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id="toc-Long-distance_migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-distance_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Long-distance migration </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Long-distance_migration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Long-distance migration subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Long-distance_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_waders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_waders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 In waders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_waders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_seabirds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_seabirds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 In seabirds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_seabirds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diurnal_migration_in_large_birds_using_thermals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diurnal_migration_in_large_birds_using_thermals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Diurnal migration in large birds using thermals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diurnal_migration_in_large_birds_using_thermals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Short-distance_and_altitudinal_migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Short-distance_and_altitudinal_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Short-distance and altitudinal migration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Short-distance_and_altitudinal_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irruptions_and_dispersal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irruptions_and_dispersal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Irruptions and dispersal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irruptions_and_dispersal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiology_and_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiology_and_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Physiology and control </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physiology_and_control-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Physiology and control subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Physiology_and_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Timing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Timing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orientation_and_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orientation_and_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Orientation and navigation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orientation_and_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vagrancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vagrancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Vagrancy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vagrancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Migration_conditioning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migration_conditioning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Migration conditioning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Migration_conditioning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaptations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Adaptations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_and_ecological_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_and_ecological_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Evolutionary and ecological factors </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolutionary_and_ecological_factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Evolutionary and ecological factors subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_and_ecological_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecological_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Ecological effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Study_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Study_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Study techniques </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Study_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Threats_and_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Threats_and_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Threats and conservation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Threats_and_conservation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Threats and conservation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Threats_and_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stopover_site_conservation_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stopover_site_conservation_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Stopover site conservation efforts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stopover_site_conservation_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Online_databases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_databases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 Online databases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_databases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Bird migration</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" > 65 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrasie_van_vo%C3%ABls" title="Migrasie van voëls – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Migrasie van voëls" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B1" title="هجرة الطيور – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هجرة الطيور" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8" title="চৰাইৰ প্ৰব্ৰজন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="চৰাইৰ প্ৰব্ৰজন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migraci%C3%B3n_de_les_aves" title="Migración de les aves – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Migración de les aves" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C5%9Flar%C4%B1n_miqrasiyas%C4%B1" title="Quşların miqrasiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Quşların miqrasiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="পাখি পরিযান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পাখি পরিযান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D0%BE%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D2%99%D1%8B%D2%A3_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Ҡоштарҙың миграцияһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡоштарҙың миграцияһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Миграция на птиците – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Миграция на птиците" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptice_selice" title="Ptice selice – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ptice selice" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocell_migrador" title="Ocell migrador – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ocell migrador" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrace_pt%C3%A1k%C5%AF" title="Migrace ptáků – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Migrace ptáků" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aderyn_mudol" title="Aderyn mudol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Aderyn mudol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugletr%C3%A6k" title="Fugletræk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fugletræk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vogelzug" title="Vogelzug – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vogelzug" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B7_%CF%80%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Μετανάστευση πτηνών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μετανάστευση πτηνών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migraci%C3%B3n_de_las_aves" title="Migración de las aves – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Migración de las aves" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birdomigrado" title="Birdomigrado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Birdomigrado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مهاجرت پرندگان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مهاجرت پرندگان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_des_oiseaux" title="Migration des oiseaux – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Migration des oiseaux" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BBgeltrek" title="Fûgeltrek – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Fûgeltrek" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eun-turais" title="Eun-turais – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eun-turais" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migraci%C3%B3n_das_aves" title="Migración das aves – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Migración das aves" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%B0_%E0%AA%AA%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B7%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%93" title="યાયાવર પક્ષીઓ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="યાયાવર પક્ષીઓ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%A0%EC%83%88" title="철새 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="철새" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8" title="पक्षी प्रव्रजन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पक्षी प्रव्रजन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoba_ptica" title="Seoba ptica – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Seoba ptica" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrasi_burung" title="Migrasi burung – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Migrasi burung" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%99%D7%93%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA" title="נדידת עופות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נדידת עופות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BF_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%86" title="ಹಕ್ಕಿ ವಲಸೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಹಕ್ಕಿ ವಲಸೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ფრინველთა მიმოფრენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფრინველთა მიმოფრენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D2%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%A3_%D2%9B%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%83%D1%8B" title="Құстардың қайтуы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Құстардың қайтуы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C4%81jputni" title="Gājputni – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gājputni" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauk%C5%A1%C4%8Di%C5%B3_migracija" title="Paukščių migracija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Paukščių migracija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad%C3%A1rvonul%C3%A1s" title="Madárvonulás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Madárvonulás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Преселба на птиците – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Преселба на птиците" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE" title="ദേശാടനപ്പക്ഷികൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ദേശാടനപ്പക്ഷികൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0" title="पक्ष्यांचे स्थलांतर – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पक्ष्यांचे स्थलांतर" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%84%E1%80%BE%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BD%E1%80%BE%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B7%E1%80%94%E1%80%B1%E1%80%91%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ငှက် ပြောင်းရွှေ့နေထိုင်ခြင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ငှက် ပြောင်းရွှေ့နေထိုင်ခြင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vogeltrek" title="Vogeltrek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vogeltrek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%9A%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="आगन्तुक च‍रा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="आगन्तुक च‍रा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%A1%E3%82%8A%E9%B3%A5" title="渡り鳥 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="渡り鳥" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugletrekk" title="Fugletrekk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fugletrekk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugletrekk" title="Fugletrekk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fugletrekk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migracion_deis_auc%C3%A8us" title="Migracion deis aucèus – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Migracion deis aucèus" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C4%99dr%C3%B3wki_ptak%C3%B3w" title="Wędrówki ptaków – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wędrówki ptaków" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migra%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_aves" title="Migração de aves – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Migração de aves" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrarea_p%C4%83s%C4%83rilor" title="Migrarea păsărilor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Migrarea păsărilor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migraziun_dals_utschels" title="Migraziun dals utschels – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Migraziun dals utschels" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86" title="Миграция птиц – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Миграция птиц" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/talastas_a_ayam" title="talastas a ayam – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="talastas a ayam" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luukende_Fuugele" title="Luukende Fuugele – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Luukende Fuugele" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selitev_ptic" title="Selitev ptic – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Selitev ptic" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Сеоба птица – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сеоба птица" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoba_ptica" title="Seoba ptica – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Seoba ptica" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88" title="பறவைகளின் வலசை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பறவைகளின் வலசை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinigt_n_yig%E1%B9%ADa%E1%B9%AD" title="Tinigt n yigṭaṭ – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tinigt n yigṭaṭ" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D2%AF%D1%87%D0%BC%D3%99_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Күчмә кошлар – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Күчмә кошлар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6%C3%A7men_ku%C5%9Flar" title="Göçmen kuşlar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Göçmen kuşlar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Міграція птахів – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Міграція птахів" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="پرندی مہاجرت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پرندی مہاجرت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chim_di_tr%C3%BA" title="Chim di trú – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chim di trú" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyaedje_d%27_oujhea" title="Voyaedje d' oujhea – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Voyaedje d' oujhea" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%B8%9F%E7%B1%BB%E8%BF%81%E5%BE%99" title="鸟类迁徙 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="鸟类迁徙" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%80%E9%B3%A5%E9%81%B7%E5%BE%99" title="雀鳥遷徙 – Cantonese" lang="yue" 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class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Migratory_bird&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Migratory bird">Migratory bird</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Seasonal movement of birds</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Bird of passage" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Bird_of_Passage_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bird of Passage (disambiguation)">Bird of Passage (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BrantaLeucopsisMigration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/BrantaLeucopsisMigration.jpg/300px-BrantaLeucopsisMigration.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/BrantaLeucopsisMigration.jpg/450px-BrantaLeucopsisMigration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/BrantaLeucopsisMigration.jpg/600px-BrantaLeucopsisMigration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2610" data-file-height="1209" /></a><figcaption>A flock of <a href="/wiki/Barnacle_goose" title="Barnacle goose">barnacle geese</a> during autumn migration</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Migrationroutes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Migrationroutes.svg/300px-Migrationroutes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Migrationroutes.svg/450px-Migrationroutes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Migrationroutes.svg/600px-Migrationroutes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1444" data-file-height="1207" /></a><figcaption>Examples of long-distance bird migration routes</figcaption></figure> Bird migration is a seasonal movement of <a href="/wiki/Birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds">birds</a> between breeding and wintering grounds that occurs twice a year. It is typically from north to south or from south to north. <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Migration</a> is inherently risky, due to <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a> and mortality. The <a href="/wiki/Arctic_tern" title="Arctic tern">Arctic tern</a> holds the long-distance migration record for birds, travelling between <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> breeding grounds and the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> each year. Some species of <a href="/wiki/Procellariiformes" title="Procellariiformes">tubenoses</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Albatross" title="Albatross">albatrosses</a>, circle the Earth, flying over the southern oceans, while others such as <a href="/wiki/Manx_shearwaters" class="mw-redirect" title="Manx shearwaters">Manx shearwaters</a> migrate 14,000 km (8,700 mi) between their northern breeding grounds and the southern ocean. Shorter migrations are common, while longer ones are not. The shorter migrations include <a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_migration" title="Altitudinal migration">altitudinal migrations</a> on mountains, including the Andes and <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>. The timing of migration seems to be controlled primarily by changes in day length. Migrating birds navigate using celestial cues from the Sun and stars, the Earth's magnetic field, and mental maps. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_views">Historical views</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical views">edit</a>]</div> Writings of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greeks</a> recognized the seasonal comings and goings of birds.<a href="#cite_note-LincolnInf-A001-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> wrote that birds transmuted into other birds or species like fish and animals, which explained their disappearance and reappearance. Aristotle thought many birds disappeared during cold weather because they were <a href="/wiki/Torpid" class="mw-redirect" title="Torpid">torpid</a>, undetected in unseen environments like tree hollows or burrowing down in mud found at the bottom of ponds, then reemerging months later.<a href="#cite_note-DiggerInf-A001-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-LincolnInf-A001-1">[1]</a> Still, Aristotle recorded that cranes traveled from the steppes of <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a> to marshes at the headwaters of the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>, an observation repeated by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Historia Naturalis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LincolnInf-A001-1">[1]</a> Two books of the Bible may address avian migration. The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Job" title="Book of Job">Book of Job</a> notes migrations with the inquiry: "Is it by your insight that the hawk hovers, spreads its wings southward?"<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jeremiah" title="Book of Jeremiah">Book of Jeremiah</a> comments: "Even the <a href="/wiki/Stork" title="Stork">stork</a> in the heavens knows its seasons, and the <a href="/wiki/European_turtle_dove" title="European turtle dove">turtle dove</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Swift_(bird)" title="Swift (bird)">swift</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crane_(bird)" title="Crane (bird)">crane</a> keep the time of their arrival."<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> In the Pacific, traditional land-finding techniques used by <a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesians</a> and Polynesians suggest that bird migration was observed and interpreted for more than 3,000 years. In Samoan tradition, for example, Tagaloa sent his daughter Sina to Earth in the form of a bird, Tuli, to find dry land, the word tuli referring specifically to land-finding waders, often to the Pacific golden plover.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swallow_migration_versus_hibernation">Swallow migration versus hibernation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Swallow migration versus hibernation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fresque_du_printemps,_Akrotiri,_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Fresque_du_printemps%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg/220px-Fresque_du_printemps%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Fresque_du_printemps%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg/330px-Fresque_du_printemps%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Fresque_du_printemps%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg/440px-Fresque_du_printemps%2C_Akrotiri%2C_Gr%C3%A8ce.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2188" data-file-height="2004" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Minoan_art" title="Minoan art">Minoan</a> <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a> of <a href="/wiki/Swallow" title="Swallow">swallows</a> in springtime at <a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_(prehistoric_city)" title="Akrotiri (prehistoric city)">Akrotiri</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500 BC</figcaption></figure> Aristotle, however, suggested that swallows and other birds hibernated. This belief persisted as late as 1878 when <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Coues" title="Elliott Coues">Elliott Coues</a> listed the titles of no fewer than 182 papers dealing with the hibernation of swallows. Even the "highly observant"<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a>, in his posthumously published 1789 <a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Selborne" class="mw-redirect" title="The Natural History of Selborne">The Natural History of Selborne</a>, quoted a man's story about swallows being found in a chalk cliff collapse "while he was a schoolboy at Brighthelmstone", though the man denied being an eyewitness.<a href="#cite_note-GilbertWhite1-7">[7]</a> However, he writes that "as to swallows being found in a torpid state during the winter in the Isle of Wight or any part of this country, I never heard any such account worth attending to",<a href="#cite_note-GilbertWhite1-7">[7]</a> and that if early swallows "happen to find frost and snow they immediately withdraw for a time—a circumstance this much more in favour of hiding than migration", since he doubts they would "return for a week or two to warmer latitudes".<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Only at the end of the eighteenth century was migration accepted as an explanation for the winter disappearance of birds from northern climes.<a href="#cite_note-LincolnInf-A001-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bewick" title="Thomas Bewick">Thomas Bewick</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_British_Birds" title="A History of British Birds">A History of British Birds</a> (Volume 1, 1797) mentions a report from "a very intelligent master of a vessel" who, "between the islands of <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Majorca" class="mw-redirect" title="Majorca">Majorca</a>, saw great numbers of Swallows flying northward",<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> and states the situation in Britain as follows: <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rostocker_Pfeilstorch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Rostocker_Pfeilstorch.jpg/220px-Rostocker_Pfeilstorch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Rostocker_Pfeilstorch.jpg/330px-Rostocker_Pfeilstorch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Rostocker_Pfeilstorch.jpg/440px-Rostocker_Pfeilstorch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2912" data-file-height="4368" /></a><figcaption>The Rostocker <a href="/wiki/Pfeilstorch" title="Pfeilstorch">Pfeilstorch</a>, found in 1822, demonstrated that birds migrated rather than hibernating or changing form in winter.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Swallows frequently roost at night, after they begin to congregate, by the sides of rivers and pools, from which circumstance it has been erroneously supposed that they retire into the water. <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Bewick<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Bewick then describes an experiment that succeeded in keeping swallows alive in Britain for several years, where they remained warm and dry through the winters. He concludes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">These experiments have since been amply confirmed by ... M. <a href="/wiki/Johann_Natterer" title="Johann Natterer">Natterer</a>, of Vienna ... and the result clearly proves, what is in fact now admitted on all hands, that Swallows do not in any material instance differ from other birds in their nature and propensities [for life in the air]; but that they leave us when this country can no longer furnish them with a supply of their proper and natural food ... <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Bewick<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pfeilstörche">Pfeilstörche</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pfeilstörche">edit</a>]</div> In 1822, a <a href="/wiki/White_stork" title="White stork">white stork</a> was found in the German state of <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg" title="Mecklenburg">Mecklenburg</a> with an arrow made from central African hardwood, which provided some of the earliest evidence of long-distance stork migration.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> This bird was referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Pfeilstorch" title="Pfeilstorch">Pfeilstorch</a>, German for "Arrow stork".<a href="#cite_note-:6-14">[14]</a> Since then, around 25 Pfeilstörche have been documented. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_patterns">General patterns</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: General patterns">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:101111_Maison_007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/101111_Maison_007.jpg/170px-101111_Maison_007.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/101111_Maison_007.jpg/255px-101111_Maison_007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/101111_Maison_007.jpg/340px-101111_Maison_007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A flock of <a href="/wiki/Common_starling" title="Common starling">common starlings</a> assembling before migration southwards, Geneva</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waders_in_flight_Roebuck_Bay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Waders_in_flight_Roebuck_Bay.jpg/220px-Waders_in_flight_Roebuck_Bay.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Waders_in_flight_Roebuck_Bay.jpg/330px-Waders_in_flight_Roebuck_Bay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Waders_in_flight_Roebuck_Bay.jpg/440px-Waders_in_flight_Roebuck_Bay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>Migrating waders in <a href="/wiki/Roebuck_Bay" title="Roebuck Bay">Roebuck Bay</a>, Western Australia</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flock_of_cranes_feeding_on_harvested_fields_in_Northern_Germany_(I).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flock_of_cranes_feeding_on_harvested_fields_in_Northern_Germany_%28I%29.jpg/220px-Flock_of_cranes_feeding_on_harvested_fields_in_Northern_Germany_%28I%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flock_of_cranes_feeding_on_harvested_fields_in_Northern_Germany_%28I%29.jpg/330px-Flock_of_cranes_feeding_on_harvested_fields_in_Northern_Germany_%28I%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flock_of_cranes_feeding_on_harvested_fields_in_Northern_Germany_%28I%29.jpg/440px-Flock_of_cranes_feeding_on_harvested_fields_in_Northern_Germany_%28I%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6267" data-file-height="3525" /></a><figcaption>In autumn, gigantic numbers of cranes (<a href="/wiki/Common_crane" title="Common crane">Common crane</a> Grus grus) gather in the northern federal states of Germany, <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg-Vorpommern" title="Mecklenburg-Vorpommern">Mecklenburg-Vorpommern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a> to rest and prepare for the long journey to the south.</figcaption></figure> Migration is the regular seasonal movement, often north and south, undertaken by many species of birds. Migration is marked by its annual seasonality and movement between breeding and non-breeding areas.<a href="#cite_note-Berthold-16">[16]</a> Nonmigratory bird movements include those made in response to environmental changes including in food availability, habitat, or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular (nomadism, invasions, irruptions) or in only one direction (dispersal, movement of young away from natal area). Non-migratory birds are said to be resident or sedentary. Approximately 1,800 of the world's 10,000 bird species are long-distance migrants.<a href="#cite_note-Seker-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rolland-18">[18]</a> Many bird populations migrate long distances along a flyway. The most common pattern involves flying north in the spring to breed in the temperate or <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> summer and returning in the autumn to wintering grounds in warmer regions to the south. Of course, in the southern hemisphere, the directions are reversed, but there is less land area in the far south to support long-distance migration.<a href="#cite_note-newton-19">[19]</a> The primary motivation for migration appears to be food; for example, some hummingbirds choose not to migrate if fed through the winter.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In addition, the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for <a href="/wiki/Breeding_in_the_wild" title="Breeding in the wild">breeding</a> birds to feed their young. This helps <a href="/wiki/Diurnality" title="Diurnality">diurnal</a> birds to produce larger <a href="/wiki/Clutch_(eggs)" title="Clutch (eggs)">clutches</a> than related non-migratory species that remain in the tropics. As the days shorten in autumn, the birds return to warmer regions where the available food supply varies little with the season.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> These advantages offset the high stress, physical exertion costs, and other risks of migration. Predation can be heightened during migration: <a href="/wiki/Eleonora%27s_falcon" title="Eleonora's falcon">Eleonora's falcon</a> Falco eleonorae, which breeds on <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> islands, has a very late breeding season, coordinated with the autumn passage of southbound <a href="/wiki/Passerine" title="Passerine">passerine</a> migrants, which it feeds to its young. A similar strategy is adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Greater_noctule_bat" title="Greater noctule bat">greater noctule bat</a>, which preys on nocturnal passerine migrants.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-bats-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The higher concentrations of migrating birds at stopover sites make them prone to parasites and pathogens, which require a heightened immune response.<a href="#cite_note-newton-19">[19]</a> Within a species not all populations may be migratory; this is known as "partial migration". Partial migration is very common in the southern continents; in Australia, 44% of non-passerine birds and 32% of passerine species are partially migratory.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In some species, the population at higher latitudes tends to be migratory and will often winter at lower latitude. The migrating birds bypass the latitudes where other populations may be sedentary, where suitable wintering habitats may already be occupied. This is an example of leap-frog migration.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Many fully migratory species show leap-frog migration (birds that nest at higher latitudes spend the winter at lower latitudes), and many show the alternative, chain migration, where populations 'slide' more evenly north and south without reversing the order.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Within a population, it is common for different ages and/or sexes to have different patterns of timing and distance. Female <a href="/wiki/Common_chaffinch" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chaffinch">chaffinches</a> Fringilla coelebs in Eastern Fennoscandia migrate earlier in the autumn than males do<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> and the European tits of genera <a href="/wiki/Parus" title="Parus">Parus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyanistes" title="Cyanistes">Cyanistes</a> only migrate their first year.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Most migrations begin with the birds starting off in a broad front. Often, this front narrows into one or more preferred routes termed <a href="/wiki/Flyway" title="Flyway">flyways</a>. These routes typically follow mountain ranges or coastlines, sometimes rivers, and may take advantage of updrafts and other wind patterns or avoid geographical barriers such as large stretches of open water. The specific routes may be genetically programmed or learned to varying degrees. The routes taken on forward and return migration are often different.<a href="#cite_note-newton-19">[19]</a> A common pattern in North America is clockwise migration, where birds flying North tend to be further West, and flying South tend to shift Eastwards. Many, if not most, birds migrate in flocks. For larger birds, flying in flocks reduces the energy cost. Geese in a <a href="/wiki/V_formation" title="V formation">V formation</a> may conserve 12–20% of the energy they would need to fly alone.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Red knots Calidris canutus and dunlins Calidris alpina were found in radar studies to fly 5 km/h (2.5 kn) faster in flocks than when they were flying alone.<a href="#cite_note-newton-19">[19]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Pintail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Northern_Pintail.jpg/220px-Northern_Pintail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Northern_Pintail.jpg/330px-Northern_Pintail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Northern_Pintail.jpg/440px-Northern_Pintail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Northern_pintail" title="Northern pintail">Northern pintail</a> skeletons have been found high in the Himalayas</figcaption></figure> Birds fly at varying altitudes during migration. An expedition to <a href="/wiki/Mount_Everest" title="Mount Everest">Mt. Everest</a> found skeletons of <a href="/wiki/Northern_pintail" title="Northern pintail">northern pintail</a> Anas acuta and <a href="/wiki/Black-tailed_godwit" title="Black-tailed godwit">black-tailed godwit</a> Limosa limosa at 5,000 m (16,000 ft) on the <a href="/wiki/Khumbu_Glacier" title="Khumbu Glacier">Khumbu Glacier</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bar-headed_goose" title="Bar-headed goose">Bar-headed geese</a> Anser indicus have been recorded by GPS flying at up to 6,540 m (21,460 ft) while crossing the Himalayas, at the same time engaging in the highest rates of climb to altitude for any bird. Anecdotal reports of them flying much higher have yet to be corroborated with any direct evidence.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Seabirds fly low over water but gain altitude when crossing land, and the reverse pattern is seen in land birds.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> However most bird migration is in the range of 150 to 600 m (490–2,000 ft). <a href="/wiki/Bird_strike" title="Bird strike">Bird strike</a> Aviation records from the United States show most collisions occur below 600 m (2,000 ft) and almost none above 1,800 m (5,900 ft).<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Bird migration is not limited to birds that can fly. Most species of <a href="/wiki/Penguin" title="Penguin">penguin</a> (Spheniscidae) migrate by swimming. These routes can cover over 1,000 km (550 nmi). <a href="/wiki/Dusky_grouse" title="Dusky grouse">Dusky grouse</a> Dendragapus obscurus perform altitudinal migration mostly by walking. <a href="/wiki/Emu" title="Emu">Emus</a> Dromaius novaehollandiae in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> have been observed to undertake long-distance movements on foot during droughts.<a href="#cite_note-newton-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nocturnal_migratory_behaviour">Nocturnal migratory behaviour</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nocturnal migratory behaviour">edit</a>]</div> During nocturnal migration ("nocmig"<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>), many birds give nocturnal flight calls, which are short, contact-type calls.<a href="#cite_note-:02-38">[38]</a> These likely serve to maintain the composition of a migrating flock, and can sometimes encode the sex of a migrating individual,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> and to avoid collision in the air.<a href="#cite_note-:02-38">[38]</a> Nocturnal migration can be monitored using weather radar data,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> allowing ornithologists to estimate the number of birds migrating on a given night, and the direction of the migration.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Future research includes the automatic detection and identification of nocturnally calling migrant birds.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Nocturnal migrants land in the morning and may feed for a few days before resuming their migration. These birds are referred to as passage migrants in the regions where they occur for a short period between the origin and destination.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Nocturnal migrants minimize depredation, avoid overheating, and can feed during the day.<a href="#cite_note-LincolnInf-A001-1">[1]</a> One cost of nocturnal migration is the loss of sleep. Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep to compensate for the loss.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Long-distance_migration">Long-distance migration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Long-distance migration">edit</a>]</div> The typical image of migration is of northern land birds, such as <a href="/wiki/Swallow" title="Swallow">swallows</a> (Hirundinidae) and birds of prey, making long flights to the tropics. However, many <a href="/wiki/Holarctic_realm" title="Holarctic realm">Holarctic</a> <a href="/wiki/Wildfowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildfowl">wildfowl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fringillidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Fringillidae">finch</a> (Fringillidae) species winters in the <a href="/wiki/North_Temperate_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="North Temperate Zone">North Temperate Zone</a>, in regions with milder winters than their summer breeding grounds. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Pink-footed_goose" title="Pink-footed goose">pink-footed goose</a> migrates from <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> to <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a> and neighbouring countries, whilst the <a href="/wiki/Dark-eyed_junco" title="Dark-eyed junco">dark-eyed junco</a> migrates from <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">subarctic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tundra_climate" title="Tundra climate">arctic climates</a> to the contiguous United States<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> and the American goldfinch from taiga to wintering grounds extending from the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">American South</a> northwestward to <a href="/wiki/Western_Oregon" title="Western Oregon">Western Oregon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Some ducks, such as the <a href="/wiki/Garganey" title="Garganey">garganey</a> Anas querquedula, move completely or partially into the tropics. The <a href="/wiki/European_pied_flycatcher" title="European pied flycatcher">European pied flycatcher</a> Ficedula hypoleuca follows this migratory trend, breeding in Asia and Europe and wintering in Africa. Migration routes and wintering grounds are both genetically and traditionally determined depending on the social system of the species. In long-lived, social species such as <a href="/wiki/White_stork" title="White stork">white storks</a> (Ciconia ciconia), flocks are often led by the oldest members and young storks learn the route on their first journey.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In short-lived species that migrate alone, such as the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_blackcap" title="Eurasian blackcap">Eurasian blackcap</a> Sylvia atricapilla or the <a href="/wiki/Yellow-billed_cuckoo" title="Yellow-billed cuckoo">yellow-billed cuckoo</a> Coccyzus americanus, first-year migrants follow a genetically determined route that is alterable with selective breeding.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Many migration routes of long-distance migratory birds are circuitous due to evolutionary history: the breeding range of <a href="/wiki/Northern_wheatear" title="Northern wheatear">Northern wheatears</a> Oenanthe oenanthe has expanded to cover the entire Northern Hemisphere, but the species still migrates up to 14,500 km to reach ancestral wintering grounds in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> rather than establish new wintering grounds closer to breeding areas.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> A migration route often does not follow the most direct line between breeding and wintering grounds. Rather, it could follow a hooked or arched line, with detours around geographical barriers or towards suitable stopover habitat. For most land birds, such barriers could consist of large water bodies or high mountain ranges, a lack of stopover or feeding sites, or a lack of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal column">thermal columns</a> (important for broad-winged birds).<a href="#cite_note-Berthold-16">[16]</a> Conversely, in <a href="/wiki/Water_birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Water birds">water-birds</a>, large areas of land without wetlands offering suitable feeding sites may present a barrier, and detours avoiding such barriers are observed. For example, <a href="/wiki/Brant_(goose)" title="Brant (goose)">brent geese</a> Branta bernicla bernicla migrating between the <a href="/wiki/Taymyr_Peninsula" title="Taymyr Peninsula">Taymyr Peninsula</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wadden_Sea" title="Wadden Sea">Wadden Sea</a> travel via low-lying coastal feeding-areas on the <a href="/wiki/White_Sea" title="White Sea">White Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> rather than directly across the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> mainland.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <a href="#cite_note-Ganter2000-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Great_snipe" title="Great snipe">Great snipes</a> make non-stop flights of 4,000–7,000 km, lasting 60–90 h, during which they change their average cruising heights from 2,000 m (above sea level) at night to around 4,000 m during daytime.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_waders">In waders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In waders">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BartailedGodwit24.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/BartailedGodwit24.jpg/220px-BartailedGodwit24.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/BartailedGodwit24.jpg/330px-BartailedGodwit24.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/BartailedGodwit24.jpg/440px-BartailedGodwit24.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="713" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bar-tailed_godwit" title="Bar-tailed godwit">Bar-tailed godwit</a></figcaption></figure> A similar situation occurs with <a href="/wiki/Wader" title="Wader">waders</a> (called shorebirds in North America). Many species, such as <a href="/wiki/Dunlin" title="Dunlin">dunlin</a> Calidris alpina<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_sandpiper" title="Western sandpiper">western sandpiper</a> Calidris mauri,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> undertake long movements from their Arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in the same hemisphere, but others such as <a href="/wiki/Semipalmated_sandpiper" title="Semipalmated sandpiper">semipalmated sandpiper</a> C. pusilla travel longer distances to the tropics in the Southern Hemisphere.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> For some species of waders, migration success depends on the availability of certain key food resources at stopover points along the migration route. This gives the migrants an opportunity to refuel for the next leg of the voyage. Some examples of important stopover locations are the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Fundy" title="Bay of Fundy">Bay of Fundy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delaware_River" title="Delaware River">Delaware Bay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Bar-tailed_godwit" title="Bar-tailed godwit">bar-tailed godwits</a> Limosa lapponica baueri have the longest known non-stop flight of any migrant, flying 11,000 km from <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> to their <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> non-breeding areas.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Prior to migration, 55 percent of their bodyweight is stored as fat to fuel this uninterrupted journey. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_seabirds">In seabirds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In seabirds">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2009_07_02_-_Arctic_tern_nesting_on_Farne_Islands.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/2009_07_02_-_Arctic_tern_nesting_on_Farne_Islands.JPG/220px-2009_07_02_-_Arctic_tern_nesting_on_Farne_Islands.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/2009_07_02_-_Arctic_tern_nesting_on_Farne_Islands.JPG/330px-2009_07_02_-_Arctic_tern_nesting_on_Farne_Islands.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/2009_07_02_-_Arctic_tern_nesting_on_Farne_Islands.JPG/440px-2009_07_02_-_Arctic_tern_nesting_on_Farne_Islands.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1780" data-file-height="1338" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Arctic_tern" title="Arctic tern">Arctic tern</a> migrates the greatest distance of any bird.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a> migration is similar in pattern to those of the waders and waterfowl. Some, such as the <a href="/wiki/Black_guillemot" title="Black guillemot">black guillemot</a> Cepphus grylle and some <a href="/wiki/Gull" title="Gull">gulls</a>, are quite sedentary; others, such as most <a href="/wiki/Tern" title="Tern">terns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auk" title="Auk">auks</a> breeding in the temperate northern hemisphere, move varying distances south in the northern winter. The <a href="/wiki/Arctic_tern" title="Arctic tern">Arctic tern</a> Sterna paradisaea has the longest-distance migration of any bird, and sees more daylight than any other, moving from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic non-breeding areas.<a href="#cite_note-Cramp-60">[60]</a> One Arctic tern, <a href="/wiki/Bird_ringing" title="Bird ringing">ringed</a> (banded) as a chick on the <a href="/wiki/Farne_Islands" title="Farne Islands">Farne Islands</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northumberland" title="Northumberland">Northumberland</a> off the <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">British</a> east coast, reached <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> in just three months from fledging, a sea journey of over 22,000 km (12,000 nmi), while another also from the Farne Islands with a <a href="/wiki/Light_level_geolocator" title="Light level geolocator">light level geolocator</a> tag 'G82' covered a staggering 96,000 km (52,000 nmi) in just 10 months from the end of one breeding season to the start of the next, travelling not just the length of the Atlantic Ocean and the width of the Indian Ocean, but also half way across the South Pacific to the boundary between the <a href="/wiki/Ross_Sea" title="Ross Sea">Ross</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amundsen_Sea" title="Amundsen Sea">Amundsen Seas</a> before returning back west along the Antarctic coast and back up the Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Redfern-62">[62]</a> Many tubenosed birds breed in the southern hemisphere and migrate north in the southern winter.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The most pelagic species, mainly in the 'tubenose' order <a href="/wiki/Procellariiformes" title="Procellariiformes">Procellariiformes</a>, are great wanderers, and the <a href="/wiki/Albatross" title="Albatross">albatrosses</a> of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the "<a href="/wiki/Roaring_Forties" title="Roaring Forties">Roaring Forties</a>" outside the breeding season. The tubenoses spread widely over large areas of open ocean, but congregate when food becomes available. Many are among the longest-distance migrants; <a href="/wiki/Sooty_shearwater" title="Sooty shearwater">sooty shearwaters</a> Puffinus griseus nesting on the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> migrate 14,000 km (7,600 nmi) between the breeding colony and the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">North Atlantic Ocean</a> off <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Manx_shearwater" title="Manx shearwater">Manx shearwaters</a> Puffinus puffinus do this same journey in reverse. As they are long-lived birds, they may cover enormous distances during their lives; one record-breaking Manx shearwater is calculated to have flown 8 million kilometres (4.5 million nautical miles) during its over-50-year lifespan.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diurnal_migration_in_large_birds_using_thermals">Diurnal migration in large birds using thermals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Diurnal migration in large birds using thermals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vulture_19o05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Vulture_19o05.jpg/220px-Vulture_19o05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Vulture_19o05.jpg/330px-Vulture_19o05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Vulture_19o05.jpg/440px-Vulture_19o05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1013" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Griffon_vulture" class="mw-redirect" title="Griffon vulture">Griffon vulture</a> soaring</figcaption></figure> Some large broad-winged birds rely on <a href="/wiki/Thermal" title="Thermal">thermal</a> columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar. These include many <a href="/wiki/Bird_of_prey" title="Bird of prey">birds of prey</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Vulture" title="Vulture">vultures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eagle" title="Eagle">eagles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Buzzard" title="Buzzard">buzzards</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Stork" title="Stork">storks</a>. These birds migrate in the daytime. Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water, since thermals only form over land, and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances. <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> and other seas present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which must cross at the narrowest points. Massive numbers of large <a href="/wiki/Bird_of_prey" title="Bird of prey">raptors</a> and storks pass through areas such as the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Messina" title="Strait of Messina">Strait of Messina</a>,<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falsterbo" title="Falsterbo">Falsterbo</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a> at migration times. More common species, such as the <a href="/wiki/European_honey_buzzard" title="European honey buzzard">European honey buzzard</a> Pernis apivorus, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants, as in the <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central American</a> migratory bottleneck. The <a href="/wiki/Batumi" title="Batumi">Batumi</a> bottleneck in the Caucasus is one of the heaviest migratory funnels on earth, created when hundreds of thousands of soaring birds avoid flying over the Black Sea surface and across high mountains.<a href="#cite_note-Gavashelishvili11-66">[66]</a> Birds of prey such as honey buzzards which migrate using thermals lose only 10 to 20% of their weight during migration, which may explain why they forage less during migration than do smaller birds of prey with more active flight such as falcons, hawks and harriers.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_natural_terrace_of_Mount_Dinnammare_on_the_Strait_of_Messina,_sicily_.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_natural_terrace_of_Mount_Dinnammare_on_the_Strait_of_Messina%2C_sicily_.JPG/220px-The_natural_terrace_of_Mount_Dinnammare_on_the_Strait_of_Messina%2C_sicily_.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_natural_terrace_of_Mount_Dinnammare_on_the_Strait_of_Messina%2C_sicily_.JPG/330px-The_natural_terrace_of_Mount_Dinnammare_on_the_Strait_of_Messina%2C_sicily_.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_natural_terrace_of_Mount_Dinnammare_on_the_Strait_of_Messina%2C_sicily_.JPG/440px-The_natural_terrace_of_Mount_Dinnammare_on_the_Strait_of_Messina%2C_sicily_.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The bottleneck of the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Messina" title="Strait of Messina">Strait of Messina</a>, point of transit of the migrations, seen from the <a href="/wiki/Peloritani" title="Peloritani">Peloritani</a> mountains, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a></figcaption></figure> From observing the migration of eleven soaring bird species over the Strait of Gibraltar, species which did not advance their autumn migration dates were those with declining breeding populations in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rubythroathummer65.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Rubythroathummer65.jpg/220px-Rubythroathummer65.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Rubythroathummer65.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ruby-throated_hummingbird" title="Ruby-throated hummingbird">Ruby-throated hummingbird</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Short-distance_and_altitudinal_migration">Short-distance and altitudinal migration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Short-distance and altitudinal migration">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cedar_Waxwing-27527-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cedar_Waxwing-27527-1.jpg/220px-Cedar_Waxwing-27527-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cedar_Waxwing-27527-1.jpg/330px-Cedar_Waxwing-27527-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Cedar_Waxwing-27527-1.jpg/440px-Cedar_Waxwing-27527-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cedar_waxwing" title="Cedar waxwing">Cedar waxwing</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_migration" title="Altitudinal migration">Altitudinal migration</a></div> Many long-distance migrants appear to be genetically programmed to respond to changing day length. Species that move short distances, however, may not need such a timing mechanism, instead moving in response to local weather conditions. Thus mountain and moorland breeders, such as <a href="/wiki/Wallcreeper" title="Wallcreeper">wallcreeper</a> Tichodroma muraria and <a href="/wiki/White-throated_dipper" title="White-throated dipper">white-throated dipper</a> Cinclus cinclus, may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground. Other species such as <a href="/wiki/Merlin_(bird)" title="Merlin (bird)">merlin</a> Falco columbarius and <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_skylark" title="Eurasian skylark">Eurasian skylark</a> Alauda arvensis move further, to the coast or towards the south. Species like the chaffinch are much less migratory in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a> than those of continental Europe, mostly not moving more than 5 km in their lives.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Short-distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins. Those that have long-distance migrants in the same family, such as the <a href="/wiki/Common_chiffchaff" title="Common chiffchaff">common chiffchaff</a> Phylloscopus collybita, are species of southern hemisphere origins that have progressively shortened their return migration to stay in the northern hemisphere.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Species that have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the <a href="/wiki/Waxwing" title="Waxwing">waxwings</a> Bombycilla, are effectively moving in response to winter weather and the loss of their usual winter food, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities.<a href="#cite_note-CockerWaxwing-71">[71]</a> In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for a food supply, but altitudinal migration occurs in some tropical birds. There is evidence that this enables the migrants to obtain more of their preferred foods such as fruits.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Altitudinal migration is common on mountains worldwide, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dusky_grouse" title="Dusky grouse">Dusky grouse</a> in Colorado migrate less than a kilometer away from their summer grounds to winter sites which may be higher or lower by about 400 m in altitude than the summer sites.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Many bird species in arid regions across southern Australia are nomadic; they follow water and food supply around the country in an irregular pattern, unrelated to season but related to rainfall. Several years may pass between visits to an area by a particular species.<a href="#cite_note-FindingOzBirds-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Irruptions_and_dispersal">Irruptions and dispersal</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Irruptions and dispersal">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matthew_Paris_1251_sketch_of_Crossbill_eating_fruit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Matthew_Paris_1251_sketch_of_Crossbill_eating_fruit.jpg/220px-Matthew_Paris_1251_sketch_of_Crossbill_eating_fruit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Matthew_Paris_1251_sketch_of_Crossbill_eating_fruit.jpg/330px-Matthew_Paris_1251_sketch_of_Crossbill_eating_fruit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Matthew_Paris_1251_sketch_of_Crossbill_eating_fruit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="426" data-file-height="259" /></a><figcaption>Mediaeval sketch by <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Paris" title="Matthew Paris">Matthew Paris</a> in his Chronica Majora (1251) recording that year's major irruption of <a href="/wiki/Red_crossbill" title="Red crossbill">red crossbills</a> into England</figcaption></figure> Sometimes circumstances such as a good breeding season followed by a food source failure the following year lead to irruptions in which large numbers of a species move far beyond the normal range. <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_waxwing" title="Bohemian waxwing">Bohemian waxwings</a> Bombycilla garrulus well show this unpredictable variation in annual numbers, with five major arrivals in Britain during the nineteenth century, but 18 between the years 1937 and 2000.<a href="#cite_note-CockerWaxwing-71">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Red_crossbill" title="Red crossbill">Red crossbills</a> Loxia curvirostra too are irruptive, with widespread invasions across England noted in 1251, 1593, 1757, and 1791.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Bird migration is primarily, but not entirely, a Northern Hemisphere phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> This is because continental landmasses of the northern hemisphere are almost entirely temperate and subject to winter food shortages driving bird populations south (including the Southern Hemisphere) to overwinter; In contrast, among (pelagic) seabirds, species of the Southern Hemisphere are more likely to migrate. This is because there is a large area of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, and more islands suitable for seabirds to nest.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology_and_control">Physiology and control</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Physiology and control">edit</a>]</div> The control of migration, its timing and response are genetically controlled and appear to be a primitive trait that is present even in non-migratory species of birds. The ability to navigate and orient themselves during migration is a much more complex phenomenon that may include both endogenous programs as well as learning.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timing">Timing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Timing">edit</a>]</div> The primary physiological cue for migration is the changes in the day length. These changes are related to hormonal changes in the birds. In the period before migration, many birds display higher activity or <a href="/wiki/Zugunruhe" title="Zugunruhe">Zugunruhe</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: migratory restlessness), first described by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Naumann" title="Johann Friedrich Naumann">Johann Friedrich Naumann</a> in 1795, as well as physiological changes such as increased fat deposition. The occurrence of Zugunruhe even in cage-raised birds with no environmental cues (e.g. shortening of day and falling temperature) has pointed to the role of circannual <a href="/wiki/Endogenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogenous">endogenous</a> programs in controlling bird migrations.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Caged birds display a preferential flight direction that corresponds with the migratory direction they would take in nature, changing their preferential direction at roughly the same time their wild conspecifics change course.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a> tracking of 48 individual Asian houbaras (<a href="/wiki/MacQueen%27s_bustard" class="mw-redirect" title="MacQueen's bustard">Chlamydotis macqueenii</a>) across multiple migrations showed that this species uses the local temperature to time their spring migration departure. Notably, departure responses to temperature varied between individuals but were individually repeatable (when tracked over multiple years). This suggests that individual use of temperature is a cue that allows for population-level <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation to climate change</a>. In other words, in a warming world, many migratory birds are predicted to depart earlier in the year for their summer or winter destination.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Polygyny_in_animals" title="Polygyny in animals">polygynous</a> species with considerable <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexual dimorphism</a>, males tend to return earlier to the breeding sites than their females. This is termed protandry.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orientation_and_navigation">Orientation and navigation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Orientation and navigation">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bar-tailed_Godwit_migration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Bar-tailed_Godwit_migration.jpg/300px-Bar-tailed_Godwit_migration.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Bar-tailed_Godwit_migration.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption>The routes of satellite tagged <a href="/wiki/Bar-tailed_godwit" title="Bar-tailed godwit">bar-tailed godwits</a> migrating north from <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. This species has the longest known non-stop migration of any species, up to 10,200 km (5,500 nmi).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Navigation</a> is based on a variety of senses. Many birds have been shown to use a sun compass. Using the Sun for direction involves the need for making compensation based on the time. Navigation has been shown to be based on a combination of other abilities including the ability to detect magnetic fields (<a href="/wiki/Magnetoreception" title="Magnetoreception">magnetoreception</a>), use visual landmarks as well as <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_navigation" title="Olfactory navigation">olfactory cues</a>.<a href="#cite_note-walraffpigeon-86">[86]</a> Long-distance migrants are believed to disperse as young birds and form attachments to potential breeding sites and to favourite wintering sites. Once the site attachment is made they show high site-fidelity, visiting the same wintering sites year after year.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The ability of birds to navigate during migrations cannot be fully explained by endogenous programming, even with the help of responses to environmental cues. The ability to successfully perform long-distance migrations can probably only be fully explained with an accounting for the cognitive ability of the birds to recognize habitats and form mental maps. <a href="/wiki/Satellite_tracking_(animal_migration)" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite tracking (animal migration)">Satellite tracking</a> of day migrating raptors such as ospreys and honey buzzards has shown that older individuals are better at making corrections for wind drift.<a href="#cite_note-migrating-88">[88]</a> Birds rely for navigation on a combination of innate biological senses and experience, as with the two <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic</a> tools that they use. A young bird on its first migration flies in the correct direction according to the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>, but does not know how far the journey will be. It does this through a <a href="/wiki/Radical_pair_mechanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical pair mechanism">radical pair mechanism</a> whereby chemical reactions in special <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">photo pigments</a> sensitive to short wavelengths are affected by the field. Although this only works during daylight hours, it does not use the position of the Sun in any way. With experience, it learns various landmarks and this "mapping" is done by <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetites</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Trigeminal system">trigeminal system</a>, which tell the bird how strong the field is. Because birds migrate between northern and southern regions, the magnetic field strengths at different <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudes</a> let it interpret the radical pair mechanism more accurately and let it know when it has reached its destination.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> There is a neural connection between the eye and "Cluster N", the part of the forebrain that is active during migrational orientation, suggesting that birds may actually be able to see the magnetic field of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vagrancy">Vagrancy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Vagrancy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vagrancy_(biology)#In_birds" title="Vagrancy (biology)">Vagrancy (biology) § In birds</a></div> Migrating birds can lose their way and appear outside their normal ranges. This can be due to flying past their destinations as in the "spring overshoot" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended. Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for such birds. Examples are the <a href="/wiki/Point_Pelee_National_Park" title="Point Pelee National Park">Point Pelee National Park</a> in Canada, and <a href="/wiki/Spurn" title="Spurn">Spurn</a> in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reverse_migration_(bird_migration)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverse migration (bird migration)">Reverse migration</a>, where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly, can lead to rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Drift_migration" title="Drift migration">Drift migration</a> of birds blown off course by the wind can result in "falls" of large numbers of migrants at coastal sites.<a href="#cite_note-migrating-88">[88]</a> A related phenomenon called "abmigration" involves birds from one region joining similar birds from a different breeding region in the common winter grounds and then migrating back along with the new population. This is especially common in some waterfowl, which shift from one flyway to another.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Migration_conditioning">Migration conditioning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Migration conditioning">edit</a>]</div> It has been possible to teach a migration route to a flock of birds, for example in re-introduction schemes. After a trial with <a href="/wiki/Canada_goose" title="Canada goose">Canada geese</a> Branta canadensis, <a href="/wiki/Microlight" class="mw-redirect" title="Microlight">microlight</a> aircraft were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced <a href="/wiki/Whooping_crane" title="Whooping crane">whooping cranes</a> Grus americana.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adaptations">Adaptations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Adaptations">edit</a>]</div> Birds need to alter their metabolism to meet the demands of migration. The storage of energy through the accumulation of fat and the control of sleep in nocturnal migrants require special physiological adaptations. In addition, the feathers of a bird suffer from wear-and-tear and must be moulted. The timing of this moult – usually once a year but sometimes twice – varies with some species moulting prior to moving to their winter grounds and others molting prior to returning to their breeding grounds.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Apart from physiological adaptations, migration sometimes requires behavioural changes such as flying in flocks to reduce the energy used in migration or the risk of predation.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_and_ecological_factors">Evolutionary and ecological factors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Evolutionary and ecological factors">edit</a>]</div> Migration in birds is highly labile and is believed to have developed independently in many avian lineages.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> While it is agreed that the behavioural and physiological adaptations necessary for migration are under genetic control, some authors have argued that no genetic change is necessary for migratory behaviour to develop in a sedentary species because the genetic framework for migratory behaviour exists in nearly all avian lineages.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> This explains the rapid appearance of migratory behaviour after the most recent glacial maximum.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Theoretical analyses show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20% will often be adaptive on <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">aerodynamic</a> grounds – a bird that loads itself with food to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently. However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms. An example is the migration of continental populations of <a href="/wiki/Swainson%27s_thrush" title="Swainson's thrush">Swainson's thrush</a> Catharus ustulatus, which fly far east across <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> before turning south via <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> to reach northern <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions, predation risk, or other factors.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Climate change">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Climate change and birds</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saalfeld_2021_bird_phenology.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Saalfeld_2021_bird_phenology.png/220px-Saalfeld_2021_bird_phenology.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Saalfeld_2021_bird_phenology.png/330px-Saalfeld_2021_bird_phenology.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Saalfeld_2021_bird_phenology.png/440px-Saalfeld_2021_bird_phenology.png 2x" data-file-width="1505" data-file-height="2034" /></a><figcaption>Differences in an Arctic shorebird species' phenology between a normal year and a hotter year.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></figcaption></figure> Large scale <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">climatic changes</a> are expected to have an effect on the timing of migration. Studies have shown a variety of effects including timing changes in migration,<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> breeding<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> as well as population declines.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Bird migration is generally synchronised to take advantage of seasonal resources. For example, there is a strong link between seasonal migration and vegetation greenness in North America.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Climate-induced shifts in the <a href="/wiki/Phenology" title="Phenology">phenology</a> of seasonal resource availability can cause mismatches between the timing of increased resource availability and important life-history events such as migration and breeding (aka <a href="/wiki/Phenological_mismatch" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenological mismatch">phenological mismatch</a> or phenological asynchrony).<a href="#cite_note-:03-109">[109]</a> These mismatches between the timing of resource availability and when organisms need additional resources may impact species’ <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a>, as described by the <a href="/wiki/Match/mismatch" title="Match/mismatch">match-mismatch hypothesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> In birds, individuals may use local temperature as a cue for migration. Changing temperature patterns due to climate change can result in <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a>-level shifts in migration phenology.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Such shifts in the timing of migration of hundreds of species are already detectable at the continental scale.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> While phenological mismatches appear to be more pronounced in long-distance migrants,<a href="#cite_note-:03-109">[109]</a> certain species traits such as a <a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">generalist diet</a> may help some species avoid more severe consequences of mismatches.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecological_effects">Ecological effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ecological effects">edit</a>]</div> The migration of birds also aids the movement of other species, including those of <a href="/wiki/Ectoparasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ectoparasite">ectoparasites</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ticks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ticks">ticks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lice">lice</a>,<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> which in turn may carry <a href="/wiki/Micro-organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-organism">micro-organisms</a> including those of concern to human health. Due to the global spread of <a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">avian influenza</a>, bird migration has been studied as a possible mechanism of disease transmission, but it has been found not to present a special risk; import of pet and domestic birds is a greater threat.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> that are maintained in birds without lethal effects, such as the <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus" title="West Nile virus">West Nile virus</a> may however be spread by migrating birds.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Birds may also have a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Some predators take advantage of the concentration of birds during migration. <a href="/wiki/Greater_noctule_bat" title="Greater noctule bat">Greater noctule bats</a> feed on nocturnal migrating passerines.<a href="#cite_note-bats-23">[23]</a> Some birds of prey specialize on migrating waders.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Study_techniques">Study techniques</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Study techniques">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linnuradarid_linnutee_r%C3%A4ndureid_seiramas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Linnuradarid_linnutee_r%C3%A4ndureid_seiramas.jpg/220px-Linnuradarid_linnutee_r%C3%A4ndureid_seiramas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Linnuradarid_linnutee_r%C3%A4ndureid_seiramas.jpg/330px-Linnuradarid_linnutee_r%C3%A4ndureid_seiramas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Linnuradarid_linnutee_r%C3%A4ndureid_seiramas.jpg/440px-Linnuradarid_linnutee_r%C3%A4ndureid_seiramas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4978" data-file-height="3319" /></a><figcaption>Radars for monitoring bird migration. <a href="/wiki/Kihnu" title="Kihnu">Kihnu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>.</figcaption></figure> Early studies on the timing of migration began in 1749 in Finland, with Johannes Leche of Turku collecting the dates of arrivals of spring migrants.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Bird migration routes have been studied by a variety of techniques including the oldest, marking. Swans have been marked with a nick on the beak since about 1560 in England. Scientific <a href="/wiki/Bird_ringing" title="Bird ringing">ringing</a> was pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_Cornelius_Mortensen" title="Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen">Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen</a> in 1899.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Other techniques include <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> and <a href="/wiki/GPS_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS satellite">satellite tracking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-14">[14]</a> The rate of bird migration over the Alps (up to a height of 150 m) was found to be highly comparable between fixed-beam radar measurements and visual bird counts, highlighting the potential use of this technique as an objective way of quantifying bird migration.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Stable isotopes of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur can establish avian migratory connectivity between wintering sites and breeding grounds. Stable isotopic methods to establish migratory linkage rely on spatial isotopic differences in bird diet that are incorporated into inert tissues like feathers, or into growing tissues such as claws and muscle or blood.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> An approach to identify migration intensity makes use of upward pointing microphones to record the nocturnal contact calls of flocks flying overhead. These are then analyzed in a laboratory to measure time, frequency and species.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EmlenFunnel.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/EmlenFunnel.svg/220px-EmlenFunnel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/EmlenFunnel.svg/330px-EmlenFunnel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/EmlenFunnel.svg/440px-EmlenFunnel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="868" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Emlen_funnel" title="Emlen funnel">Emlen funnel</a></figcaption></figure> An older technique developed by <a href="/wiki/George_Lowery" title="George Lowery">George Lowery</a> and others to quantify migration involves observing the face of the full moon with a telescope and counting the silhouettes of flocks of birds as they fly at night.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Orientation behaviour studies have been traditionally carried out using variants of a setup known as the Emlen funnel, which consists of a circular cage with the top covered by glass or wire-screen so that either the sky is visible or the setup is placed in a planetarium or with other controls on environmental cues. The orientation behaviour of the bird inside the cage is studied quantitatively using the distribution of marks that the bird leaves on the walls of the cage.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Other approaches used in pigeon homing studies make use of the direction in which the bird vanishes on the horizon.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Threats_and_conservation">Threats and conservation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Threats and conservation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration_perils" title="Bird migration perils">Bird migration perils</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illegal_hunting_on_migratory_birds_in_europe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Illegal_hunting_on_migratory_birds_in_europe.png/150px-Illegal_hunting_on_migratory_birds_in_europe.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Illegal_hunting_on_migratory_birds_in_europe.png/225px-Illegal_hunting_on_migratory_birds_in_europe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Illegal_hunting_on_migratory_birds_in_europe.png/300px-Illegal_hunting_on_migratory_birds_in_europe.png 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption>Migration routes and countries with illegal hunting in Europe. Number of offenders: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  high</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  moderate</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  low</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  unknown</div></figcaption></figure> Human activities have threatened many migratory bird species. The distances involved in bird migration mean that they often cross political boundaries of countries and conservation measures require international cooperation. Several international treaties have been signed to protect migratory species including the <a href="/wiki/Migratory_Bird_Treaty_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Migratory Bird Treaty Act">Migratory Bird Treaty Act</a> of 1918 of the US.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/African-Eurasian_Migratory_Waterbird_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement">African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The concentration of birds during migration can put species at risk. Some spectacular migrants have already gone extinct; during the <a href="/wiki/Passenger_pigeon" title="Passenger pigeon">passenger pigeon</a>'s (Ectopistes migratorius) migration the enormous flocks were 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) wide, darkening the sky, and 500 km (300 mi) long, taking several days to pass.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a> along migration routes threatens some bird species. The populations of <a href="/wiki/Siberian_crane" title="Siberian crane">Siberian cranes</a> (Leucogeranus leucogeranus) that wintered in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> declined due to hunting along the route, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. Birds were last seen in their favourite wintering grounds in <a href="/wiki/Keoladeo_National_Park" title="Keoladeo National Park">Keoladeo National Park</a> in 2002.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Structures such as power lines, wind farms and offshore oil-rigs have also been known to affect migratory birds.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Other <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration_perils" title="Bird migration perils">migration hazards</a> include pollution, storms, wildfires, and habitat destruction along migration routes, denying migrants food at stopover points.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> For example, in the <a href="/wiki/East_Asian%E2%80%93Australasian_Flyway" title="East Asian–Australasian Flyway">East Asian–Australasian Flyway</a>, up to 65% of key intertidal habitat at the Yellow Sea migration bottleneck has been destroyed since the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-Murray-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Other significant areas include stop-over sites between the wintering and breeding territories.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> A capture-recapture study of passerine migrants with high fidelity for breeding and wintering sites did not show similar strict association with stop-over sites.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Unfortunately, many historic stopover sites have been destroyed or drastically reduced due to human agricultural development, leading to an increased risk of bird extinction, especially in the face of climate change.<a href="#cite_note-:0-142">[142]</a> Conversely, so-called "ship-assisted migration" may be a modern benefit to migrating birds by giving them a mid-ocean rest stop on ships.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stopover_site_conservation_efforts">Stopover site conservation efforts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Stopover site conservation efforts">edit</a>]</div> California's <a href="/wiki/Central_Valley_(California)" title="Central Valley (California)">Central Valley</a> was once a massive stopover site for birds traveling along the Pacific <a href="/wiki/Flyway" title="Flyway">Flyway</a>, before being converted into agricultural land.<a href="#cite_note-:0-142">[142]</a> 90% of North America's shorebirds utilize this migration path and the destruction of rest stops has had detrimental impacts on bird populations, as they cannot get adequate rest and food and can be unable to complete their migration.<a href="#cite_note-:0-142">[142]</a> As a solution, conservationists and farmers in the United States are now working together to help provide stopover habitats for migrating birds.<a href="#cite_note-:1-145">[145]</a> In the winter, when many of these birds are migrating, farmers are now flooding their fields in order to provide temporary wetlands for birds to rest and feed before continuing their journey.<a href="#cite_note-:2-146">[146]</a> Rice is a major crop produced along this flyway, and flooded rice paddies have shown to be important areas for at least 169 different bird species.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> For example, in California, legislation changes have made it illegal for farmers to burn excess rice straw, so instead they have begun flooding their fields during the winter.<a href="#cite_note-:3-148">[148]</a> Similar practices are now taking place across the nation, with the Mississippi Alluvial Valley being a primary area of interest due to its agricultural use and its importance for migration.<a href="#cite_note-:4-149">[149]</a> Plant debris provides food sources for the birds while the newly formed wetland serves as a habitat for bird prey species such as insects and other invertebrates.<a href="#cite_note-:3-148">[148]</a> In turn, bird foraging assists in breaking down plant matter. Droppings then help to fertilize the field, helping the farmers and in turn significantly decreasing their need for artificial fertilizers by at least 13 percent.<a href="#cite_note-:4-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-148">[148]</a> Recent studies have shown that the implementation of these temporary wetlands has had significant positive impacts on bird populations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Greater_white-fronted_goose" title="Greater white-fronted goose">White-fronted Goose</a>, as well as various species of wading birds.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-145">[145]</a> The artificial nature of these temporary wetlands also greatly reduces the threat of predation from other wild animals.<a href="#cite_note-:2-146">[146]</a> This practice requires extremely low investment on behalf of the farmers, and researchers believe that mutually beneficial approaches such as this are key to wildlife conservation moving forward.<a href="#cite_note-:3-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-149">[149]</a> Economic incentives are key to getting more farmers to participate in this practice.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> However, issues can arise if bird populations are too high with their large amounts of droppings decreasing water quality and potentially leading to <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-152">[152]</a> Increasing participation in this practice would allow migratory birds to spread out and rest on a wider variety of locations, decreasing the negative impacts of having too many birds congregated in a small area.<a href="#cite_note-:5-152">[152]</a> Using this practice in areas with close proximity to natural wetlands could also greatly increase their positive impact.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human-guided_migration" title="Human-guided migration">Human-guided migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Migratory_Bird_Center" title="Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center">Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winged_Migration" title="Winged Migration">Winged Migration</a>, 2001 documentary film</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-LincolnInf-A001-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LincolnInf-A001_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LincolnInf-A001_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LincolnInf-A001_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LincolnInf-A001_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LincolnInf-A001_1-4">e</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLincoln1979" class="citation book cs1">Lincoln, F. 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Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 199: 1–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015AgEE..199....1S">2015AgEE..199....1S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.agee.2014.07.018">10.1016/j.agee.2014.07.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0167-8809">0167-8809</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Agriculture%2C+Ecosystems+%26+Environment&rft.atitle=Estimation+of+nutrient+input+by+a+migratory+bird%2C+the+Tundra+Swan+%28Cygnus+columbianus%29%2C+to+winter-flooded+paddy+fields&rft.volume=199&rft.pages=1-9&rft.date=2015-01-01&rft.issn=0167-8809&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.agee.2014.07.018&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015AgEE..199....1S&rft.aulast=Somura&rft.aufirst=Hiroaki&rft.au=Masunaga%2C+Tsugiyuki&rft.au=Mori%2C+Yasushi&rft.au=Takeda%2C+Ikuo&rft.au=Ide%2C+Jun%E2%80%99ichiro&rft.au=Sato%2C+Hirokazu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0167880914003788&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+migration" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegesSmolinskyBaldwinBarrow2014" class="citation journal cs1">Sieges, Mason L.; Smolinsky, Jaclyn A.; Baldwin, Michael J.; Barrow, Wylie C.; Randall, Lori A.; Buler, Jeffrey J. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26454386">"Assessment of Bird Response to the Migratory Bird Habitat Initiative Using Weather-Surveillance Radar"</a>. Southeastern Naturalist. 13 (1): G36–G65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1656%2F058.013.0112">10.1656/058.013.0112</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1528-7092">1528-7092</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26454386">26454386</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86729094">86729094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southeastern+Naturalist&rft.atitle=Assessment+of+Bird+Response+to+the+Migratory+Bird+Habitat+Initiative+Using+Weather-Surveillance+Radar&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=G36-G65&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=1528-7092&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86729094%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26454386%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1656%2F058.013.0112&rft.aulast=Sieges&rft.aufirst=Mason+L.&rft.au=Smolinsky%2C+Jaclyn+A.&rft.au=Baldwin%2C+Michael+J.&rft.au=Barrow%2C+Wylie+C.&rft.au=Randall%2C+Lori+A.&rft.au=Buler%2C+Jeffrey+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26454386&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+migration" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Alerstam, Thomas (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150502060654/http://www.mbfys.ru.nl/staff/j.vangisbergen/endnote/endnotepdfs/navigatie/Alerstam_detours_2001.pdf">"Detours in bird migration"</a> (PDF). Journal of Theoretical Biology. 209 (3): 319–331. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JThBi.209..319A">2001JThBi.209..319A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjtbi.2001.2266">10.1006/jtbi.2001.2266</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11312592">11312592</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mbfys.ru.nl/staff/j.vangisbergen/endnote/endnotepdfs/navigatie/Alerstam_detours_2001.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=Detours+in+bird+migration&rft.volume=209&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=319-331&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11312592&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fjtbi.2001.2266&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001JThBi.209..319A&rft.aulast=Alerstam&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mbfys.ru.nl%2Fstaff%2Fj.vangisbergen%2Fendnote%2Fendnotepdfs%2Fnavigatie%2FAlerstam_detours_2001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+migration" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Alerstam, Thomas (1993). Bird Migration. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44822-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44822-2"><bdi>978-0-521-44822-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bird+Migration&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-44822-2&rft.aulast=Alerstam&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+migration" class="Z3988"> (first published 1982 as Fågelflyttning, Bokförlaget Signum)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Berthold, Peter (2001). Bird Migration: A General Survey (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850787-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850787-1"><bdi>978-0-19-850787-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bird+Migration%3A+A+General+Survey&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-850787-1&rft.aulast=Berthold&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+migration" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bewick" title="Thomas Bewick">Bewick, Thomas</a> (1797–1804). History of British Birds (1847 ed.). Newcastle: Beilby and Bewick.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+British+Birds&rft.place=Newcastle&rft.edition=1847&rft.pub=Beilby+and+Bewick&rft.date=1797%2F1804&rft.aulast=Bewick&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+migration" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Dingle, Hugh (1996). Migration: The Biology of Life on The Move. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Migration%3A+The+Biology+of+Life+on+The+Move&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Dingle&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+migration" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hobson, Keith; Wassenaar, Leonard (2008). Tracking Animal Migration with Stable Isotopes. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373867-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373867-7"><bdi>978-0-12-373867-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tracking+Animal+Migration+with+Stable+Isotopes&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-12-373867-7&rft.aulast=Hobson&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft.au=Wassenaar%2C+Leonard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+migration" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Weidensaul, Scott (1999). Living On the Wind: Across the Hemisphere With Migratory Birds. Douglas & McIntyre.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+On+the+Wind%3A+Across+the+Hemisphere+With+Migratory+Birds&rft.pub=Douglas+%26+McIntyre&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Weidensaul&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+migration" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">White, Gilbert</a> (1898) [1789]. The Natural History of Selborne. Walter Scott.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Natural+History+of+Selborne&rft.pub=Walter+Scott&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Gilbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABird+migration" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fws.gov/program/migratory-birds">U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service</a> – Migratory Birds</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/toc/rstb/2008/363/1490">Dedicated issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B on Adaptation to the Annual Cycle.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olangowildlifesanctuary.org/">Route of East Asian Migratory Flyaway</a> Olango Wildlife Sanctuary as a refuelling station of migratory birds</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19990202105852/http://orn-lab.ekol.lu.se/birdmigration/">Migration Ecology Group, Lund University, Sweden</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.migrate.ou.edu/">Migrate.ou.edu</a> – Migration Interest Group: Research Applied Toward Education, USA</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060202231420/http://www.bsc-eoc.org/national/cmmn.html">Canadian Migration Monitoring Network (Co-ordinates bird migration monitoring stations across Canada)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/news/plants_animals/birds/">Bird Research by Science Daily</a>- includes several articles on bird migration</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110105103412/http://www.nature.org/initiatives/programs/birds/">The Nature Conservancy's Migratory Bird Program</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scq.ubc.ca/?p=173">The Compasses of Birds</a> – a review from the Science Creative Quarterly</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121223082018/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/birds/supergoose/index.shtml">BBC Supergoose</a> – satellite tagging of light-bellied brent geese</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070218122805/http://ospreyworld.com/soaring/index.html">Soaring with Fidel</a> – follow the annual migration of ospreys from Cape Cod to Cuba to Venezuela</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.swild.ch/publi/Bontadina_FunEco2003.pdf">Bat predation on migrating birds</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.groms.de/">Global Register of Migratory Species</a> – features not only birds, but other migratory vertebrates such as fishes</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120323014414/http://ebird.org/content/ebird/about/occurrence-maps/occurrence-maps">eBird.com Occurrence Maps</a> – Occurrence maps of migrations of various species in the United States</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nationalzoo.si.edu/scbi/MigratoryBirds/default.cfm">Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130204111437/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/scbi/MigratoryBirds/default.cfm">Archived</a> 4 February 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – "Fostering greater understanding, appreciation, and protection of the grand phenomenon of bird migration."</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://walkinthewild.co.in/secrets-of-bird-migration-the-how-why-and-where-of-flying-across-the-world">The Secrets of Bird Migration: The How, Why, And Where of Flying Across the World</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Online_databases">Online databases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bird_migration&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Online databases">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://birdcast.info/">BirdCast</a> – Live bird migration and forecast maps in the United States</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trektellen.org/">Trektellen.org</a> – Live bird migration counts and ringing records from all over the world</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hawkcount.org/">Hawkcount.org</a> – Count data and site profiles for over 300 North American Hawkwatch sites</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.migraction.net/">Migraction.net</a> – Interactive database with real-time information on bird migration (France)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Swarming" title="Template:Swarming"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Swarming" title="Template talk:Swarming"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Swarming" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Swarming"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Swarming" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarming</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour#Biological_swarming" title="Swarm behaviour">Biological swarming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based model in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_animal_behavior" title="Collective animal behavior">Collective animal behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droving" title="Droving">Droving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flock_(birds)" title="Flock (birds)">Flock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flocking_(behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocking (behavior)">flocking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sort_sol" title="Sort sol">sort sol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd" title="Herd">Herd</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">herd behavior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locust" title="Locust">Locust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-species_foraging_flock" title="Mixed-species foraging flock">Mixed-species foraging flock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing_(animal_behavior)" title="Mobbing (animal behavior)">Mobbing behavior</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">feeding frenzy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pack_(canine)" title="Pack (canine)">Pack</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pack_hunter" title="Pack hunter">pack hunter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_of_self-organization_in_ants" title="Patterns of self-organization in ants">Patterns of self-organization in ants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_mill" title="Ant mill">ant mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetry_breaking_of_escaping_ants" title="Symmetry breaking of escaping ants">symmetry breaking of escaping ants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bait_ball" title="Bait ball">bait ball</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarming behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(honey_bee)" title="Swarming (honey bee)">Swarming (honey bee)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_motility" title="Swarming motility">Swarming motility</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/140px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/210px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg/280px-Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3756" data-file-height="2561" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Animal migration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Animal migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_migration" title="Altitudinal migration">altitudinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_migration_tracking" title="Animal migration tracking">tracking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wildlife_tracking_technology" title="History of wildlife tracking technology">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coded_wire_tag" title="Coded wire tag">coded wire tag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bird migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bird_migration_flyways" title="Category:Bird migration flyways">flyways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_migration_(birds)" title="Reverse migration (birds)">reverse migration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_migration" title="Cell migration">Cell migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_migration" title="Fish migration">Fish migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">diel vertical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessepsian_migration" title="Lessepsian migration">Lessepsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_run" title="Salmon run">salmon run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardine_run" title="Sardine run">sardine run</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homing_(biology)" title="Homing (biology)">Homing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natal_homing" title="Natal homing">natal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philopatry" title="Philopatry">philopatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_migration" title="Insect migration">Insect migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera_migration" title="Lepidoptera migration">butterflies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarch_butterfly_migration" title="Monarch butterfly migration">monarch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_turtle_migration" title="Sea turtle migration">Sea turtle migration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour#Models" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model" title="Agent-based model">Agent-based models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant_colony_optimization_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ant colony optimization algorithm">Ant colony optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boids" title="Boids">Boids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_simulation" title="Crowd simulation">Crowd simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_swarm_optimization" title="Particle swarm optimization">Particle swarm optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">Swarm intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_(simulation)" title="Swarm (simulation)">Swarm (simulation)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Collective_motion" title="Collective motion">Collective motion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_matter" title="Active matter">Active matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_motion" title="Collective motion">Collective motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_particles" title="Self-propelled particles">Self-propelled particles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clustering_of_self-propelled_particles" title="Clustering of self-propelled particles">clustering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicsek_model" title="Vicsek model">Vicsek model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BIO-LGCA" title="BIO-LGCA">BIO-LGCA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_robotics" title="Ant robotics">Ant robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbotics" title="Microbotics">Microbotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbrion" title="Symbrion">Symbrion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralised_system" title="Decentralised system">Decentralised system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusociality" title="Eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_size_measures" title="Group size measures">Group size measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predator_satiation" title="Predator satiation">Predator satiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_organization" title="Spatial organization">Spatial organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigmergy" title="Stigmergy">Stigmergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Military swarming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_allocation_and_partitioning_of_social_insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Task allocation and partitioning of social insects">Task allocation and partitioning of social insects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Birds_(class:_Aves)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Birds" title="Template:Birds"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Birds" title="Template talk:Birds"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Birds" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Birds"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Birds_(class:_Aves)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a> (<a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a>: Aves)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_birds" title="Outline of birds">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy" title="Bird anatomy">Anatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">Beak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_brain" title="Avian brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crop_(anatomy)#Birds" title="Crop (anatomy)">Crop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crop_milk" title="Crop milk">milk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dactyly#bird_digits" title="Dactyly">Dactyly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">Eggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">Feathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_flight" title="Bird flight">Flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uropygial_gland" title="Uropygial gland">Preen gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumage" title="Plumage">Plumage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vision" title="Bird vision">Vision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bird_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Bird behaviour">Behaviour</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">Singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_intelligence" title="Bird intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_foraging" title="Avian foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_birds" title="Sexual selection in birds">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lek_mating" title="Lek mating">Lek mating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird_breeding_behavior" title="Seabird breeding behavior">Seabird breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_incubation#Avian_incubation" title="Egg incubation">Incubation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Brood parasite">Brood parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_nest" title="Bird nest">Nesting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_hybrid" title="Bird hybrid">Hybrids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_colony" title="Bird colony">Colony</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">Origin of birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">Theropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Origin of flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Evolution of birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabirds</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_bird_genera" title="List of fossil bird genera">Fossil birds</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivoropterygidae" title="Omnivoropterygidae">Omnivoropterygiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeholornithidae" title="Jeholornithidae">Jeholornithidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confuciusornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Confuciusornithiformes">Confuciusornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantiornithes" title="Enantiornithes">Enantiornithes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaoyangiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaoyangiformes">Chaoyangiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patagopterygiformes" title="Patagopterygiformes">Patagopterygiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiortiformes" title="Ambiortiformes">Ambiortiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songlingornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Songlingornithiformes">Songlingornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongshanornithidae" title="Hongshanornithidae">Hongshanornithidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gansus" title="Gansus">Gansuiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyornithes" title="Ichthyornithes">Ichthyornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesperornithes" title="Hesperornithes">Hesperornithes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithornithidae" title="Lithornithidae">Lithornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moa" title="Moa">Dinornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_bird" title="Elephant bird">Aepyornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastornithiformes" title="Gastornithiformes">Gastornithiformes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_uses_of_birds" title="Human uses of birds">Human interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_ringing" title="Bird ringing">Ringing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithomancy" title="Ornithomancy">Ornithomancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_collections" title="Bird collections">Bird collections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birdwatching" title="Birdwatching">Birdwatching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_year" title="Big year">big year</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_feeding" title="Bird feeding">Bird feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_conservation" title="Bird conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviculture" title="Aviculture">Aviculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterfowl_hunting" title="Waterfowl hunting">Waterfowl hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cockfight" class="mw-redirect" title="Cockfight">Cockfighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_racing" title="Pigeon racing">Pigeon racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falconry" title="Falconry">Falconry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pheasantry" title="Pheasantry">Pheasantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imping" title="Imping">Imping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oology" title="Oology">Egg collecting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds" title="List of birds">Families and orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bird_genera" title="List of bird genera">Genera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_bird_terms" title="Glossary of bird terms">Glossary of bird terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds_by_population" title="List of birds by population">List by population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_birds_by_region" title="Lists of birds by region">Lists by region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_bird_species_since_1500" title="List of extinct bird species since 1500">Extinct species since 1500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Late_Quaternary_prehistoric_bird_species" title="List of Late Quaternary prehistoric bird species">Late Quaternary prehistoric birds</a></li> <li>Notable birds <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_birds" title="List of individual birds">individuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_birds" title="List of fictional birds">fictional</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Neornithes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Neornithes</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Palaeognathae" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Palaeognathae" title="Palaeognathae">Palaeognathae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Struthionidae" title="Struthionidae">Struthioniformes (ostriches)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheidae" title="Rheidae">Rheiformes (rheas)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinamou" title="Tinamou">Tinamiformes (tinamous)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiwi_(bird)" title="Kiwi (bird)">Apterygiformes (kiwis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuariiformes" title="Casuariiformes">Casuariiformes (emus and cassowaries)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neognathae" title="Neognathae">N e o g n a t h a e</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Galloanserae_(fowls)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Galloanserae" class="mw-redirect" title="Galloanserae">G a l l o a n s e r a e</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fowl" title="Fowl">fowls</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anseriformes" title="Anseriformes">Anseriformes</a> (waterfowls)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatidae" title="Anatidae">Anatidae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatinae" title="Anatinae">Anatinae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_duck" title="Diving duck">Aythyini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mergini" title="Mergini">Mergini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxyurini" title="Oxyurini">Oxyurini</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anserinae" title="Anserinae">Anserinae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swan" title="Swan">swans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goose" title="Goose">true geese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistling_duck" title="Whistling duck">Dendrocygninae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freckled_duck" title="Freckled duck">Stictonettinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadorninae" title="Tadorninae">Tadorninae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anhimidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Anhimidae">Anhimidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horned_screamer" title="Horned screamer">Anhima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauna" title="Chauna">Chauna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anseranatidae" title="Anseranatidae">Anseranatidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magpie_goose" title="Magpie goose">Anseranas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Galliformes" title="Galliformes">Galliformes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Landfowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Landfowl">landfowls</a>- <a href="/wiki/Gamebirds" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamebirds">gamebirds</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cracidae" title="Cracidae">Cracidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cracinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cracinae">Cracinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oreophasinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Oreophasinae">Oreophasinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penelopinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Penelopinae">Penelopinae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megapodidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Megapodidae">Megapodidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aepypodius" title="Aepypodius">Aepypodius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alectura" class="mw-redirect" title="Alectura">Alectura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulipoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Eulipoa">Eulipoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Leipoa">Leipoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrocephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocephalon">Macrocephalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megapodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Megapodius">Megapodius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talegalla" title="Talegalla">Talegalla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Numididae" class="mw-redirect" title="Numididae">Numididae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulturine_guineafowl" title="Vulturine guineafowl">Acryllium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agelastes" title="Agelastes">Agelastes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guttera" title="Guttera">Guttera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numida" class="mw-redirect" title="Numida">Numida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Odontophoridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Odontophoridae">Odontophoridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Callipepla" title="Callipepla">Callipepla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colinus" title="Colinus">Colinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrtonyx" title="Cyrtonyx">Cyrtonyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dactylortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Dactylortyx">Dactylortyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrortyx" title="Dendrortyx">Dendrortyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odontophorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Odontophorus">Odontophorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oreortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Oreortyx">Oreortyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Philortyx">Philortyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhynchortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhynchortyx">Rhynchortyx</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phasianidae" title="Phasianidae">Phasianidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meleagridinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Meleagridinae">Meleagridinae (turkeys)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdicinae" title="Perdicinae">Perdicinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phasianinae" title="Phasianinae">Phasianinae (pheasants and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grouse" title="Grouse">Tetraoninae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoaves" title="Neoaves">Neoaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Columbea" title="Columbea">Columbea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Columbimorphae" title="Columbimorphae">Columbimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbidae" title="Columbidae">Columbiformes (doves and pigeons)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesite" title="Mesite">Mesitornithiformes (mesites)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandgrouse" title="Sandgrouse">Pterocliformes (sandgrouse)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mirandornithes" title="Mirandornithes">Mirandornithes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">Phoenicopteriformes (flamingos)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">Podicipediformes (grebes)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Passerea" title="Passerea">Passerea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Otidimorphae" title="Otidimorphae">Otidimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuckoo" title="Cuckoo">Cuculiformes (cuckoos)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turaco" title="Turaco">Musophagiformes (turacos)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bustard" title="Bustard">Otidiformes (bustards)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strisores" title="Strisores">Strisores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caprimulgiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Caprimulgiformes">Caprimulgiformes (nightjars and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steatornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Steatornithiformes">Steatornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podargiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Podargiformes">Podargiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apodiformes" title="Apodiformes">Apodiformes (swifts and hummingbirds)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opisthocomiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Opisthocomiformes">Opisthocomiformes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opisthocomidae" title="Opisthocomidae">Opisthocomiformes (hoatzin)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cursorimorphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cursorimorphae">Cursorimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charadriiformes" title="Charadriiformes">Charadriiformes (gulls and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gruiformes" title="Gruiformes">Gruiformes (cranes and relatives)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phaethontimorphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Phaethontimorphae">Phaethontimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropicbird" title="Tropicbird">Phaethontiformes (tropicbirds)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurypygiformes" title="Eurypygiformes">Eurypygiformes (kagu and sunbittern)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aequornithes" title="Aequornithes">Aequornithes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">Gaviiformes (loons or divers)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penguin" title="Penguin">Sphenisciformes (penguins)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procellariiformes" title="Procellariiformes">Procellariiformes (albatrosses and petrels)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stork" title="Stork">Ciconiiformes (storks)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suliformes" title="Suliformes">Suliformes (cormorants and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelecaniformes" title="Pelecaniformes">Pelecaniformes (pelicans and relatives)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australaves" title="Australaves">Australaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cariamiformes" title="Cariamiformes">Cariamiformes (seriemas and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falconiformes" title="Falconiformes">Falconiformes (falcons and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parrot" title="Parrot">Psittaciformes (parrots)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passerine" title="Passerine">Passeriformes (perching birds)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroaves" title="Afroaves">Afroaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accipitriformes" title="Accipitriformes">Accipitriformes (raptors)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">Strigiformes (owls)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousebird" title="Mousebird">Coliiformes (mousebirds)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trogon" title="Trogon">Trogoniformes (trogons and quetzals)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuckoo-roller" title="Cuckoo-roller">Leptosomiformes (cuckoo-roller)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucerotiformes" title="Bucerotiformes">Bucerotiformes (hornbills and hoopoes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coraciiformes" title="Coraciiformes">Coraciiformes (kingfishers and rollers)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piciformes" title="Piciformes">Piciformes (woodpeckers and relatives)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /><a href="/wiki/Category:Birds" title="Category:Birds">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Birds" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Birds">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" 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