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id="toc-Roman_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_philosophy_and_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_philosophy_and_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Medieval philosophy and theology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medieval_philosophy_and_theology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medieval philosophy and theology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medieval_philosophy_and_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Late_classical_Christian_writers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_classical_Christian_writers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Late classical Christian writers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_classical_Christian_writers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Islamic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Jewish philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thomas_Aquinas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Aquinas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Thomas Aquinas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Aquinas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modernity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modernity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modernity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modernity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Newton_and_Leibniz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newton_and_Leibniz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Newton and Leibniz</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newton_and_Leibniz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_empiricists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_empiricists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>British empiricists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_empiricists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derham's_natural_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derham's_natural_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Derham's natural theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derham's_natural_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Watchmaker_analogy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Watchmaker_analogy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Watchmaker analogy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Watchmaker_analogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_proponents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_proponents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Recent proponents</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Recent_proponents-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Recent proponents subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Recent_proponents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Probabilistic_arguments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Probabilistic_arguments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Probabilistic arguments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Probabilistic_arguments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fine-tuned_universe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fine-tuned_universe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Fine-tuned universe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fine-tuned_universe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_science_and_intelligent_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_science_and_intelligent_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Creation science and intelligent design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_science_and_intelligent_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unreasonable_effectiveness_of_mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unreasonable_effectiveness_of_mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unreasonable_effectiveness_of_mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Third_way"_proposal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Third_way"_proposal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>"Third way" proposal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Third_way"_proposal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interacting_whole" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interacting_whole"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Interacting whole</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interacting_whole-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Classical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-David_Hume" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#David_Hume"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>David Hume</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-David_Hume-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intelligence_may_not_be_God" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intelligence_may_not_be_God"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Intelligence may not be God</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intelligence_may_not_be_God-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Argument_from_improbability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argument_from_improbability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Argument from improbability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argument_from_improbability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perception_of_purpose_in_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perception_of_purpose_in_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Perception of purpose in biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perception_of_purpose_in_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fideism_and_rejection_of_natural_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fideism_and_rejection_of_natural_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Fideism and rejection of natural theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fideism_and_rejection_of_natural_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alleged_argument_from_analogy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alleged_argument_from_analogy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Alleged argument from analogy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alleged_argument_from_analogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Other criticisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Similar_discussions_in_other_civilizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Similar_discussions_in_other_civilizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Similar discussions in other civilizations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Similar_discussions_in_other_civilizations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Similar discussions in other civilizations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Similar_discussions_in_other_civilizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Hinduism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhist_criticism_of_Hindu_Nyaya_logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhist_criticism_of_Hindu_Nyaya_logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Buddhist criticism of Hindu Nyaya logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhist_criticism_of_Hindu_Nyaya_logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confucianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confucianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Confucianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confucianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Taoism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Teleological argument</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحجة الغائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحجة الغائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_teleol%C3%B2gic" title="Argument teleològic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Argument teleològic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleologisches_Argument" title="Teleologisches Argument – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Teleologisches Argument" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleoloogiline_jumalat%C3%B5estus" title="Teleoloogiline jumalatõestus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teleoloogiline jumalatõestus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Τελεολογικό επιχείρημα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τελεολογικό επιχείρημα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumento_teleol%C3%B3gico" title="Argumento teleológico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Argumento teleológico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumento_teleologia" title="Argumento teleologia – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Argumento teleologia" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argudio_teleologiko" title="Argudio teleologiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Argudio teleologiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%B8%D9%85" title="برهان نظم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="برهان نظم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_t%C3%A9l%C3%A9ologique" title="Argument téléologique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Argument téléologique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%A9%EC%A0%81%EB%A1%A0%EC%A0%81_%EB%85%BC%EC%A6%9D" title="목적론적 논증 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="목적론적 논증" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AF" title="Տելեոլոգիական փաստարկ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տելեոլոգիական փաստարկ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumen_teleologis" title="Argumen teleologis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Argumen teleologis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argomento_teleologico" title="Argomento teleologico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Argomento teleologico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99" title="הטיעון הטלאולוגי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הטיעון הטלאולוגי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleol%C3%B3giai_isten%C3%A9rv" title="Teleológiai istenérv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Teleológiai istenérv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_teleologiske_gudsbevis" title="Det teleologiske gudsbevis – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Det teleologiske gudsbevis" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Argument for the existence of God</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output 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class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religious</a> concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataphatic_theology" title="Cataphatic theology">Cataphatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief"><span class="wrap">Religious belief</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Religious faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text"><span class="wrap">Scripture (religious text)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Challenges</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;;padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.3em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Ethical egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">eschatological</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff; font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.3em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds"><span class="wrap">Best of all possible worlds</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;;padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropopathism" title="Anthropopathism">Anthropopathism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divinely simple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_of_the_Good" title="Form of the Good">Form of the Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Maltheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process-theological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">Summum bonum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;"> Arguments for</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-left:0.4em;padding-right:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lewis%27s_trilemma" title="Lewis's trilemma">Trilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">contingency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Metaphysical_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Cosmological argument">metaphysical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leap_of_faith" title="Leap of faith">Existential choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuned universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_God" title="Mathematics and God">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley#Theology" title="George Berkeley">Mystical idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seddiqin_argument" title="Seddiqin argument">Seddiqin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyayakusumanjali" title="Nyayakusumanjali">Nyayakusumanjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor#Religion" title="Occam's razor">Occam's Razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_ontological_proof" title="Gödel's ontological proof">Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument#Modal_versions_of_the_ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proslogion" title="Proslogion">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meinongian_argument" title="Meinongian argument">Meinongian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Mulla Sadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza#Ontological_argument" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis / Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_responses_to_the_problem_of_evil" title="Religious responses to the problem of evil">Responses to evil</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junkyard_tornado" title="Junkyard tornado">Junkyard</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trademark_argument" title="Trademark argument">Trademark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;"> Arguments against</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-left:0.4em;padding-right:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_wager" title="Atheist's wager">Atheist's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_the_creator_of_God" title="Problem of the creator of God">Creator of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_God_challenge" title="Evil God challenge">Evil God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fate_of_the_unlearned" title="Fate of the unlearned">Fate of the unlearned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_of_the_gaps" title="God of the gaps">God of the gaps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitchens%27s_razor" title="Hitchens's razor">Hitchens's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatible-properties_argument" title="Incompatible-properties argument">Incompatible properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations"><span class="wrap">Inconsistency</span></a></li> <li>No limits fallacy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox"><span class="wrap">Omnipotence paradox</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> By religion</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayyi_Rabbi" title="Hayyi Rabbi">Mandaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories of religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">secular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">religious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Shrine_Theory" title="Secular Shrine Theory">Secular Shrine Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shendao_shejiao" title="Shendao shejiao">Shendao shejiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers of religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;;padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usman_dan_Fodio" title="Usman dan Fodio">Usman dan Fodio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Godel" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt Godel">Kurt Godel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Oppy" title="Graham Oppy">Graham Oppy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Schellenberg" title="J. L. Schellenberg">J. L. Schellenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Draper_(philosopher)" title="Paul Draper (philosopher)">Paul Draper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">Cornel West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Philipse" title="Herman Philipse">Herman Philipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kai_Nielsen_(philosopher)" title="Kai Nielsen (philosopher)">Kai Nielsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yujin_Nagasawa" title="Yujin Nagasawa">Yujin Nagasawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed wraplinks"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">Philosophy of religion article index</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy of religion sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>teleological argument</b> (from <span title="Ancient Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">τέλος</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">telos</a></i></span>, 'end, aim, goal') also known as <b><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">physico-theological</a> argument</b>, <b>argument from design</b>, or <b>intelligent design argument</b>, is a <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> argument for the <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence of God</a> or, more generally, that complex functionality in the natural world, which looks designed, is evidence of an intelligent creator.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest recorded versions of this argument are associated with <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, although it has been argued that he was taking up an older argument.<sup id="cite_ref-comp_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-comp-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> developed complex approaches to the proposal that the cosmos has an intelligent cause, but it was the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a> during the Roman era who, under their influence, "developed the battery of creationist arguments broadly known under the label 'The Argument from Design'".<sup id="cite_ref-Sedley_2007,_page_xvii_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sedley_2007,_page_xvii-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the Roman era, various versions of the teleological argument have been associated with the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic religion">Abrahamic religions</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, Islamic theologians such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> used the argument, although it was rejected as unnecessary by <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quranic</a> literalists, and as unconvincing by many <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic philosophers">Islamic philosophers</a>. Later, the teleological argument was accepted by <a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Thomas Aquinas">Saint Thomas Aquinas</a>, and included as the fifth of his "<a href="/wiki/Quinque_viae" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinque viae">Five Ways</a>" of proving the existence of God. In early modern England, clergymen such as <a href="/wiki/William_Turner_(naturalist)" title="William Turner (naturalist)">William Turner</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> were well-known proponents. In the early 18th century, <a href="/wiki/William_Derham" title="William Derham">William Derham</a> published his <i>Physico-Theology</i>, which gave his "demonstration of the being and attributes of God from his works of creation".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, <a href="/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a>, in his 1802 <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Theology_or_Evidences_of_the_Existence_and_Attributes_of_the_Deity" title="Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity">Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity</a></i> published a prominent presentation of the design argument with his version of the <a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">watchmaker analogy</a> and the first use of the phrase "argument from design".<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_English_Dictionary_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_English_Dictionary-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From its beginning, there have been numerous criticisms of the different versions of the teleological argument. Some have been written as responses to criticisms of non-teleological natural science which are associated with it. Especially important were the general logical arguments presented by <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i>, published in 1779, and the explanation of biological complexity given in <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_Species" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></i>, published in 1859.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the 1960s, Paley's arguments have been influential in the development of a <a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">creation science</a> movement which used phrases such as "design by an intelligent designer", and after 1987 this was rebranded as "<a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a>", promoted by the <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" title="Intelligent design movement">intelligent design movement</a> which refers to an <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_designer" title="Intelligent designer">intelligent designer</a>. Both movements have used the teleological argument to argue against the modern scientific understanding of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, and to claim that supernatural explanations should be given equal validity in the public school science curriculum.<sup id="cite_ref-SM_07_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SM_07-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting already in classical Greece, two approaches to the teleological argument developed, distinguished by their understanding of whether the natural order was literally created or not. The non-creationist approach starts most clearly with Aristotle, although many thinkers, such as the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonists</a>, believed it was already intended by Plato. This approach is not creationist in a simple sense, because while it agrees that a cosmic intelligence is responsible for the natural order, it rejects the proposal that this requires a "creator" to physically make and maintain this order. The Neoplatonists did not find the teleological argument convincing, and in this they were followed by medieval philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>. Later, <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> and Thomas Aquinas considered the argument acceptable, but not necessarily the best argument. </p><p>While the concept of an intelligence behind the natural order is ancient, a rational argument that concludes that we can know that the natural world has a designer, or a creating intelligence which has human-like purposes, appears to have begun with <a href="/wiki/Classical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical philosophy">classical philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-comp_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-comp-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Religious thinkers in <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> also developed versions of the teleological argument. Later, variants on the argument from design were produced in <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Christian fundamentalism</a>. </p><p>Contemporary defenders of the teleological argument are mainly Christians,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example <a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Lennox" title="John Lennox">John Lennox</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_philosophy">Classical philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classical philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socrates_and_the_pre-Socratics">Socrates and the pre-Socratics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Socrates and the pre-Socratics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/170px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/255px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/340px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>Plato and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, depicted here in <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i>, both developed philosophical arguments addressing the universe's apparent order (<i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i>).</figcaption></figure> <p>The argument from intelligent design appears to have begun with <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, although the concept of a cosmic intelligence is older and <a href="/wiki/David_Sedley" title="David Sedley">David Sedley</a> has argued that Socrates was developing an older idea, citing <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras_of_Clazomenae" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaxagoras of Clazomenae">Anaxagoras of Clazomenae</a>, born about 500 BC, as a possible earlier proponent.<sup id="cite_ref-mcpherr_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcpherr-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ahbel_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ahbel-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sed_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sed-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proposal that the order of nature showed evidence of having its own human-like "intelligence" goes back to the origins of Greek natural philosophy and science, and its attention to the orderliness of nature, often with special reference to the revolving of the heavens. Anaxagoras is the first person who is definitely known to have explained such a concept using the word "<i><a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">nous</a></i>" (which is the original Greek term that leads to modern English "intelligence" via its Latin and French translations). Aristotle reports an earlier philosopher from <a href="/wiki/Clazomenae" class="mw-redirect" title="Clazomenae">Clazomenae</a> named <a href="/wiki/Hermotimus_of_Clazomenae" title="Hermotimus of Clazomenae">Hermotimus</a> who had taken a similar position.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amongst <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic philosophers">Pre-Socratic philosophers</a> before Anaxagoras, other philosophers had proposed a similar intelligent ordering principle causing life and the rotation of the heavens. For example <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a> much earlier, described cosmic order and living things as caused by a cosmic version of <a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">love</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a> attributed the cosmos with "<a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>" (<i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i><a href="/wiki/Philebus" title="Philebus">Philebus</a></i> 28c <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> has Socrates speak of this as a tradition, saying that "all philosophers agree—whereby they really exalt themselves—that mind (<i><a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">nous</a></i>) is king of heaven and earth. Perhaps they are right." and later states that the ensuing discussion "confirms the utterances of those who declared of old that mind (<i>nous</i>) always rules the universe".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Xenophon's report in his <i><a href="/wiki/Memorabilia_(Xenophon)" title="Memorabilia (Xenophon)">Memorabilia</a></i> might be the earliest clear account of an argument that there is evidence in nature of intelligent design.<sup id="cite_ref-ahbel_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ahbel-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word traditionally translated and discussed as "design" is <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B3%CE%BD%CF%8E%CE%BC%CE%B7" class="extiw" title="wikt:γνώμη">gnōmē</a></i> and Socrates is reported by Xenophon to have pressed doubting young men to look at things in the market, and consider whether they could tell which things showed evidence of <i>gnōmē</i>, and which seemed more to be by blind chance, and then to compare this to nature and consider whether it could be by blind chance.<sup id="cite_ref-mcpherr_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcpherr-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sed_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sed-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedo" title="Phaedo">Phaedo</a></i>, Socrates is made to say just before dying that his discovery of Anaxagoras' concept of a cosmic <i>nous</i> as the cause of the order of things, was an important turning point for him. But he also expressed disagreement with Anaxagoras' understanding of the implications of his own doctrine, because of Anaxagoras' <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> understanding of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causation</a>. Socrates complained that Anaxagoras restricted the work of the cosmic <i>nous</i> to the beginning, as if it were uninterested and all events since then just happened because of causes like air and water.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Socrates, on the other hand, apparently insisted that the demiurge must be "loving", particularly concerning humanity. (In this desire to go beyond Anaxagoras and make the cosmic <i>nous</i> a more active manager, Socrates was apparently preceded by <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Apollonia" title="Diogenes of Apollonia">Diogenes of Apollonia</a>.);<sup id="cite_ref-ahbel_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ahbel-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="#CITEREFMcPherran1996">McPherran (1996</a>:290); and<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plato_and_Aristotle">Plato and Aristotle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Plato and Aristotle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> is presented as a description of someone who is explaining a "likely story" in the form of a myth, and so throughout history commentators have disagreed about which elements of the myth can be seen as the position of Plato.<sup id="cite_ref-sed_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sed-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 132">: 132 </span></sup> Sedley (2007) nevertheless calls it "the creationist manifesto" and points out that although some of Plato's followers denied that he intended it, in classical times writers such as Aristotle, <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> all understood Plato as proposing the world originated in an "intelligent creative act".<sup id="cite_ref-sed_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sed-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 133">: 133 </span></sup> Plato has a character explain the concept of a "<a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">demiurge</a>" with supreme wisdom and intelligence as the creator of the cosmos in his work. </p><p>Plato's teleological perspective is also built upon the analysis of <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a></i> order and structure in the world that he had already presented in <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(dialogue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic (dialogue)">The Republic</a></i>. The story does not propose creation <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_nihilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex nihilo">ex nihilo</a></i>; rather, the demiurge made order from the chaos of the cosmos, imitating the eternal Forms.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Plato's world of eternal and unchanging <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Forms">Forms</a>, imperfectly represented in matter by a divine Artisan, contrasts sharply with the various mechanistic <a href="/wiki/Weltanschauungen" class="mw-redirect" title="Weltanschauungen">Weltanschauungen</a>, of which <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a> was, by the 4th century at least, the most prominent <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> This debate was to persist throughout the ancient world. Atomistic mechanism got a shot in the arm from <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> while the <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a> adopted a divine teleology <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> The choice seems simple: either show how a structured, regular world could arise out of undirected processes, or inject intelligence into the system.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>R. J. Hankinson, Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Plato's student and friend Aristotle (c. 384 – 322 BC), continued the Socratic tradition of criticising natural scientists such as <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> who sought (as in modern science) to explain everything in terms of matter and chance motion. He was very influential in the future development of classical creationism, but was not a straightforward "creationist" because he required no creation interventions in nature, meaning he "insulated god from any requirement to intervene in nature, either as creator or as administrator".<sup id="cite_ref-sed_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sed-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 204">: 204 </span></sup> Instead of direct intervention by a creator it is "scarcely an exaggeration to say that for Aristotle the entire functioning of the natural world, as also the heavens, is ultimately to be understood as a shared striving towards godlike <a href="/wiki/Actuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Actuality">actuality</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-sed_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sed-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 171">: 171 </span></sup> And whereas the myth in the <i>Timaeus</i> suggests that all living things are based on one single paradigm, not one for each species, and even tells a story of "devolution" whereby other living things devolved from humans, it was Aristotle who presented the influential idea that each type of normal living thing must be based on a fixed paradigm or form for that species.<sup id="cite_ref-sed_16-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sed-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aristotle felt that biology was a particularly important example of a field where materialist natural science ignored information which was needed in order to understand living things well. For example birds use wings for the purpose of flight.<sup id="cite_ref-HistAnimI2_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HistAnimI2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore the most complete explanation in regard to the natural, as well as the artificial, is for the most part teleological.<sup id="cite_ref-Nussbaum1985_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nussbaum1985-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, proposals that species had changed by chance survival of the fittest, similar to what is now called "<a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>", were already known to Aristotle, and he rejected these with the same logic.<sup id="cite_ref-Nussbaum1985_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nussbaum1985-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PhysI2_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhysI2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PartsAnimI1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PartsAnimI1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ross2004_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross2004-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HullRuse2007_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HullRuse2007-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He conceded that monstrosities (new forms of life) could come about by chance,<sup id="cite_ref-PhysII8a_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhysII8a-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PhysII8b_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhysII8b-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but he disagreed with those who ascribed all nature purely to chance<sup id="cite_ref-PhysII8c_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhysII8c-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because he believed science can only provide a general account of that which is normal, "always, or for the most part".<sup id="cite_ref-PhysII8_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhysII8-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinction between what is normal, or by nature, and what is "accidental", or not by nature, is important in Aristotle's understanding of nature. As pointed out by Sedley, "Aristotle is happy to say (<i>Physics</i> II 8, 199a33-b4) without the slightest fear of blasphemy, crafts make occasional mistakes; therefore, by analogy, so can nature."<sup id="cite_ref-sed_16-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sed-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 186">: 186 </span></sup> According to Aristotle the changes which happen by nature are caused by their "<a href="/wiki/Formal_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal cause">formal causes</a>", and for example in the case of a bird's wings there is also a <a href="/wiki/Final_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Final cause">final cause</a> which is the purpose of flying. He explicitly compared this to human technology: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If then what comes from art is for the sake of something, it is clear that what come from nature is too <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> This is clear most of all in the other animals, which do nothing by art, inquiry, or deliberation; for which reason some people are completely at a loss whether it is by intelligence or in some other way that spiders, ants, and such things work. <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> It is absurd to think that a thing does not happen for the sake of something if we do not see what sets it in motion deliberating. <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> This is most clear when someone practices medicine himself on himself; for nature is like that.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Aristotle, Physics, II 8.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The question of how to understand Aristotle's conception of nature having a purpose and direction something like human activity is controversial in the details. <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a> for example has argued that in his biology this approach was practical and meant to show nature only being analogous to human art, explanations of an organ being greatly informed by knowledge of its essential function.<sup id="cite_ref-Nussbaum1985_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nussbaum1985-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, Nussbaum's position is not universally accepted. In any case, Aristotle was not understood this way by his followers in the Middle Ages, who saw him as consistent with monotheistic religion and a teleological understanding of all nature. Consistent with the medieval interpretation, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> and other works Aristotle clearly argued a case for there being one highest god or "<a href="/wiki/Prime_mover_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime mover theory">prime mover</a>" which was the ultimate cause, though specifically not the material cause, of the eternal forms or natures which cause the natural order, including all living things.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> He clearly refers to this entity having an <a href="/wiki/Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">intellect</a> that humans somehow share in, which helps humans see the true natures or forms of things without relying purely on sense perception of physical things, including living species. This understanding of nature, and Aristotle's arguments against materialist understandings of nature, were very influential in the Middle Ages in Europe. The idea of fixed species remained dominant in biology until Darwin, and a focus upon biology is still common today in teleological criticisms of modern science. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_era">Roman era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Roman era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It was the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a> who "developed the battery of creationist arguments broadly known under the label 'The Argument from Design'".<sup id="cite_ref-sed_16-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sed-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xviii">: xviii </span></sup> Cicero (c. 106 – c. 43 BC) reported the teleological argument of the Stoics in <i><a href="/wiki/De_Natura_Deorum" title="De Natura Deorum">De Natura Deorum</a></i> (<i>On the Nature of the Gods</i>) Book II, which includes an early version of the watchmaker analogy, which was later developed by William Paley. He has one of the characters in the dialogue say: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>When you see a sundial or a water-clock, you see that it tells the time by design and not by chance. How then can you imagine that the universe as a whole is devoid of purpose and intelligence, when it embraces everything, including these artifacts themselves and their artificers?</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Cicero, <i>De Natura Deorum</i>, II.34</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Another very important classical supporter of the teleological argument was <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, whose compendious works were one of the major sources of medical knowledge until modern times, both in Europe and the medieval Islamic world. He was not a Stoic, but like them he looked back to the Socratics and was constantly engaged in arguing against atomists such as the Epicureans. Unlike Aristotle (who was however a major influence upon him), and unlike the Neoplatonists, he believed there was really evidence for something literally like the "demiurge" found in Plato's <i>Timaeus</i>, which worked physical upon nature. In works such as his <i>On the Usefulness of Parts</i> he explained evidence for it in the complexity of animal construction. His work shows "early signs of contact and contrast between the pagan and the Judaeo-Christian tradition of creation", criticizing the account found in the Bible. "Moses, he suggests, would have contented himself with saying that God ordered the eyelashes not to grow and that they obeyed. In contrast to this, the Platonic tradition's Demiurge is above all else a technician." Surprisingly, neither Aristotle nor Plato, but Xenophon are considered by Galen, as the best writer on this subject. Galen shared with Xenophon a scepticism of the value of books about most speculative philosophy, except for inquiries such as whether there is "something in the world superior in power and wisdom to man". This he saw as having an everyday importance, a usefulness for living well. He also asserted that Xenophon was the author who reported the real position of Socrates, including his aloofness from many types of speculative science and philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Galen's connection of the teleological argument to discussions about the complexity of living things, and his insistence that this is possible for a practical scientist, foreshadows some aspects of modern uses of the teleological argument. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_philosophy_and_theology">Medieval philosophy and theology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Medieval philosophy and theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_classical_Christian_writers">Late classical Christian writers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Late classical Christian writers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As an appeal to <a href="/wiki/General_revelation" title="General revelation">general revelation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a> (AD 5–67), argues in <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Romans</a> 1:18–20,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that because it has been made plain to all from what has been created in the world, it is obvious that there is a God.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Minucius_Felix" title="Marcus Minucius Felix">Marcus Minucius Felix</a> (c. late 2nd to 3rd century), an Early Christian writer, argued for the existence of God based on the analogy of an ordered house in his <i>The Orders of Minucius Felix</i>: "Supposing you went into a house and found everything neat, orderly and well-kept, surely you would assume it had a master, and one much better than the good things, his belongings; so in this house of the universe, when throughout heaven and earth you see the marks of foresight, order and law, may you not assume that the lord and author of the universe is fairer than the stars themselves or than any portions of the entire world ?"<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> (AD 354–430) in <a href="/wiki/The_City_of_God" title="The City of God">The City of God</a> mentioned the idea that the world's "well-ordered changes and movements", and "the fair appearance of all visible things" was evidence for the world being created, and "that it could not have been created save by God".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_philosophy">Islamic philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Islamic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early Islamic philosophy played an important role in developing the philosophical understandings of God among Jewish and Christian thinkers in the Middle Ages, but concerning the teleological argument one of the lasting effects of this tradition came from its discussions of the difficulties which this type of proof has. Various forms of the argument from design have been used by Islamic theologians and philosophers from the time of the early <a href="/wiki/Mutakallimun" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutakallimun">Mutakallimun</a> theologians in the 9th century, although it is rejected by fundamentalist or literalist schools, for whom the mention of God in the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qu'ran</a> should be sufficient evidence. The argument from design was also seen as an unconvincing sophism by the early Islamic philosopher <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a>, who instead took the "<a href="/wiki/Emanationist" class="mw-redirect" title="Emanationist">emanationist</a>" approach of the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonists</a> such as Plotinus, whereby nature is rationally ordered, but God is not like a craftsman who literally manages the world. Later, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> was also convinced of this, and proposed instead a cosmological argument for the existence of God.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The argument was however later accepted by both the Aristotelian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> (Ibn Rushd) and his great anti-philosophy opponent <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a>. Averroes' term for the argument was <i>Dalīl al-ˁināya</i>, which can be translated as "argument from providence". Both of them however accepted the argument <i>because</i> they believed it is explicitly mentioned in the Quran.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, like Aristotle, the Neoplatonists, and Al-Farabi, Averroes proposed that order and continual motion in the world is caused by God's intellect. Whether Averroes was an "emanationist" like his predecessors has been a subject of disagreement and uncertainty. But it is generally agreed that what he adapted from those traditions, agreed with them about the fact that God does not create in the same way as a craftsman.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In fact then, Averroes treated the teleological argument as one of two "religious" arguments for the existence of God. The principal demonstrative proof is, according to Averroes, Aristotle's proof from motion in the universe that there must be a first mover which causes everything else to move.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Averroes' position that the most logically valid proof should be physical rather than metaphysical (because then metaphysics would be proving itself) was in conscious opposition to the position of Avicenna. Later Jewish and Christian philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> were aware of this debate, and generally took a position closer to Avicenna. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_philosophy">Jewish philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Jewish philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An example of the teleological argument in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a> appears when the medieval Aristotelian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> cites the passage in <a href="/wiki/Isaiah" title="Isaiah">Isaiah</a> 40:26, where the "Holy One" says: "Lift up your eyes on high, and behold who hath created these things, that bringeth out their host by number:"<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Barry Holtz calls this "a crude form of the argument from design", and that this "is only one possible way of reading the text". He asserts that "Generally, in the biblical texts the existence of God is taken for granted."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Maimonides also recalled that <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">midrash</a>, or explanatory text, of <a href="/wiki/Genesis_Rabbah" title="Genesis Rabbah">Genesis Rabbah</a> 39:1) recognized the existence of "one transcendent deity from the fact that the world around him exhibits an order and design".<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The midrash makes an analogy between the obviousness that a building has an owner, and that the world is looked after by God. Abraham says "Is it conceivable that the world is without a guide?"<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of these examples, the 19th century philosopher <a href="/wiki/Nachman_Krochmal" title="Nachman Krochmal">Nachman Krochmal</a> called the argument from design "a cardinal principle of the Jewish faith".<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The American orthodox rabbi, <a href="/wiki/Aryeh_Kaplan" title="Aryeh Kaplan">Aryeh Kaplan</a>, retells a legend about the 2nd century AD <a href="/wiki/Rabbi_Meir" title="Rabbi Meir">Rabbi Meir</a>. When told by a philosopher that he did not believe that the world was created by God, the rabbi produced a beautiful poem that he claimed had come into being when a cat accidentally knocked over a pot of ink, "spilling ink all over the document. This poem was the result." The philosopher exclaims that would be impossible: "There must be an author. There must be a scribe." The rabbi concludes, "How could the universe ... come into being by itself? There must be an Author. There must be a Creator."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thomas_Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Thomas Aquinas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/170px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/255px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/340px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption>The fifth of Thomas Aquinas' proofs of God's existence was based on teleology.</figcaption></figure> <p>Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), whose writings became widely accepted within Catholic western Europe, was heavily influenced by Aristotle, Averroes, and other Islamic and Jewish philosophers. He presented a teleological argument in his <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a></i>. In the work, Aquinas presented five ways in which he attempted to prove the existence of God: the <i><a href="/wiki/Quinque_viae" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinque viae">quinque viae</a></i>. These arguments feature only <i>a posteriori</i> arguments, rather than literal reading of holy texts.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He sums up his teleological argument as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The fifth way is taken from the governance of the world. We see that things which lack knowledge, such as natural bodies, act for an end, and this is evident from their acting always, or nearly always, in the same way, so as to obtain the best result. Hence it is plain that they achieve their end, not fortuitously, but designedly. Now whatever lacks knowledge cannot move towards an end, unless it be directed by some being endowed with knowledge and intelligence; as the arrow is directed by the archer. Therefore, some intelligent being exists by whom all natural things are directed to their end; and this being we call God.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Thomas Aquinas, <i>Summa Theologica: Article 3, Question 2)</i><sup id="cite_ref-Himma_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Himma-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Aquinas notes that the existence of <a href="/wiki/Final_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Final cause">final causes</a>, by which a cause is directed toward an effect, can only be explained by an appeal to intelligence. However, as natural bodies aside from humans do not possess intelligence, there must, he reasons, exist a being that directs final causes at every moment. That being is what we call God.<sup id="cite_ref-Himma_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Himma-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modernity">Modernity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Modernity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newton_and_Leibniz">Newton and Leibniz</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Newton and Leibniz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> affirmed his belief in the truth of the argument when, in 1713, he wrote these words in an appendix to the second edition of his <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica"><i>Principia</i></a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This most elegant system of the sun, planets, and comets could not have arisen without the design and dominion of an intelligent and powerful being.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This view, that "God is known from his works", was supported and popularized by Newton's friends <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bentley" title="Richard Bentley">Richard Bentley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Clarke" title="Samuel Clarke">Samuel Clarke</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Whiston" title="William Whiston">William Whiston</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Boyle_lectures" class="mw-redirect" title="Boyle lectures">Boyle lectures</a>, which Newton supervised.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Newton wrote to Bentley, just before Bentley delivered the first lecture, that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>when I wrote my treatise about our Systeme I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the beliefe  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] of a Deity, and nothing can rejoice me more than to find it useful for that purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> The German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> disagreed with Newton's view of design in the teleological argument. In the <a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Clarke_correspondence" title="Leibniz–Clarke correspondence">Leibniz–Clarke correspondence</a>, Samuel Clarke argued Newton's case that God constantly intervenes in the world to keep His design adjusted, while Leibniz thought that the universe was created in such a way that God would not need to intervene at all. As quoted by Ayval Leshem, Leibniz wrote:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>According to [Newton's] doctrine, God Almighty wants [i.e. needs] to wind up his watch from time to time; otherwise it would cease to move. He had not it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Leibniz considered the argument from design to have "only moral certainty" unless it was supported by his own idea of <a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-established harmony">pre-established harmony</a> expounded in his <a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> wrote that "The proof from the pre-established harmony is a particular form of the so-called physico-theological proof, otherwise known as the argument from design." According to Leibniz, the universe is completely made from individual substances known as <a href="/wiki/Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">monads</a>, programmed to act in a predetermined way.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In Leibniz's form, the argument states that the harmony of all the monads can only have arisen from a common cause. That they should all exactly synchronize, can only be explained by a Creator who pre-determined their synchronism.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_empiricists">British empiricists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: British empiricists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">Dutch</a> writers <a href="/wiki/Lessius" class="mw-redirect" title="Lessius">Lessius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grotius" class="mw-redirect" title="Grotius">Grotius</a> argued that the intricate structure of the world, like that of a house, was unlikely to have arisen by chance.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empiricist <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, writing in the late 17th century, developed the Aristotelian idea that, excluding geometry, all science must attain its knowledge <i>a posteriori</i>—through sensual experience.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to Locke, Anglican Irish Bishop <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a> advanced a form of <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a> in which things only continue to exist when they are perceived.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When humans do not perceive objects, they continue to exist because God is perceiving them. Therefore, in order for objects to remain in existence, God must exist omnipresently.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>David Hume, in the mid-18th century, referred to the teleological argument in his <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a></i>. Here, he appears to give his support to the argument from design. John Wright notes that "Indeed, he claims that the whole thrust of his analysis of causality in the Treatise supports the Design argument", and that, according to Hume, "we are obliged 'to infer an infinitely perfect Architect.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>"<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, later he was more critical of the argument in his <i><a href="/wiki/An_Enquiry_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding">An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding</a></i>. This was presented as a dialogue between Hume and "a friend who loves sceptical paradoxes", where the friend gives a version of the argument by saying of its proponents, they "paint in the most magnificent colours the order, beauty, and wise arrangement of the universe; and then ask if such a glorious display of intelligence could come from a random coming together of atoms, or if chance could produce something that the greatest genius can never sufficiently admire".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hume also presented arguments both for and against the teleological argument in his <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i>. The character Cleanthes, summarizing the teleological argument, likens the universe to a man-made machine, and concludes by the principle of similar effects and similar causes that it must have a designing intelligence: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Look round the world: contemplate the whole and every part of it: You will find it to be nothing but one great-machine, subdivided into an infinite number of lesser machines, which again admit of subdivisions to a degree beyond what human senses and faculties can trace and explain. All these various machines, and even their most minute parts, are adjusted to each other with an accuracy, which ravishes into admiration all men who have ever contemplated them. The curious adapting of means to ends, throughout all nature, resembles exactly, though it much exceeds, the productions of human contrivance; of human design, thought, wisdom, and intelligence. Since therefore the effects resemble each other, we are led to infer, by all the rules of analogy, that the causes also resemble; and that the Author of Nature is somewhat similar to the mind of man; though possessed of much larger faculties, proportioned to the grandeur of the work which he has executed. By this argument <i>a posteriori,</i> and by this argument alone, do we prove at once the existence of a Deity, and his similarity to human mind and intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-Hume1779_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hume1779-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>On the other hand, Hume's sceptic, Philo, is not satisfied with the argument from design. He attempts a number of refutations, including one that arguably foreshadows Darwin's theory, and makes the point that if God resembles a human designer, then assuming divine characteristics such as omnipotence and omniscience is not justified. He goes on to joke that far from being the perfect creation of a perfect designer, this universe may be "only the first rude essay of some infant deity... the object of derision to his superiors".<sup id="cite_ref-Hume1779_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hume1779-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Derham's_natural_theology"><span id="Derham.27s_natural_theology"></span>Derham's natural theology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Derham's natural theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Starting in 1696 with his <i>Artificial Clockmaker</i>, <a href="/wiki/William_Derham" title="William Derham">William Derham</a> published a stream of teleological books. The best known of these are <i>Physico-Theology</i> (1713); <i><a href="/wiki/Astro-Theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Astro-Theology">Astro-Theology</a></i> (1714); and <i>Christo-Theology</i> (1730). <i>Physico-Theology</i>, for example, was explicitly subtitled "A demonstration of the being and attributes of God from his works of creation". A <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theologian</a>, Derham listed scientific observations of the many variations in nature, and proposed that these proved "the unreasonableness of infidelity". At the end of the section on Gravity for instance, he writes: "What else can be concluded, but that all was made with manifest Design, and that all the whole Structure is the Work of some intelligent Being; some Artist, of Power and Skill equivalent to such a Work?"<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, of the "sense of sound" he writes:<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>For who but an intelligent Being, what less than an omnipotent and infinitely wise God could contrive, and make such a fine Body, such a Medium, so susceptible of every Impression, that the Sense of Hearing hath occasion for, to empower all Animals to express their Sense and Meaning to others.</p></blockquote> <p>Derham concludes: "For it is a Sign a Man is a wilful, perverse Atheist, that will impute so glorious a Work, as the Creation is, to any Thing, yea, a mere Nothing (as Chance is) rather than to God.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Weber (2000) writes that Derham's <i>Physico-Theology</i> "directly influenced" William Paley's later work.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The power, and yet the limitations, of this kind of reasoning is illustrated in microcosm by the history of <a href="/wiki/La_Fontaine%27s_Fables" title="La Fontaine's Fables">La Fontaine's</a> fable of <a href="/wiki/The_Acorn_and_the_Pumpkin" title="The Acorn and the Pumpkin">The Acorn and the Pumpkin</a>, which first appeared in France in 1679. The light-hearted anecdote of how a doubting peasant is finally convinced of the wisdom behind creation arguably undermines this approach.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Anne_Finch,_Countess_of_Winchilsea" title="Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea">Anne Finch</a>'s conversion of the story into a polemic against atheism, it has been taken up by a succession of moral writers as presenting a valid argument for the proposition that "The wisdom of God is displayed in creation."<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Watchmaker_analogy">Watchmaker analogy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Watchmaker analogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WilliamPaley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/WilliamPaley.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="228" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="188" data-file-height="228" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a> popularized the "watchmaker analogy" used by earlier <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theologians</a>, making it a famous teleological argument.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">watchmaker analogy</a>, framing the teleological argument with reference to a timepiece, dates at least back to the Stoics, who were reported by Cicero in his <i><a href="/wiki/De_Natura_Deorum" title="De Natura Deorum">De Natura Deorum</a></i> (II.88), using such an argument against <a href="/wiki/Epicureans" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicureans">Epicureans</a>, whom, they taunt, would "think more highly of the achievement of <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> in making a model of the revolutions of the firmament than of that of nature in creating them, although the perfection of the original shows a craftsmanship many times as great as does the counterfeit".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also used by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, the latter of whom remarked:<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157697682">.mw-parser-output .verse_translation .translated{padding-left:2em!important}@media only screen and (max-width:43.75em){.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small td{display:block;padding-left:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small .translated{padding-left:0.5em!important}}</style> <table role="presentation" class="verse_translation" style="margin-left:1em !important"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> <p><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">L'univers m'embarrasse, et je ne puis songer<br /> Que cette horloge existe, et n'ait point d'horloger</i></span> </p> </div> </td> <td class="translated"><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> <p>The Universe troubles me, and much less can I think<br /> That this clock exists and should have no clockmaker. </p> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">William Paley</a> presented his version of the watchmaker analogy at the start of his <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Theology_or_Evidences_of_the_Existence_and_Attributes_of_the_Deity" title="Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity">Natural Theology</a></i> (1802).<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[S]uppose I found a watch upon the ground, and it should be inquired how the watch happened to be in that place, I should hardly think...that, for anything I knew, the watch might have always been there. Yet why should not this answer serve for the watch as well as for [a] stone [that happened to be lying on the ground]?... For this reason, and for no other; namely, that, if the different parts had been differently shaped from what they are, if a different size from what they are, or placed after any other manner, or in any order than that in which they are placed, either no motion at all would have been carried on in the machine, or none which would have answered the use that is now served by it.</p></blockquote> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Alister_McGrath" title="Alister McGrath">Alister McGrath</a>, Paley argued that "The same complexity and utility evident in the design and functioning of a watch can also be discerned in the natural world. Each feature of a biological organism, like that of a watch, showed evidence of being designed in such a way as to adapt the organism to survival within its environment. Complexity and utility are observed; the conclusion that they were designed and constructed by God, Paley holds, is as natural as it is correct."<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Natural theology strongly influenced British science, with the expectation as expressed by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Sedgwick" title="Adam Sedgwick">Adam Sedgwick</a> in 1831 that truths revealed by science could not conflict with the moral truths of religion.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These natural philosophers saw God as the first cause, and sought secondary causes to explain design in nature: the leading figure Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> wrote in 1836 that by analogy with other <a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">intermediate causes</a> "the origination of fresh species, could it ever come under our cognizance, would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process".<sup id="cite_ref-hersch_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hersch-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a theology student, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> found Paley's arguments compelling. However, he later developed his theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> in his 1859 book <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>, which offers an alternate explanation of biological order. In his autobiography, Darwin wrote that "The old argument of design in nature, as given by Paley, which formerly seemed to me so conclusive, fails, now that the law of natural selection has been discovered".<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darwin struggled with the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a> and of suffering in nature, but remained inclined to believe that nature depended upon "designed laws" and commended <a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a>'s statement about "Darwin's great service to Natural Science in bringing back to it Teleology: so that, instead of Morphology versus Teleology, we shall have Morphology wedded to Teleology."<sup id="cite_ref-SMiles_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SMiles-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Darwin owned he was "bewildered" on the subject, but was "inclined to look at everything as resulting from designed laws, with the details, whether good or bad, left to the working out of what we may call chance:"<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>But I own that I cannot see, as plainly as others do, & as I shd wish to do, evidence of design & beneficence on all sides of us. There seems to me too much misery in the world. I cannot persuade myself that a beneficent & omnipotent God would have designedly created the Ichneumonidae with the express intention of their feeding within the living bodies of caterpillars, or that a cat should play with mice. Not believing this, I see no necessity in the belief that the eye was expressly designed.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_proponents">Recent proponents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Recent proponents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Probabilistic_arguments">Probabilistic arguments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Probabilistic arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1928 and 1930, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Robert_Tennant" title="Frederick Robert Tennant">F. R. Tennant</a> published his <i>Philosophical Theology</i>, which was a "bold endeavour to combine scientific and theological thinking".<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He proposed a version of the teleological argument based on the accumulation of the probabilities of each individual <a href="/wiki/Biological_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological adaptation">biological adaptation</a>. "Tennant concedes that naturalistic accounts such as evolutionary theory may explain each of the individual adaptations he cites, but he insists that in this case the whole exceeds the sum of its parts: naturalism can explain each adaptation but not their totality."<sup id="cite_ref-Rout_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rout-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> notes that "Critics have insisted on focusing on the cogency of each piece of theistic evidence – reminding us that, in the end, ten leaky buckets hold no more water than one." Also, "Some critics, such as <a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">John Hick</a> and D.H. Mellor, have objected to Tennant's particular use of probability theory and have challenged the relevance of any kind of probabilistic reasoning to theistic belief."<sup id="cite_ref-Rout_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rout-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a>'s "contributions to philosophical theology have sought to apply more sophisticated versions of probability theory to the question of God's existence, a methodological improvement on Tennant's work but squarely in the same spirit".<sup id="cite_ref-Rout_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rout-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He uses <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian probability</a> "taking account not only of the order and functioning of nature but also of the 'fit' between human intelligence and the universe, whereby one can understand its workings, as well as human aesthetic, moral, and religious experience".<sup id="cite_ref-EB_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Swinburne writes:<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[T]he existence of order in the world confirms the existence of God if and only if the existence of this order in the world is more probable if there is a God than if there is not. ... the probability of order of the right kind is very much greater if there is a God, and so that the existence of such order adds greatly to the probability that there is a God.</p></blockquote> <p>Swinburne acknowledges that his argument by itself may not give a reason to believe in the existence of God, but in combination with other arguments such as <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">cosmological arguments</a> and evidence from <a href="/wiki/Mystical_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystical experience">mystical experience</a>, he thinks it can. </p><p>While discussing Hume's arguments, <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a> offered a probability version of the teleological argument in his book <i><a href="/wiki/God_and_Other_Minds" title="God and Other Minds">God and Other Minds</a></i>:<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p>Every contingent object such that we know whether or not it was the product of intelligent design, was the product of intelligent design.<br /> The universe is a contingent object.<br /> So probably the universe is designed. </p> </div></blockquote> <p>Following Plantinga, Georges Dicker produced a slightly different version in his book about <a href="/wiki/Bishop_Berkeley" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop Berkeley">Bishop Berkeley</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p>A. The world ... shows amazing teleological order.<br /> B. All Objects exhibiting such order ... are products of intelligent design.<br /> C. Probably the world is a result of intelligent design.<br /> D. Probably, God exists and created the world. </p> </div></blockquote> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> has the following criticism of such arguments:<sup id="cite_ref-EB_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It can of course be said that any form in which the universe might be is statistically enormously improbable as it is only one of a virtual infinity of possible forms. But its actual form is no more improbable, in this sense, than innumerable others. It is only the fact that humans are part of it that makes it seem so special, requiring a transcendent explanation.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fine-tuned_universe">Fine-tuned universe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Fine-tuned universe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuned universe</a></div> <p>A modern variation of the teleological argument is built upon the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">fine-tuned universe</a>: According to the website <i><a href="/wiki/BioLogos" class="mw-redirect" title="BioLogos">Biologos</a></i>:<sup id="cite_ref-biologos.org_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biologos.org-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Fine-tuning refers to the surprising precision of nature's physical constants, and the beginning state of the Universe. To explain the present state of the universe, even the best scientific theories require that the physical constants of nature and the beginning state of the Universe have extremely precise values.</p></blockquote> <p>Also, the fine-tuning of the Universe is the apparent delicate balance of conditions necessary for human life. In this view, speculation about a vast range of possible conditions in which life cannot exist is used to explore the probability of conditions in which life can and does exist. For example, it can be argued that if the force of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> explosion had been different by 1/10 to the sixtieth power or the <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interaction force</a> was only 5% different, life would be impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-Himma2009_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Himma2009-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Noted physicist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> estimates that "if the rate of the universe's expansion one second after the Big Bang had been smaller by even one part in a hundred thousand million million, the universe would have re-collapsed into a hot fireball due to gravitational attraction".<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In terms of a teleological argument, the intuition in relation to a fine-tuned universe would be that God must have been responsible, if achieving such perfect conditions is so improbable.<sup id="cite_ref-biologos.org_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biologos.org-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Himma2009_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Himma2009-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in regard to fine-tuning, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Einar_Himma" title="Kenneth Einar Himma">Kenneth Einar Himma</a> writes: "The mere fact that it is enormously improbable that an event occurred... by itself, gives us no reason to think that it occurred by design ... As intuitively tempting as it may be..."<sup id="cite_ref-Himma2009_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Himma2009-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Himma attributes the "Argument from Suspicious Improbabilities", a formalization of "the fine-tuning intuition" to <a href="/wiki/George_N._Schlesinger" title="George N. Schlesinger">George N. Schlesinger</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To understand Schlesinger's argument, consider your reaction to two different events. If John wins a 1-in-1,000,000,000 lottery game, you would not immediately be tempted to think that John (or someone acting on his behalf) cheated. If, however, John won three consecutive 1-in-1,000 lotteries, you would immediately be tempted to think that John (or someone acting on his behalf) cheated. Schlesinger believes that the intuitive reaction to these two scenarios is epistemically justified. The structure of the latter event is such that it... justifies a belief that intelligent design is the cause... Despite the fact that the probability of winning three consecutive 1-in-1,000 games is exactly the same as the probability of winning one 1-in-1,000,000,000 game, the former event... warrants an inference of intelligent design.</p></blockquote> <p>Himma considers Schlesinger's argument to be subject to the same vulnerabilities he noted in other versions of the design argument:<sup id="cite_ref-Himma2009_92-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Himma2009-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>While Schlesinger is undoubtedly correct in thinking that we are justified in suspecting design in the case [of winning] three consecutive lotteries, it is because—and only because—we know two related empirical facts about such events. First, we already know that there exist intelligent agents who have the right motivations and causal abilities to deliberately bring about such events. Second, we know from past experience with such events that they are usually explained by the deliberate agency of one or more of these agents. Without at least one of these two pieces of information, we are not obviously justified in seeing design in such cases <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> [T]he problem for the fine-tuning argument is that we lack both of the pieces that are needed to justify an inference of design. First, the very point of the argument is to establish the fact that there exists an intelligent agency that has the right causal abilities and motivations to bring the existence of a universe capable of sustaining life. Second, and more obviously, we do not have any past experience with the genesis of worlds and are hence not in a position to know whether the existence of fine-tuned universes are usually explained by the deliberate agency of some intelligent agency. Because we lack this essential background information, we are not justified in inferring that there exists an intelligent Deity who deliberately created a universe capable of sustaining life.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a>, who spent most of his life as an atheist, converted to <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deism</a> late in life, and postulated "an intelligent being as involved in some way in the design of conditions that would allow life to arise and evolve".<sup id="cite_ref-Diogenes_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diogenes-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He concluded that the fine-tuning of the universe was too precise to be the result of chance, so accepted the existence of God. He said that his commitment to "go where the evidence leads" meant that he ended up accepting the existence of God.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flew proposed the view, held earlier by <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a>, that the universe is too young for life to have developed purely by chance and that, therefore, an intelligent being must exist which was involved in designing the conditions required for life to evolve.<sup id="cite_ref-Diogenes_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diogenes-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Would you not say to yourself, "Some super-calculating intellect must have designed the properties of the carbon atom, otherwise the chance of my finding such an atom through the blind forces of nature would be utterly minuscule." Of course you would ... A common sense interpretation of the facts suggests that a superintellect has monkeyed with physics, as well as with chemistry and biology, and that there are no blind forces worth speaking about in nature. The numbers one calculates from the facts seem to me so overwhelming as to put this conclusion almost beyond question.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoyle1981_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoyle1981-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Fred Hoyle, Engineering and Science, The Universe: Past and Present Reflections</cite></div></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Robin_Collins" title="Robin Collins">Robin Collins</a> argues that the universe is fine-tuned for scientific discoverability, and that this fine-tuning cannot be explained by the multiverse hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Collins, the universe's laws, fundamental parameters, and initial conditions must be just right for the universe to be as discoverable as ours. According to Collins, examples of fine-tuning for discoverability include: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Fine-structure_constant" title="Fine-structure constant">fine-structure constant</a> is fine-tuned for energy usage. If it were stronger, there would be no practical way to harness energy. If it were weaker, fire would burn through wood too quickly and energy usage would be impractical.</li> <li>The baryon-to-photon ratio allowed for the discovery of the big bang via the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a>.</li> <li>Many things in particle physics are within a narrow range required for discoverability, such as the mass of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_science_and_intelligent_design">Creation science and intelligent design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Creation science and intelligent design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></div> <p>A version of the argument from design is central to both <a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">creation science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-SM_07_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SM_07-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but unlike Paley's openness to <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deistic</a> design through God-given laws, proponents seek scientific confirmation of repeated miraculous interventions in the history of life, and argue that their <a href="/wiki/Theistic_science" title="Theistic science">theistic science</a> should be taught in science classrooms.<sup id="cite_ref-PM_09_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PM_09-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The teaching of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> was effectively barred from United States public school curricula by the outcome of the 1925 <a href="/wiki/Scopes_Trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Scopes Trial">Scopes Trial</a>, but in the 1960s the <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Education_Act" title="National Defense Education Act">National Defense Education Act</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Biological_Sciences_Curriculum_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological Sciences Curriculum Study">Biological Sciences Curriculum Study</a> reintroducing the teaching of evolution. In response, there was a resurgence of <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a>, now presented as "creation science", based on biblical literalism but with Bible quotes optional. ("Explicit references to the Bible were optional: Morris's 1974 book <i>Scientific Creationism</i> came in two versions, one with Bible quotes, and one without.")<sup id="cite_ref-SM_07_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SM_07-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 1989 survey found that virtually all literature promoting creation science presented the design argument, with <a href="/wiki/John_D._Morris" title="John D. Morris">John D. Morris</a> saying "any living thing gives such strong evidence for design by an intelligent designer that only a willful ignorance of the data (II Peter 3:5) could lead one to assign such intricacy to chance". Such publications introduced concepts central to intelligent design, including <i><a href="/wiki/Irreducible_complexity" title="Irreducible complexity">irreducible complexity</a></i> (a variant of the watchmaker analogy) and <i><a href="/wiki/Specified_complexity" title="Specified complexity">specified complexity</a></i> (closely resembling a fine-tuning argument). The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> ruling on <i><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._Aguillard" title="Edwards v. Aguillard">Edwards v. Aguillard</a></i> barred the teaching of "Creation Science" in public schools because it breached the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">separation of church and state</a>, and a group of creationists rebranded Creation Science as "intelligent design" which was presented as a scientific theory rather than as a religious argument.<sup id="cite_ref-SM_07_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SM_07-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scientists disagreed with the assertion that intelligent design is scientific, and its introduction into the science curriculum of a <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> school district led to the 2005 <i><a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District</a></i> trial, which ruled that the "intelligent design" arguments are essentially religious in nature and not science.<sup id="cite_ref-Pigliucci2010_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pigliucci2010-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court took evidence from theologian <a href="/wiki/John_F._Haught" title="John F. Haught">John F. Haught</a>, and ruled that "ID is not a new scientific <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">argument</a>, but is rather an old religious argument for the existence of God. He traced this argument back to at least Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, who framed the argument as a syllogism: Wherever complex design exists, there must have been a designer; nature is complex; therefore nature must have had an intelligent designer." "This argument for the existence of God was advanced early in the 19th century by Reverend Paley": "The only apparent difference between the argument made by Paley and the argument for ID, as expressed by defense expert witnesses Behe and Minnich, is that ID's 'official position' does not acknowledge that the designer is God."<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proponents of the <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" title="Intelligent design movement">intelligent design movement</a> such as Cornelius G. Hunter, have asserted that the methodological <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a> upon which science is based is religious in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They commonly refer to it as 'scientific materialism' or as 'methodological materialism' and conflate it with 'metaphysical naturalism'.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They use this assertion to support their claim that modern science is atheistic, and contrast it with their preferred approach of a revived <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> which welcomes supernatural explanations for natural phenomena and supports <a href="/wiki/Theistic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theistic realism">theistic science</a>. This ignores the distinction between science and religion, established in Ancient Greece, in which science can not use supernatural explanations.<sup id="cite_ref-Pigliucci2010_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pigliucci2010-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intelligent design advocate and <a href="/wiki/Biochemist" title="Biochemist">biochemist</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Behe" title="Michael Behe">Michael Behe</a> proposed a development of Paley's watch analogy in which he argued in favour of intelligent design. Unlike Paley, Behe only attempts to prove the existence of an intelligent designer, rather than the God of classical theism. Behe uses the analogy of a mousetrap to propose <a href="/wiki/Irreducible_complexity" title="Irreducible complexity">irreducible complexity</a>: he argues that if a mousetrap loses just one of its parts, it can no longer function as a mousetrap. He argues that irreducible complexity in an object guarantees the presence of intelligent design. Behe claims that there are instances of irreducible complexity in the natural world and that parts of the world must have been designed.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This negative argument against step by step evolution ignores longstanding evidence that evolution proceeds through <a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">changes of function</a> from preceding systems. The specific examples Behe proposes have been shown to have simpler <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologues</a> which could act as precursors with different functions. His arguments have been rebutted, both in general and in specific cases by numerous scientific papers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (October 2022)">examples needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In response, Behe and others, "ironically, given the absence of any detail in their own explanation, complain that the proffered explanations lack sufficient detail to be empirically tested".<sup id="cite_ref-SM_07_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SM_07-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unreasonable_effectiveness_of_mathematics">Unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a> has proposed a nominalist argument influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a>. This argument revolves around the fact that, by using mathematical concepts, we can discover much about the natural world. For example, Craig writes, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Peter Higgs</a>, and any similar scientist, "can sit down at his desk and, by pouring [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] over mathematical equations, predict the existence of a fundamental particle which, thirty years later, after investing millions of dollars and thousands of man-hours, experimentalists are finally able to detect." He names mathematics as the 'language of nature', and refutes two possible explanations for this. Firstly, he suggests, the idea that they are abstract entities brings about the question of their application. Secondly, he responds to the problem of whether they are merely useful fictions by suggesting that this asks why these fictions are so useful. Citing <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a> as an influence on his thought, he summarizes his argument as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p>1. If God did not exist, the applicability of mathematics would be just a happy coincidence.<br /> 2. The applicability of mathematics is not just a happy coincidence.<br /> 3. Therefore, God exists. </p> </div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Third_way"_proposal"><span id=".22Third_way.22_proposal"></span>"Third way" proposal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: "Third way" proposal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> <a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">geneticist</a> <a href="/wiki/James_A._Shapiro" title="James A. Shapiro">James A. Shapiro</a>, writing in the <i><a href="/wiki/Boston_Review" title="Boston Review">Boston Review</a></i>, states that advancements in genetics and molecular biology, and "the growing realization that cells have molecular computing networks which process information about internal operations and about the external environment to make decisions controlling growth, movement, and differentiation", have implications for the teleological argument. Shapiro states that these "<a href="/wiki/Natural_genetic_engineering" title="Natural genetic engineering">natural genetic engineering</a>" systems, can produce radical reorganizations of the "genetic apparatus within a single cell generation".<sup id="cite_ref-Shapiro_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shapiro-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shapiro suggests what he calls a 'Third Way'; a non-creationist, non-Darwinian type of evolution: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>What significance does an emerging interface between biology and information science hold for thinking about evolution? It opens up the possibility of addressing scientifically rather than ideologically the central issue so hotly contested by fundamentalists on both sides of the Creationist-Darwinist debate: Is there any guiding intelligence at work in the origin of species displaying exquisite adaptations <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr><sup id="cite_ref-Shapiro_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shapiro-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In his book, <i><a href="/wiki/Evolution:_A_View_from_the_21st_Century" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution: A View from the 21st Century">Evolution: A View from the 21st Century</a></i>, Shapiro refers to this concept of "natural genetic engineering", which he says, has proved troublesome, because many scientists feel that it supports the intelligent design argument. He suggests that "function-oriented capacities [can] be attributed to cells", even though this is "the kind of teleological thinking that scientists have been taught to avoid at all costs".<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interacting_whole">Interacting whole</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Interacting whole"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The metaphysical theologian <a href="/wiki/Norris_Clarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Norris Clarke">Norris Clarke</a> shared an argument to his fellow professors at <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a> that was popularised by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kreeft" title="Peter Kreeft">Peter Kreeft</a> in his "Twenty Arguments for the Existence of God" (1994). The argument states that as components are ordered universally in relation to one another, and are defined by these connections (for example, every two hydrogen atoms are ordered to form a compound with one oxygen atom.) Therefore, none of the parts are self-sufficient, and cannot be explained individually. However, the whole cannot be explained either because it is composed of separate beings and is not a whole. From here, three conclusions can be found: firstly, as the system cannot in any way explain itself, it requires an efficient cause. Secondly, it must be an intelligent mind because the unity transcends every part, and thus must have been conceived as an idea, because, by definition, only an idea can hold together elements without destroying or fusing their distinctness. An idea cannot exist without a creator, so there must be an intelligent mind. Thirdly, the creative mind must be transcendent, because if it were not, it would rely upon the system of space and time, despite having created it. Such an idea is absurd. As a conclusion, therefore, the universe relies upon a transcendent creative mind.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical">Classical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Classical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The original development of the argument from design was in reaction to atomistic, explicitly non-teleological understandings of nature. Socrates, as reported by Plato and Xenophon, was reacting to such natural philosophers. While less has survived from the debates of the Hellenistic and Roman eras, it is clear from sources such as <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, that debate continued for generations, and several of the striking metaphors used still today, such as the unseen watchmaker, and the <a href="/wiki/Infinite_monkey_theorem" title="Infinite monkey theorem">infinite monkey theorem</a>, have their roots in this period. While the Stoics became the most well-known proponents of the argument from design, the atomistic counter arguments were refined most famously by the <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicureans</a>. On the one hand, they criticized the supposed evidence for intelligent design, and the logic of the Stoics. On the defensive side, they were faced with the challenge of explaining how un-directed chance can cause something which appears to be a rational order. Much of this defence revolved around arguments such as the infinite monkey metaphor. Democritus had already apparently used such arguments at the time of Socrates, saying that there will be infinite planets, and only some having an order like the planet we know. But the Epicureans refined this argument, by proposing that the actual number of types of atoms in nature is small, not infinite, making it less coincidental that after a long period of time, certain orderly outcomes will result.<sup id="cite_ref-sed_16-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sed-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These were not the only positions held in classical times. A more complex position also continued to be held by some schools, such as the Neoplatonists, who, like Plato and Aristotle, insisted that Nature did indeed have a rational order, but were concerned about how to describe the way in which this rational order is caused. According to Plotinus for example, Plato's metaphor of a craftsman should be seen only as a metaphor, and Plato should be understood as agreeing with Aristotle that the rational order in nature works through a form of causation unlike everyday causation. In fact, according to this proposal each thing already has its own nature, fitting into a rational order, whereby the thing itself is "in need of, and directed towards, what is higher or better".<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="David_Hume">David Hume</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: David Hume"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_Hume.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/220px-David_Hume.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/330px-David_Hume.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/440px-David_Hume.jpg 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>David Hume outlined his criticisms of the teleological argument in his <i>Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Louis Loeb writes that <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, in his <i><a href="/wiki/An_Enquiry_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding">Enquiry</a></i>, "insists that inductive inference cannot justify belief in extended objects". Loeb also quotes Hume as writing: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is only when two species of objects are found to be constantly conjoined, that we can infer the one from the other. <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> If experience and observation and analogy be, indeed, the only guides which we can reasonably follow in inference of this nature; both the effect and cause must bear a similarity and resemblance to other effects and causes...which we have found, in many instances, to be conjoined with another. <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> [The proponents of the argument] always suppose the universe, an effect quite singular and unparalleled, to be the proof of a Deity, a cause no less singular and unparalleled.</p></blockquote> <p>Loeb notes that "we observe neither God nor other universes, and hence no conjunction involving them. There is no observed conjunction to ground an inference either to extended objects or to God, as unobserved causes."<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hume also presented a criticism of the argument in his <i>Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</i>. The character <i>Philo</i>, a religious sceptic, voices Hume's criticisms of the argument. He argues that the design argument is built upon a faulty analogy as, unlike with man-made objects, we have not witnessed the design of a universe, so do not know whether the universe was the result of design. Moreover, the size of the universe makes the analogy problematic: although our experience of the universe is of order, there may be chaos in other parts of the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-IEP_Hume_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP_Hume-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philo argues: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A very small part of this great system, during a very short time, is very imperfectly discovered to us; and do we thence pronounce decisively concerning the origin of the whole?</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>David Hume, Dialogues 2<sup id="cite_ref-IEP_Hume_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP_Hume-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Philo also proposes that the order in nature may be due to nature alone. If nature contains a principle of order within it, the need for a designer is removed. Philo argues that even if the universe is indeed designed, it is unreasonable to justify the conclusion that the designer must be an omnipotent, omniscient, benevolent God – the God of classical theism.<sup id="cite_ref-IEP_Hume_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP_Hume-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is impossible, he argues, to infer the perfect nature of a creator from the nature of its creation. Philo argues that the designer may have been defective or otherwise imperfect, suggesting that the universe may have been a poor first attempt at design.<sup id="cite_ref-God_Hypothesis_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-God_Hypothesis-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hume also pointed out that the argument does not necessarily lead to the existence of one God: “why may not several deities combine in contriving and framing the world?” (p. 108).<sup id="cite_ref-Hume1779_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hume1779-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wesley_C._Salmon" title="Wesley C. Salmon">Wesley C. Salmon</a> developed Hume's insights, arguing that all things in the universe which exhibit order are, to our knowledge, created by material, imperfect, finite beings or forces. He also argued that there are no known instances of an immaterial, perfect, infinite being creating anything. Using the probability calculus of <a href="/wiki/Bayes_Theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayes Theorem">Bayes Theorem</a>, Salmon concludes that it is very improbable that the universe was created by the type of intelligent being theists argue for.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Cartwright (philosopher)">Nancy Cartwright</a> accuses Salmon of <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">begging the question</a>. One piece of evidence he uses in his probabilistic argument – that atoms and molecules are not caused by design – is equivalent to the conclusion he draws, that the universe is probably not caused by design. The atoms and molecules are what the universe is made up of and whose origins are at issue. Therefore, they cannot be used as evidence against the theistic conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intelligence_may_not_be_God"><span class="anchor" id="The_intelligence_may_not_be_God"></span>Intelligence may not be God</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Intelligence may not be God"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Referring to it as the <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">physico-theological</a> proof, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> discussed the teleological argument in his <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>. Even though he referred to it as "the oldest, clearest and most appropriate to human reason", he nevertheless rejected it, heading section VI with the words, "On the impossibility of a physico-theological proof."<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In accepting some of Hume's criticisms, Kant wrote that the argument "proves at most intelligence only in the arrangement of the 'matter' of the universe, and hence the existence not of a 'Supreme Being', but of an 'Architect<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>". Using the argument to try to prove the existence of God required "a concealed appeal to the <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological argument</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D%27apr%C3%A8s_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re,_portrait_de_Voltaire_(Institut_et_Mus%C3%A9e_Voltaire)_-001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/D%27apr%C3%A8s_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire_%28Institut_et_Mus%C3%A9e_Voltaire%29_-001.jpg/220px-D%27apr%C3%A8s_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire_%28Institut_et_Mus%C3%A9e_Voltaire%29_-001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/D%27apr%C3%A8s_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire_%28Institut_et_Mus%C3%A9e_Voltaire%29_-001.jpg/330px-D%27apr%C3%A8s_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire_%28Institut_et_Mus%C3%A9e_Voltaire%29_-001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/D%27apr%C3%A8s_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire_%28Institut_et_Mus%C3%A9e_Voltaire%29_-001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> argued that, at best, the teleological argument could only indicate the existence of a powerful, but not necessarily all-powerful or all-knowing, intelligence.</figcaption></figure> <p>In his <i>Traité de métaphysique</i> <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> argued that, even if the argument from design could prove the existence of a powerful intelligent designer, it would not prove that this designer is God.<sup id="cite_ref-Voltaire_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Voltaire-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> from this sole argument I cannot conclude anything further than that it is probable that an intelligent and superior being has skillfully prepared and fashioned the matter. I cannot conclude from that alone that this being has made matter out of nothing and that he is infinite in every sense.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Voltaire, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Traité de métaphysique</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-Voltaire_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Voltaire-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argument_from_improbability">Argument from improbability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Argument from improbability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_the_creator_of_God" title="Problem of the creator of God">Problem of the creator of God</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> is harshly critical of intelligent design in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_God_Delusion" title="The God Delusion">The God Delusion</a>.</i> In this book, he contends that an appeal to intelligent design can provide no explanation for biology because it not only <a href="/wiki/Begs_the_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Begs the question">begs the question</a> of the designer's own origin but raises additional questions: an intelligent designer must itself be far more complex and difficult to explain than anything it is capable of designing.<sup id="cite_ref-dawkins2006_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawkins2006-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believes the chances of life arising on a planet like the Earth are many orders of magnitude less probable than most people would think, but the <a href="/wiki/Anthropic_principle" title="Anthropic principle">anthropic principle</a> effectively counters skepticism with regard to improbability. For example Astronomer <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle#Rejection_of_Earth-based_abiogenesis" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a> suggested that potential for life on Earth was no more probable than a <a href="/wiki/Boeing_747" title="Boeing 747">Boeing 747</a> being assembled by a hurricane from the scrapyard. Dawkins argues that a one-time event is indeed subject to improbability but once under way, natural selection itself is nothing like random chance. Furthermore, he refers to his counter argument to the argument from improbability by that same name:<sup id="cite_ref-dawkins2006_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawkins2006-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The argument from improbability is the big one. In the traditional guise of the argument from design, it is easily today's most popular argument offered in favour of the existence of God and it is seen, by an amazingly large number of theists, as completely and utterly convincing. It is indeed a very strong and, I suspect, unanswerable argument—but in precisely the opposite direction from the theist's intention. The argument from improbability, properly deployed, comes close to proving that God does <i>not</i> exist. My name for the statistical demonstration that God almost certainly does not exist is the Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit. </p><p>The creationist misappropriation of the argument from improbability always takes the same general form, and it doesn't make any difference <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> [if called] 'intelligent design' (ID). Some observed phenomenon—often a living creature or one of its more complex organs, but it could be anything from a molecule up to the universe itself—is correctly extolled as statistically improbable. Sometimes the language of information theory is used: the Darwinian is challenged to explain the source all the information in living matter, in the technical sense of information content as a measure of improbability or 'surprise value'... However statistically improbable the entity you seek to explain by invoking a designer, the designer himself has got to be at least as improbable. God is the Ultimate Boeing 747. </p> <p><abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> The whole argument turns on the familiar question 'Who made God?' <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> A designer God cannot be used to explain organized complexity because any God capable of designing anything would have to be complex enough to demand the same kind of explanation in his own right. God presents an infinite regress from which he cannot help us to escape. This argument... demonstrates that God, though not technically disprovable, is very very improbable indeed.<sup id="cite_ref-dawkins2006_120-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawkins2006-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Richard Dawkins, <i>The God Delusion</i></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Dawkins considered the argument from improbability to be "much more powerful" than the teleological argument, or argument from design, although he sometimes implies the terms are used interchangeably. He paraphrases St. Thomas' teleological argument as follows: "Things in the world, especially living things, look as though they have been designed. Nothing that we know looks designed unless it is designed. Therefore there must have been a designer, and we call him God."<sup id="cite_ref-dawkins2006_120-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawkins2006-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Edward_Feser" title="Edward Feser">Edward Feser</a> contends that Dawkins fundamentally misunderstands the teleological argument, particularly Aquinas' version, and refutes a <a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">straw man</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perception_of_purpose_in_biology">Perception of purpose in biology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Perception of purpose in biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">philosopher of biology</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Michael Ruse</a> has argued that Darwin treated the structure of organisms as if they had a purpose: "the organism-as-if-it-were-designed-by God picture was absolutely central to Darwin's thinking in 1862, as it always had been".<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He refers to this as "the metaphor of design ... Organisms give the appearance of being designed, and thanks to Charles Darwin's discovery of natural selection we know why this is true." In his review of Ruse's book, R.J. Richards writes, "Biologists quite routinely refer to the design of organisms and their traits, but properly speaking it's <i>apparent</i> design to which they refer – an 'as if' design."<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Foley_(academic)" title="Robert Foley (academic)">Robert Foley</a> refers to this as "the illusion of purpose, design, and progress". He adds, "there is no purpose in a fundamentally causative manner in evolution but that the processes of selection and adaptation give the illusion of purpose through the utter functionality and designed nature of the biological world".<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richard Dawkins suggests that while biology can at first seem to be purposeful and ordered, upon closer inspection its true function becomes questionable. Dawkins rejects the claim that biology serves any designed function, claiming rather that biology only mimics such purpose. In his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Blind_Watchmaker" title="The Blind Watchmaker">The Blind Watchmaker</a></i>, Dawkins states that animals are the most complex things in the known universe: "Biology is the study of complicated things that give the appearance of having been designed for a purpose." He argues that natural selection should suffice as an explanation of biological complexity without recourse to <a href="/wiki/Divine_providence" title="Divine providence">divine providence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins1986_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins1986-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, theologian <a href="/wiki/Alister_McGrath" title="Alister McGrath">Alister McGrath</a> has pointed out that the fine-tuning of carbon is even responsible for nature's ability to tune itself to any degree. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[The entire biological] evolutionary process depends upon the unusual chemistry of carbon, which allows it to bond to itself, as well as other elements, creating highly complex molecules that are stable over prevailing terrestrial temperatures, and are capable of conveying genetic information (especially DNA). <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> Whereas it might be argued that nature creates its own fine-tuning, this can only be done if the primordial constituents of the universe are such that an evolutionary process can be initiated. The unique chemistry of carbon is the ultimate foundation of the capacity of nature to tune itself.<sup id="cite_ref-biologos.org_91-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biologos.org-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Proponents of <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a> creationism, such as <a href="/wiki/William_A._Dembski" title="William A. Dembski">William A. Dembski</a> question the philosophical assumptions made by critics with regard to what a designer would or would not do. Dembski claims that such arguments are not merely beyond the purview of science: often they are tacitly or overtly theological while failing to provide a serious analysis of the hypothetical objective's relative merit. Some critics, such as <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> suggest that any purported 'cosmic' designer would only produce optimal designs, while there are numerous biological criticisms to demonstrate that such an ideal is manifestly untenable. Against these ideas, Dembski characterizes both Dawkins' and Gould's argument as a rhetorical <a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">straw man</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dembski2004_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dembski2004-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He suggests a principle of <a href="/wiki/Constrained_optimization" title="Constrained optimization">constrained optimization</a> more realistically describes the best any designer could hope to achieve: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Not knowing the objectives of the designer, Gould was in no position to say whether the designer proposed a faulty compromise among those objectives… In criticizing design, biologists tend to place a premium on functionalities of individual organisms and see design as optimal to the degree that those individual functionalities are maximized. But higher-order designs of entire ecosystems might require lower-order designs of individual organisms to fall short of maximal function.<sup id="cite_ref-Dembski2004_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dembski2004-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>William A. Dembski, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Design_Revolution" title="The Design Revolution">The Design Revolution</a>: Answering the Toughest Questions About Intelligent Design</i></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fideism_and_rejection_of_natural_theology">Fideism and rejection of natural theology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Fideism and rejection of natural theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology#Faith_and_fideism" title="Natural theology">Natural theology § Faith and fideism</a></div> <p>Some theologians <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology#Criticism" title="Natural theology">oppose the usage of human reason and science in attaining knowledge of God</a> altogether, asserting the primacy of faith in this endeavour. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alleged_argument_from_analogy">Alleged argument from analogy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Alleged argument from analogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The design claim can be challenged as an <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_analogy" title="Argument from analogy">argument from analogy</a>. Supporters of design suggest that natural objects and man-made objects have many similar properties, and man-made objects have a designer. Therefore, it is probable that natural objects must be designed as well. However, proponents must demonstrate that all the available evidence has been taken into account.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eric Rust argues that, when speaking of familiar objects such as watches, "we have a basis to make an inference from such an object to its designer". However, the "universe is a unique and isolated case" and we have nothing to compare it with, so "we have no basis for making an inference such as we can with individual objects. ... We have no basis for applying to the whole universe what may hold of constituent elements in the universe."<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_criticisms">Other criticisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Other criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/George_H._Smith" title="George H. Smith">George H. Smith</a>, in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Atheism:_The_Case_Against_God" title="Atheism: The Case Against God">Atheism: The Case Against God</a></i>, points out what he considers to be a flaw in the argument from design:<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Now consider the idea that nature itself is the product of design. How could this be demonstrated? Nature <abbr style="text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px dotted black;margin-bottom:1px;" title="quote text omitted">...</abbr> provides the basis of comparison by which we distinguish between designed objects and natural objects. We are able to infer the presence of design only to the extent that the characteristics of an object differ from natural characteristics. Therefore, to claim that nature as a whole was designed is to destroy the basis by which we differentiate between artifacts and natural objects.</p></blockquote> <p>The teleological argument assumes that one can infer the existence of intelligent design merely by examination, and because life is reminiscent of something a human might design, it too must have been designed. However, considering "snowflakes and crystals of certain salts", "[i]n no case do we find intelligence". "There are other ways that order and design can come about" such as by "purely physical forces."<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most professional biologists <a href="/wiki/Level_of_support_for_evolution#Scientific_support" title="Level of support for evolution">support</a> the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern evolutionary synthesis</a>, not merely as an alternative explanation for the complexity of life but a better explanation with more supporting evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Living organisms obey the same physical laws as inanimate objects. Over <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">very long periods of time</a> self-replicating structures arose and later formed <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Similar_discussions_in_other_civilizations">Similar discussions in other civilizations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Similar discussions in other civilizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Hinduism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a>, the Hindu school of logic, had a version of the argument from design. P.G. Patil writes that, in this view, it is not the complexity of the world from which one can infer the existence of a creator, but the fact that "the world is made up of parts". In this context, it is the Supreme Soul, <a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a>, who created all the world. </p><p>The argument is in five parts:<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The ... world ... has been constructed by an intelligent agent.</li> <li>On account of being an effect.</li> <li>Each and every effect has been constructed by an intelligent agent, just like a pot.</li> <li>And the world is an effect.</li> <li>Therefore, it has been constructed by an intelligent agent.</li></ol> <p>However, other Hindu schools, such as <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a>, deny that the existence of God can ever be proved, because such a creator can never be perceived. <a href="/wiki/Krishna_Mohan_Banerjee" title="Krishna Mohan Banerjee">Krishna Mohan Banerjee</a>, in his <i>Dialogues on the Hindu Philosophy</i>, has the Samkhya speaker saying, "the existence of God cannot be established because there is no proof. ... nor can it be proved by Inference, because you cannot exhibit an analogous instance."<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhist_criticism_of_Hindu_Nyaya_logic">Buddhist criticism of Hindu Nyaya logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Buddhist criticism of Hindu Nyaya logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> denies the existence of a creator god, and rejects the Nyaya <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a> for the teleological argument as being "logically flawed". Buddhists argue that "the 'creation' of the world cannot be shown to be analogous to the creation of a human artifact, such as a pot".<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confucianism">Confucianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Confucianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 18th century German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a> once thought that <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> was a godless man, and that "the ancient Chinese had no natural religion, since they did not know the creator of the world". However, later, Wolff changed his mind to some extent. "On Wolff's reading, Confucius's religious perspective is thus more or less the weak deistic one of <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taoism">Taoism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Taoism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Taoist writings of the 6th-century-BC philosopher <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (also known as Lao Tzu) have similarities with modern naturalist science. B. Schwartz notes that, in <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, "The processes of nature are not guided by a teleological consciousness ... the tao [dao] is not consciously providential.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Argument from beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Inverse gambler's fallacy">Inverse gambler's fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_miracles_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="No miracles argument">No miracles argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtles_all_the_way_down" title="Turtles all the way down">Turtles all the way down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a> - teleology in evolution</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220182936/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/teleological_argument">"teleological argument"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/teleological_argument">the original</a> on December 20, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=teleological+argument&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fteleological_argument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/teleological-arguments/">"Teleological Arguments for God's Existence"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. June 10, 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 10,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Teleological+Arguments+for+God%E2%80%99s+Existence&rft.date=2005-06-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fteleological-arguments%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Ayala, Francisco J.</a> 2006. "The Blasphemy of Intelligent Design". <i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Philosophy_of_the_Life_Sciences" title="History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences">History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences</a></i> 28(3):409–21. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334140">23334140</a>. (review of <i><a href="/wiki/Creationism%27s_Trojan_Horse" title="Creationism's Trojan Horse">Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design</a></i>): "The argument from design to demonstrate God's existence, now called the 'Intelligent Design' argument (ID) is a two-tined argument. The first prong asserts that the universe, humans, as well as all sorts of organisms, in their wholes, in their parts, and in their relations to one another and to their environment, appear to have been designed for serving certain functions and for certain ways of life. The second prong of the argument is that only an omnipotent Creator could account for the perfection and purposeful design of the universe and everything in it."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190716122932/https://www.princeton.edu/~grosen/puc/phi203/design.html">"The Argument from Design"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~grosen/puc/phi203/design.html">the original</a> on 2019-07-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Argument+from+Design&rft.pub=Princeton+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~grosen%2Fpuc%2Fphi203%2Fdesign.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.intelligentdesign.org/whatisid.php">"Intelligent Design"</a>. Intelligent Design. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130515051745/http://www.intelligentdesign.org/whatisid.php">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-05-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-05-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intelligent+Design&rft.pub=Intelligent+Design&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.intelligentdesign.org%2Fwhatisid.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-comp-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-comp_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-comp_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ahbel-Rappe, Sara, and R. Kamtekar. 2009. <i>A Companion to Socrates</i>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. p. 45. "<a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a> attributes to <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> what is probably the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>, an argument for the existence of the gods from observations of design in the physical world."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sedley (2007:86) agrees, and cites other recent commentators who agree, and argues in detail that the argument reported by <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> is "at any rate the antecedent" of the argument from design (p. 213). He shows that the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a> frequently paraphrased the account given by Xenophon.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sedley_2007,_page_xvii-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sedley_2007,_page_xvii_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sedley 2007, p. xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/William_Derham" title="William Derham">Derham, William</a>. 1713. <i>Physico-Theology</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_English_Dictionary-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_English_Dictionary_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Design". <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, substantive number 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manning, Russell Re. 2013. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zp5pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">Introduction</a>". Pp. 1–9 in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Natural Theology</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zp5pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">p. 3</a>, for example: "Between them, so the story goes, Hume, Darwin and Barth pulled the rug out from underneath the pretensions of natural theology to any philosophical, scientific, or theological legitimacy."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SM_07-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SM_07_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SM_07_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SM_07_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SM_07_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SM_07_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Scott" title="Eugenie Scott">Scott, Eugenie C.</a> 2007. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/104/suppl_1/8669.full.pdf">Biological design in science classrooms</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></i> 104(suppl. 1):8669–76. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0701505104">10.1073/pnas.0701505104</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17494747">17494747</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1876445/">1876445</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i><a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District</a></i></cite>, 04 cv 2688 (December 20, 2005) ("the writings of leading ID proponents reveal that the designer postulated by their argument is the God of Christianity")., <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District/2:Context#Page_26_of_139" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context">Ruling p. 26</a>. A selection of writings and quotes of intelligent design supporters demonstrating this identification of the Christian god with the intelligent designer are found in the pdf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.kc.rr.com/bnpndxtr/download/HorsesMouth-BP007.pdf"><i>Horse's Mouth</i></a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080627021627/http://home.kc.rr.com/bnpndxtr/download/HorsesMouth-BP007.pdf">Archived</a> June 27, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF) by Brian Poindexter, dated 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcpherr-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mcpherr_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mcpherr_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherran1996" class="citation cs2">McPherran, Mark (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nWfQx1CjZl0C&q=socrates+religion+%22intelligent+design%22&pg=PA274"><i>The Religion of Socrates</i></a>, The Pennsylvania State University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0271040325" title="Special:BookSources/978-0271040325"><bdi>978-0271040325</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religion+of+Socrates&rft.pub=The+Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0271040325&rft.aulast=McPherran&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnWfQx1CjZl0C%26q%3Dsocrates%2Breligion%2B%2522intelligent%2Bdesign%2522%26pg%3DPA274&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span>, pp. 273–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ahbel-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ahbel_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ahbel_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ahbel_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ahbel-Rappe, Sara. 2009. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GKewlVwJ9rgC">Socrates: A Guide for the Perplexed</a></i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826433251" title="Special:BookSources/9780826433251">9780826433251</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GKewlVwJ9rgC&pg=PA27">p. 27</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sed-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sed_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sed_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sed_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sed_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sed_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sed_16-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sed_16-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sed_16-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sed_16-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sed_16-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSedley2007" class="citation cs2">Sedley, David (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SgRuJEfzUG8C"><i>Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity</i></a>, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520934368" title="Special:BookSources/9780520934368"><bdi>9780520934368</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creationism+and+Its+Critics+in+Antiquity&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780520934368&rft.aulast=Sedley&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSgRuJEfzUG8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> I.4.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Aristot.+Met.+1.984b">984b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kirk, Raven, and Schofield. 1983. <i>The Presocratic Philosophers</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. ch. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kirk, Raven, and Schofield. 1983. <i>The Presocratic Philosophers</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 204, 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0174%3Atext%3DPhileb.%3Apage%3D28">28c</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0174%3Atext%3DPhileb.%3Apage%3D30">30d</a>. Translation by Fowler.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DPhaedo%3Apage%3D97">97</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DPhaedo%3Apage%3D98">98</a>. Also see Ahbel Rappe.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kirk, Raven, and Schofield. 1983. <i>The Presocratic Philosophers</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. ch. XVI</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brickhouse, Thomas, and Nicholas D. Smith. 21 April 2005. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/plato/">Plato</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Retrieved November 12, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHankinson1997" class="citation book cs1">Hankinson, R. J. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iwfy-n5IWL8C"><i>Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924656-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924656-4"><bdi>978-0-19-924656-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cause+and+Explanation+in+Ancient+Greek+Thought&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924656-4&rft.aulast=Hankinson&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Diwfy-n5IWL8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistAnimI2-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HistAnimI2_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/history_anim.1.i.html#223"><i>History of Animals</i></a>. I 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Animals&rft.pages=I+2&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FAristotle%2Fhistory_anim.1.i.html%23223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nussbaum1985-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nussbaum1985_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nussbaum1985_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nussbaum1985_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNussbaum1985" class="citation book cs1">Nussbaum, M.C. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ISD05P7TcOAC&pg=PA60"><i>Aristotle's de Motu Animalium</i></a>. Princeton paperbacks. Princeton University Press. p. 60,66,69–70,73–81,94–98,101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02035-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02035-8"><bdi>978-0-691-02035-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/77072132">77072132</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+de+Motu+Animalium&rft.series=Princeton+paperbacks&rft.pages=60%2C66%2C69-70%2C73-81%2C94-98%2C101&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F77072132&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02035-8&rft.aulast=Nussbaum&rft.aufirst=M.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DISD05P7TcOAC%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PhysI2-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PhysI2_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.1.i.html#130"><i>Physics</i></a>. I 2 (¶15).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics&rft.pages=I+2+%28%C2%B615%29&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FAristotle%2Fphysics.1.i.html%23130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PartsAnimI1-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PartsAnimI1_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/parts_animals.1.i.html#100"><i>Parts of Animals</i></a>. I 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Parts+of+Animals&rft.pages=I+1&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FAristotle%2Fparts_animals.1.i.html%23100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ross2004-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ross2004_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossAckrill2004" class="citation book cs1">Ross, D.; Ackrill, J.L. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=651Bg2-8xsEC&pg=PA80"><i>Aristotle</i></a>. Routledge. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32857-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32857-9"><bdi>978-0-415-32857-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-32857-9&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Ackrill%2C+J.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D651Bg2-8xsEC%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HullRuse2007-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HullRuse2007_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHullRuse2007" class="citation book cs1">Hull, D.L.; Ruse, M. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aZOgg-x4UyIC&pg=PA174"><i>The Cambridge Companion to the Philosophy of Biology</i></a>. Cambridge Companions to Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-61671-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-61671-3"><bdi>978-0-521-61671-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2006025898">2006025898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+Philosophy+of+Biology&rft.series=Cambridge+Companions+to+Philosophy&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006025898&rft.isbn=978-0-521-61671-3&rft.aulast=Hull&rft.aufirst=D.L.&rft.au=Ruse%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaZOgg-x4UyIC%26pg%3DPA174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PhysII8a-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PhysII8a_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.2.ii.html#530"><i>Physics</i></a>. II 8  (¶2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics&rft.pages=II+8+-%28%C2%B62%29&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FAristotle%2Fphysics.2.ii.html%23530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PhysII8b-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PhysII8b_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.2.ii.html#585"><i>Physics</i></a>. II 8  (¶5).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics&rft.pages=II+8+-%28%C2%B65%29&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FAristotle%2Fphysics.2.ii.html%23585&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PhysII8c-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PhysII8c_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.2.ii.html#604"><i>Physics</i></a>. II 8  (¶8).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics&rft.pages=II+8+-%28%C2%B68%29&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FAristotle%2Fphysics.2.ii.html%23604&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PhysII8-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PhysII8_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.2.ii.html#522"><i>Physics</i></a>. II 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics&rft.pages=II+8&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FAristotle%2Fphysics.2.ii.html%23522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sachs translation (1998), <i>Aristotle's physics; a guided study</i>, 2nd ed., pages 67–68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sedley (2007) <i>Epilogue</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Romans%201:18–20&version=nrsv">Romans 1:18–20</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67536/Christian-philosophy-as-natural-theology">"Christian philosophy as natural theology"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 17 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christian+philosophy+as+natural+theology&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023-08-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F115240%2FChristianity%2F67536%2FChristian-philosophy-as-natural-theology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus_Minucius_Felix2010" class="citation book cs1">Marcus Minucius Felix (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8OZqxbh23sQC&q=Marcus%20Minucius%20Felix%20ordered%20house&pg=PA359"><i>The Octavius of Minucius Felix</i></a>. OrthodoxEbook. pp. 359–361.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Octavius+of+Minucius+Felix&rft.pages=359-361&rft.pub=OrthodoxEbook&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Marcus+Minucius+Felix&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8OZqxbh23sQC%26q%3DMarcus%2520Minucius%2520Felix%2520ordered%2520house%26pg%3DPA359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_City_of_God" title="The City of God">City of God</a></i> XI, ch. 4: "the world itself, by its well-ordered changes and movements, and by the fair appearance of all visible things, bears a testimony of its own, both that it has been created, and also that it could not have been created save by God, whose greatness and beauty are unutterable and invisible".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1992" class="citation cs2">Goodman, Lenn Evan (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=779JPlxYtGoC&pg=PA63"><i>Avicenna</i></a>, Cornell university press, p. 63, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801472541" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801472541"><bdi>978-0801472541</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avicenna&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Cornell+university+press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0801472541&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Lenn+Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D779JPlxYtGoC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbrahamov1990" class="citation cs2">Abrahamov, Binyāmîn (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SYqKHJFAhr8C">"Introduction"</a>, in Abrahamov, Binyāmîn (ed.), <i>Kitāb al-Dalīl al-Kabīr</i>, Brill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004089853" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004089853"><bdi>978-9004089853</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Kit%C4%81b+al-Dal%C4%ABl+al-Kab%C4%ABr&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-9004089853&rft.aulast=Abrahamov&rft.aufirst=Biny%C4%81m%C3%AEn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSYqKHJFAhr8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKogan,_Barry_S.1985" class="citation book cs1">Kogan, Barry S. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lAyv0Ayy-R0C&q=teleological+argument&pg=PA240"><i>Averroes and the metaphysics of causation</i></a>. SUNY Press. pp. 240–243. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-063-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-063-2"><bdi>978-0-88706-063-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Averroes+and+the+metaphysics+of+causation&rft.pages=240-243&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-88706-063-2&rft.au=Kogan%2C+Barry+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlAyv0Ayy-R0C%26q%3Dteleological%2Bargument%26pg%3DPA240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Belo, Catarina. 2007. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b4Nii9xOmTYC">Chance and Determinism in Avicenna and Averroës</a></i>. Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. p. 194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Fraenkel" title="Carlos Fraenkel">Fraenkel, Carlos</a>. 2012. <i>Philosophical Religions from Plato to Spinoza: Reason, Religion, and Autonomy</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2wYgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA199">199</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah+40%3A26&version=AKJV">"King James Version of the Bible"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=King+James+Version+of+the+Bible&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DIsaiah%2B40%253A26%26version%3DAKJV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holtz, B., <i>Back to the Sources</i>, Simon and Schuster, 2008, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harris, J.M., <i>Nachman Krochmal: Guiding the Perplexed of the Modern Age</i>, NYU Press, 1991, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/RabbaGenesis/midrashrabbahgen027557mbp#page/n359/mode/2up">"<i>Genesis Rabbah</i>, 39:1"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Genesis+Rabbah%2C+39%3A1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FRabbaGenesis%2Fmidrashrabbahgen027557mbp%23page%2Fn359%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaplan, A., <i>The Aryeh Kaplan Anthology: Illuminating Expositions on Jewish Thought and Practice by a Revered Teacher</i>, Volume 1, Mesorah Publications, 1991, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies,_Brian1992" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Brian (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TxrDzeKU2VsC&q=aquinas+teleological+argument+aristotle&pg=PA30"><i>The Thought of Thomas Aquinas</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 30, footnote 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152044-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152044-0"><bdi>978-0-19-152044-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thought+of+Thomas+Aquinas&rft.pages=30%2C+footnote+30&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-152044-0&rft.au=Davies%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTxrDzeKU2VsC%26q%3Daquinas%2Bteleological%2Bargument%2Baristotle%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Himma-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Himma_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Himma_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Himma, Kenneth Einar (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/design.htm#SH1b">"Design Arguments for the Existence of God"</a>, in James Fieser and Bradley Dowden, eds., <i>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, retrieved 8/24/08</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newton, I., quoted in Huyssteen, JWV. (ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of Science and Religion</i>, Macmillan, 2003, p. 621.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leshem, A., <i>Newton on Mathematics and Spiritual Purity</i>, Springer, 2003, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leshem, A., <i>Newton on Mathematics and Spiritual Purity</i>, Springer, 2003, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leshem, A., <i>Newton on Mathematics and Spiritual Purity</i>, Springer, 2003, pp. 21–22.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fD-qvJp0Q5kC&dq=argument+from+design+%22Samuel+Clarke%22&pg=PA19">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pomerlaeau, <i>Western Philosophies Religion</i>, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>: "monads are basic substances that make up the universe but lack spatial extension and hence are immaterial. Each monad is a unique, indestructible, dynamic, soullike entity whose properties are a function of its perceptions and appetites."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, B., <i>A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz,</i>, Routledge, 2005, First published 1900, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin2001" class="citation book cs1">Franklin, James (2001). <i>The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 244–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6569-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6569-5"><bdi>978-0-8018-6569-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Conjecture%3A+Evidence+and+Probability+Before+Pascal&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=244-5&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6569-5&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaiborne_Chappell,_Vere1994" class="citation book cs1">Claiborne Chappell, Vere (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f28fFbiohXMC&q=locke+a+priori&pg=PA163"><i>The Cambridge companion to Locke</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 161–164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38772-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38772-9"><bdi>978-0-521-38772-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+companion+to+Locke&rft.pages=161-164&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-38772-9&rft.au=Claiborne+Chappell%2C+Vere&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df28fFbiohXMC%26q%3Dlocke%2Ba%2Bpriori%26pg%3DPA163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDicker,_Georges2011" class="citation book cs1">Dicker, Georges (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XBqQXI3JGeEC&q=teleological+argument+berkeley&pg=PA260"><i>Berkeley's Idealism: A Critical Examination</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538146-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538146-7"><bdi>978-0-19-538146-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Berkeley%27s+Idealism%3A+A+Critical+Examination&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-538146-7&rft.au=Dicker%2C+Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXBqQXI3JGeEC%26q%3Dteleological%2Bargument%2Bberkeley%26pg%3DPA260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowning,_Lisa" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Downing, Lisa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/berkeley/">"George Berkeley"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Benziger_Bros" class="mw-redirect" title="Benziger Bros">Benziger Bros</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=--ELAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22the+acorn+and+the+pumpkin%22&pg=PA39">39</a>–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/denaturadeorumac00ciceuoft"><i>De natura deorum</i></a>, London W. Heinemann, 1933</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+natura+deorum&rft.pub=London+W.+Heinemann&rft.date=1933&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdenaturadeorumac00ciceuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span>, translated by H. Rackham. This is discussed at Sedley p. 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooke2003" class="citation book cs1">Hooke, Rober (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0DYXk_9XX38C"><i>Micrographia</i></a>. 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Westminster John Knox Press. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22322-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22322-9"><bdi>978-0-664-22322-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theology+for+a+Troubled+Believer%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Christian+Faith&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-664-22322-9&rft.au=Allen%2C+Diogenes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DouWlkBXeg5IC%26q%3Danthropic%2Bprinciple%2Bantony%2Bflew%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Souza,_Dinesh2007" class="citation book cs1">D'Souza, Dinesh (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vVXf2PV8pyQC&q=anthropic%20principle%20antony%20flew&pg=PA133"><i>What's so great about Christianity</i></a>. Regnery. pp. 132–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59698-517-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59698-517-9"><bdi>978-1-59698-517-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What%27s+so+great+about+Christianity&rft.pages=132-3&rft.pub=Regnery&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-59698-517-9&rft.au=D%27Souza%2C+Dinesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvVXf2PV8pyQC%26q%3Danthropic%2520principle%2520antony%2520flew%26pg%3DPA133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoyle1981-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hoyle1981_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoyle1981" class="citation journal cs1">Hoyle, Fred (November 1981). 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University of Chicago Press. p. 177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-66786-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-66786-7"><bdi>978-0-226-66786-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009049778">2009049778</a>. <q>[E]ven back in Aristotle's time, a fundamental assumption of doing things scientifically is that the supernatural is out: no explanations that invoke non-natural causes are allowed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nonsense+on+Stilts%3A+How+to+Tell+Science+from+Bunk&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009049778&rft.isbn=978-0-226-66786-7&rft.aulast=Pigliucci&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaC8Baky2qTcC%26pg%3DPA177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i><a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. 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John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444337860" title="Special:BookSources/9781444337860"><bdi>9781444337860</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Loeb%2C+LE.%2C+in+Radcliffe%2C+ES+%28ed.%29%2C+A+Companion+to+Hume%2C+John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+2010%2C+p.+118.&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011-05-31&rft.isbn=9781444337860&rft.aulast=Radcliffe&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6ECxW_2tAf0C%26dq%3D%2522insists%2Bthat%2Binductive%2522%2Bhume%26pg%3DPA118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IEP_Hume-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IEP_Hume_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IEP_Hume_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IEP_Hume_112-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiesar,_James2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fiesar, James (June 30, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/hume">"David Hume (1711–1776)"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Salmon, "Religion and Science: A New Look at Hume's Dialogues", Philosophical Studies, 33 (1978), 143–176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartwright1978" class="citation journal cs1">Cartwright, Nancy (1978). 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Houghton Mifflin Co. pp. 103, 136–138, 162–166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-68000-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-68000-9"><bdi>978-0-618-68000-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2006015506">2006015506</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+God+Delusion&rft.pages=103%2C+136-138%2C+162-166&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Co.&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006015506&rft.isbn=978-0-618-68000-9&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dyq1xDpicghkC%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Feser" title="Edward Feser">Feser, Edward</a>. 2008. <i>The Last Superstition</i>. 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Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/darwindesigndoes00ruse_0/page/122">122</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674010239" title="Special:BookSources/9780674010239"><bdi>9780674010239</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin+and+Design%3A+Does+Evolution+Have+a+Purpose%3F&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780674010239&rft.au=Ruse%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdarwindesigndoes00ruse_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichards,_Robert_J.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Richards, Robert J. 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Norton. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31570-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31570-7"><bdi>978-0-393-31570-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/96229669">96229669</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blind+Watchmaker%3A+Why+the+Evidence+of+Evolution+Reveals+a+Universe+without+Design&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F96229669&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31570-7&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsPpaZnZMDG0C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath2009" class="citation book cs1">McGrath, Alister E. 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(2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sKVqpXqE0VwC&pg=PA58"><i>The Design Revolution: Answering the Toughest Questions About Intelligent Design</i></a>. InterVarsity Press. pp. 58–59, 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-3216-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-3216-3"><bdi>978-0-8308-3216-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003020589">2003020589</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Design+Revolution%3A+Answering+the+Toughest+Questions+About+Intelligent+Design&rft.pages=58-59%2C+61&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003020589&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-3216-3&rft.aulast=Dembski&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsKVqpXqE0VwC%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornmanLehrerPappas1992" class="citation book cs1">Cornman, James W.; Lehrer, Keith; Pappas, George Sotiros (1992-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cRHegYZgyfUC"><i>Philosophical Problems and Arguments: An Introduction</i></a>. Hackett Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-124-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-124-8"><bdi>978-0-87220-124-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Problems+and+Arguments%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=1992-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-124-8&rft.aulast=Cornman&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rft.au=Lehrer%2C+Keith&rft.au=Pappas%2C+George+Sotiros&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcRHegYZgyfUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rust, E., <i>Religion, Revelation and Reason</i>, Mercer University Press, 1981, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AcSw6GDlLVwC&dq=criticism+%22teleological+argument%22&pg=PA96">96</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/George_H._Smith" title="George H. Smith">Smith, George H.</a> 2003. <i><a href="/wiki/Atheism:_The_Case_Against_God" title="Atheism: The Case Against God">Atheism: The Case Against God</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Books" title="Prometheus Books">Prometheus Books</a>. p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cornman, J. W., K. Lehrer, and G. S. Pappas. 1992. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Philosophical_Problems_and_Arguments.html?id=cRHegYZgyfUC">Philosophical Problems and Arguments: An Introduction</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Hackett_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hackett Publishing">Hackett Publishing</a>. pp. 245–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.interacademies.net/10878/13901.aspx">IAP Statement on the Teaching of Evolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717190031/http://www.interacademies.net/10878/13901.aspx">Archived</a> 2011-07-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Joint statement issued by the national science academies of 67 countries, including the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> (PDF file)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, P. J. 2008. <i>Biology: The Dynamic Science</i> 1. <a href="/wiki/Cengage_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage Learning">Cengage Learning</a>. p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patil, Parimal. G. 2013. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z88GAfvNGH0C&dq=buddhism+%22argument+from+design%22&pg=PT65">Against a Hindu God: Buddhist Philosophy of Religion in India</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. Chapter 2. In a note, the author says that the Nyaya argument has been called a "cosmo-teleological argument".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banerjea, K. M. 1861. <i>Dialogues on the Hindu Philosophy Comprising the Nyaya, the Sankhya, the Vedanta</i>. Thacker Spink. p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jackson, R. R. 1993. <i>Is Enlightenment Possible?: Dharmakīrti and RGyal Tshab Rje on Knowledge, Rebirth, No-self and Liberation</i>. <a href="/wiki/Snow_Lion_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Snow Lion Publications">Snow Lion Publications</a>. p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Norden, B. W. 2002. <i>Confucius and the Analects</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schwartz, B., Quoted in Lai, K., <i>An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 79.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">Craig, William Lane</a>. 1990. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/teleo.html">The Teleological Argument and the Anthropic Principle</a>". Pp. 127–53 in <i>The Logic of Rational Theism: Exploratory Essays</i>, edited by W. L. Craig and M. McLeod, (<i>Problems in Contemporary Philosophy</i> 24). Lewiston, NY: <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Mellen_Press" title="Edwin Mellen Press">Edwin Mellen</a>.</li> <li>Dawkins, Richard. 1986. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Blind_Watchmaker" title="The Blind Watchmaker">The Blind Watchmaker</a></i>. (Takes a view against the teleological argument.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Dembski" title="William A. Dembski">Dembski, William A.</a> 2004. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Design_Revolution" title="The Design Revolution">The Design Revolution</a></i>. UK: <a href="/wiki/InterVarsity_Press" title="InterVarsity Press">InterVarsity Press</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Dennett, Daniel</a>. 1995. <i><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_Dangerous_Idea" title="Darwin's Dangerous Idea">Darwin's Dangerous Idea</a></i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82471-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82471-0">978-0-684-82471-0</a></li> <li>Gjersen, Derek. 1989. <i>Science and Philosophy: Past and Present</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-014962-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-014962-7">0-14-014962-7</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Haught" title="John F. Haught">Haught, John F.</a> March 2011. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/God-after-Darwin.php">God after Darwin</a>". <i>The Montréal Review</i>.</li> <li>Hunter, Cornelius G. 2007. "Science's Blind Spot: The Unseen Religion of Scientific Naturalism". Grand Rapids, MI: <a href="/wiki/Brazos_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Brazos Press">Brazos Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781587431708" title="Special:BookSources/9781587431708">9781587431708</a></li> <li>Hurlbutt, Robert H. 1998. <i>Hume, Newton, and the Design Argument</i> (revised ed.). Ann Arbor, MI: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-2337-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-2337-4">0-8032-2337-4</a></li> <li>Jantzen, Benjamin C. 2014. <i>An Introduction to Design Arguments</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00534-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00534-1">978-1-107-00534-1</a> (hrdbk), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18303-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18303-1">978-0-521-18303-1</a> (pbk).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lightman" title="Bernard Lightman">Lightman, Bernard V.</a> 2007. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ady3NSvPi_8C">Victorian Popularizers of Science</a></i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48118-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48118-0">978-0-226-48118-0</a>. Retrieved 22 June 2009.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Moreland" title="J. P. Moreland">Moreland, J. P.</a> 1987. <i>Scaling the Secular City: A Defense of Christianity</i>. ch. 2. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801062223" title="Special:BookSources/9780801062223">9780801062223</a></li> <li>Ratzsch, Del, and Jeffrey Koperski. [2005] 2019. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/teleological-arguments/">Teleological Arguments for God's Existence</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</li> <li>Ross, Hugh. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100414231943/http://www.doesgodexist.org/Charts/EvidenceForDesignInTheUniverse.html">Evidence For Design In The Universe</a>". <i>Limits for the Universe</i></li> <li>Sotnak, Eric. 15 March 1993. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://infidels.org/library/modern/anachronist/why_i_believe/3_apndx.html">Analysis of the Teleological Argument</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Infidels" title="Internet Infidels">Internet Infidels</a></i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_argument&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/design-arguments-for-existence-of-god/">Design arguments for the existence of God</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050404080039/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-80">Design argument</a> from the <i>Dictionary of the history of Ideas</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071014070611/http://stephenpimentel.com/papers/purpose_revised.html">A "Preface" to Aquinas' Teleological Argument</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaley1809" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Paley" title="William Paley">Paley, William</a> (1809). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A142&viewtype=text&pageseq=1"><i>Natural Theology: or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity</i></a> (12th ed.). London: Printed for J. Faulder.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Theology%3A+or%2C+Evidences+of+the+Existence+and+Attributes+of+the+Deity&rft.place=London&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=Printed+for+J.+Faulder&rft.date=1809&rft.aulast=Paley&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3FitemID%3DA142%26viewtype%3Dtext%26pageseq%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1958" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1958). <a href="/wiki/Nora_Barlow" title="Nora Barlow">Barlow, Nora</a> (ed.). "The autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his grand-daughter". London: Collins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+autobiography+of+Charles+Darwin+1809%E2%80%931882.+With+the+original+omissions+restored.+Edited+and+with+appendix+and+notes+by+his+grand-daughter&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATeleological+argument" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://skepdic.com/design.html">The Skeptic's Dictionary on argument from design</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">religious belief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />of religion</a></div><br />(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />1990<br />2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Theology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Theology" title="Template:Theology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Theology" title="Template talk:Theology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Theology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Conceptions_of_God" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystheism" title="Dystheism">Dystheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathenotheism" title="Kathenotheism">Kathenotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolatry" title="Monolatry">Monolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urmonotheismus" title="Urmonotheismus">Urmonotheismus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polydeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_finitism" title="Theistic finitism">Theistic finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theopanism" title="Theopanism">Theopanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">Divinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_of_God" title="Gender of God">Gender of God</a> <i>and gods</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numen" title="Numen">Numen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Singular god</a><br />theologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By faith</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanationism" title="Emanationism">Emanationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">God as</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Sustainer" title="God the Sustainer">Sustainer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Father_of_Greatness" title="Father of Greatness">Father of Greatness</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinitarianism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athanasian_Creed" title="Athanasian Creed">Athanasian Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannine_Comma" title="Johannine Comma">Comma Johanneum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consubstantiality" title="Consubstantiality">Consubstantiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoousion" title="Homoousion">Homoousian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoiousian" title="Homoiousian">Homoiousian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(philosophy_and_religion)" title="Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)">Hypostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perichoresis" title="Perichoresis">Perichoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_of_the_Trinity" title="Shield of the Trinity">Shield of the Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarian_formula" title="Trinitarian formula">Trinitarian formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarianism_in_the_Church_Fathers" title="Trinitarianism in the Church Fathers">Trinity of the Church Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarian_universalism" title="Trinitarian universalism">Trinitarian universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fate_of_the_unlearned" title="Fate of the unlearned">Fate of the unlearned</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fitra" title="Fitra">Fitra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hell</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_religion" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_Incantations_Scripture" title="Divine Incantations Scripture">Taoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Hinduism" title="Women in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_women" title="Mormonism and women">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddesses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributes_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Attributes of God in Christianity">Attributes of God in Christianity</a> / <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">in Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binitarianism" title="Binitarianism">Binitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_presence" title="Divine presence">Divine presence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egotheism" title="Egotheism">Egotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotheology" title="Exotheology">Exotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godhead_in_Christianity" title="Godhead in Christianity">Godhead in Christianity</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Latter Day Saints</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Architect_of_the_Universe" title="Great Architect of the Universe">Great Architect of the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Spirit" title="Great Spirit">Great Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olelbis" title="Olelbis">Olelbis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_theism" title="Open theism">Open theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenological_definition_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenological definition of God">Phenomenological definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo%27s_view_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Philo's view of God">Philo's view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a> in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Names of God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_titles_and_names_of_Krishna" title="List of titles and names of Krishna">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Islam" title="Names of God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_faith" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By faith</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Christian" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christian_theology" title="Outline of Christian theology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paterology" title="Paterology">Paterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatology" title="Pneumatology">Pneumatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_cosmology" title="Biblical cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">Hamartiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_theology" title="Practical theology">Practical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_theology" title="Public theology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophiology" title="Sophiology">Sophiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Soteriology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Hindu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" 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