic solution, the background wavelength shifts to 595 nm and the dye gives off a bright blue color.<sup id="cite_ref-rufrice_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rufrice-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proteins in the assay bind Coomassie blue in about 2 minutes, and the protein-dye complex is stable for about an hour, although it is recommended that absorbance readings are taken within 5 to 20 minutes of reaction initiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradford-1976_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradford-1976-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concentration of protein in the Bradford assay can then be measured using a visible light <a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">spectrophotometer</a>, and therefore does not require extensive equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-rufrice_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rufrice-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This method was developed in 1975 by <a href="/wiki/Marion_M._Bradford" title="Marion M. Bradford">Marion M. Bradford</a>, and has enabled significantly faster, more accurate protein quantitation compared to previous methods: the Lowry procedure and the biuret assay.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradford-1976_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradford-1976-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the previous methods, the Bradford assay is not susceptible to interference by several non-protein molecules, including ethanol, sodium chloride, and magnesium chloride.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradford-1976_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradford-1976-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is susceptible to influence by strong alkaline buffering agents, such as <a href="/wiki/Sodium_dodecyl_sulfate" title="Sodium dodecyl sulfate">sodium dodecyl sulfate</a> (SDS).<sup id="cite_ref-Bradford-1976_41-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradford-1976-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macromolecule_blotting_and_probing">Macromolecule blotting and probing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Macromolecule blotting and probing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The terms <i>northern</i>, <i>western</i> and <i>eastern</i> blotting are derived from what initially was a molecular biology joke that played on the term <i><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blotting</a></i>, after the technique described by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Southern" title="Edwin Southern">Edwin Southern</a> for the hybridisation of blotted DNA. Patricia Thomas, developer of the RNA blot which then became known as the <i>northern blot</i>, actually did not use the term.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southern_blotting">Southern blotting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Southern blotting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></div> <p>Named after its inventor, biologist <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Southern" title="Edwin Southern">Edwin Southern</a>, the Southern blot is a method for probing for the presence of a specific DNA sequence within a DNA sample. DNA samples before or after <a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">restriction enzyme</a> (restriction endonuclease) digestion are separated by gel electrophoresis and then transferred to a membrane by blotting via <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a>. The membrane is then exposed to a labeled DNA probe that has a complement base sequence to the sequence on the DNA of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southern blotting is less commonly used in laboratory science due to the capacity of other techniques, such as <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">PCR</a>, to detect specific DNA sequences from DNA samples. These blots are still used for some applications, however, such as measuring <a href="/wiki/Transgene" title="Transgene">transgene</a> copy number in <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">transgenic mice</a> or in the engineering of <a href="/wiki/Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">gene knockout</a> <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cell line">embryonic stem cell lines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tian_2013_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tian_2013-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northern_blotting">Northern blotting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Northern blotting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_blot_diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Northern_blot_diagram.png/220px-Northern_blot_diagram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Northern_blot_diagram.png/330px-Northern_blot_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Northern_blot_diagram.png/440px-Northern_blot_diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="998" /></a><figcaption>Northern blot diagram</figcaption></figure> <p>The northern blot is used to study the presence of specific RNA molecules as relative comparison among a set of different samples of RNA. It is essentially a combination of <a href="/wiki/Denaturing_gel" class="mw-redirect" title="Denaturing gel">denaturing RNA gel electrophoresis</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Blot_(biology)" title="Blot (biology)">blot</a>. In this process RNA is separated based on size and is then transferred to a membrane that is then probed with a labeled <a href="/wiki/Complementarity_(molecular_biology)" title="Complementarity (molecular biology)">complement</a> of a sequence of interest. The results may be visualized through a variety of ways depending on the label used; however, most result in the revelation of bands representing the sizes of the RNA detected in sample. The intensity of these bands is related to the amount of the target RNA in the samples analyzed. The procedure is commonly used to study when and how much gene expression is occurring by measuring how much of that RNA is present in different samples, assuming that no post-transcriptional regulation occurs and that the levels of mRNA reflect proportional levels of the corresponding protein being produced. It is one of the most basic tools for determining at what time, and under what conditions, certain genes are expressed in living tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Western_blotting">Western blotting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Western blotting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></div> <p>A western blot is a technique by which specific proteins can be detected from a mixture of proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-Mahmood-2012_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahmood-2012-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western blots can be used to determine the size of isolated proteins, as well as to quantify their expression.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">western blotting</a>, proteins are first separated by size, in a thin gel sandwiched between two glass plates in a technique known as <a href="/wiki/SDS-PAGE" title="SDS-PAGE">SDS-PAGE</a>. The proteins in the gel are then transferred to a <a href="/wiki/Polyvinylidene_fluoride" title="Polyvinylidene fluoride">polyvinylidene fluoride</a> (PVDF), nitrocellulose, nylon, or other support membrane. This membrane can then be probed with solutions of <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>. Antibodies that specifically bind to the protein of interest can then be visualized by a variety of techniques, including colored products, <a href="/wiki/Chemiluminescence" title="Chemiluminescence">chemiluminescence</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Autoradiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoradiography">autoradiography</a>. Often, the antibodies are labeled with enzymes. When a <a href="/wiki/Chemiluminescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemiluminescent">chemiluminescent</a> <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (biochemistry)">substrate</a> is exposed to the <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> it allows detection. Using western blotting techniques allows not only detection but also quantitative analysis. Analogous methods to western blotting can be used to directly stain specific proteins in live <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> or <a href="/wiki/Biological_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological tissue">tissue</a> sections.<sup id="cite_ref-Mahmood-2012_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mahmood-2012-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eastern_blotting">Eastern blotting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Eastern blotting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_blot" title="Eastern blot">Eastern blot</a></div> <p>The eastern blotting technique is used to detect <a href="/wiki/Post-translational_modification" title="Post-translational modification">post-translational modification</a> of proteins. Proteins blotted on to the PVDF or nitrocellulose membrane are probed for modifications using specific substrates.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microarrays">Microarrays</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Microarrays"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Microarray_printing.ogv/220px--Microarray_printing.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="71" data-mwtitle="Microarray_printing.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Microarray_printing.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Microarray_printing.ogv/Microarray_printing.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Microarray_printing.ogv/Microarray_printing.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Microarray_printing.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/77/Microarray_printing.ogv/Microarray_printing.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>A DNA microarray being printed</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NA_hybrid.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NA_hybrid.svg/220px-NA_hybrid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NA_hybrid.svg/330px-NA_hybrid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NA_hybrid.svg/440px-NA_hybrid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="258" /></a><figcaption>Hybridization of target to probe</figcaption></figure> <p>A DNA microarray is a collection of spots attached to a solid support such as a <a href="/wiki/Microscope_slide" title="Microscope slide">microscope slide</a> where each spot contains one or more single-stranded DNA <a href="/wiki/Oligonucleotide" title="Oligonucleotide">oligonucleotide</a> fragments. Arrays make it possible to put down large quantities of very small (100 micrometre diameter) spots on a single slide. Each spot has a DNA fragment molecule that is complementary to a single <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequence</a>. A variation of this technique allows the <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> of an organism at a particular stage in development to be qualified (<a href="/wiki/Expression_profiling" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression profiling">expression profiling</a>). In this technique the RNA in a tissue is isolated and converted to labeled <a href="/wiki/Complementary_DNA" title="Complementary DNA">complementary DNA</a> (cDNA). This cDNA is then hybridized to the fragments on the array and visualization of the hybridization can be done. Since multiple arrays can be made with exactly the same position of fragments, they are particularly useful for comparing the gene expression of two different tissues, such as a healthy and cancerous tissue. Also, one can measure what genes are expressed and how that expression changes with time or with other factors. There are many different ways to fabricate microarrays; the most common are silicon chips, microscope slides with spots of ~100 micrometre diameter, custom arrays, and arrays with larger spots on porous membranes (macroarrays). There can be anywhere from 100 spots to more than 10,000 on a given array. Arrays can also be made with molecules other than DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allele-specific_oligonucleotide">Allele-specific oligonucleotide</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Allele-specific oligonucleotide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Allele-specific_oligonucleotide" title="Allele-specific oligonucleotide">Allele-specific oligonucleotide</a></div> <p>Allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO) is a technique that allows detection of single base mutations without the need for PCR or gel electrophoresis. Short (20–25 nucleotides in length), labeled probes are exposed to the non-fragmented target DNA, hybridization occurs with high specificity due to the short length of the probes and even a single base change will hinder hybridization. The target DNA is then washed and the unhybridized probes are removed. The target DNA is then analyzed for the presence of the probe via radioactivity or fluorescence. In this experiment, as in most molecular biology techniques, a control must be used to ensure successful experimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In molecular biology, procedures and technologies are continually being developed and older technologies abandoned. For example, before the advent of DNA <a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">gel electrophoresis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agarose_gel_electrophoresis" title="Agarose gel electrophoresis">agarose</a> or <a href="/wiki/SDS-PAGE" title="SDS-PAGE">polyacrylamide</a>), the size of DNA molecules was typically determined by rate <a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">sedimentation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sucrose_gradient_centrifugation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sucrose gradient centrifugation">sucrose gradients</a>, a slow and labor-intensive technique requiring expensive instrumentation; prior to sucrose gradients, <a href="/wiki/Viscometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscometry">viscometry</a> was used. Aside from their historical interest, it is often worth knowing about older technology, as it is occasionally useful to solve another new problem for which the newer technique is inappropriate.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Central dogma of molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geniom_RT_Analyzer" title="Geniom RT Analyzer">Geniom RT Analyzer</a>, diagnostic testing instrument</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Molecular_biology_institutes" title="Category:Molecular biology institutes">Molecular biology institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular modeling">Molecular modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93protein_interaction_prediction" title="Protein–protein interaction prediction">Protein interaction prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_structure_prediction" title="Protein structure prediction">Protein structure prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteome" title="Proteome">Proteome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-cell2-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cell2_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAlbertsJohnsonLewisMorgan2014" class="citation book cs1">Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Morgan D, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jK6UBQAAQBAJ"><i>Molecular Biology of the Cell, Sixth Edition</i></a>. 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(June 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morange-2016-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Morange-2016_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorange2016" class="citation book cs1">Morange, Michel (2016). 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pharmacy+%26+Bioallied+Sciences&rft.atitle=Microarray+and+its+applications&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=Suppl+2&rft.pages=S310-2&rft.date=2012-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3467903%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23066278&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4103%2F0975-7406.100283&rft.aulast=Govindarajan&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Duraiyan%2C+J&rft.au=Kaliyappan%2C+K&rft.au=Palanisamy%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3467903&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMolecular+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarcaRomeroDraghici2006" class="citation journal cs1">Tarca AL, Romero R, Draghici S (August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2435252">"Analysis of microarray experiments of gene expression profiling"</a>. <i>American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology</i>. <b>195</b> (2): 373–88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajog.2006.07.001">10.1016/j.ajog.2006.07.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2435252">2435252</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16890548">16890548</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Obstetrics+and+Gynecology&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+microarray+experiments+of+gene+expression+profiling&rft.volume=195&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=373-88&rft.date=2006-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2435252%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16890548&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ajog.2006.07.001&rft.aulast=Tarca&rft.aufirst=AL&rft.au=Romero%2C+R&rft.au=Draghici%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2435252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMolecular+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChengZhang2008" class="citation book cs1">Cheng L, Zhang DY, eds. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F_7QXO0ZBigC&q=Allele-specific+oligonucleotide&pg=PA97"><i>Molecular genetic pathology</i></a>. Totowa, NJ: Humana. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59745-405-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59745-405-6"><bdi>978-1-59745-405-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+genetic+pathology&rft.place=Totowa%2C+NJ&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Humana&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59745-405-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF_7QXO0ZBigC%26q%3DAllele-specific%2Boligonucleotide%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMolecular+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonard2016" class="citation book cs1">Leonard DG (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cDWFCwAAQBAJ&q=Allele-specific+oligonucleotide&pg=PA30"><i>Molecular Pathology in Clinical Practice</i></a>. Springer. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-19674-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-19674-9"><bdi>978-3-319-19674-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Pathology+in+Clinical+Practice&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-319-19674-9&rft.aulast=Leonard&rft.aufirst=Debra+G.B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcDWFCwAAQBAJ%26q%3DAllele-specific%2Boligonucleotide%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMolecular+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTian2013" class="citation book cs1">Tian J, ed. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cBXIBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA550"><i>Molecular Imaging: Fundamentals and Applications</i></a>. Springer-Verlag Berlin & Heidelberg GmbH & Co.K. pp. 550, 552. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642343032" title="Special:BookSources/9783642343032"><bdi>9783642343032</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Imaging%3A+Fundamentals+and+Applications&rft.pages=550%2C+552&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag+Berlin+%26+Heidelberg+GmbH+%26+Co.K&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9783642343032&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcBXIBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA550&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMolecular+biology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenChangBoyerHelling1973" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen SN, Chang AC, Boyer HW, Helling RB (November 1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC427208">"Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>70</b> (11): 3240–4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973PNAS...70.3240C">1973PNAS...70.3240C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.70.11.3240">10.1073/pnas.70.11.3240</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC427208">427208</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4594039">4594039</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Construction+of+biologically+functional+bacterial+plasmids+in+vitro&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=3240-4&rft.date=1973-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC427208%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4594039&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.70.11.3240&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1973PNAS...70.3240C&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=SN&rft.au=Chang%2C+AC&rft.au=Boyer%2C+HW&rft.au=Helling%2C+RB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC427208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMolecular+biology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodgers1975" class="citation magazine cs1">Rodgers M (June 1975). "The Pandora's box congress". <i>Rolling Stone</i>. Vol. 189. pp. 37–77.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rolling+Stone&rft.atitle=The+Pandora%27s+box+congress.&rft.volume=189&rft.pages=37-77&rft.date=1975-06&rft.aulast=Rodgers&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMolecular+biology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsRaffAlbertsWalter2002" class="citation book cs1">Roberts K, Raff M, Alberts B, Walter P, Lewis J, Johnson A (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21054/"><i>Molecular Biology of the Cell</i></a>. Garland Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3218-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3218-3"><bdi>978-0-8153-3218-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Biology+of+the+Cell&rft.pub=Garland+Science&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-3218-3&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft.au=Raff%2C+Martin&rft.au=Alberts%2C+Bruce&rft.au=Walter%2C+Peter&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Julian&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK21054%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMolecular+biology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molecular_biology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit 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class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Molecular_biology" title="Template:Molecular biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Molecular_biology" title="Template talk:Molecular biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Molecular_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Molecular biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Molecular_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Molecular biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_molecular_biology_articles" title="Index of molecular biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of genetics">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Central dogma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a> (<a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_(biology)" title="Transcription (biology)">Transcription</a> (<a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">Translation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Element</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;">Genetic</span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;">Heredity</span></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">Promoter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pribnow_box" title="Pribnow box">Pribnow box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TATA_box" title="TATA box">TATA box</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operon" title="Operon">Operon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gal_operon" title="Gal operon">gal operon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lac_operon" title="Lac operon">lac operon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trp_operon" title="Trp operon">trp operon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intron" title="Intron">Intron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exon" title="Exon">Exon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminator_(genetics)" title="Terminator (genetics)">Terminator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enhancer_(genetics)" title="Enhancer (genetics)">Enhancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repressor" title="Repressor">Repressor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lac_repressor" title="Lac repressor">lac repressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tryptophan_repressor" title="Tryptophan repressor">trp repressor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silencer_(genetics)" title="Silencer (genetics)">Silencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_methylation" title="Histone methylation">Histone methylation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linked life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Functional biology/medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Engineering</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signalling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-translational_modification" title="Post-translational modification">Post-translational modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_lab" title="Dry lab">Dry lab</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wet_lab" title="Wet lab">Wet lab</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">Model organisms</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/C57BL/6" title="C57BL/6">C57BL/6 mice</a>)</li> <li>Methods <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_methods" title="Nucleic acid methods">Nucleic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_methods" title="Protein methods">Protein</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_in_the_life_sciences" title="Fluorescence in the life sciences">Fluorescence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigment</a> & <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity_in_the_life_sciences" title="Radioactivity in the life sciences">Radioactivity</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">High-throughput technique ("<a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">-omics</a>")</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lab-on-a-chip" title="Lab-on-a-chip">Lab-on-a-chip</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_regulation" title="Post-transcriptional regulation">Post-transcriptional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-translational_regulation" title="Post-translational regulation">Post-translational regulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Molecular_biology" title="Category:Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Molecular_and_cellular_biology" title="Template:Molecular and cellular biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Molecular_and_cellular_biology" title="Template talk:Molecular and cellular biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Molecular_and_cellular_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Molecular and cellular biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Molecular_biology_and_cell_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Molecular biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology" title="Outline of cell biology">Outline of cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">History of molecular biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Biotechnology" title="Category:Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bioinformatics" title="Category:Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cloning" title="Category:Cloning">Cloning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Genetic_engineering" title="Category:Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Genetically_modified_organisms" title="Category:Genetically modified organisms">Genetically modified organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Stem_cells" title="Category:Stem cells">Stem cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vaccination" title="Category:Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cell_cycle" title="Category:Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cell_signaling" title="Category:Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cells" title="Category:Cells">Cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cytoskeleton" title="Category:Cytoskeleton">Cytoskeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Organelles" title="Category:Organelles">Organelles</a></li> <li><a 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title="Category:Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Extremophiles" title="Category:Extremophiles">Extremophiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fungi" title="Category:Fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Microbiologists" title="Category:Microbiologists">Microbiologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mycology" title="Category:Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Virology" title="Category:Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Immunology" title="Category:Immunology">Immunology</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody" title="Monoclonal antibody">monoclonal antibodies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyclonal_B_cell_response" title="Polyclonal B cell response">polyclonal B cell response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_hypermutation" title="Somatic hypermutation">somatic hypermutation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Molecular biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biochemists" title="List of biochemists">Biochemists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles" title="Index of biochemistry articles">Biochemistry topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biomolecules" title="List of biomolecules">Biomolecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_molecular_biology_articles" title="Index of molecular biology articles">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Molecular_biologists" title="Category:Molecular biologists">Molecular biologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peptides" title="Category:Peptides">Peptides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Proteins" title="Category:Proteins">Proteins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Biological_techniques_and_tools" title="Category:Biological techniques and tools">Biological techniques and tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cloning" title="Category:Cloning">Cloning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Electrophoresis" title="Category:Electrophoresis">Electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_situ_hybridization" title="In situ hybridization">In situ hybridization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">Gene knockout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Microscopes" title="Category:Microscopes">Microscopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Molecular_biology" title="Category:Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Cell_biology" title="Category:Cell biology">Cell biology</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biochemistry_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biochemistry_topics" title="Template:Biochemistry topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biochemistry_topics" title="Template talk:Biochemistry topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biochemistry_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biochemistry topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biochemistry_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">List of life sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li> <li><i>Chemistry fields:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a><br /> fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General <br /> chemistry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical reactions">Chemical reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">Catalyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagent" title="Reagent">Reagent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaction_mechanism" title="Reaction mechanism">Reaction mechanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzymology" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymology">Enzymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">Biomolecule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">Ribosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">Peptide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">Peptide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">Hormone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">Metabolic pathway</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomes">Chromosomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">Biomolecule</a> <br /> families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><u><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrates">Carbohydrates</a>:</u></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohols" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohols">Alcohols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycoproteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycoproteins">Glycoproteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycosides" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycosides">Glycosides</a></li> <li><i><u><a href="/wiki/Lipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipids">Lipids</a>:</u></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eicosanoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Eicosanoids">Eicosanoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatty acids">Fatty acids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fatty-acid_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatty-acid metabolism">Fatty-acid metabolism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycerides" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycerides">Glycerides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phospholipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Phospholipids">Phospholipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphingolipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphingolipids">Sphingolipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">Cholesterol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Steroids">Steroids</a></li> <li><u><i><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleic acids">Nucleic acids</a>:</i></u></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleobases" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobases">Nucleobases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleosides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleosides">Nucleosides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleotides">Nucleotides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleotide metabolism">Nucleotide metabolism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><u><a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">Proteins</a>:</u></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">Amino acids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acid metabolism">Amino acid metabolism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><u>Other:</u></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrapyrroles" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapyrroles">Tetrapyrroles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">Heme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical <br /> synthesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_gene_synthesis" title="Artificial gene synthesis">Artificial gene synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomimetic_synthesis" title="Biomimetic synthesis">Biomimetic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioretrosynthesis" title="Bioretrosynthesis">Bioretrosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis_(nanotechnology)" title="Chemosynthesis (nanotechnology)">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_synthesis" title="Convergent synthesis">Convergent synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Custom_peptide_synthesis" title="Custom peptide synthesis">Custom peptide synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_process" title="Direct process">Direct process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_synthesis" title="Divergent synthesis">Divergent synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrosynthesis" title="Electrosynthesis">Electrosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fully_automated_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Fully automated synthesis">Fully automated synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_synthesis" title="Hydrothermal synthesis">Hydrothermal synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_ablation_synthesis_in_solution" title="Laser ablation synthesis in solution">LASiS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanosynthesis" title="Mechanosynthesis">Mechanosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-pot_synthesis" title="One-pot synthesis">One-pot synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peptide_synthesis" title="Peptide synthesis">Peptide synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosynthesis" title="Radiosynthesis">Radiosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-phase_synthesis" title="Solid-phase synthesis">Solid-phase synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solvothermal_synthesis" title="Solvothermal synthesis">Solvothermal synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_combustion_synthesis" title="Volume combustion synthesis">Volume combustion synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Templates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template:Branches of chemistry">Branches of chemistry</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Cellular_structures" title="Template:Cellular structures">Cellular structures</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Organic_reactions" title="Template:Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Chemical_synthesis" title="Template:Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Amino acids">Amino acids</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Chemical_bonds" title="Template:Chemical bonds">Chemical bonds</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Protein_primary_structure" title="Template:Protein primary structure">Protein primary structure</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Amino_acid_metabolism_enzymes" title="Template:Amino acid metabolism enzymes">Amino acid metabolism enzymes</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Template:Life on Earth">Life on Earth</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Botany" title="Template:Botany">Botany</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Zoology" title="Template:Zoology">Zoology</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Occupations</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">Biologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">Chemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriologist" title="Bacteriologist">Bacteriologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiologist" title="Microbiologist">Microbiologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">Microscopy</a></li> <li><i>Concepts:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Experiments">Experiments</a></li> <li><i>Notable scientists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Redi" title="Francesco Redi">Francesco Redi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Biochemistry" title="Category:Biochemistry">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biochemistry" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biochemistry">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Chemistry" title="Portal:Chemistry">Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gene_expression" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gene_expression" title="Template:Gene expression"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gene_expression" title="Template talk:Gene expression"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gene_expression" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gene expression"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gene_expression" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction<br />to genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Central dogma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> → <a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">RNA</a> → <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology#Special_transfers_of_biological_sequential_information" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Special transfers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase" title="RNA-dependent RNA polymerase">RNA→RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_transcription" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse transcription">RNA→DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Protein→Protein</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transcription_(biology)" title="Transcription (biology)">Transcription</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_transcription" title="Bacterial transcription">Bacterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_transcription" title="Archaeal transcription">Archaeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic_transcription" title="Eukaryotic transcription">Eukaryotic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight: normal;">Key elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">Transcription factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_polymerase" title="RNA polymerase">RNA polymerase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">Promoter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcription</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_transcript" title="Primary transcript">Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-prime_cap" title="Five-prime cap">5' capping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_splicing" title="RNA splicing">Splicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyadenylation" title="Polyadenylation">Polyadenylation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_acetylation_and_deacetylation" title="Histone acetylation and deacetylation">Histone acetylation and deacetylation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">Translation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_translation" title="Bacterial translation">Bacterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_translation" title="Archaeal translation">Archaeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic_translation" title="Eukaryotic translation">Eukaryotic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight: normal;">Key elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;white-space:nowrap;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">Ribosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">Transfer RNA (tRNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribosome-nascent_chain_complex" title="Ribosome-nascent chain complex">Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-translational_modification" title="Post-translational modification">Post-translational modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Regulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genomic_imprinting" title="Genomic imprinting">imprinting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcriptional_regulation" title="Transcriptional regulation">Transcriptional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene_regulatory_network" title="Gene regulatory network">Gene regulatory network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cis-regulatory_element" title="Cis-regulatory element">cis-regulatory element</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lac_operon" title="Lac operon">lac operon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_regulation" title="Post-transcriptional regulation">Post-transcriptional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P-bodies" title="P-bodies">sequestration (P-bodies)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_splicing" title="Alternative splicing">alternative splicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translational_regulation" title="Translational regulation">Translational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-translational_regulation" title="Post-translational regulation">Post-translational</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">reversible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteolysis" title="Proteolysis">irreversible</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influential people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_biology" title="Template talk:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biotechnology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biotechnology" title="Template:Biotechnology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biotechnology" title="Template talk:Biotechnology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biotechnology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biotechnology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biotechnology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biotechnology" title="Timeline of biotechnology">Timeline of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology" title="Competitions and prizes in biotechnology">Competitions and prizes in biotechnology</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_replication_split.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/50px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/75px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/100px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="315" data-file-height="635" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colors_of_biotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Colors of biotechnology">Colors of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_biotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial biotechnology">Industrial biotechnology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>/<a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">Gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_industrial_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology industrial park">Biotechnology industrial park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology products">Biotechnology products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology law">Biotechnology law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical company">Pharmaceutical company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic techniques<br /> and tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biology field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioreactor" title="Bioreactor">Bioreactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">Flow cytometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybridoma_technology" title="Hybridoma technology">Hybridoma technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">NMR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_stirred-tank_reactor" title="Continuous stirred-tank reactor">CSTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">Crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">Kidney dialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">Electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraction_(chemistry)" title="Extraction (chemistry)">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fed-batch_culture" title="Fed-batch culture">Fed Batch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug_flow_reactor_model" title="Plug flow reactor model">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">Sedimentation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cell_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cell culture">Animal cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofabrication" title="Biofabrication">Biofabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bionic_architecture" title="Bionic architecture">Bionic architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell immunity">Cell immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">Cloning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive cloning">Reproductive cloning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic cloning">Therapeutic cloning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_biotechnology" title="Environmental biotechnology">Environmental biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">Genetically modified organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biodegradation" title="Microbial biodegradation">Microbial biodegradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">Omics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cells">Stem cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_culture" title="Tissue culture">Tissue culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary <br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biobased_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biobased economy">Bioeconomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioelectronics" title="Bioelectronics">Bioelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Bioengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopharmaceutical" title="Biopharmaceutical">Biopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">Biomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">Biomimetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorobotics" title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanobiotechnology" title="Nanobiotechnology">Nanobiotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biotechnology_articles" title="Index of biotechnology articles">Index of biotechnology articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biotechnology_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="List of biotechnology articles">List of biotechnology articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_biomedical_companies_by_market_capitalization" title="List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization">List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Biotechnology" title="Category:Biotechnology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biotechnology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biotechnology">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_chemistry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template talk:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae" title="Glossary of chemical formulae">Glossary of chemical formulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biomolecules" title="List of biomolecules">List of biomolecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" title="List of inorganic compounds">List of inorganic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry" title="Instrumental chemistry">Instrumental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_chemistry" title="Clay chemistry">Clay chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbochemistry" title="Carbochemistry">Carbochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_physical_chemistry" title="Food physical chemistry">Food physical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemistry" title="Agricultural chemistry">Agricultural chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_chemistry" title="Amateur chemistry">Amateur chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_chemistry" title="General chemistry">General chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" title="Clandestine chemistry">Clandestine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanochemistry" title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Chemistry" title="Category:Chemistry">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chemistry" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Chemistry">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Chemistry" title="Portal:Chemistry">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Chemistry" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Chemistry">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7202#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7202#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1024734/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Molekularbiologie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4039983-7">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85086577">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11931064z">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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