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<span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Before the split (Gondwana, 85 million years ago) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Before_the_split_(Gondwana,_85_million_years_ago)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gondwanan_fauna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gondwanan_fauna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Gondwanan fauna</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gondwanan_fauna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gondwanan_flora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gondwanan_flora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Gondwanan flora</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gondwanan_flora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rafting_away_(latest_Cretaceous_85–66_Ma)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rafting_away_(latest_Cretaceous_85–66_Ma)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Rafting away (latest Cretaceous 85–66 Ma)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rafting_away_(latest_Cretaceous_85–66_Ma)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Swamps_and_rifting_(Paleocene_to_Eocene_66_to_33.9_Ma)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swamps_and_rifting_(Paleocene_to_Eocene_66_to_33.9_Ma)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Swamps and rifting (Paleocene to Eocene 66 to 33.9 Ma)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swamps_and_rifting_(Paleocene_to_Eocene_66_to_33.9_Ma)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand's_shallow_seas_(Oligocene_33.9_to_23_Ma)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand's_shallow_seas_(Oligocene_33.9_to_23_Ma)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>New Zealand's shallow seas (Oligocene 33.9 to 23 Ma)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand's_shallow_seas_(Oligocene_33.9_to_23_Ma)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Southern_Alps,_Foulden_Maar_and_Saint_Bathans_Fauna_(Miocene_–_Pliocene_23_to_2.6_Ma)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Southern_Alps,_Foulden_Maar_and_Saint_Bathans_Fauna_(Miocene_–_Pliocene_23_to_2.6_Ma)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The Southern Alps, Foulden Maar and Saint Bathans Fauna (Miocene – Pliocene 23 to 2.6 Ma)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Southern_Alps,_Foulden_Maar_and_Saint_Bathans_Fauna_(Miocene_–_Pliocene_23_to_2.6_Ma)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Taupo_Volcanic_Zone_and_ice_age_(Pleistocene_-_Holocene_2.6_Ma_to_today)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Taupo_Volcanic_Zone_and_ice_age_(Pleistocene_-_Holocene_2.6_Ma_to_today)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The Taupo Volcanic Zone and ice age (Pleistocene - Holocene 2.6 Ma to today)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Taupo_Volcanic_Zone_and_ice_age_(Pleistocene_-_Holocene_2.6_Ma_to_today)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><b>The natural history of <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></b> began when the landmass <a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a> – today an almost entirely submerged mass of continental crust with New Zealand and a few other islands peaking above sea level – broke away from the <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a> <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period. Before this time, Zealandia shared its past with Australia and Antarctica. Since this separation, the New Zealand landscape has evolved in physical isolation, although much of its current biota has more recent connections with species on other landmasses. The exclusively natural history of the country ended in about 1300 AD, when humans first settled, and the country's <a href="/wiki/Environment_of_New_Zealand" title="Environment of New Zealand">environmental history</a> began.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period from 1300 AD to today coincides with the <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">extinction</a> of many of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_of_New_Zealand" title="Biodiversity of New Zealand">New Zealand's unique species</a> that had evolved there. </p><p>The break-up of <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> left the resulting continents, including Zealandia, with a shared ecology. Zealandia began to move away from the part of Gondwana which would become Australia and <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctica</a> approximately 85 million years ago (Ma). By about 70 Ma, the break up was complete.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zealandia has been moving northwards ever since, changing both in relief and <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>. Most of the present biota of New Zealand has post-Gondwanan connections to species on other landmasses, but does include a few descendants of Gondwanan lineages, such as the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Bathans_mammal" title="Saint Bathans mammal">Saint Bathans mammal</a>. Overall, trans-oceanic dispersal has played a clear role in the formation of New Zealand's biota.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several elements of the Gondwana biota are present in New Zealand today: predominantly plants, such as the <a href="/wiki/Podocarpaceae" title="Podocarpaceae">podocarps</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_beech" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern beech">southern beeches</a>, but also distinctive insects, birds, frogs and the <a href="/wiki/Tuatara" title="Tuatara">tuatara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_geologic_time_scale" title="New Zealand geologic time scale">Duntroonian stage</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a>, the land area of Zealandia was at a minimum. It has been suggested that water covered all of it,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the consensus is that low-lying islands remained, perhaps a quarter of the modern land area of New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dx.doi.org_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dx.doi.org-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Before_the_split_(Gondwana,_85_million_years_ago)"><span id="Before_the_split_.28Gondwana.2C_85_million_years_ago.29"></span>Before the split (Gondwana, 85 million years ago)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Before the split (Gondwana, 85 million years ago)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/South_Polar_region_of_the_Cretaceous" class="mw-redirect" title="South Polar region of the Cretaceous">South Polar region of the Cretaceous</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zealandia_and_New_Zealand_90_ma_Gondwana.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Zealandia_and_New_Zealand_90_ma_Gondwana.png/450px-Zealandia_and_New_Zealand_90_ma_Gondwana.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Zealandia_and_New_Zealand_90_ma_Gondwana.png/675px-Zealandia_and_New_Zealand_90_ma_Gondwana.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Zealandia_and_New_Zealand_90_ma_Gondwana.png 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zealandia" title="Zealandia">Zealandia</a> (lower right, portions of New Zealand's present <a href="/wiki/North_Island" title="North Island">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Island" title="South Island">South Islands</a> visible above sea level), between Australia and Antarctica near the South Pole, 90 million years ago. The present position of New Zealand is outlined in white (centre left).</figcaption></figure> <p>In the late <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, Gondwana was a fraction of its original size, however, the landmasses that would become Australia, Antarctica and Zealandia were still attached. Most of the modern 'Gondwanan fauna' had its origin in the Cretaceous. During this time Zealandia was temperate and almost flat, with no alpine environments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbs200777_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbs200777-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gondwanan_fauna">Gondwanan fauna</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Gondwanan fauna"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fossils found at <a href="/wiki/Lightning_Ridge,_New_South_Wales" title="Lightning Ridge, New South Wales">Lightning Ridge, New South Wales</a>, suggest that 110 million years ago (Ma), Australia supported a number of different <a href="/wiki/Monotreme" title="Monotreme">monotremes</a>, but did not support any <a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">marsupials</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marsupials appear to have evolved during the Cretaceous in the contemporary northern hemisphere, to judge from a 100-million-year-old marsupial fossil, <i>Kokopellia</i>, found in the badlands of <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marsupials would then have spread to <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> and Gondwana. The first evidence of mammals (both marsupials and placental) in Australia comes from the <a href="/wiki/Tertiary" title="Tertiary">Tertiary</a>, and was found at a 55-million-year-old fossil site at <a href="/wiki/Murgon_fossil_site" title="Murgon fossil site">Murgon</a>, in southern <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Zealandia had rifted away at this time it explains the lack of ground-dwelling marsupials and placental mammals in New Zealand's fossil record. </p><p>Dinosaurs continued to prosper but, as the angiosperms diversified, conifers, bennettitaleans and pentoxylaleans disappeared from Gondwana <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 115 Ma together with the specialised herbivorous <a href="/wiki/Ornithischia" title="Ornithischia">ornithischians</a>, whilst generalist browsers, such as several families of <a href="/wiki/Sauropodomorpha" title="Sauropodomorpha">sauropodomorph</a> <a href="/wiki/Saurischia" title="Saurischia">Saurischia</a>, prevailed. The <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> killed off all dinosaurs except birds, but plant evolution in Gondwana was hardly affected.<sup id="cite_ref-And-Cretaceous_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-And-Cretaceous-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gondwanatheria" title="Gondwanatheria">Gondwanatheria</a> is an extinct group of non-<a href="/wiki/Theria" title="Theria">therian</a> mammals with a Gondwanan distribution (South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, and Antarctica) during the Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Xenarthra" title="Xenarthra">Xenarthra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afrotheria" title="Afrotheria">Afrotheria</a>, two placental clades, are of Gondwanan origin and probably began to evolve separately <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=105">105</a> Ma</span> when Africa and South America separated.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gondwanan_flora">Gondwanan flora</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Gondwanan flora"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nothofagus_demis.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Nothofagus_demis.JPG/300px-Nothofagus_demis.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Nothofagus_demis.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="447" data-file-height="223" /></a><figcaption>The plant genus <i><a href="/wiki/Nothofagus" title="Nothofagus">Nothofagus</a></i> provides a good example of a taxon with a Gondwanan distribution, having originated in the supercontinent and existing in present-day Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and South America's <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cone" title="Southern Cone">Southern Cone</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">Angiosperms</a> evolved in northern Gondwana/southern <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> during the Early Cretaceous and radiated worldwide. The southern beeches, <a href="/wiki/Nothofagus" title="Nothofagus">Nothofagus</a>, are prominent members of this early angiosperm flora. The Late Cretaceous <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> record shows that some types of flora evolved across Gondwana, while others originated in Antarctica and spread to Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fossils of Nothofagus have also recently been found in Antarctica. The <a href="/wiki/Laurel_forest" title="Laurel forest">laurel forests</a> of Australia, New Caledonia, and New Zealand have a number of species related to those of the <a href="/wiki/Laurissilva" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurissilva">laurissilva</a> of Valdivia, through the connection of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_flora" title="Antarctic flora">Antarctic flora</a>. These include gymnosperms and the deciduous species of <i>Nothofagus</i>, as well as the New Zealand laurel, <i><a href="/wiki/Corynocarpus_laevigatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Corynocarpus laevigatus">Corynocarpus laevigatus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Laurelia_novae-zelandiae" title="Laurelia novae-zelandiae">Laurelia novae-zelandiae</a></i>. At this time Zealandia was mostly covered in forests of <a href="/wiki/Podocarpaceae" title="Podocarpaceae">podocarps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Araucaria" title="Araucaria">araucarian</a> pines, and ferns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibbs200777_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibbs200777-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rafting_away_(latest_Cretaceous_85–66_Ma)"><span id="Rafting_away_.28latest_Cretaceous_85.E2.80.9366_Ma.29"></span>Rafting away (latest Cretaceous 85–66 Ma)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rafting away (latest Cretaceous 85–66 Ma)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png/220px-Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png/330px-Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png/440px-Opening_of_South_Atlantic_83_Ma.png 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption>The remains of <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> 83 Ma, with Zealandia lower left</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kaiwhekea_NT_small.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Kaiwhekea_NT_small.jpg/220px-Kaiwhekea_NT_small.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Kaiwhekea_NT_small.jpg/330px-Kaiwhekea_NT_small.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Kaiwhekea_NT_small.jpg/440px-Kaiwhekea_NT_small.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plesiosaur" title="Plesiosaur">Plesiosaur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaiwhekea" title="Kaiwhekea">Kaiwhekea</a>), is 7 metres long and lived around 70–69 million years ago in the seas around Zealandia.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Australia-New Zealand continental part of Gondwana split from Antarctica in the late Cretaceous (95–90 Ma). This was followed by Zealandia separating from Australia (c.85 Ma). The split started from the Southern end and eventually formed the <a href="/wiki/Tasman_Sea" title="Tasman Sea">Tasman Sea</a>. By about 70 Ma, the continental crust of Zealandia separated from Australia and Antarctica. However, it is not known when the division of land above sea level occurred, and for some time only shallow seas would have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. <a href="/wiki/List_of_dinosaurs_and_other_Mesozoic_reptiles_of_New_Zealand" title="List of dinosaurs and other Mesozoic reptiles of New Zealand">Dinosaurs continued to live in New Zealand</a> and had about 10–20 million years to evolve unique species after they separated from Gondwana.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Cretaceous, New Zealand was much further south (c.80 degrees south) than it is today, however, it and much of Antarctica was covered in trees as the climate of 90 Ma was much warmer and wetter than today.<sup id="cite_ref-McGloneBuitenwerf2016_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGloneBuitenwerf2016-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New Zealand's present native fauna does not contain land mammals (other than bats) or snakes. Neither <a href="/wiki/Marsupials" class="mw-redirect" title="Marsupials">marsupials</a> nor <a href="/wiki/Placental" class="mw-redirect" title="Placental">placental</a> mammals evolved in time to reach Australia before the split. The <a href="/wiki/Multituberculates" class="mw-redirect" title="Multituberculates">multituberculates</a>, a primitive type of mammal, may have evolved in time to cross New Zealand using the land bridge.<sup id="cite_ref-YuanJi2013_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YuanJi2013-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evolution and dispersal of <a href="/wiki/Snakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Snakes">snakes</a> is less certain, due to their poor fossil record, it is uncertain as to whether they were in Australia before the opening of the Tasman Sea.<sup id="cite_ref-ScanlonLee2003_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ScanlonLee2003-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ratite" title="Ratite">Ratites</a> evolved around c. 80 ma and may have been present in Zealandia at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-Bunce_2009_20646–20651_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunce_2009_20646–20651-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Swamps_and_rifting_(Paleocene_to_Eocene_66_to_33.9_Ma)"><span id="Swamps_and_rifting_.28Paleocene_to_Eocene_66_to_33.9_Ma.29"></span>Swamps and rifting (Paleocene to Eocene 66 to 33.9 Ma)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Swamps and rifting (Paleocene to Eocene 66 to 33.9 Ma)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the start of the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a> New Zealand's biota was recovering from the extinction of dinosaurs, and the species that survived were expanding into the empty niches. There was a slight decrease in mean temperature at the start of the Paleocene, leading to a change in canopy species.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zealandia was largely covered by shallow seas with low-lying land and swamps.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest penguin fossil in the world and various other sea birds are found in New Zealand from this time.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Tasman Sea continued to expand until the early <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a> (53 Ma). The western half of Zealandia then along with Australia formed the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Plate">Australian Plate</a> (40 Ma). In response to this, a new plate boundary was created within Zealandia between the Australian Plate and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Plate">Pacific Plate</a>. This led to the formation of a subduction arc with active volcanism forming islands north and west of present New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New Zealand was low lying due to this extension and swamps became widespread. Today these are recorded as large <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> seams in the geological record. </p><p>The isolation of Antarctica and the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current" title="Antarctic Circumpolar Current">Antarctic Circumpolar Current</a> is credited by many researchers with causing the <a href="/wiki/Glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciation">glaciation</a> of Antarctica and global cooling in the Eocene epoch. Oceanic models have shown that the opening of these two passages limited polar heat convergence and caused a cooling of <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperatures</a> by several degrees; other models have shown that CO<sub>2</sub> levels also played a significant role in the glaciation of Antarctica.<sup id="cite_ref-SiegertBarrett20082_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SiegertBarrett20082-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Published estimates of the onset of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current vary, but it is commonly considered to have started at the Eocene/<a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a> boundary.<sup id="cite_ref-SiegertBarrett20082_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SiegertBarrett20082-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BarkerFilippelli2007_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BarkerFilippelli2007-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HassoldRea2009_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HassoldRea2009-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whales were completely marine creatures by 40 Ma;<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New Zealand oldest whale fossils are from 35 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_Zealand's_shallow_seas_(Oligocene_33.9_to_23_Ma)"><span id="New_Zealand.27s_shallow_seas_.28Oligocene_33.9_to_23_Ma.29"></span>New Zealand's shallow seas (Oligocene 33.9 to 23 Ma)<span class="anchor" id="Oligocene_drowning"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: New Zealand's shallow seas (Oligocene 33.9 to 23 Ma)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:30_ma_New_Zealand_Zealandia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/30_ma_New_Zealand_Zealandia.png/220px-30_ma_New_Zealand_Zealandia.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/30_ma_New_Zealand_Zealandia.png/330px-30_ma_New_Zealand_Zealandia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/30_ma_New_Zealand_Zealandia.png/440px-30_ma_New_Zealand_Zealandia.png 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="721" /></a><figcaption>New Zealand before the activation of the Alpine Fault (30 Ma)</figcaption></figure> <p>From the early Oligocene, at maximum submersion of the Zealandia landmass, almost all <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_New_Zealand" title="Geology of New Zealand">New Zealand's rocks</a> are marine. Oligocene terrestrial sediments are few, scattered, and not well-dated. </p><p>It has been suggested that at some point, Zealandia was entirely underwater, and consequently all land biota would be descended from later immigrants.<sup id="cite_ref-KnappMudaliar2007_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KnappMudaliar2007-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, molecular estimates of divergence times between 248 extant New Zealand lineages and their closest relatives elsewhere follow approximately a smooth exponential over the last 50 million years or more. Some 74 of these lineages appear to have survived the Oligocene in New Zealand. There is no evidence for a deficit of pre-Oligocene lineages, nor an excess of lineages arriving just afterward. This strongly suggests that New Zealand was never submerged completely.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there is no obvious peak of lineage extinction in the Oligocene, the limited diversity of mitochondrial DNA in kiwis, moas, and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_wren" title="New Zealand wren">New Zealand wrens</a> indicate that all three lineages underwent a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_bottleneck" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic bottleneck">genetic bottleneck</a> (small effective populations) roughly coinciding with the maximum submersion; New Zealand at this time probably consisted of low-lying islands with a limited diversity of habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-dx.doi.org_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dx.doi.org-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Significant uplift occurred by the mid-Oligocene (~32–29 Ma) in the modern Canterbury Basin, where palaeochannels eroded through the early Oligocene Amuri Limestone lead eastwards to the present <a href="/wiki/Bounty_Trough" title="Bounty Trough">Bounty Trough</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The North and South island have been separate for most of the last 30 million years, allowing for the development of separate subspecies.<sup id="cite_ref-Bunce_2009_20646–20651_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunce_2009_20646–20651-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Southern_Alps,_Foulden_Maar_and_Saint_Bathans_Fauna_(Miocene_–_Pliocene_23_to_2.6_Ma)"><span id="The_Southern_Alps.2C_Foulden_Maar_and_Saint_Bathans_Fauna_.28Miocene_.E2.80.93_Pliocene_23_to_2.6_Ma.29"></span>The Southern Alps, Foulden Maar and Saint Bathans Fauna (Miocene – Pliocene 23 to 2.6 Ma)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Southern Alps, Foulden Maar and Saint Bathans Fauna (Miocene – Pliocene 23 to 2.6 Ma)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Major uplift occurred on the <a href="/wiki/Alpine_Fault" title="Alpine Fault">Alpine Fault</a>, which started to form the hills and the mountains that became the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Alps" title="Southern Alps">Southern Alps</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foulden_Maar_reconstruction_by_Paula_Peeters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Foulden_Maar_reconstruction_by_Paula_Peeters.jpg/220px-Foulden_Maar_reconstruction_by_Paula_Peeters.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Foulden_Maar_reconstruction_by_Paula_Peeters.jpg/330px-Foulden_Maar_reconstruction_by_Paula_Peeters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Foulden_Maar_reconstruction_by_Paula_Peeters.jpg/440px-Foulden_Maar_reconstruction_by_Paula_Peeters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2179" /></a><figcaption>This reconstruction of the lake at Foulden Maar 23 million years ago was commissioned by palaeontologist <a href="/wiki/Daphne_Lee" title="Daphne Lee">Daphne Lee</a> and drawn by artist/ecologist Paula Peeters.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Foulden_Maar" title="Foulden Maar">Foulden Maar</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Maar-diatreme_volcano" class="mw-redirect" title="Maar-diatreme volcano">maar-diatreme volcano</a> in Otago, preserved a high diversity of freshwater fish, arthropods, plants and fungi at a lake 23 Ma. It is the only known <a href="/wiki/Maar" title="Maar">maar</a> of its kind in the Southern Hemisphere and is one of New Zealand's pre-eminent <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> sites.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fossil evidence derived from pollen and spores suggests a warm temperate or sub-tropical rain forest with canopy trees, with an understorey of shrubs, ferns and on the margins pioneer species. Climatically, the area resembled modern-day south-eastern Queensland, a humid sub-tropical zone with species that no longer occur in the New Zealand flora.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lake contained small and large galaxiid fishes and eels, ducks (inferred from <a href="/wiki/Coprolite" title="Coprolite">coprolites</a>), and likely crocodiles as well.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giant_moa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Giant_moa.jpg/170px-Giant_moa.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Giant_moa.jpg/255px-Giant_moa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Giant_moa.jpg/340px-Giant_moa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1616" data-file-height="1532" /></a><figcaption>A restoration of <i><a href="/wiki/Dinornis_robustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinornis robustus">Dinornis robustus</a></i> (the <a href="/wiki/Moa" title="Moa">moa</a>), and <i><a href="/wiki/Pachyornis_elephantopus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pachyornis elephantopus">Pachyornis elephantopus</a></i>, both from the South Island</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Saint_Bathans_Fauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Bathans Fauna">Saint Bathans Fauna</a> represents a detailed record of New Zealand's terrestrial life in the Miocene. It shows that <a href="/wiki/Saint_Bathans_mammal" title="Saint Bathans mammal">small land mammals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crocodile" title="Crocodile">crocodiles</a> existed and have since become extinct. The earliest moa remains come from the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> Saint Bathans Fauna. Known from multiple eggshells and hindlimb elements, these represent at least two species of already fairly large sized species.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The boundaries defining the Pliocene are not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer Miocene and the relatively cooler Pliocene. The upper boundary was set at the start of the Pleistocene glaciations. Uplift intensified on the Alpine Fault forming the Southern Alps. This global cooling coupled with an increase in elevation led to the local extinction of many groups of plants, which are now still <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_of_New_Caledonia" title="Biodiversity of New Caledonia">found in New Caledonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new niches created in the mountains were filled with migrants from Australia and species that could evolve quickly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Taupo_Volcanic_Zone_and_ice_age_(Pleistocene_-_Holocene_2.6_Ma_to_today)"><span id="The_Taupo_Volcanic_Zone_and_ice_age_.28Pleistocene_-_Holocene_2.6_Ma_to_today.29"></span>The Taupo Volcanic Zone and ice age (Pleistocene - Holocene 2.6 Ma to today)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Taupo Volcanic Zone and ice age (Pleistocene - Holocene 2.6 Ma to today)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Environment_of_New_Zealand" title="Environment of New Zealand">Environment of New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_of_New_Zealand" title="Biodiversity of New Zealand">Biodiversity of New Zealand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NZ-NI_plain_map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Natural history of New Zealand is located in North Island"><img alt="Natural history of New Zealand is located in North Island" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/NZ-NI_plain_map.png/100px-NZ-NI_plain_map.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/NZ-NI_plain_map.png/150px-NZ-NI_plain_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/NZ-NI_plain_map.png/200px-NZ-NI_plain_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1003" data-file-height="1457" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:59.43%;left:55.641%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-25px;top:-25px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Natural history of New Zealand"><img alt="Natural history of New Zealand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Bullseye1.png/50px-Bullseye1.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Bullseye1.png/75px-Bullseye1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Bullseye1.png/100px-Bullseye1.png 2x" data-file-width="1610" data-file-height="1610" /></span></span></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:NZ-NI_plain_map.png" title="File:NZ-NI plain map.png">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Hatepe_eruption" title="Hatepe eruption">Lake Taupo eruption</a>, 186 AD</div></div></div> <p>The ice age began 2.6 Ma, at the start of the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> epoch, and is defined by the presence of ice sheets on <a href="/wiki/Greenland_ice_sheet" title="Greenland ice sheet">Greenland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_ice_sheet" title="Antarctic ice sheet">Antarctica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the warmer periods sea level was higher than today leading to raised beaches around New Zealand. New Zealand's flora is still recovering from the last glacial maximum. About 2 Ma, extension and <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> under the North Island formed the <a href="/wiki/Taupo_Volcanic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Taupo Volcanic Zone">Taupo Volcanic Zone</a>, leading to the central North Island being covered in cobalt deficient soils which restrict forest development. One of the largest eruptions being the <a href="/wiki/Hatepe_eruption" title="Hatepe eruption">Lake Taupo eruption</a> of 186 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the <a href="/wiki/Last_glacial_maximum" class="mw-redirect" title="Last glacial maximum">last glacial maximum</a> there have been three major climatic periods: the coldest period from 28–18,000 years ago, an intermediate period from 18-11,000 years ago and our current climatic condition the warmer <a href="/wiki/Interglacial" title="Interglacial">Holocene Inter Glacial</a> over the last 11,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-AllowayLowe2007_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllowayLowe2007-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first period global sea levels were about 130 metres (430 feet) lower than today. This made most of New Zealand a single island and exposed great sections of the currently submerged continental shelf.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temperatures were about 4–5 °C lower than today. Much of the Southern Alps and <a href="/wiki/Fiordland" title="Fiordland">Fiordland</a> were glaciated and much of the rest of New Zealand was covered in grass or shrubs, due to the cold and dry climate.<sup id="cite_ref-WilliamsMcGlone2015_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilliamsMcGlone2015-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These vast tracks of exposed land with little vegetation cover increased wind erosion and the deposition of <a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">loess</a> (windblown dust).<sup id="cite_ref-AllowayLowe2007_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AllowayLowe2007-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This deforestation led to a reduction in the forest cover and many canopy species were restricted to the northern areas of the country. The <a href="/wiki/Agathis" title="Agathis">kauri</a> was at the time only present in <a href="/wiki/Northland_Region" title="Northland Region">Northland</a> but has progressively moved south from there over the last 7000 years, reaching its current limit about 2000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_New_Zealand" title="Environment of New Zealand">Environment of New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_New_Zealand" title="Geology of New Zealand">Geology of New Zealand</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBunceBeavanOskamJacomb2014" class="citation journal cs1">Bunce, Michael; Beavan, Nancy R.; Oskam, Charlotte L.; Jacomb, Christopher; Allentoft, Morten E.; Holdaway, Richard N. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+Earth+Sciences&rft.atitle=Patterns+of+Gondwana+plant+colonisation+and+diversification&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=145-167&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0899-5362%2898%2900083-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999JAfES..28..145A&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+H.+M.&rft.au=Archangelsky%2C+S.&rft.au=Bamford%2C+M.&rft.au=Chandra%2C+S.&rft.au=Dettmann%2C+M.&rft.au=Hill%2C+R.&rft.au=McLoughlin%2C+S.&rft.au=R%C3%B6sler%2C+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F223836817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history+of+New+Zealand" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellHutching2011" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Hamish; Hutching, Gerard (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mvc0kgAACAAJ&q=in+search+of+ancient+new+zealand"><i>In Search of Ancient New Zealand</i></a>. Penguin Group New Zealand, Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780143206170" title="Special:BookSources/9780143206170"><bdi>9780143206170</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Ancient+New+Zealand&rft.pub=Penguin+Group+New+Zealand%2C+Limited&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780143206170&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Hamish&rft.au=Hutching%2C+Gerard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmvc0kgAACAAJ%26q%3Din%2Bsearch%2Bof%2Bancient%2Bnew%2Bzealand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history+of+New+Zealand" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbs2007" class="citation book cs1">Gibbs, George W. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c8oZvgAACAAJ&q=ghosts+of+gondwana"><i>Ghosts of Gondwana: The History of Life in New Zealand</i></a>. Potton & Burton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780947503086" title="Special:BookSources/9780947503086"><bdi>9780947503086</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ghosts+of+Gondwana%3A+The+History+of+Life+in+New+Zealand&rft.pub=Potton+%26+Burton&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780947503086&rft.aulast=Gibbs&rft.aufirst=George+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc8oZvgAACAAJ%26q%3Dghosts%2Bof%2Bgondwana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history+of+New+Zealand" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham2015" class="citation book cs1">Graham, I. J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LIgbjgEACAAJ&q=a+continent+on+the+move"><i>A Continent on the Move: New Zealand Geoscience Revealed</i></a>. Geoscience Society of New Zealand. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781877480478" title="Special:BookSources/9781877480478"><bdi>9781877480478</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Continent+on+the+Move%3A+New+Zealand+Geoscience+Revealed&rft.pub=Geoscience+Society+of+New+Zealand&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781877480478&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=I.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLIgbjgEACAAJ%26q%3Da%2Bcontinent%2Bon%2Bthe%2Bmove&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history+of+New+Zealand" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGurovichBeck2009" class="citation journal cs1">Gurovich, Y.; Beck, R. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226405808">"The phylogenetic affinities of the enigmatic mammalian clade Gondwanatheria"</a>. <i>Journal of Mammalian Evolution</i>. <b>16</b> (1): 25–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10914-008-9097-3">10.1007/s10914-008-9097-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42799370">42799370</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mammalian+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+phylogenetic+affinities+of+the+enigmatic+mammalian+clade+Gondwanatheria&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-49&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10914-008-9097-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42799370%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gurovich&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft.au=Beck%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F226405808&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history+of+New+Zealand" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodburneRichSpringer2003" class="citation journal cs1">Woodburne, M. O.; Rich, T. H.; Springer, M. S. (2003). "The evolution of tribospheny and the antiquity of mammalian clades". <i>Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</i>. <b>28</b> (2): 360–385. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1055-7903%2803%2900113-1">10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00113-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12878472">12878472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+tribospheny+and+the+antiquity+of+mammalian+clades&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=360-385&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1055-7903%2803%2900113-1&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12878472&rft.aulast=Woodburne&rft.aufirst=M.+O.&rft.au=Rich%2C+T.+H.&rft.au=Springer%2C+M.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history+of+New+Zealand" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&oldid=1255441198">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_history_of_New_Zealand&oldid=1255441198</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_history_of_New_Zealand" title="Category:Natural history of New Zealand">Natural history of New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology_of_New_Zealand" title="Category:Geology of New Zealand">Geology of New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biota_of_New_Zealand" title="Category:Biota of New Zealand">Biota of New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environment_of_New_Zealand" title="Category:Environment of New Zealand">Environment of New Zealand</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_containing_links_to_subscription-only_content" title="Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content">Pages containing links to subscription-only content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_February_2019" title="Category:Use dmy dates from February 2019">Use dmy dates from February 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_New_Zealand_English_from_January_2019" title="Category:Use New Zealand English from January 2019">Use New Zealand English from January 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_New_Zealand_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in New Zealand English">All Wikipedia articles written in New Zealand English</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 4 November 2024, at 23:54<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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