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</button> <ul id="toc-Defining_characteristics_and_principles_of_faith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Core_tenets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Core_tenets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Core tenets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Core_tenets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Religious texts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religious_texts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Religious texts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Religious_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Legal literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Jewish philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rabbinic_hermeneutics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rabbinic_hermeneutics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Rabbinic hermeneutics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rabbinic_hermeneutics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Jewish identity </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Jewish_identity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Jewish identity subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Jewish_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Distinction_between_Jews_as_a_people_and_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinction_between_Jews_as_a_people_and_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Distinction between Jews as a people and Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinction_between_Jews_as_a_people_and_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Who_is_a_Jew?" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Who_is_a_Jew?"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Who is a Jew? </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Who_is_a_Jew?-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Jewish demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_religious_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_religious_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Jewish religious movements </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Jewish_religious_movements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Jewish religious movements subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Jewish_religious_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rabbinic_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rabbinic_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Rabbinic Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rabbinic_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sephardi_and_Mizrahi_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sephardi_and_Mizrahi_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Sephardi and Mizrahi Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sephardi_and_Mizrahi_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_movements_in_Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_movements_in_Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Jewish movements in Israel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_movements_in_Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karaites_and_Samaritans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karaites_and_Samaritans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Karaites and Samaritans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karaites_and_Samaritans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haymanot_(Ethiopian_Judaism)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haymanot_(Ethiopian_Judaism)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Haymanot (Ethiopian Judaism) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haymanot_(Ethiopian_Judaism)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noahide_(B'nei_Noah_movement)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noahide_(B'nei_Noah_movement)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Noahide (B'nei Noah movement) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noahide_(B'nei_Noah_movement)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_observances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_observances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Jewish observances </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Jewish_observances-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Jewish observances subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Jewish_observances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jewish_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Jewish ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prayers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prayers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Prayers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prayers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_clothing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_clothing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Religious clothing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_clothing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_holidays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_holidays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Jewish holidays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_holidays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shabbat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shabbat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.1 Shabbat </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shabbat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three_pilgrimage_festivals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_pilgrimage_festivals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.2 Three pilgrimage festivals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_pilgrimage_festivals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_Holy_Days" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Holy_Days"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.3 High Holy Days </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_Holy_Days-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purim" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purim"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.4 Purim </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purim-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hanukkah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hanukkah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.5 Hanukkah </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hanukkah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fast_days" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fast_days"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.6 Fast days </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fast_days-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israeli_holidays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israeli_holidays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.7 Israeli holidays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israeli_holidays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torah_readings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torah_readings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Torah readings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torah_readings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synagogues_and_religious_buildings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synagogues_and_religious_buildings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Synagogues and religious buildings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synagogues_and_religious_buildings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dietary_laws:_kashrut" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dietary_laws:_kashrut"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Dietary laws: kashrut </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dietary_laws:_kashrut-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laws_of_ritual_purity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws_of_ritual_purity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Laws of ritual purity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laws_of_ritual_purity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Family_purity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family_purity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8.1 Family purity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family_purity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life-cycle_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life-cycle_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.9 Life-cycle events </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life-cycle_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Community_leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Community_leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Community leadership </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Community_leadership-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Community leadership subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Community_leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_priesthood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_priesthood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Classical priesthood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_priesthood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prayer_leaders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prayer_leaders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Prayer leaders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prayer_leaders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialized_religious_roles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialized_religious_roles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Specialized religious roles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialized_religious_roles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_Jewish_groupings_(to_1700)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_Jewish_groupings_(to_1700)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_Jewish_groupings_(to_1700)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persecutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Persecutions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hasidism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hasidism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Hasidism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hasidism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Enlightenment_and_new_religious_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Enlightenment_and_new_religious_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.7 The Enlightenment and new religious movements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Enlightenment_and_new_religious_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spectrum_of_observance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spectrum_of_observance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.8 Spectrum of observance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spectrum_of_observance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judaism_and_other_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism_and_other_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Judaism and other religions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Judaism_and_other_religions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Judaism and other religions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Judaism_and_other_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christianity_and_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity_and_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Christianity and Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity_and_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam_and_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam_and_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Islam and Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam_and_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syncretic_movements_incorporating_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syncretic_movements_incorporating_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syncretic_movements_incorporating_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Criticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selected_cited_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_cited_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Selected cited works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_cited_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Judaism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 215 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-215" aria-hidden="true" > 215 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi" title="Yahudi – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%80%D1%82" title="Джурт – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Джурт" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda%C3%AFsme" title="Judaïsme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Judaïsme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judentum" title="Judentum – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Judentum" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%8B%AD%E1%88%81%E1%8B%B5%E1%8A%93" title="አይሁድና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አይሁድና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="यहूदी धर्म – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="यहूदी धर्म" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اليهودية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اليهودية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuda%C3%ADsmo" title="Chudaísmo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Chudaísmo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9D%DC%97%DC%98%DC%95%DC%9D%DC%98%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܝܗܘܕܝܘܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܝܗܘܕܝܘܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jud%C3%A2ismo" title="Judâismo – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Judâismo" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE" title="ইহুদী ধৰ্ম – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ইহুদী ধৰ্ম" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuda%C3%ADsmu" title="Xudaísmu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xudaísmu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hud%C3%ADo_jerovia" title="Hudío jerovia – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Hudío jerovia" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Иудаизм – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Иудаизм" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0udaizm" title="İudaizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İudaizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="یهودیلیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یهودیلیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Yahudi" title="Agama Yahudi – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Agama Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE" title="ইহুদি ধর্ম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইহুদি ধর্ম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Yahudi" title="Agama Yahudi – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Agama Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%BB-th%C3%A0i-k%C3%A0u" title="Iû-thài-kàu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iû-thài-kàu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D3%99%D2%BB%D2%AF%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Йәһүдилек – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Йәһүдилек" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%9E%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Іўдаізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іўдаізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Юдаізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Юдаізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="यहूदी धर्म – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="यहूदी धर्म" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudaismo" title="Hudaismo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Hudaismo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Юдаизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Юдаизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judndum" title="Judndum – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Judndum" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%90%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="ཡིའུ་ཐའེ་ཆོས་ལུགས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཡིའུ་ཐའེ་ཆོས་ལུགས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizam" title="Judaizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Judaizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuzevegezh" title="Yuzevegezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yuzevegezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Иудаизм – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Иудаизм" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaisme" title="Judaisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Judaisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Иудаизм – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Иудаизм" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudaismo" title="Hudaismo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Hudaismo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaismus" title="Judaismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Judaismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ujudha" title="Ujudha – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ujudha" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghjudaisimu" title="Ghjudaisimu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Ghjudaisimu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iddewiaeth" title="Iddewiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Iddewiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8dedom" title="Jødedom – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jødedom" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="يهودية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="يهودية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuddedum" title="Yuddedum – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Yuddedum" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judentum" title="Judentum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Judentum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%94%DE%A6%DE%80%DE%AB%DE%8B%DE%A9%DE%8B%DE%A9%DE%82%DE%B0" title="ޔަހޫދީދީން – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ޔަހޫދީދީން" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Judaism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B4%CE%B1%CF%8A%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Ιουδαϊσμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιουδαϊσμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda%C3%ADsmo" title="Judaísmo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Judaísmo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judismo" title="Judismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Judismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda%C3%ADsmu" title="Judaísmu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Judaísmu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaismo" title="Judaismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Judaismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="یهودیت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="یهودیت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi" title="Yahudi – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8dad%C3%B3mur" title="Jødadómur – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Jødadómur" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda%C3%AFsme" title="Judaïsme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Judaïsme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joadedom" title="Joadedom – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Joadedom" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudanci" title="Yahudanci – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Yahudanci" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebraisim" title="Ebraisim – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Ebraisim" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Gi%C3%BAdachas" title="An Giúdachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Giúdachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yn_Ewaghys" title="Yn Ewaghys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Yn Ewaghys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B9dhachd" title="Iùdhachd – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Iùdhachd" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuda%C3%ADsmo" title="Xudaísmo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xudaísmo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Жугтий ди – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Жугтий ди" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%B9%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%80_%E0%AA%A7%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AE" title="યહૂદી ધર્મ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="યહૂદી ધર્મ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%B9-thai-kau" title="Yù-thai-kau – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Yù-thai-kau" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%8C%80%EA%B5%90" title="유대교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유대교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudanci" title="Yahudanci – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Yahudanci" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%27omana_Iukaio" title="Ho'omana Iukaio – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Ho'omana Iukaio" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հուդայականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հուդայականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="यहूदी धर्म – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यहूदी धर्म" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizam" title="Judaizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Judaizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaismo" title="Judaismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Judaismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Judaism" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudaismo" title="Hudaismo – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Hudaismo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yudaisme" title="Yudaisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Yudaisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaismo" title="Judaismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Judaismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeisme" title="Judeisme – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Judeisme" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Иудаизм – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Иудаизм" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/UbuJuda" title="UbuJuda – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="UbuJuda" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gy%C3%B0ingd%C3%B3mur" title="Gyðingdómur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gyðingdómur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebraismo" title="Ebraismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ebraismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%94%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA" title="יהדות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יהדות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Yahudi" title="Agama Yahudi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Agama Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuudaayism" title="Yuudaayism – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Yuudaayism" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juutit" title="Juutit – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Juutit" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%BF_%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE" title="ಯಹೂದಿ ಧರ್ಮ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಯಹೂದಿ ಧರ್ಮ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudaismu" title="Hudaismu – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Hudaismu" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Иудейлик – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Иудейлик" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="იუდაიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იუდაიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D9%97%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="یہوٗدیت – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="یہوٗدیت" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%BB%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Яһудилік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Яһудилік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yedhoweth" title="Yedhoweth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Yedhoweth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiyahudi_(Judaism)" title="Kiyahudi (Judaism) – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Kiyahudi (Judaism)" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uyahudi" title="Uyahudi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uyahudi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidayis" title="Jidayis – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Jidayis" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joudayism" title="Joudayism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Joudayism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cih%C3%BBt%C3%AE" title="Cihûtî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Cihûtî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudaism" title="Iudaism – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Iudaism" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djudaismo" title="Djudaismo – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Djudaismo" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%8C%D1%83%D1%82%D3%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="ЖугьутӀнал дин – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="ЖугьутӀнал дин" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%9C%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B9%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%B2" title="ສາສະໜາຊູດາ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສາສະໜາຊູດາ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religio_Iudaica" title="Religio Iudaica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Religio Iudaica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%ABdaisms" title="Jūdaisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Jūdaisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juddentum" title="Juddentum – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Juddentum" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Иудаизм – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Иудаизм" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizmas" title="Judaizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Judaizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebraiximo" title="Ebraiximo – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Ebraiximo" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joededom" title="Joededom – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Joededom" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boy%C3%BAda" title="Boyúda – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Boyúda" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudisme" title="Iudisme – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Iudisme" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Judaism" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zsid%C3%B3_vall%C3%A1s" title="Zsidó vallás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Zsidó vallás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Јудаизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јудаизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jodaisma" title="Jodaisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Jodaisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%82" title="യഹൂദമതം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="യഹൂദമതം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A0udai%C5%BCmu" title="Ġudaiżmu – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Ġudaiżmu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="ज्यू धर्म – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ज्यू धर्म" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="იუდაიზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="იუდაიზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%87" title="يهوديه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="يهوديه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86" title="جهودی دین – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="جهودی دین" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Yahudi" title="Agama Yahudi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Agama Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%96%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%97%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%8F%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%9D" title="ꯖꯨꯗꯥꯏꯁꯝ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯖꯨꯗꯥꯏꯁꯝ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agamo_Yahudi" title="Agamo Yahudi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Agamo Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B9-t%C3%A1i-g%C3%A1u" title="Iù-tái-gáu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Iù-tái-gáu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda%C3%ADsmo" title="Judaísmo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Judaísmo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Иудаизмась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Иудаизмась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Иудаизм – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Иудаизм" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC" title="ဂျူးဘာသာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂျူးဘာသာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jodendom" title="Jodendom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Jodendom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6%C3%A4dendom" title="Jöädendom – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Jöädendom" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="यहुदी धर्म – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="यहुदी धर्म" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="यहुद धर्म – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="यहुद धर्म" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A6%E3%83%80%E3%83%A4%E6%95%99" title="ユダヤ教 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ユダヤ教" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giurieismo" title="Giurieismo – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Giurieismo" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D1%8C%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Жуьгталла – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Жуьгталла" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juudendoom" title="Juudendoom – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Juudendoom" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Judaism" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8dedom" title="Jødedom – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jødedom" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8dedommen" title="Jødedommen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jødedommen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda%C3%AFsme" title="Judaïsme – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Judaïsme" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda%C3%AFsme" title="Judaïsme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Judaïsme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaayizimii" title="Judaayizimii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Judaayizimii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudiylik" title="Yahudiylik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yahudiylik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE" title="ਯਹੂਦੀ ਧਰਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਯਹੂਦੀ ਧਰਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="یہودیت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="یہودیت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F" title="စျူးဘာႏသာႏ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="စျူးဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudaismo" title="Hudaismo – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Hudaismo" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="يهوديت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="يهوديت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juudizim" title="Juudizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Juudizim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda%C3%AFme" title="Judaïme – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Judaïme" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giudaism" title="Giudaism – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Giudaism" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaisim" title="Judaisim – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Judaisim" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jodendom" title="Jodendom – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Jodendom" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizm" title="Judaizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Judaizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda%C3%ADsmo" title="Judaísmo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Judaísmo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeudilik" title="Yeudilik – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Yeudilik" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCddedom" title="Jüddedom – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Jüddedom" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudaism" title="Iudaism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Iudaism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giudaissem" title="Giudaissem – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Giudaissem" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huriyu_i%C3%B1iy" title="Huriyu iñiy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Huriyu iñiy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Юдаїзм – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Юдаїзм" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Иудаизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Иудаизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Иудаизм – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Иудаизм" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="یہودیت – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="یہودیت" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebraismu" title="Ebraismu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Ebraismu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Judaism" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juudendum" title="Juudendum – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Juudendum" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejuda" title="Sejuda – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Sejuda" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizmi" title="Judaizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Judaizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaismu" title="Judaismu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Judaismu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%86%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%B8" title="ජුදා ආගම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජුදා ආගම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Judaism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="يهوديت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="يهوديت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizmus" title="Judaizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Judaizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judovstvo" title="Judovstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Judovstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judajizm" title="Judajizm – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Judajizm" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuhuuda" title="Yuhuuda – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Yuhuuda" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%88%D9%84%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="جوولەکایەتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جوولەکایەتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Јудаизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јудаизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizam" title="Judaizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Judaizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yudaisme" title="Yudaisme – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Yudaisme" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juutalaisuus" title="Juutalaisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Juutalaisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judendom" title="Judendom – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Judendom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudaismo" title="Hudaismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Hudaismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="யூதம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="யூதம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudayt" title="Tudayt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tudayt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%BB%D2%AF%D0%B4_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Яһүд дине – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Яһүд дине" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%81%B8%E1%81%A2%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%81%B5%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8" title="ၸၢဝ်းၵျူး – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="ၸၢဝ်းၵျူး" data-language-autonym="ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး " data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target">ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး </a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%82" title="జుడాయిజం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జుడాయిజం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%8C" title="ศาสนายูดาห์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ศาสนายูดาห์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%B3%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82" title="Яҳудият – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Яҳудият" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%BF_%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE" title="ಯಹೂದಿ ಧರ್ಮ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಯಹೂದಿ ಧರ್ಮ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudilik" title="Yahudilik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yahudilik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Dehudylykda" title="Ýehudylykda – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Ýehudylykda" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khwiyahuda" title="Khwiyahuda – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Khwiyahuda" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Юдаїзм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Юдаїзм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="یہودیت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یہودیت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%DB%95%DA%BE%DB%87%D8%AF%D9%89_%D8%AF%D9%89%D9%86%D9%89" title="يەھۇدى دىنى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="يەھۇدى دىنى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youzdaigyau" title="Youzdaigyau – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Youzdaigyau" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaizm" title="Judaizm – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Judaizm" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_Th%C3%A1i_gi%C3%A1o" title="Do Thái giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Do Thái giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Judaism" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djudayisse" title="Djudayisse – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Djudayisse" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="猶太教 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="猶太教" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaismo" title="Judaismo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Judaismo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="犹太教 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="犹太教" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuyuda" title="Vuyuda – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Vuyuda" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98" title="יידישקייט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="יידישקייט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="猶太教 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="猶太教" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%B1hudiye" title="Cıhudiye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Cıhudiye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%B4d%27ndom" title="Joôd'ndom – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Joôd'ndom" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joda%C4%97zmos" title="Jodaėzmos – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Jodaėzmos" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E6%95%99" title="犹太教 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="犹太教" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi_(agama)" title="Yahudi (agama) – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Yahudi (agama)" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahudi" title="Jahudi – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Jahudi" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengarap_Judah" title="Pengarap Judah – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Pengarap Judah" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B5%93%E2%B4%B7%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⵓⴷⴰⵢⵜ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⵓⴷⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9268#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Judeo" redirects here. For the album, see <a href="/wiki/Judeo_(album)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo (album)">Judeo (album)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 24em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;">Judaism</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style>יַהֲדוּת‎ Yahăḏūṯ</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Judaica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Judaica.jpg/250px-Judaica.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Judaica.jpg/375px-Judaica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Judaica.jpg/500px-Judaica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="725" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Collection of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ceremonial_art" title="Jewish ceremonial art">Judaica</a> (clockwise from top): Candlesticks for <a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a>, a cup for <a href="/wiki/Handwashing_in_Judaism" title="Handwashing in Judaism">ritual handwashing</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Chumash_(Judaism)" title="Chumash (Judaism)">Chumash</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Yad" title="Yad">Torah pointer</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Shofar" title="Shofar">shofar</a>, and an <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ceremonial_art#Sukkot_items" title="Jewish ceremonial art">etrog box</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic religion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Classification</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Scripture</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Theology</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Monotheistic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data">Predominant religion in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">widespread worldwide as minorities</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Founder</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> (according to tradition)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevenson20123-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Origin</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6th century BCE <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Judah</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Separated from</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Separations</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a> <a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[a]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Number of followers</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 15.2 million (referred to as <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>)</td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Star_of_David" title="Star of David"><img alt="Star of David" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/60px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/90px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/120px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments"><img alt="Ten Commandments" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/60px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/90px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/120px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="205" data-file-height="243" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Temple_menorah" title="Menorah"><img alt="Menorah" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/70px-Menora.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/105px-Menora.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/140px-Menora.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="621" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Movements</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservadox" title="Conservadox">Conservadox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musar_movement" title="Musar movement">Musar movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chumash_(Judaism)" title="Chumash (Judaism)">Ḥumash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">Piyutim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Law</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah_Berurah" title="Mishnah Berurah">Mishnah Berurah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruch_HaShulchan" title="Aruch HaShulchan">Aruch HaShulchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzniut" title="Tzniut">Tzniut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noah" title="Seven Laws of Noah">Noahide laws</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Cities" title="Four Holy Cities">Holy cities</a>/<a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_holy_places" title="Category:Jewish holy places">places</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safed" title="Safed">Safed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beth_midrash" title="Beth midrash">Beth midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikveh" title="Mikveh">Mikveh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukkah" title="Sukkah">Sukkah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevra_kadisha" title="Chevra kadisha">Chevra kadisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Holy Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Important figures</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron" title="Aaron">Aaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarah" title="Sarah">Sarah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebecca" title="Rebecca">Rebecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel" title="Rachel">Rachel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leah" title="Leah">Leah</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rabbis" title="List of rabbis">Rabbinic sages</a> <a href="/wiki/Chazal" title="Chazal">Chazal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoraim" title="Savoraim">Savoraim</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rishonim" title="Rishonim">Rishonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acharonim" title="Acharonim">Acharonim</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_religious_occupations" title="Category:Jewish religious occupations">Religious roles</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posek" title="Posek">Posek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beth_din" title="Beth din">Dayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosh_yeshiva" title="Rosh yeshiva">Rosh yeshiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohel" title="Mohel">Mohel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kohen" title="Kohen">Kohen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">education</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah">Bar and bat mitzvah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">Yeshiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollel" title="Kollel">Kollel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheder" title="Cheder">Cheder</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Ritual objects</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah_scroll" title="Torah scroll">Sefer Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallit" title="Tallit">Tallit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">Tefillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzitzit" title="Tzitzit">Tzitzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kippah" title="Kippah">Kippah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezuzah" title="Mezuzah">Mezuzah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanukkah_menorah" title="Hanukkah menorah">Menorah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shofar" title="Shofar">Shofar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_species" title="Four species">Four species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etrog" title="Etrog">Etrog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lulav" title="Lulav">Lulav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadass" title="Hadass">Hadass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aravah_(Sukkot)" title="Aravah (Sukkot)">Arava</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kittel" title="Kittel">Kittel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gartel" title="Gartel">Gartel</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shema" title="Shema">Shema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amidah" title="Amidah">Amidah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleinu" title="Aleinu">Aleinu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaddish" title="Kaddish">Kaddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birkat_Hamazon" title="Birkat Hamazon">Birkat Hamazon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shehecheyanu" title="Shehecheyanu">Shehecheyanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallel" title="Hallel">Hallel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havdalah" title="Havdalah">Havdalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachanun" title="Tachanun">Tachanun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kol_Nidre" title="Kol Nidre">Kol Nidre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selichot" title="Selichot">Selichot (S'lichot)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Major holidays</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashanah" title="Rosh Hashanah">Rosh Hashanah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur" title="Yom Kippur">Yom Kippur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukkot" title="Sukkot">Sukkot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Pesach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shavuot" title="Shavuot">Shavuot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purim" title="Purim">Purim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanukkah" title="Hanukkah">Hanukkah</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Judaism_and_other_religions" title="Category:Judaism and other religions">Other religions</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Mormonism" title="Judaism and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian" title="Judeo-Christian">Judeo-Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_religious_pluralism" title="Jewish views on religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Judaism" title="Criticism of Judaism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_Jesus" title="Jewish views on Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_Muhammad" title="Jewish views on Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/14px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/21px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/28px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Judaism" title="Template:Judaism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Judaism" title="Template talk:Judaism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Judaism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Judaism (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">יַהֲדוּת‎, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: Yahăḏūṯ) is an <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">ethnic religion</a> that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JEjudaism-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007511_quote:_"Judaism,_the_religion,_philosophy,_and_way_of_life_of_the_Jews."-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman20033-11">[10]</a> Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of observing the <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_covenant" title="Mosaic covenant">Mosaic covenant</a>, which was established between <a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>, their ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-Knowledge_Resources:_Judaism-12">[11]</a> The religion is considered one of the earliest monotheistic religions in the world. Jewish religious doctrine encompasses a wide body of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Among Judaism's core texts is the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>, the first five books of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, a collection of ancient Hebrew scriptures. The Tanakh, known in English as the Hebrew Bible, has the same contents as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. In addition to the original written scripture, the supplemental <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Oral Torah</a> is represented by later texts, such as the <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>. The Hebrew-language word torah can mean "teaching", "law", or "instruction",<a href="#cite_note-Aish.com-13">[12]</a> although "Torah" can also be used as a general term that refers to any Jewish text that expands or elaborates on the original <a href="/wiki/Five_Books_of_Moses" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Books of Moses">Five Books of Moses</a>. Representing the core of the Jewish spiritual and religious tradition, the Torah is a term and a set of teachings that are explicitly self-positioned as encompassing at least seventy, and potentially infinite, facets and interpretations.<a href="#cite_note-Bamidbar_Rabah-14">[13]</a> Judaism's texts, traditions, and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Islam,_Judaism,_and_Christianity:_Theological_and_Historical_Affiliations-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Historical_Muhammad-16">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hebraism" title="Hebraism">Hebraism</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenism</a>, played a seminal role in the formation of Western civilization through its impact as a core background element of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Historical_Series-17">[16]</a> Within Judaism, there are a variety of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">religious movements</a>, most of which emerged from <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200378–92-18">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brabbinic-20">[19]</a> which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai_(Bible)" title="Mount Sinai (Bible)">Mount Sinai</a> in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_the_oral_Torah?-21">[20]</a> Historically, all or part of this assertion was challenged by various groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Sadducees#General" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200358–77-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bsadducee-23">[22]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism#Karaite_interpretations_of_the_Torah" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a> during the early and later medieval period; and among segments of the modern non-Orthodox denominations.<a href="#cite_note-JEkaraites-24">[23]</a> Some modern branches of Judaism such as <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic Judaism</a> may be considered <a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">secular</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nontheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nontheistic">nontheistic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mendes-Flohr2000-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005221"Humanistic_Judaism"-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> Today, the largest <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Jewish religious movements</a> are <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern Orthodox</a>), <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative Judaism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a>. Major sources of difference between these groups are their approaches to <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakha</a> (Jewish law), the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">rabbinic tradition</a>, and the significance of the <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">State of Israel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael1984-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005-1">[1]</a> Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and halakha are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, and that they should be strictly followed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979218–270,_367–402-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael1984125–176-33">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003311–333-34">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Orthodox_Judaism"-35">[34]</a> Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditionalist interpretation of Judaism's requirements than Reform Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979317–346-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael198479–124-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003334–353-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Conservative_Judaism"-39">[38]</a> A typical Reform position is that halakha should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979156–185,_285–316-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael19841–78-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003291–310-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Reform_Judaism"-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005419–422"Reform_Judaism"-44">[43]</a> Historically, <a href="/wiki/Beth_din" title="Beth din">special courts</a> enforced halakha; today, these courts still exist but the practice of Judaism is mostly voluntary.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_Online_Encyclopedia:_Bet_Din-45">[44]</a> Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, but in the sacred texts and the <a href="/wiki/Rabbis" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbis">rabbis</a> and scholars who interpret them. Jews are an <a href="/wiki/Ethnoreligious_group" title="Ethnoreligious group">ethnoreligious group</a><a href="#cite_note-Ethnoreligious-46">[45]</a> including those born Jewish, in addition to <a href="/wiki/Gerim_(Jewish_religious_category)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerim (Jewish religious category)">converts to Judaism</a>. In 2021, the world Jewish population was estimated at 15.2 million, or roughly 0.195% of the total world population, although religious observance varies from strict to none.<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> In 2021, about 45.6% of all Jews resided in Israel and another 42.1% resided in the United States and Canada, with most of the remainder living in Europe, and other groups spread throughout Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Australia.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ioudaios" title="Ioudaios">Ioudaios</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stattler-Machabeusze.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Stattler-Machabeusze.jpg/220px-Stattler-Machabeusze.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Stattler-Machabeusze.jpg/330px-Stattler-Machabeusze.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Stattler-Machabeusze.jpg/440px-Stattler-Machabeusze.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="712" /></a><figcaption>Maccabees by <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Stattler" title="Wojciech Stattler">Wojciech Stattler</a> (1842)</figcaption></figure> The term Judaism derives from Iudaismus, a Latinized form of the Ancient Greek <a href="/wiki/Ioudaismos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ioudaismos">Ioudaismos</a> (<a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: Ἰουδαϊσμός, from the verb ἰουδαΐζειν, "to side with or imitate the [Judeans]").<a href="#cite_note-LSJverb-50">[49]</a> Its ultimate source was <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: יהודה, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: Yehudah <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judah</a>",<a href="#cite_note-bibleinterp_mason3-51">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-askoxford8-52">[51]</a> which is also the source of the Hebrew term for Judaism, יַהֲדוּת Yahaḏuṯ. The term Ἰουδαϊσμός first appears in the <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> book of <a href="/wiki/2_Maccabees" title="2 Maccabees">2 Maccabees</a> in the 2nd century BCE (i.e. 2 Maccabees 2:21, 8:1 and 14:38) .<a href="#cite_note-:0-53">[52]</a> In the context of the age and period it meant "seeking or forming part of a cultural entity".<a href="#cite_note-influence-54">[53]</a> It resembled its antonym hellenismos, a word signifying people's submission to <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> cultural norms. The conflict between iudaismos and hellenismos lay behind the <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a> and hence the invention of the term iudaismos.<a href="#cite_note-influence-54">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shaye_J._D._Cohen" title="Shaye J. D. Cohen">Shaye J. D. Cohen</a> writes in his book The Beginnings of Jewishness: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">We are tempted, of course, to translate [Ioudaïsmós] as "Judaism," but this translation is too narrow, because in this first occurrence of the term, Ioudaïsmós has not yet been reduced to the designation of a religion. It means rather "the aggregate of all those characteristics that makes Judaeans Judaean (or Jews Jewish)." Among these characteristics, to be sure, are practices and beliefs that we would today call "religious," but these practices and beliefs are not the sole content of the term. Thus Ioudaïsmós should be translated not as "Judaism" but as Judaeanness.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a></blockquote> Daniel R. Schwartz, however, argues that "Judaism", especially in the context of the Book of Maccabees, refers to the religion, as opposed to the culture and politics of the Judean state. He believes it reflected the ideological divide between the <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a> and, implicitly, anti-Hasmonean and pro-Hasmonean factions in Judean society.<a href="#cite_note-:0-53">[52]</a> According to the Oxford English Dictionary the earliest citation in English where the term was used to mean "the profession or practice of the Jewish religion; the religious system or polity of the Jews" is Robert Fabyan's The newe cronycles of Englande and of Fraunce (1516).<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> "Judaism" as a direct translation of the Latin Iudaismus first occurred in a 1611 English translation of the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">Biblical apocrypha</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">Deuterocanonical books</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a>), 2 Macc. ii. 21: "Those that behaved themselves manfully to their honour for Iudaisme."<a href="#cite_note-dictionary-57">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline of Jewish history</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Ancient Judaism" redirects here. For the book, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Judaism_(book)" title="Ancient Judaism (book)">Ancient Judaism (book)</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Believerpov plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-believerpov" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may be written from a <a href="/wiki/Religious_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious belief">believer's point of view</a>, rather than a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutral point of view</a>. Please <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">clean it up</a> to conform to a <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_style_guidelines" title="Category:Wikipedia style guidelines">higher standard</a> of quality, and to make it neutral in tone. (June 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Judaism" title="Origins of Judaism">Origins of Judaism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Ancient Semitic religion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moses_and_burning_bush.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Moses_and_burning_bush.jpeg/220px-Moses_and_burning_bush.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Moses_and_burning_bush.jpeg/330px-Moses_and_burning_bush.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Moses_and_burning_bush.jpeg/440px-Moses_and_burning_bush.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1098" data-file-height="1482" /></a><figcaption>A painting of <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> decorates the <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos_synagogue" title="Dura-Europos synagogue">Dura-Europos synagogue</a> dating from 244 CE</figcaption></figure> At its core, the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> or Tanakh is an account of the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>' relationship with <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> from their earliest history until the building of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 535 BCE). <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> is hailed as the first <a href="/wiki/Hebrews" title="Hebrews">Hebrew</a> and the father of the Jewish people. As a reward for his act of faith in one God, he was promised that <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a>, his second son, would inherit the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a> (then called <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>). Later, the descendants of Isaac's son <a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a> were enslaved in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a>, and God commanded <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> to lead <a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">the Exodus</a> from Egypt. The <a href="/wiki/Law_given_to_Moses_at_Sinai" title="Law given to Moses at Sinai">Law was given at Sinai</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>, or five books of Moses. These books, together with the <a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a>, are known as Torah Shebikhtav, as opposed to the Oral Torah, which refers to the Mishnah and the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>. Eventually, God led them to the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">land of Israel</a> where the <a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">tabernacle</a> was planted in the city of <a href="/wiki/Shiloh_(biblical_city)" title="Shiloh (biblical city)">Shiloh</a> for over 300 years to rally the nation against attacking enemies. As time passed, the nation's spiritual level declined to the point that God allowed the <a href="/wiki/Philistines" title="Philistines">Philistines</a> to capture the tabernacle. The people of Israel then told <a href="/wiki/Samuel" title="Samuel">Samuel</a> that they needed to be governed by a permanent king, and Samuel appointed <a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a> the king. When the people pressured Saul into going against a command conveyed to him by Samuel, God told Samuel to appoint <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> in his stead. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_wall_jerusalem_night.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Western_wall_jerusalem_night.jpg/220px-Western_wall_jerusalem_night.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Western_wall_jerusalem_night.jpg/330px-Western_wall_jerusalem_night.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Western_wall_jerusalem_night.jpg/440px-Western_wall_jerusalem_night.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Western_Wall" title="Western Wall">Western Wall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> is a remnant of the wall encircling the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Temple_Mount" title="Temple Mount">Temple Mount</a> is the holiest site in Judaism.</figcaption></figure> Rabbinic tradition holds that the details and interpretation of the Law, called the <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Oral Torah</a> or "Oral Law," were originally unwritten traditions based on the Law given to Moses at Sinai. However, as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, these oral laws were recorded by <a href="/wiki/Judah_ha-Nasi" title="Judah ha-Nasi">Judah ha-Nasi</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>, redacted <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 CE. The Talmud was a compilation of the Mishnah and <a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a>, rabbinic commentaries redacted over the next three centuries. The Gemara originated in two major centers of Jewish scholarship, <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_academies_in_Syria_Palaestina" title="Talmudic academies in Syria Palaestina">Palestine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_academies_in_Babylonia" title="Talmudic academies in Babylonia">Babylonia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-jewishencyclopedia.com-58">[57]</a> Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a>. It was compiled sometime during the 4th century in Palestine.<a href="#cite_note-jewishencyclopedia.com-58">[57]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">critical scholars</a>, the Torah consists of inconsistent texts edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts.<a href="#cite_note-yehezkal-59">[58]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-biblical-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-speiser-61">[60]</a> Several of these scholars, such as Professor Martin Rose and <a href="/wiki/John_Bright_(biblical_scholar)" title="John Bright (biblical scholar)">John Bright</a>, suggest that during the First Temple period the people of Israel believed that each nation had its own god, but that their god was superior to other gods.<a href="#cite_note-history-62">[61]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-history12-63">[62]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Some suggest that strict monotheism developed during the Babylonian Exile, perhaps in reaction to <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a> dualism.<a href="#cite_note-ephraim-64">[63]</a> In this view, it was only by the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> that most Jews came to believe that their god was the only god and that the notion of a bounded Jewish nation identical with the Jewish religion formed.<a href="#cite_note-beginnings-65">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Day_(biblical_scholar)" title="John Day (biblical scholar)">John Day</a> argues that the origins of biblical <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_(deity)" title="El (deity)">El</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asherah" title="Asherah">Asherah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ba%27al" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'al">Ba'al</a>, may be rooted in earlier <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite religion</a>, which was centered on a pantheon of gods much like in <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-goddesses-66">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israel_and_Judah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmonean Kingdom">Hasmonean Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iudaea_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Iudaea Province">Iudaea Province</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">First Jewish-Roman War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg/168px-Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg.png" decoding="async" width="168" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg/251px-Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg/335px-Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="859" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Kingdoms of Israel and Judah</a> map <a href="/wiki/900_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="900 BC">900 BC</a>.</figcaption></figure> According to the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, a <a href="/wiki/United_Monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="United Monarchy">United Monarchy</a> was established under <a href="/wiki/Saul_the_King" class="mw-redirect" title="Saul the King">Saul</a> and continued under <a href="/wiki/King_David" class="mw-redirect" title="King David">King David</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> with its capital in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. After Solomon's reign, the nation split into two kingdoms, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a> (in the north) and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> (in the south). The Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Broshi_2001_174-67">[66]</a> many people were taken captive from the capital <a href="/wiki/Samaria_(ancient_city)" title="Samaria (ancient city)">Samaria</a> to <a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur River</a> valley. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> continued as an independent state until it was conquered by <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> in 586 BCE. The Babylonians <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(587_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)">destroyed Jerusalem</a> and the <a href="/wiki/First_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="First Temple">First Temple</a>, which was at the center of ancient Jewish worship. <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">The Judeans were exiled to Babylon</a>, in what is regarded as the first <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a>. Later, many of them returned to their homeland after the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">conquest of Babylon</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Achaemenid Empire</a> seventy years later, an event known as the <a href="/wiki/Return_to_Zion" title="Return to Zion">Return to Zion</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> was constructed and old religious practices were resumed. During the early years of the Second Temple, the highest religious authority was a council known as the Great Assembly, led by <a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra the Scribe</a>. Among other accomplishments of the Great Assembly, the last books of the Bible were written at this time and <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">the canon sealed</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a> spread to <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> from the 3rd century BCE, and its creation sparked widespread controversy in Jewish communities, starting "conflicts within Jewish communities about accommodating the cultures of occupying powers."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200358–77-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005507-68">[67]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">Great Jewish Revolt</a> (66–73 CE), the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">sacked Jerusalem</a> and destroyed the Second Temple. Later, Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> built a pagan idol on the Temple Mount and prohibited circumcision; these acts of ethnocide provoked the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba Revolt</a> (132–136 CE), after which the Romans banned the study of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> and the celebration of Jewish holidays, and forcibly removed virtually all Jews from Judea. In 200 CE, however, Jews were granted Roman citizenship and Judaism was recognized as a <a href="/wiki/Religio_licita" title="Religio licita">religio licita</a> ("legitimate religion") until the rise of <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> in the fourth century. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, prayer took the place of sacrifice, and worship was rebuilt around the community (represented by a minimum of ten adult men) and the establishment of the authority of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">rabbis</a> who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200378–92-18">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003-19">[18]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Israel_Broadcasting_service_at_Shaarei_Tsedek_026.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Israel_Broadcasting_service_at_Shaarei_Tsedek_026.jpg/200px-Israel_Broadcasting_service_at_Shaarei_Tsedek_026.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Israel_Broadcasting_service_at_Shaarei_Tsedek_026.jpg/300px-Israel_Broadcasting_service_at_Shaarei_Tsedek_026.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Israel_Broadcasting_service_at_Shaarei_Tsedek_026.jpg/400px-Israel_Broadcasting_service_at_Shaarei_Tsedek_026.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3008" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Sephardi style torah</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Ingwiller_Synagoge_733.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Ingwiller_Synagoge_733.jpg/200px-Ingwiller_Synagoge_733.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Ingwiller_Synagoge_733.jpg/300px-Ingwiller_Synagoge_733.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Ingwiller_Synagoge_733.jpg/400px-Ingwiller_Synagoge_733.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4871" data-file-height="3247" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Ashkenazi style torah</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Defining_characteristics_and_principles_of_faith">Defining characteristics and principles of faith</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FULL-bodleian_32-000_kennicott-1_8a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/FULL-bodleian_32-000_kennicott-1_8a.jpg/220px-FULL-bodleian_32-000_kennicott-1_8a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/FULL-bodleian_32-000_kennicott-1_8a.jpg/330px-FULL-bodleian_32-000_kennicott-1_8a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/FULL-bodleian_32-000_kennicott-1_8a.jpg/440px-FULL-bodleian_32-000_kennicott-1_8a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1238" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kennicott_Bible" title="Kennicott Bible">Kennicott Bible</a>, a 1476 Spanish Tanakh</figcaption></figure> Unlike other ancient Near Eastern gods, the Hebrew God is portrayed as unitary and solitary; consequently, the Hebrew God's principal relationships are not with other gods, but with the world, and more specifically, with the people he created.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> Judaism thus begins with <a href="/wiki/Ethical_monotheism" title="Ethical monotheism">ethical monotheism</a>: the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of mankind.<a href="#cite_note-google1-70">[69]</a> According to the Hebrew Bible, God promised <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> to make of his offspring a great nation.<a href="#cite_note-everlasting-71">[70]</a> Many generations later, he commanded the nation of <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israel</a> to love and worship only one God; that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate God's concern for the world.<a href="#cite_note-deuteronomy-72">[71]</a> He also commanded the Jewish people to love one another; that is, Jews are to imitate God's love for people.<a href="#cite_note-leviticus-73">[72]</a> Thus, although there is an esoteric tradition in Judaism in <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>, Rabbinic scholar <a href="/wiki/Max_Kadushin" title="Max Kadushin">Max Kadushin</a> has characterized normative Judaism as "normal mysticism", because it involves everyday personal experiences of God through ways or modes that are common to all Jews.<a href="#cite_note-publishing-74">[73]</a> This is played out through the observance of the <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakha</a>, or Jewish law, and given verbal expression in the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_prayers_and_blessings" title="List of Jewish prayers and blessings">Birkat Ha-Mizvot</a>, the short blessings that are spoken every time a positive commandment is to be fulfilled: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The ordinary, familiar, everyday things and occurrences we have, constitute occasions for the experience of God. Such things as one's daily sustenance, the very day itself, are felt as manifestations of God's loving-kindness, calling for the Berakhot. Kedushah, holiness, which is nothing else than the imitation of God, is concerned with daily conduct, with being gracious and merciful, with keeping oneself from defilement by idolatry, adultery, and the shedding of blood. The Birkat Ha-Mitzwot evokes the consciousness of holiness at a rabbinic rite, but the objects employed in the majority of these rites are non-holy and of general character, while the several holy objects are <a href="/wiki/Theurgy" title="Theurgy">non-theurgic.</a> And not only do ordinary things and occurrences bring with them the experience of God. Everything that happens to a man evokes that experience, evil as well as good, for a Berakah is said also at evil tidings. Hence, although the experience of God is like none other, the occasions for experiencing Him, for having a consciousness of Him, are manifold, even if we consider only those that call for Berakot.<a href="#cite_note-publishing2-75">[74]</a></blockquote> Whereas <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophers</a> often debate whether God is <a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">immanent</a> or <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendent</a>, and whether people have free will or their lives are determined, halakha is a system through which any Jew acts to bring God into the world. Ethical monotheism is central in all sacred or normative texts of Judaism. However, monotheism has not always been followed in practice. The Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh) records and repeatedly condemns the widespread worship of other gods in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">ancient Israel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mechon-mamre-76">[75]</a> In the Greco-Roman era, many different interpretations of monotheism existed in Judaism, including the interpretations that gave rise to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-The_Jewish_roots_of_Christological_monotheism:_papers_from_the_St._Andrews_conference_on_the_historical_origins_of_the_worship_of_Jesus-77">[76]</a> Moreover, some have argued that Judaism is a non-creedal religion that does not require one to believe in God.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> For some, observance of halakha is more important than belief in God per se.<a href="#cite_note-jovanovich-80">[79]</a> The debate about whether one can speak of authentic or normative Judaism is not only a debate among religious Jews but also among historians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangton2011161–4-81">[80]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a>, Judaism is heavily associated with and most often thought of as <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Core_tenets">Core tenets</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Jewish principles of faith</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:35%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> 13 Principles of Faith: <ol><li>I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the Creator and Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made, does make, and will make all things.</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is One, and that there is no unity in any manner like His, and that He alone is our God, who was, and is, and will be.</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, has no body, and that He is free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no (physical) comparison to Him whatsoever.</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the first and the last.</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, Blessed be His Name, and to Him alone, it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him.</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true.</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, <a href="/wiki/Honorifics_for_the_dead_in_Judaism#Peace_be_upon_him/her" title="Honorifics for the dead in Judaism">peace be upon him</a>, was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both those who preceded him and those who followed him.</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is the same that was given to Moses our teacher, peace be upon him.</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged and that there will never be any other Torah from the Creator, Blessed be His Name.</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, knows all the deeds of human beings and all their thoughts, as it is written, "Who fashioned the hearts of them all, Who comprehends all their actions" (<a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a> 33:15).</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, rewards those who keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them.</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_messianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish messianism">Messiah</a>; and even though he may tarry, nonetheless, I wait every day for his coming.</li> <li>I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please the Creator, Blessed be His name, and His mention shall be exalted for ever and ever.</li></ol> </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a><a href="#cite_note-JEarticles-83">[82]</a></cite> </div> In the strict sense, in Judaism, unlike Christianity and Islam, there are no fixed universally binding articles of faith, due to their incorporation into the liturgy.<a href="#cite_note-JEarticles-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011217–18"Dogma"-84">[83]</a> Scholars throughout <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a> have proposed numerous formulations of Judaism's core tenets, all of which have met with criticism.<a href="#cite_note-JEarticles-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-montpelier-85">[84]</a> The most popular formulation is <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>' <a href="/wiki/13_principles_of_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="13 principles of faith">thirteen principles of faith</a>, developed in the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-JEarticles-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007-31">[30]</a> According to Maimonides, any Jew who rejects even one of these principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic.<a href="#cite_note-mesora-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maimonides,_13_Principles_of_Faith-87">[86]</a> Jewish scholars have held points of view diverging in various ways from Maimonides' principles.<a href="#cite_note-learning-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_JPS_guide_to_Jewish_traditions-89">[88]</a> Thus, within <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a> only the first five principles are endorsed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005-1">[1]</a> In Maimonides' time, his list of tenets was criticized by <a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a>. Albo and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_ben_David" title="Abraham ben David">the Raavad</a> argued that Maimonides' principles contained too many items that, while true, were not fundamentals of the faith<a href="#cite_note-JEarticles-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007-31">[30]</a> Along these lines, the ancient historian <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> emphasized practices and observances rather than religious beliefs, associating <a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">apostasy</a> with a failure to observe halakha and maintaining that the requirements for conversion to Judaism included <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">circumcision</a> and adherence to traditional customs. Maimonides' principles were largely ignored over the next few centuries.<a href="#cite_note-medieval-90">[89]</a> Later, two poetic restatements of these principles ("<a href="/wiki/Ani_Ma%27amin" title="Ani Ma'amin">Ani Ma'amin</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Yigdal" title="Yigdal">Yigdal</a>") became integrated into many Jewish liturgies,<a href="#cite_note-JEarticles-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Thirteen_Principles_of_the_Jewish_Faith-91">[90]</a> leading to their eventual near-universal acceptance.<a href="#cite_note-What_Do_Jews_Believe?-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-traditions-93">[92]</a> The oldest non-Rabbinic instance of articles of faith were formulated, under Islamic influence, by the 12th century <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a> figure <a href="/wiki/Judah_Hadassi" title="Judah Hadassi">Judah ben Elijah Hadassi</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">(1) God is the Creator of all created beings; (2) He is premundane and has no peer or associate; (3) the whole universe is created; (4) God called Moses and the other Prophets of the Biblical canon; (5) the Law of Moses alone is true; (6) to know the language of the Bible is a religious duty; (7) the Temple at Jerusalem is the palace of the world's Ruler; (8) belief in Resurrection contemporaneous with the advent of the Messiah; (9) final judgment; (10) retribution.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Judah_Hadassi" title="Judah Hadassi">Judah ben Elijah Hadassi</a>, Eshkol ha-Kofer<a href="#cite_note-JEarticles-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011217–18"Dogma"-84">[83]</a></cite></div></blockquote> In modern times, Judaism lacks a centralized authority that would dictate an exact religious dogma. Because of this, many different variations on the basic beliefs are considered within the scope of Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-learning-88">[87]</a> Even so, all <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Jewish religious movements</a> are, to a greater or lesser extent, based on the principles of the Hebrew Bible or various commentaries such as the Talmud and <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a>. Judaism also universally recognizes the Biblical <a href="/wiki/Covenant_(biblical)" title="Covenant (biblical)">Covenant</a> between God and the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchs_(Bible)" title="Patriarchs (Bible)">Patriarch</a> Abraham as well as the additional aspects of the Covenant revealed to <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>, who is considered Judaism's greatest <a href="/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet">prophet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-learning-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-ontario-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-How_Do_You_Know_the_Exodus_Really_Happened?-95">[94]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>, a core text of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>, acceptance of the Divine origins of this covenant is considered an essential aspect of Judaism and those who reject the Covenant forfeit their share in the <a href="/wiki/World_to_Come" class="mw-redirect" title="World to Come">World to Come</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sacred-texts-96">[95]</a> Establishing the core tenets of Judaism in the modern era is even more difficult, given the number and diversity of the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Jewish denominations</a>. Even if to restrict the problem to the most influential intellectual trends of the nineteenth and twentieth century, the matter remains complicated. Thus, for instance, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Soloveitchik" title="Joseph B. Soloveitchik">Joseph Soloveitchik's</a> (associated with the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern Orthodox movement</a>) answer to modernity is constituted upon the identification of Judaism with following the halakha whereas its ultimate goal is to bring the holiness down to the world. <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Kaplan" title="Mordecai Kaplan">Mordecai Kaplan</a>, the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist Judaism</a>, abandons the idea of religion for the sake of identifying Judaism with <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a> and by means of the latter term and secular translation of the core ideas, he tries to embrace as many Jewish denominations as possible. In turn, <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Schechter" title="Solomon Schechter">Solomon Schechter</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative Judaism</a> was identical with the tradition understood as the interpretation of Torah, in itself being the history of the constant updates and adjustment of the Law performed by means of the creative interpretation. Finally, <a href="/wiki/David_Philipson" title="David Philipson">David Philipson</a> draws the outlines of the Reform movement in Judaism by opposing it to the strict and traditional rabbinical approach and thus comes to the conclusions similar to that of the Conservative movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_texts">Religious texts</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aleppo_Codex_(Deut).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg/220px-Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg/330px-Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg/440px-Aleppo_Codex_%28Deut%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="741" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Codex" title="Aleppo Codex">Aleppo Codex</a>, a Tanakh produced in <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a> in the 10th century</figcaption></figure> The following is a basic, structured list of the central works of Jewish practice and thought: <ul><li>Tanakh<a href="#cite_note-tanakh-98">[97]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Masoretic_Text" title="Masoretic Text">Mesorah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></li> <li>Jewish Biblical <a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">exegesis</a> (also see Midrash below)</li></ul></li> <li>Works of the Talmudic Era (classic rabbinic literature) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and commentaries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Minor_tractates" class="mw-redirect" title="Minor tractates">minor tractates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Talmud#Babylonian_Talmud" title="Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a> and commentaries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a> and commentaries</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrashic</a> literature: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midrash_Halakha" class="mw-redirect" title="Midrash Halakha">Halakhic Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash#Aggadic_midrashim" title="Midrash">Aggadic Midrash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakhic</a> literature <ul><li>Major codes of Jewish law and custom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a> and commentaries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a> and commentaries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a> and commentaries</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsa" title="Responsa">Responsa</a> literature</li></ul></li> <li>Thought and ethics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musar_literature" title="Musar literature">Musar literature</a> and other works of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> works</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish services">Jewish liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">Piyyut</a> (Classical Jewish poetry)</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_44790_Tisha_BAv_at_the_Western_Wall.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/PikiWiki_Israel_44790_Tisha_BAv_at_the_Western_Wall.JPG/220px-PikiWiki_Israel_44790_Tisha_BAv_at_the_Western_Wall.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/PikiWiki_Israel_44790_Tisha_BAv_at_the_Western_Wall.JPG/330px-PikiWiki_Israel_44790_Tisha_BAv_at_the_Western_Wall.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/PikiWiki_Israel_44790_Tisha_BAv_at_the_Western_Wall.JPG/440px-PikiWiki_Israel_44790_Tisha_BAv_at_the_Western_Wall.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A man holds up a <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi</a>-style torah at the <a href="/wiki/Western_Wall" title="Western Wall">Western Wall</a>, Jerusalem</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_literature">Legal literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></div> The basis of halakha and tradition is the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> (also known as the <a href="/wiki/Pentateuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a> or the Five Books of Moses). According to rabbinic tradition, there are <a href="/wiki/613_mitzvot" class="mw-redirect" title="613 mitzvot">613 commandments</a> in the Torah. Some of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly groups, the <a href="/wiki/Kohen" title="Kohen">Kohanim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Levite" title="Levite">Leviyim</a> (members of the tribe of <a href="/wiki/Levi" title="Levi">Levi</a>), some only to farmers within the Land of Israel. Many laws were only applicable when the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a> existed, and only 369 of these commandments are still applicable today.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] While there have been Jewish groups whose beliefs were based on the written text of the Torah alone (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a>), most Jews believe in the <a href="/wiki/Oral_law#Oral_law_in_Judaism" title="Oral law">oral law</a>. These oral traditions were transmitted by the <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisee</a> school of thought of ancient Judaism and were later recorded in written form and expanded upon by the rabbis. According to Rabbinical Jewish tradition, God gave both the Written Law (the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Oral Torah</a> to Moses on <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Mount_Sinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a>. The Oral law is the oral tradition as relayed by God to Moses and from him, transmitted and taught to the sages (<a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbinic</a> leaders) of each subsequent generation. For centuries, the Torah appeared only as a written text transmitted in parallel with the oral tradition. Fearing that the oral teachings might be forgotten, Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Judah_haNasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah haNasi">Judah haNasi</a> undertook the mission of consolidating the various opinions into one body of law which became known as the Mishnah.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> The Mishnah consists of 63 tractates codifying halakha, which are the basis of the Talmud. According to <a href="/wiki/Abraham_ben_David" title="Abraham ben David">Abraham ben David</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> was compiled by Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Judah_the_Prince" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah the Prince">Judah haNasi</a> after the destruction of Jerusalem, in <a href="/wiki/Anno_mundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Anno mundi">anno mundi</a> 3949, which corresponds to 189 CE.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> Over the next four centuries, the Mishnah underwent discussion and debate in both of the world's major Jewish communities (in Israel and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Babylonia</a>). The commentaries from each of these communities were eventually compiled into the two Talmuds, the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi) and the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli). These have been further expounded by commentaries of various Torah scholars during the ages. In the text of the Torah, many words are left undefined, and many procedures are mentioned without explanation or instructions. Such phenomena are sometimes offered to validate the viewpoint that the Written Law has always been transmitted with a parallel oral tradition, illustrating the assumption that the reader is already familiar with the details from other, i.e., oral, sources.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> Halakha, the rabbinic Jewish way of life, then, is based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition—the Mishnah, the halakhic Midrash, the Talmud and its commentaries. The halakha has developed slowly, through a precedent-based system. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Responsa" title="Responsa">responsa</a> (Hebrew Sheelot U-Teshuvot). Over time, as practices develop, codes of halakha are written that are based on the responsa; the most important code, the <a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a>, largely determines Orthodox religious practice today. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_philosophy">Jewish philosophy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C%C3%B3rdoba_2015_10_23_2637_(25613156304).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/C%C3%B3rdoba_2015_10_23_2637_%2825613156304%29.jpg/220px-C%C3%B3rdoba_2015_10_23_2637_%2825613156304%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/C%C3%B3rdoba_2015_10_23_2637_%2825613156304%29.jpg/330px-C%C3%B3rdoba_2015_10_23_2637_%2825613156304%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/C%C3%B3rdoba_2015_10_23_2637_%2825613156304%29.jpg/440px-C%C3%B3rdoba_2015_10_23_2637_%2825613156304%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7360" data-file-height="4912" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>, Spain</figcaption></figure> Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Major Jewish philosophers include <a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a>. Major changes occurred in response to the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> (late 18th to early 19th century) leading to the post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers. Modern Jewish philosophy consists of both Orthodox and non-Orthodox oriented philosophy. Notable among Orthodox Jewish philosophers are <a href="/wiki/Eliyahu_Eliezer_Dessler" title="Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler">Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Soloveitchik" title="Joseph B. Soloveitchik">Joseph B. Soloveitchik</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yitzchok_Hutner" class="mw-redirect" title="Yitzchok Hutner">Yitzchok Hutner</a>. Well-known non-Orthodox Jewish philosophers include <a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Rosenzweig" title="Franz Rosenzweig">Franz Rosenzweig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Kaplan" title="Mordecai Kaplan">Mordecai Kaplan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel" title="Abraham Joshua Heschel">Abraham Joshua Heschel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Will_Herberg" title="Will Herberg">Will Herberg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_L%C3%A9vinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmanuel Lévinas">Emmanuel Lévinas</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rabbinic_hermeneutics">Rabbinic hermeneutics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:35%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> 13 Principles of Hermeneutics: <ol><li>A law that operates under certain conditions will surely be operative in other situations where the same conditions are present in a more acute form</li> <li>A law operating in one situation will also be operative in another situation if the text characterizes both situations in identical terms.</li> <li>A law that clearly expresses the purpose it was meant to serve will also apply to other situations where the identical purpose may be served.</li> <li>When a general rule is followed by illustrative particulars, only those particulars are to be embraced by it.</li> <li>A law that begins with specifying particular cases, and then proceeds to an all-embracing generalization, is to be applied to particulars cases not specified but logically falling into the same generalization.</li> <li>A law that begins with a generalization as to its intended applications, then continues with the specification of particular cases, and then concludes with a restatement of the generalization, can be applied only to the particular cases specified.</li> <li>The rules about a generalization being followed or preceded by specifying particulars (rules 4 and 5) will not apply if it is apparent that the specification of the particular cases or the statement of the generalization is meant purely for achieving a greater clarity of language.</li> <li>A particular case already covered in a generalization that is nevertheless treated separately suggests that the same particularized treatment be applied to all other cases which are covered in that generalization.</li> <li>A penalty specified for a general category of wrongdoing is not to be automatically applied to a particular case that is withdrawn from the general rule to be specifically prohibited, but without any mention of the penalty.</li> <li>A general prohibition followed by a specified penalty may be followed by a particular case, normally included in the generalization, with a modification in the penalty, either toward easing it or making it more severe.</li> <li>A case logically falling into a general law but treated separately remains outside the provisions of the general law except in those instances where it is specifically included in them.</li> <li>Obscurities in Biblical texts may be cleared up from the immediate context or from subsequently occurring passages</li> <li>Contradictions in Biblical passages may be removed through the mediation of other passages.</li></ol> </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Rabbi_Ishmael" title="Rabbi Ishmael">R. Ishmael</a><a href="#cite_note-translated-103">[102]</a></cite> </div> <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> and many other <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> do not believe that the revealed <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> consists solely of its written contents, but of its interpretations as well. The study of <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> (in its widest sense, to include both poetry, narrative, and law, and both the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud) is in Judaism itself a sacred act of central importance. For the sages of the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and Talmud, and for their successors today, the study of Torah was therefore not merely a means to learn the contents of God's revelation, but an end in itself. According to the Talmud: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">These are the things for which a person enjoys the dividends in this world while the principal remains for the person to enjoy in the world to come; they are: honoring parents, loving deeds of kindness, and making peace between one person and another. But the study of the Torah is equal to them all. (Talmud Shabbat 127a).</blockquote> In Judaism, "the study of <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> can be a means of experiencing God".<a href="#cite_note-publishing3-104">[103]</a> Reflecting on the contribution of the <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tanaim" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanaim">Tanaim</a> to contemporary Judaism, Professor Jacob Neusner observed: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The rabbi's logical and rational inquiry is not mere logic-chopping. It is a most serious and substantive effort to locate in trivialities the fundamental principles of the revealed will of God to guide and sanctify the most specific and concrete actions in the workaday world. ... Here is the mystery of Talmudic Judaism: the alien and remote conviction that the intellect is an instrument not of unbelief and desacralization but of sanctification.<a href="#cite_note-invitation-105">[104]</a></blockquote> To study the Written Torah and the Oral Torah in light of each other is thus also to study how to study the word of God. In the study of Torah, the sages formulated and followed various <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutical</a> principles. According to David Stern, all Rabbinic hermeneutics rest on two basic axioms: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">first, the belief in the omni-significance of Scripture, in the meaningfulness of its every word, letter, even (according to one famous report) scribal flourish; second, the claim of the essential unity of Scripture as the expression of the single divine will.<a href="#cite_note-indeterminacy-106">[105]</a></blockquote> These two principles make possible a great variety of interpretations. According to the Talmud: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A single verse has several meanings, but no two verses hold the same meaning. It was taught in the school of R. Ishmael: 'Behold, My word is like fire—declares the Lord—and like a hammer that shatters rock' (Jer 23:29). Just as this hammer produces many sparks (when it strikes the rock), so a single verse has several meanings." (Talmud Sanhedrin 34a).</blockquote> Observant Jews thus view the Torah as dynamic, because it contains within it a host of interpretations.<a href="#cite_note-indeterminacy4-107">[106]</a> According to Rabbinic tradition, all valid interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Written_Torah" class="mw-redirect" title="Written Torah">written Torah</a> were revealed to Moses at Sinai in oral form, and handed down from teacher to pupil (The oral revelation is in effect coextensive with the Talmud itself). When different rabbis forwarded conflicting interpretations, they sometimes appealed to hermeneutic principles to legitimize their arguments; some rabbis claim that these principles were themselves revealed by God to Moses at Sinai.<a href="#cite_note-indeterminacy5-108">[107]</a> Thus, <a href="/wiki/Hillel_the_Elder" title="Hillel the Elder">Hillel</a> called attention to seven commonly used hermeneutical principles in the interpretation of laws (<a href="/wiki/Baraita" title="Baraita">baraita</a> at the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Sifra" title="Sifra">Sifra</a>); <a href="/wiki/R._Ishmael" class="mw-redirect" title="R. Ishmael">R. Ishmael</a>, thirteen (baraita at the beginning of Sifra; this collection is largely an amplification of that of Hillel).<a href="#cite_note-introduction-109">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eliezer_b._Jose_ha-Gelili" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili">Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili</a> listed 32, largely used for the exegesis of narrative elements of Torah. All the hermeneutic rules scattered through the <a href="/wiki/Talmudim" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudim">Talmudim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Midrashim" class="mw-redirect" title="Midrashim">Midrashim</a> have been collected by <a href="/wiki/Malbim" title="Malbim">Malbim</a> in Ayyelet ha-Shachar, the introduction to his commentary on the <a href="/wiki/Sifra" title="Sifra">Sifra</a>. Nevertheless, R. Ishmael's 13 principles are perhaps the ones most widely known; they constitute an important, and one of Judaism's earliest, contributions to <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-introduction6-110">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Judah_Hadassi" title="Judah Hadassi">Judah Hadassi</a> incorporated Ishmael's principles into Karaite Judaism in the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-introduction7-111">[110]</a> Today R. Ishmael's 13 principles are incorporated into the Jewish prayer book to be read by observant Jews on a daily basis.<a href="#cite_note-jerusalem-112">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-congregations-113">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-publications-114">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-publication-115">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jewish_identity">Jewish identity</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinction_between_Jews_as_a_people_and_Judaism">Distinction between Jews as a people and Judaism</h3></div> According to <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Boyarin" title="Daniel Boyarin">Daniel Boyarin</a>, the underlying distinction between religion and ethnicity is foreign to Judaism itself, and is one form of the dualism between spirit and flesh that has its origin in <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Platonic</a> philosophy and that permeated <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-A_radical_Jew:_Paul_and_the_politics_of_identity-116">[115]</a> Consequently, in his view, Judaism does not fit easily into conventional Western categories, such as religion, ethnicity, or culture. Boyarin suggests that this in part reflects the fact that much of Judaism's more than 3,000-year history predates the rise of Western culture and occurred outside the West (that is, Europe, particularly medieval and modern Europe). During this time, Jews experienced slavery, anarchic and theocratic self-government, conquest, occupation, and exile. In the Jewish diaspora, they were in contact with, and influenced by, ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, and Hellenic cultures, as well as modern movements such as the Enlightenment (see <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a>) and the rise of nationalism, which would bear fruit in the form of a Jewish state in their ancient homeland, the Land of Israel. Thus, Boyarin has argued that "Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension."<a href="#cite_note-A_radical_Jew:_Paul_and_the_politics_of_identity10-117">[116]</a> In contrast to this point of view, practices such as <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic Judaism</a> reject the religious aspects of Judaism, while retaining certain cultural traditions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Who_is_a_Jew?">Who is a Jew?</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></div> According to <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>, a Jew is anyone who was either born of a Jewish mother or who <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">converted to Judaism</a> in accordance with halakha. <a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist Judaism</a> and the larger denominations of worldwide <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Progressive Judaism</a> (also known as Liberal or Reform Judaism) accept the child as Jewish if one of the parents is Jewish, if the parents raise the child with a Jewish identity, but not the smaller regional branches.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts, although conversion has traditionally been discouraged since the time of the Talmud. The conversion process is evaluated by an authority, and the convert is examined on his or her sincerity and knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Who_is_a_Jew?-118">[117]</a> Converts are called "ben Abraham" or "bat Abraham", (son or daughter of Abraham). Conversions have on occasion been overturned. In 2008, Israel's highest religious court invalidated the conversion of 40,000 Jews, mostly from Russian immigrant families, even though they had been approved by an Orthodox rabbi.<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a> Rabbinical Judaism maintains that a Jew, whether by birth or conversion, is a Jew forever. Thus a Jew who claims to be an atheist or converts to another religion is still considered by traditional Judaism to be Jewish. According to some sources, the Reform movement has maintained that a Jew who has converted to another religion is no longer a Jew,<a href="#cite_note-university-120">[119]</a> and the Israeli Government has also taken that stance after Supreme Court cases and statutes.<a href="#cite_note-Law_of_Return_5710-1950-121">[120]</a> However, the Reform movement has indicated that this is not so cut and dried, and different situations call for consideration and differing actions. For example, Jews who have converted under duress may be permitted to return to Judaism "without any action on their part but their desire to rejoin the Jewish community" and "A proselyte who has become an apostate remains, nevertheless, a Jew".<a href="#cite_note-Jacob,_Walter_(1987)._Contemporary_American_Reform_Responsa._Mars,_PA:_Publishers_Choice_Book_Mfg.-122">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite Judaism</a> believes that Jewish identity can only be transmitted by patrilineal descent. Although a minority of modern Karaites believe that Jewish identity requires that both parents be Jewish, and not only the father. They argue that only patrilineal descent can transmit Jewish identity on the grounds that all descent in the Torah went according to the male line.<a href="#cite_note-JEkaraites-24">[23]</a> The question of what determines Jewish identity in the State of Israel was given new impetus when, in the 1950s, <a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a> requested opinions on mihu Yehudi ("Who is a Jew") from Jewish religious authorities and intellectuals worldwide in order to settle citizenship questions. This is still not settled, and occasionally resurfaces in <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Israel" title="Politics of Israel">Israeli politics</a>. Historical definitions of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_identity" title="Jewish identity">Jewish identity</a> have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the Oral Torah into the Babylonian Talmud, around 200 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy" title="Book of Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a> 7:1–5, by Jewish sages, are used as a warning against <a href="/wiki/Interfaith_marriage_in_Judaism" title="Interfaith marriage in Judaism">intermarriage</a> between Jews and <a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a> because "[the non-Jewish husband] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods (i.e., idols) of others."<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a> Leviticus 24 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptian</a> man is "of the community of Israel."<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> This is complemented by Ezra 10, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their <a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">gentile</a> wives and their children.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period.<a href="#cite_note-Klein2016-128">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schott2010-129">[128]</a> Since the anti-religious <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.<a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_demographics">Jewish demographics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Jewish population by country</a></div> The total number of Jews worldwide is difficult to assess because the definition of "who is a Jew" is problematic; not all Jews identify themselves as Jewish, and some who identify as Jewish are not considered so by other Jews. According to the Jewish Year Book (1901), the global Jewish population in 1900 was around 11 million. The latest available data is from the World Jewish Population Survey of 2002 and the Jewish Year Calendar (2005). In 2002, according to the Jewish Population Survey, there were 13.3 million Jews around the world. The Jewish Year Calendar cites 14.6 million. It is 0.25% of world population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005-1">[1]</a> Jewish population growth is currently near zero percent, with 0.3% growth from 2000 to 2001. The overall growth rate of <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Jews in Israel</a> is 1.7% annually, and is consistently growing through <a href="/wiki/Natural_population_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural population growth">natural population growth</a> and extensive immigration.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">diaspora countries</a>, by contrast, have low Jewish birth rates, an increasingly elderly age composition, high rates of <a href="/wiki/Interfaith_marriage_in_Judaism" title="Interfaith marriage in Judaism">interreligious marriage</a> and a negative balance of people leaving Judaism versus those joining.<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> In 2022, the world Jewish population was estimated at 15.2 million, the majority live in one of only two countires: Israel and the United States.<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> About 46.6% of all Jews resided in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> (6.9 million) and another 6 million Jews resided in the United States, with most of the remainder living in Europe, and other groups spread throughout Canada, Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Australia.<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethiopian_Jewish_soldier_and_comrade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ethiopian_Jewish_soldier_and_comrade.jpg/220px-Ethiopian_Jewish_soldier_and_comrade.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ethiopian_Jewish_soldier_and_comrade.jpg/330px-Ethiopian_Jewish_soldier_and_comrade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ethiopian_Jewish_soldier_and_comrade.jpg/440px-Ethiopian_Jewish_soldier_and_comrade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="718" /></a><figcaption>An Ethiopian Jew prays during a break while on patrol on the outskirts of Bethlehem, Jan 1996</figcaption></figure> Jewish demographics represent diverse historical and cultural trajectories.<a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardic Jews</a>, Ethiopian Jews (<a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote Jews</a>, may possess unique customs and practices.<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> In Israel, the classification of Jewish observance into categories like <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Dati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masortim" title="Masortim">Masorti</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hiloni" title="Hiloni">Hiloni</a> was developed by sociologists and researchers studying the religious and cultural landscape of Israeli society. These distinctions emerged from surveys and studies conducted by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics and scholars such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shmuel_Sandler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shmuel Sandler (page does not exist)">Shmuel Sandler</a>, who explored how religious practices varied among different segments of the Jewish population. The categories were created to better understand the range of religious adherence, from the ultra-Orthodox Haredim to the secular Hilonim, with Dati and Masorti representing intermediary groups.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jewish_religious_movements">Jewish religious movements</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Jewish religious movements</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rabbinic_Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</h3></div> Rabbinic Judaism (or in some older sources, Rabbinism;<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a> Hebrew: "Yahadut Rabanit" – יהדות רבנית) has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Talmud. It is characterised by the belief that the <a href="/wiki/Written_Torah" class="mw-redirect" title="Written Torah">Written Torah</a> (Written Law) cannot be correctly interpreted without reference to the Oral Torah and the voluminous literature specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the Law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200378–92-18">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brabbinic-20">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Enlightenment">Jewish Enlightenment</a> of the late 18th century resulted in the division of Western Jewry (primarily, the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi</a>, but also western part of <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italian rite Jews</a>, a.k.a. Italkim, and Greek <a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote Jews</a>—both last groups are considered distinct from Ashkenazim and Sephardim) into religious movements or denominations, especially in North America and Anglophone countries. The main denominations today outside Israel (where the situation is rather different)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017-139">[138]</a> are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. The notion "traditional Judaism" includes the Orthodox with Conservative<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007-31">[30]</a> or solely the Orthodox Jews:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky197998–115-140">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005-1">[1]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haredi_(Orthodox)_Jewish_Couples_at_Bus_Stop_-_Outside_Old_City_-_Jerusalem_(5684561290).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Haredi_%28Orthodox%29_Jewish_Couples_at_Bus_Stop_-_Outside_Old_City_-_Jerusalem_%285684561290%29.jpg/220px-Haredi_%28Orthodox%29_Jewish_Couples_at_Bus_Stop_-_Outside_Old_City_-_Jerusalem_%285684561290%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Haredi_%28Orthodox%29_Jewish_Couples_at_Bus_Stop_-_Outside_Old_City_-_Jerusalem_%285684561290%29.jpg/330px-Haredi_%28Orthodox%29_Jewish_Couples_at_Bus_Stop_-_Outside_Old_City_-_Jerusalem_%285684561290%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Haredi_%28Orthodox%29_Jewish_Couples_at_Bus_Stop_-_Outside_Old_City_-_Jerusalem_%285684561290%29.jpg/440px-Haredi_%28Orthodox%29_Jewish_Couples_at_Bus_Stop_-_Outside_Old_City_-_Jerusalem_%285684561290%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Two Haredi Jewish couples at a bus stop in Jerusalem</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_29771_Kiryat_Belz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/PikiWiki_Israel_29771_Kiryat_Belz.jpg/220px-PikiWiki_Israel_29771_Kiryat_Belz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/PikiWiki_Israel_29771_Kiryat_Belz.jpg/330px-PikiWiki_Israel_29771_Kiryat_Belz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/PikiWiki_Israel_29771_Kiryat_Belz.jpg/440px-PikiWiki_Israel_29771_Kiryat_Belz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4728" data-file-height="3131" /></a><figcaption>Hasids at front of <a href="/wiki/Belz_Great_Synagogue" title="Belz Great Synagogue">Belz Great Synagogue</a>, Jerusalem</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a> holds that both the Written and Oral Torah were divinely revealed to <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider commentaries on the <a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a> (a condensed codification of halakha that largely favored Sephardic traditions) to be the definitive codification of halakha. Orthodoxy places a high importance on <a href="/wiki/13_Principles_of_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="13 Principles of Faith">Maimonides' 13 principles</a> as a definition of Jewish faith.</li></ul> <dl><dd>Orthodoxy is often divided into <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern Orthodox Judaism</a>. Haredi is less accommodating to modernity and has less interest in non-Jewish disciplines, and it may be distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern Orthodox Judaism</a> in practice by its styles of dress and more stringent practices. Subsets of Haredi Judaism along both ethnic and ideological lines include <a href="/wiki/Hardal" title="Hardal">Hardal</a> ("Nationalist Haredi" within <a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious Zionism</a>); <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</a>, which is rooted in the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> and distinguished by reliance on a <a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Rebbe,_Hasidic"-141">[140]</a> or religious teacher; their traditionalist opponents the <a href="/wiki/Misnagdim" title="Misnagdim">Misnagdim</a> (also known as Lithuanian or Lita'im); and <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Haredi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic Haredi">Sephardic Haredi</a> Judaism, which emerged among <a href="/wiki/Sephardic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic">Sephardic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> (Asian and North African) Jews in Israel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979218–270,_367–402-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael1984125–176-33">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler1997-142">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003311–333-34">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Orthodox_Judaism"-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZohar2005-143">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegal2008113–117-144">[143]</a> "Centrist" Orthodoxy (<a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Soloveitchik" title="Joseph B. Soloveitchik">Joseph B. Soloveitchik</a>) is sometimes also distinguished.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegal2008121–123-145">[144]</a></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rabot_-_Torah.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Rabot_-_Torah.JPG/220px-Rabot_-_Torah.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Rabot_-_Torah.JPG/330px-Rabot_-_Torah.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Rabot_-_Torah.JPG/440px-Rabot_-_Torah.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="1146" /></a><figcaption>Conservative women rabbis, Israel</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative Judaism</a> (known as Masorti Judaism outside North America and Israel) is characterized by a commitment to traditional halakha and customs, including observance of <a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">kashrut</a>, a deliberately non-fundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith, a positive attitude toward modern culture, and an acceptance of both traditional rabbinic and modern scholarship when considering Jewish religious texts. Conservative Judaism teaches that halakha is not static, but has always developed in response to changing conditions. It holds that the Torah is a divine document written by prophets inspired by God and reflecting his will, but rejects the Orthodox position that it was dictated by God to Moses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979317–346-36">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael198479–124-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillman1993-146">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003334–353-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Conservative_Judaism"-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElazarGeffen2012-147">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Torah_MiSinai:Conservative_Views-148">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Conservative_Judaism-149">[148]</a> Conservative Judaism holds that the Oral Law is divine and normative, but holds that both the Written and Oral Law may be interpreted by the rabbis to reflect modern sensibilities and suit modern conditions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a>, called Liberal or Progressive Judaism in many countries, defines Judaism in relatively universalist terms, rejects most of the ritual and ceremonial laws of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> while observing moral laws, and emphasizes the ethical call of the <a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Prophets</a>. Reform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular (along with Hebrew in many cases) and emphasizes personal connection to Jewish tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979156–185,_285–316-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael19841–78-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer1988177–194-150">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003291–310-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Reform_Judaism"-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005419–422"Reform_Judaism"-44">[43]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist Judaism</a>, like Reform Judaism, does not hold that halakha, as such, requires observance, but unlike Reform, Reconstructionist thought emphasizes the role of the community in deciding what observances to follow. It is sometimes recognized as the fourth major stream of Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979347–366-151">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael1984177–194-152">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWertheimer1993169-153">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Reconstructionism"-154">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005416–418"Reconstructionist_Judaism"-155">[154]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Jewish Renewal</a> is a recent North American movement which focuses on spirituality and social justice but does not address issues of halakha. Men and women participate equally in prayer.<a href="#cite_note-Magid2005-156">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegal2008123–129-157">[156]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic Judaism</a> is a small non-theistic movement centered in North America and Israel that emphasizes <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a> and history as the sources of Jewish identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005221"Humanistic_Judaism"-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a> (Sabbatarians) are a movement of Jews of <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russian</a> ethnic origin in the 18th–20th centuries, the majority of whom belonged to Rabbinic and Karaite Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> Many settled in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a> as part of the Zionist <a href="/wiki/First_Aliyah" title="First Aliyah">First Aliyah</a> in order to escape oppression in the Russian Empire and later mostly intermarried with other Jews, their descendants included <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Za%C3%AFd" title="Alexander Zaïd">Alexander Zaïd</a>, Major-General Alik Ron,<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a> and the mother of <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Sharon" title="Ariel Sharon">Ariel Sharon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sephardi_and_Mizrahi_Judaism">Sephardi and Mizrahi Judaism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Haredim" title="Sephardic Haredim">Sephardic Haredim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_law_and_customs" title="Sephardic law and customs">Sephardic law and customs</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Synagogue_de_la_Ghriba_Djerba_11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Synagogue_de_la_Ghriba_Djerba_11.jpg/220px-Synagogue_de_la_Ghriba_Djerba_11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Synagogue_de_la_Ghriba_Djerba_11.jpg/330px-Synagogue_de_la_Ghriba_Djerba_11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Synagogue_de_la_Ghriba_Djerba_11.jpg/440px-Synagogue_de_la_Ghriba_Djerba_11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3821" data-file-height="2617" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/El_Ghriba_synagogue" class="mw-redirect" title="El Ghriba synagogue">El Ghriba synagogue</a> in <a href="/wiki/Djerba" title="Djerba">Djerba</a>, Tunisia</figcaption></figure> While <a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">traditions and customs</a> vary between discrete communities, it can be said that <a href="/wiki/Sephardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi">Sephardi</a> (Iberian, for example, most <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">Jews from France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="Sephardic Jews in the Netherlands">the Netherlands</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> (Oriental) Jewish communities do not generally adhere to the "movement" framework popular in and among <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi">Ashkenazi</a> Jewry.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> Historically, Sephardi and Mizrahi communities have eschewed denominations in favour of a "big tent" approach.<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> This is particularly the case in contemporary Israel, which is home to the largest communities of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews in the world. (However, individual Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews or some their communities may be members of or attend synagogues that do adhere to one Ashkenazi-inflected movement or another.)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZohar2005-143">[142]</a> Among the pioneers of Reform Judaism in the 1820s there was the Sephardic congregation <a href="/wiki/Kahal_Kadosh_Beth_Elohim" title="Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim">Beth Elohim</a> in <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer1988232–235-165">[164]</a> A part of the European Sephardim were also linked with the Judaic modernization.<a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a> Sephardi and Mizrahi observance of Judaism tends toward the traditional (Orthodox) and <a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">prayer rites</a> are reflective of this, with the text of each rite being largely unchanged since their respective inception. Observant Sephardim may follow the teachings of a particular rabbi or school of thought; for example, the Sephardic <a href="/wiki/Chief_Rabbinate_of_Israel" title="Chief Rabbinate of Israel">Chief Rabbi of Israel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZohar2005-143">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017Part_5_"The_Sephardic_Pattern"-167">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011166"Chief_Rabbinate"-168">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jewish_movements_in_Israel">Jewish movements in Israel</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Religion in Israel</a></div> In Israel, as in the West, Judaism is also divided into major Orthodox, Conservative and Reform traditions.<a href="#cite_note-Tabory1990-169">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017Ch._18_"Americans_in_the_Israeli_Reform_and_Conservative_Denominations"-170">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beit-Hallahmi-171">[170]</a> At the same time, for statistical and practical purposes, a different division of society is used there on the basis of a person's attitude to religion. Most Jewish Israelis classify themselves as "<a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">secular</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Hiloni" title="Hiloni">hiloni</a>), "traditional" (<a href="/wiki/Masortim" title="Masortim">masorti</a>), "religious" (<a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">dati</a>) or "ultra-religious" (<a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">haredi</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Beit-Hallahmi-171">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kedem-172">[171]</a> The term "secular" is more popular as a self-description among Israeli families of western (European) origin, whose Jewish identity may be a very powerful force in their lives, but who see it as largely independent of traditional religious belief and practice. This portion of the population largely ignores organized religious life, be it of the official Israeli rabbinate (Orthodox) or of the liberal movements common to diaspora Judaism (Reform, Conservative). The term "traditional" (masorti) is most common as a self-description among Israeli families of "eastern" origin (i.e., the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa). This term, as commonly used, has nothing to do with Conservative Judaism, which also names itself "Masorti" outside North America. Only a few authors, like Elliot Nelson Dorff, consider the American Conservative (masorti) movement and Israeli masorti sector to be one and the same.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011350-173">[172]</a> There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways "secular" and "traditional" are used in Israel: they often overlap, and they cover an extremely wide range in terms of worldview and practical religious observance. The term "Orthodox" is not popular in Israeli discourse, although the percentage of Jews who come under that category is far greater than in the Jewish diaspora. What would be called "Orthodox" in the diaspora includes what is commonly called dati (religious, including <a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">religious zionist</a>) or haredi (ultra-Orthodox) in Israel.<a href="#cite_note-Beit-Hallahmi-171">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kedem-172">[171]</a> The former term includes what is called "religious Zionism" or the "National Orthodox" community, as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as haredi-leumi (<a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> haredi), or "Hardal", which combines a largely haredi lifestyle with nationalist ideology. (Some people, in <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, also refer to observant Orthodox Jews as <a href="/wiki/Frum" title="Frum">frum</a>, as opposed to frei (more liberal Jews)).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017Part_4_"Nationalist_Orthodoxy"-174">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Karaites_and_Samaritans">Karaites and Samaritans</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite Judaism</a> defines itself as the remnants of the non-Rabbinic Jewish sects of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> period, such as the <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>. The Karaites ("Scripturalists") accept only the Hebrew Bible and what they view as the <a href="/wiki/Peshat" title="Peshat">Peshat</a> ("simple" meaning); they do not accept non-biblical writings as authoritative. Some European Karaites do not see themselves as part of the Jewish community at all, although most do.<a href="#cite_note-JEkaraites-24">[23]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a>, a very small community located entirely around <a href="/wiki/Mount_Gerizim" title="Mount Gerizim">Mount Gerizim</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nablus" title="Nablus">Nablus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Shechem" title="Shechem">Shechem</a> region of the <a href="/wiki/West_Bank" title="West Bank">West Bank</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Holon" title="Holon">Holon</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a> in Israel, regard themselves as the descendants of the Israelites of the Iron Age <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">kingdom of Israel</a>. Their religious practices are based on the literal text of the written <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> (Five Books of Moses), which they view as the only authoritative scripture (with a special regard also for the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joshua_(Samaritan)" title="Book of Joshua (Samaritan)">Samaritan Book of Joshua</a>). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beta_Israeli_Kahen_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Beta_Israeli_Kahen_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg/220px-Beta_Israeli_Kahen_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Beta_Israeli_Kahen_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg/330px-Beta_Israeli_Kahen_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Beta_Israeli_Kahen_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg/440px-Beta_Israeli_Kahen_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1194" data-file-height="1592" /></a><figcaption>Beta Israeli <a href="/wiki/Kahen" title="Kahen">Kahen</a> at the Western Wall</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haymanot_(Ethiopian_Judaism)">Haymanot (Ethiopian Judaism)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></div> Haymanot (meaning "religion" in Ge'ez and Amharic) refers the Judaism practiced by Ethiopian Jews. This version of Judaism differs substantially from Rabbinic, Karaite, and Samaritan Judaisms, Ethiopian Jews having diverged from their coreligionists earlier. Sacred scriptures (the Orit) are written in Ge'ez, not Hebrew, and dietary laws are based strictly on the text of the Orit, without explication from ancillary commentaries. Holidays also differ, with some Rabbinic holidays not observed in Ethiopian Jewish communities, and some additional holidays, like <a href="/wiki/Sigd" title="Sigd">Sigd</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noahide_(B'nei_Noah_movement)">Noahide (B'nei Noah movement)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahidism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahidism</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">religious movement</a> based on the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noah" title="Seven Laws of Noah">Seven Laws of Noah</a> and their traditional interpretations within <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>. According to the halakha, non-Jews (<a href="/wiki/Gentiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentiles">gentiles</a>) are not obligated to <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">convert to Judaism</a>, but they are required to observe the Seven Laws of Noah to be assured of a place in the <a href="/wiki/World_to_Come#Jewish_eschatology" class="mw-redirect" title="World to Come">World to Come (Olam Ha-Ba)</a>, the final reward of the righteous. The divinely ordained penalty for violating any of the Laws of Noah is discussed in the Talmud, but in practical terms it is subject to the working legal system which is established by the society at large. Those who subscribe to the observance of the Noahic Covenant are referred to as B'nei Noach (Hebrew: בני נח, 'Children of Noah') or Noahides (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈnoʊ.ə.haɪdɪs/</a>). Supporting organizations have been established around the world over the past decades by both Noahides and Orthodox Jews.<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> Historically, the Hebrew term B'nei Noach has applied to all non-Jews as descendants of Noah. However, nowadays it's primarily used to refer specifically to those non-Jews who observe the Seven Laws of Noah. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jewish_observances">Jewish observances</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_ethics">Jewish ethics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish ethics</a></div> Jewish ethics may be guided by halakhic traditions, by other moral principles, or by central Jewish virtues. Jewish ethical practice is typically understood to be marked by values such as justice, truth, peace, loving-kindness (<a href="/wiki/Chesed" title="Chesed">chesed</a>), compassion, humility, and self-respect. Specific Jewish ethical practices include practices of charity (<a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">tzedakah</a>) and refraining from negative speech (<a href="/wiki/Lashon_hara" title="Lashon hara">lashon hara</a>). Proper ethical practices regarding sexuality and many other issues are subjects of dispute among Jews. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prayers">Prayers</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Jewish prayer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YemeniJew1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/YemeniJew1914.jpg/200px-YemeniJew1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/YemeniJew1914.jpg/300px-YemeniJew1914.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/YemeniJew1914.jpg/400px-YemeniJew1914.jpg 2x" data-file-width="487" data-file-height="702" /></a><figcaption>A Yemenite Jew at morning prayers, wearing a <a href="/wiki/Kippah" title="Kippah">kippah</a> skullcap, prayer shawl and <a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">tefillin</a></figcaption></figure> Traditionally, Jews recite prayers three times daily, <a href="/wiki/Shacharit" title="Shacharit">Shacharit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mincha" title="Mincha">Mincha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ma%27ariv" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'ariv">Ma'ariv</a> with a fourth prayer, <a href="/wiki/Mussaf" title="Mussaf">Mussaf</a> added on <a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_holiday" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish holiday">holidays</a>. At the heart of each service is the <a href="/wiki/Amidah" title="Amidah">Amidah</a> or Shemoneh Esrei. Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of faith, the <a href="/wiki/Shema_Yisrael" class="mw-redirect" title="Shema Yisrael">Shema Yisrael</a> (or Shema). The Shema is the recitation of a verse from the Torah (<a href="/wiki/Deuteronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a> 6:4): Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad—"Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God! The Lord is One!" <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:For_alive_and_fallen_(The_Western_Wall).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/For_alive_and_fallen_%28The_Western_Wall%29.jpg/220px-For_alive_and_fallen_%28The_Western_Wall%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/For_alive_and_fallen_%28The_Western_Wall%29.jpg/330px-For_alive_and_fallen_%28The_Western_Wall%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/For_alive_and_fallen_%28The_Western_Wall%29.jpg/440px-For_alive_and_fallen_%28The_Western_Wall%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3425" data-file-height="2913" /></a><figcaption>An Israeli female soldier prays at the Western Wall</figcaption></figure> Most of the prayers in a traditional Jewish service can be recited in solitary prayer, although communal prayer is preferred. Communal prayer requires a <a href="/wiki/Quorum" title="Quorum">quorum</a> of ten adult Jews, called a <a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">minyan</a>. In nearly all Orthodox and a few Conservative circles, only male Jews are counted toward a minyan; most Conservative Jews and members of other Jewish denominations count female Jews as well. In addition to prayer services, observant traditional Jews recite <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_prayers_and_blessings" title="List of Jewish prayers and blessings">prayers and benedictions</a> throughout the day when <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_prayers_and_blessings#Everyday_prayers_and_blessings" title="List of Jewish prayers and blessings">performing various acts</a>. Prayers are recited upon <a href="/wiki/Modeh_ani" class="mw-redirect" title="Modeh ani">waking up in the morning</a>, before eating or drinking different foods, <a href="/wiki/Birkat_Hamazon" title="Birkat Hamazon">after eating a meal</a>, and so on. The approach to prayer varies among the Jewish denominations. Differences can include the texts of prayers, the frequency of prayer, the number of prayers recited at various religious events, the use of musical instruments and choral music, and whether prayers are recited in the traditional liturgical languages or the vernacular. In general, Orthodox and Conservative congregations adhere most closely to tradition, and Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues are more likely to incorporate translations and contemporary writings in their services. Also, in most Conservative synagogues, and all Reform and Reconstructionist congregations, women participate in prayer services on an <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">equal basis</a> with men, including roles traditionally filled only by men, such as <a href="/wiki/Torah_reading" title="Torah reading">reading from the Torah</a>. In addition, many Reform temples use musical accompaniment such as organs and mixed choirs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_clothing">Religious clothing</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flickr_-_The_Israel_Project_-_Jerusalem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flickr_-_The_Israel_Project_-_Jerusalem.jpg/220px-Flickr_-_The_Israel_Project_-_Jerusalem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flickr_-_The_Israel_Project_-_Jerusalem.jpg/330px-Flickr_-_The_Israel_Project_-_Jerusalem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flickr_-_The_Israel_Project_-_Jerusalem.jpg/440px-Flickr_-_The_Israel_Project_-_Jerusalem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1359" /></a><figcaption>Jewish boys wearing <a href="/wiki/Tzitzit" title="Tzitzit">tzitzit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kippah" title="Kippah">kippot</a> play soccer in Jerusalem</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Praying_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Praying_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg/220px-Praying_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Praying_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg/330px-Praying_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Praying_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg/440px-Praying_at_the_Western_Wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Men wearing <a href="/wiki/Tallit" title="Tallit">tallitot</a> pray at the Western Wall</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Jewish religious clothing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kippah" title="Kippah">kippah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tzitzit" title="Tzitzit">tzitzit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">tefillin</a></div> A <a href="/wiki/Kippah" title="Kippah">kippah</a> (Hebrew: כִּפָּה, plural kippot; Yiddish: יאַרמלקע, yarmulke) is a slightly rounded brimless skullcap worn by many Jews while praying, eating, reciting blessings, or studying Jewish religious texts, and at all times by some Jewish men. In Orthodox communities, only men wear kippot; in non-Orthodox communities, some women also wear kippot. Kippot range in size from a small round beanie that covers only the back of the head to a large, snug cap that covers the whole crown. <a href="/wiki/Tzitzit" title="Tzitzit">Tzitzit</a> (Hebrew: צִיציִת) (<a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi pronunciation</a>: tzitzis) are special knotted "fringes" or "tassels" found on the four corners of the <a href="/wiki/Tallit" title="Tallit">tallit</a> (Hebrew: טַלִּית) (Ashkenazi pronunciation: tallis), or prayer <a href="/wiki/Shawl" title="Shawl">shawl</a>. The tallit is worn by Jewish men and some Jewish women during the prayer service. Customs vary regarding when a Jew begins wearing a tallit. In the Sephardi community, boys wear a tallit from bar mitzvah age. In some Ashkenazi communities, it is customary to wear one only after marriage. A tallit katan (small tallit) is a fringed garment worn under the clothing throughout the day. In some Orthodox circles, the fringes are allowed to hang freely outside the clothing. <a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">Tefillin</a> (Hebrew: תְפִלִּין), known in English as phylacteries (from the Greek word φυλακτήριον, meaning safeguard or amulet), are two square leather boxes containing biblical verses, attached to the forehead and wound around the left arm by leather straps. They are worn during weekday morning prayer by observant Jewish men and some Jewish women.<a href="#cite_note-publishers-176">[175]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Kittel" title="Kittel">kittel</a> (Yiddish: קיטל), a white knee-length overgarment, is worn by prayer leaders and some observant traditional Jews on the <a href="/wiki/High_Holidays" class="mw-redirect" title="High Holidays">High Holidays</a>. It is traditional for the head of the household to wear a kittel at the Passover seder in some communities, and some grooms wear one under the wedding canopy. Jewish males are buried in a tallit and sometimes also a kittel which are part of the <a href="/wiki/Tachrichim" title="Tachrichim">tachrichim</a> (burial garments). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_holidays">Jewish holidays</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_holiday" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish holiday">Jewish holiday</a></div> Jewish holidays are special days in the Jewish calendar, which celebrate moments in Jewish history, as well as central themes in the relationship between God and the world, such as <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">redemption</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shabbat">Shabbat</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shabbat_Challos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Shabbat_Challos.jpg/250px-Shabbat_Challos.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Shabbat_Challos.jpg/375px-Shabbat_Challos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Shabbat_Challos.jpg/500px-Shabbat_Challos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1755" data-file-height="1132" /></a><figcaption>Two braided Shabbat <a href="/wiki/Challah" title="Challah">challot</a> placed under an embroidered <a href="/wiki/Challah_cover" title="Challah cover">challah cover</a> at the start of the Shabbat meal</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a>, the weekly day of rest lasting from shortly before sundown on Friday night to nightfall on Saturday night, commemorates God's day of rest after six days of creation. It plays a pivotal role in Jewish practice and is governed by a large corpus of religious law. At sundown on Friday, the woman of the house welcomes the Shabbat by lighting two or more candles and reciting a blessing. The evening meal begins with the Kiddush, a blessing recited aloud over a cup of wine, and the Mohtzi, a blessing recited over the bread. It is customary to have <a href="/wiki/Challah" title="Challah">challah</a>, two braided loaves of bread, on the table. During Shabbat, Jews are forbidden to engage in any activity that falls under <a href="/wiki/39_categories_of_activity_prohibited_on_Shabbat" class="mw-redirect" title="39 categories of activity prohibited on Shabbat">39 categories of melakhah</a>, translated literally as "work". In fact, the activities banned on the Sabbath are not "work" in the usual sense: They include such actions as lighting a fire, writing, using money and carrying in the public domain. The prohibition of lighting a fire has been extended in the modern era to driving a car, which involves burning fuel and using electricity.<a href="#cite_note-JEsabbath-177">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Three_pilgrimage_festivals">Three pilgrimage festivals</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shalosh_regalim" class="mw-redirect" title="Shalosh regalim">Shalosh regalim</a></div> Jewish holy days (chaggim), celebrate landmark events in Jewish history, such as the <a href="/wiki/Exodus_from_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Exodus from Egypt">Exodus from Egypt</a> and the giving of the Torah, and sometimes mark the change of seasons and transitions in the agricultural cycle. The three major festivals, Sukkot, Passover and Shavuot, are called "regalim" (derived from the Hebrew word "regel", or foot). On the three regalim, it was customary for the Israelites to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem to offer sacrifices in the Temple: <ul><li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Farhi_Haggadah_736756_0024.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Farhi_Haggadah_736756_0024.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Farhi_Haggadah_736756_0024.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Farhi_Haggadah_736756_0024.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Farhi_Haggadah_736756_0024.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Farhi_Haggadah_736756_0024.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Farhi_Haggadah_736756_0024.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3432" data-file-height="2792" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Haggadah" title="Haggadah">haggadah</a> used by the Jewish community of Cairo in Arabic</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a> (Pesach) is a week-long holiday beginning on the evening of the 14th day of <a href="/wiki/Nisan" title="Nisan">Nisan</a> (the first month in the Hebrew calendar), that commemorates the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Exodus</a> from Egypt. Outside Israel, Passover is celebrated for eight days. In ancient times, it coincided with the barley harvest. It is the only holiday that centers on home-service, the <a href="/wiki/Passover_Seder" title="Passover Seder">Seder</a>. <a href="/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent">Leavened</a> products (<a href="/wiki/Chametz" title="Chametz">chametz</a>) are removed from the house prior to the holiday and are not consumed throughout the week. Homes are thoroughly cleaned to ensure no bread or bread by-products remain, and a symbolic burning of the last vestiges of chametz is conducted on the morning of the Seder. <a href="/wiki/Matzah" title="Matzah">Matzo</a> is eaten instead of bread.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shavuot" title="Shavuot">Shavuot</a> ("Pentecost" or "Feast of Weeks") celebrates the revelation of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Israelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Israelite">Israelites</a> on Mount Sinai. Also known as the Festival of Bikurim, or first fruits, it coincided in biblical times with the wheat harvest. Shavuot customs include all-night study marathons known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot, eating dairy foods (cheesecake and blintzes are special favorites), reading the Book of Ruth, decorating homes and synagogues with greenery, and wearing white clothing, symbolizing purity.</li> <li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sukkoth_-_IZE10160.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Sukkoth_-_IZE10160.jpg/220px-Sukkoth_-_IZE10160.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Sukkoth_-_IZE10160.jpg/330px-Sukkoth_-_IZE10160.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Sukkoth_-_IZE10160.jpg/440px-Sukkoth_-_IZE10160.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5956" data-file-height="3935" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Sukkah" title="Sukkah">sukkah</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sukkot" title="Sukkot">Sukkot</a> ("Tabernacles" or "The Festival of Booths") commemorates the Israelites' forty years of wandering through the desert on their way to the Promised Land. It is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths called sukkot (sing. <a href="/wiki/Sukkah" title="Sukkah">sukkah</a>) that represent the temporary shelters of the Israelites during their wandering. It coincides with the fruit harvest and marks the end of the agricultural cycle. Jews around the world eat in sukkot for seven days and nights. Sukkot concludes with <a href="/wiki/Shemini_Atzeret" title="Shemini Atzeret">Shemini Atzeret</a>, where Jews begin to pray for rain and <a href="/wiki/Simchat_Torah" title="Simchat Torah">Simchat Torah</a>, "Rejoicing of the Torah", a holiday which marks reaching the end of the Torah reading cycle and beginning all over again. The occasion is celebrated with singing and dancing with the Torah scrolls. Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are technically considered to be a separate holiday and not a part of Sukkot.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Breaking_of_Yom_Kippur_fast_with_Roti_and_Samosas_(8034851404).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Breaking_of_Yom_Kippur_fast_with_Roti_and_Samosas_%288034851404%29.jpg/220px-Breaking_of_Yom_Kippur_fast_with_Roti_and_Samosas_%288034851404%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Breaking_of_Yom_Kippur_fast_with_Roti_and_Samosas_%288034851404%29.jpg/330px-Breaking_of_Yom_Kippur_fast_with_Roti_and_Samosas_%288034851404%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Breaking_of_Yom_Kippur_fast_with_Roti_and_Samosas_%288034851404%29.jpg/440px-Breaking_of_Yom_Kippur_fast_with_Roti_and_Samosas_%288034851404%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4592" data-file-height="3056" /></a><figcaption>Jews in Mumbai break the Yom Kippur fast with <a href="/wiki/Roti" title="Roti">roti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samosa" title="Samosa">samosas</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="High_Holy_Days">High Holy Days</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/High_Holidays" class="mw-redirect" title="High Holidays">High Holidays</a></div> The High Holidays (Yamim Noraim or "Days of Awe") revolve around judgment and forgiveness: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashanah" title="Rosh Hashanah">Rosh Hashanah</a>, (also Yom Ha-Zikkaron or "Day of Remembrance", and Yom Teruah, or "Day of the Sounding of the <a href="/wiki/Shofar" title="Shofar">Shofar</a>"). Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year (literally, "head of the year"), although it falls on the first day of the seventh month of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew calendar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tishri" class="mw-redirect" title="Tishri">Tishri</a>. Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the 10-day period of atonement leading up to Yom Kippur, during which Jews are commanded to search their souls and make amends for sins committed, intentionally or not, throughout the year. Holiday customs include blowing the shofar, or ram's horn, in the synagogue, eating apples and honey, and saying blessings over a variety of symbolic foods, such as pomegranates.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur" title="Yom Kippur">Yom Kippur</a>, ("Day of Atonement") is the holiest day of the Jewish year. It is a day of communal fasting and praying for forgiveness for one's sins. Observant Jews spend the entire day in the synagogue, sometimes with a short break in the afternoon, reciting prayers from a special holiday prayerbook called a "Machzor". Many non-religious Jews make a point of attending synagogue services and fasting on Yom Kippur. On the eve of Yom Kippur, before candles are lit, a prefast meal, the "<a href="/wiki/Seuda_mafseket" class="mw-redirect" title="Seuda mafseket">seuda mafseket</a>", is eaten. Synagogue services on the eve of Yom Kippur begin with the Kol Nidre prayer. It is customary to wear white on Yom Kippur, especially for Kol Nidre, and leather shoes are not worn. The following day, prayers are held from morning to evening. The final prayer service, called "Ne'ilah", ends with a long blast of the shofar.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Purim">Purim</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Purim" title="Purim">Purim</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jerusalem_Purim_street_scene.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Jerusalem_Purim_street_scene.jpg/220px-Jerusalem_Purim_street_scene.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Jerusalem_Purim_street_scene.jpg/330px-Jerusalem_Purim_street_scene.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Jerusalem_Purim_street_scene.jpg/440px-Jerusalem_Purim_street_scene.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1754" data-file-height="1132" /></a><figcaption>Purim street scene in Jerusalem</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanukkah-US-Military-GITMO-Dec-28-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hanukkah-US-Military-GITMO-Dec-28-08.jpg/220px-Hanukkah-US-Military-GITMO-Dec-28-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hanukkah-US-Military-GITMO-Dec-28-08.jpg/330px-Hanukkah-US-Military-GITMO-Dec-28-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Hanukkah-US-Military-GITMO-Dec-28-08.jpg/440px-Hanukkah-US-Military-GITMO-Dec-28-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Jewish personnel of the US Navy light candles on Hanukkah</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Purim" title="Purim">Purim</a> (Hebrew: <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/c\/c9\/He-Purim.ogg\/He-Purim.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"He-Purim.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/He-Purim.ogg/He-Purim.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button">פורים</a><a href="/wiki/File:He-Purim.ogg" title="File:He-Purim.ogg">ⓘ</a> Pûrîm "<a href="/wiki/Cleromancy" title="Cleromancy">lots</a>") is a joyous Jewish holiday that commemorates the deliverance of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a> from the plot of the evil <a href="/wiki/Haman_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haman (Bible)">Haman</a>, who sought to <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">exterminate</a> them, as recorded in the biblical <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Esther" title="Book of Esther">Book of Esther</a>. It is characterized by public recitation of the Book of Esther, mutual gifts of food and drink, <a href="/wiki/Alms" title="Alms">charity</a> to the poor, and a celebratory meal (Esther 9:22). Other customs include drinking wine, eating special pastries called <a href="/wiki/Hamantash" title="Hamantash">hamantashen</a>, dressing up in masks and costumes, and organizing carnivals and parties. Purim has celebrated annually on the 14th of the Hebrew month of <a href="/wiki/Adar" title="Adar">Adar</a>, which occurs in February or March of the Gregorian calendar. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hanukkah">Hanukkah</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hanukkah" title="Hanukkah">Hanukkah</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Hanukkah" title="Hanukkah">Hanukkah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: חֲנֻכָּה, "dedication") also known as the Festival of Lights, is an eight-day Jewish holiday that starts on the 25th day of <a href="/wiki/Kislev" title="Kislev">Kislev</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew calendar</a>). The festival is observed in Jewish homes by the kindling of lights on each of the festival's eight nights, one on the first night, two on the second night and so on. The holiday was called Hanukkah (meaning "dedication") because it marks the re-dedication of the Temple after its desecration by <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV Epiphanes</a>. Spiritually, Hanukkah commemorates the "Miracle of the Oil". According to the Talmud, at the re-dedication of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a> following the victory of the <a href="/wiki/Maccabees" title="Maccabees">Maccabees</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, there was only enough consecrated oil to fuel the eternal flame in the Temple for one day. Miraculously, the oil burned for eight days—which was the length of time it took to press, prepare and consecrate new oil. Hanukkah is not mentioned in the Bible and was never considered a major holiday in Judaism, but it has become much more visible and widely celebrated in modern times, mainly because it falls around the same time as Christmas and has national Jewish overtones that have been emphasized since the establishment of the State of Israel. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fast_days">Fast days</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tisha_B%27Av" title="Tisha B'Av">Tisha B'Av</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_of_Tamuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventeenth of Tamuz">Seventeenth of Tamuz</a>, <a href="/wiki/10th_of_Tevet" class="mw-redirect" title="10th of Tevet">10th of Tevet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tzom_Gedaliah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzom Gedaliah">Tzom Gedaliah</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Tisha_B%27Av" title="Tisha B'Av">Tisha B'Av</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: תשעה באב or ט׳ באב, "the Ninth of <a href="/wiki/Av_(month)" title="Av (month)">Av</a>") is a day of mourning and fasting commemorating the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/First_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="First Temple">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temples</a>, and in later times, the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">expulsion of the Jews from Spain</a>. There are three more minor Jewish fast days that commemorate various stages of the destruction of the Temples. They are the <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_of_Tamuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventeenth of Tamuz">17th Tamuz</a>, the <a href="/wiki/10th_of_Tevet" class="mw-redirect" title="10th of Tevet">10th of Tevet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tzom_Gedaliah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzom Gedaliah">Tzom Gedaliah</a> (the 3rd of Tishrei). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Israeli_holidays">Israeli holidays</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Yom_Hashoah" class="mw-redirect" title="Yom Hashoah">Yom Hashoah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yom_Hazikaron" class="mw-redirect" title="Yom Hazikaron">Yom Hazikaron</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yom_Ha%27atzmaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Yom Ha'atzmaut">Yom Ha'atzmaut</a></div> The modern holidays of <a href="/wiki/Yom_Ha-shoah" class="mw-redirect" title="Yom Ha-shoah">Yom Ha-shoah</a> (Holocaust Remembrance Day), <a href="/wiki/Yom_Hazikaron" class="mw-redirect" title="Yom Hazikaron">Yom Hazikaron</a> (Israeli Memorial Day) and <a href="/wiki/Yom_Ha%27atzmaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Yom Ha'atzmaut">Yom Ha'atzmaut</a> (Israeli Independence Day) commemorate the horrors of the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, the fallen soldiers of Israel and victims of terrorism, and Israeli independence, respectively. There are some who prefer to commemorate those who were killed in the Holocaust on the <a href="/wiki/Tenth_of_Tevet#Day_of_general_kaddish" title="Tenth of Tevet">10th of Tevet</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ReadingOfTheTorah.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ReadingOfTheTorah.jpg/220px-ReadingOfTheTorah.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ReadingOfTheTorah.jpg/330px-ReadingOfTheTorah.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ReadingOfTheTorah.jpg/440px-ReadingOfTheTorah.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4497" data-file-height="3504" /></a><figcaption>A man reads a torah using a <a href="/wiki/Yad" title="Yad">yad</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Torah_readings">Torah readings</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Torah_reading" title="Torah reading">Torah reading</a></div> The core of festival and <a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a> prayer services is the public reading of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>, along with connected readings from the other books of the Tanakh, called <a href="/wiki/Haftarah" class="mw-redirect" title="Haftarah">Haftarah</a>. Over the course of a year, the whole Torah is read, with the cycle starting over in the autumn, on <a href="/wiki/Simchat_Torah" title="Simchat Torah">Simchat Torah</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synagogues_and_religious_buildings">Synagogues and religious buildings</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A%C5%A1kena%C5%A1ka_sinagoga_(14143483781).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/A%C5%A1kena%C5%A1ka_sinagoga_%2814143483781%29.jpg/220px-A%C5%A1kena%C5%A1ka_sinagoga_%2814143483781%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/A%C5%A1kena%C5%A1ka_sinagoga_%2814143483781%29.jpg/330px-A%C5%A1kena%C5%A1ka_sinagoga_%2814143483781%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/A%C5%A1kena%C5%A1ka_sinagoga_%2814143483781%29.jpg/440px-A%C5%A1kena%C5%A1ka_sinagoga_%2814143483781%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sarajevo_Synagogue" title="Sarajevo Synagogue">Sarajevo Synagogue</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sarajevo" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jerusalem_Great_Synagogue05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Jerusalem_Great_Synagogue05.jpg/220px-Jerusalem_Great_Synagogue05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Jerusalem_Great_Synagogue05.jpg/330px-Jerusalem_Great_Synagogue05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Jerusalem_Great_Synagogue05.jpg/440px-Jerusalem_Great_Synagogue05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_(Jerusalem)" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Synagogue (Jerusalem)">Great Synagogue (Jerusalem)</a></figcaption></figure> Synagogues are Jewish houses of prayer and study. They usually contain separate rooms for prayer (the main sanctuary), smaller rooms for study, and often an area for community or educational use. There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly. The Reform movement mostly refer to their synagogues as temples. Some traditional features of a synagogue are: <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Congregation_Emanu-El_of_the_City_New_York.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Congregation_Emanu-El_of_the_City_New_York.jpg/220px-Congregation_Emanu-El_of_the_City_New_York.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Congregation_Emanu-El_of_the_City_New_York.jpg/330px-Congregation_Emanu-El_of_the_City_New_York.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Congregation_Emanu-El_of_the_City_New_York.jpg/440px-Congregation_Emanu-El_of_the_City_New_York.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4049" data-file-height="5061" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Congregation_Emanu-El_of_New_York" title="Congregation Emanu-El of New York">Congregation Emanu-El of New York</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Ark_(synagogue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ark (synagogue)">ark</a> (called aron ha-kodesh by <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> and hekhal by <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardim</a>) where the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> scrolls are kept (the ark is often closed with an ornate curtain (<a href="/wiki/Parochet" title="Parochet">parochet</a>) outside or inside the ark doors);</li> <li>The elevated reader's platform (called <a href="/wiki/Bema#Judaism" title="Bema">bimah</a> by Ashkenazim and tebah by Sephardim), where the Torah is read (and services are conducted in Sephardi synagogues);</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Sanctuary_lamp" title="Sanctuary lamp">eternal light</a> (ner tamid), a continually lit lamp or lantern used as a reminder of the constantly lit <a href="/wiki/Menorah_(Temple)" class="mw-redirect" title="Menorah (Temple)">menorah</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a></li> <li>The pulpit, or amud, a lectern facing the Ark where the <a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">hazzan</a> or prayer leader stands while praying.</li></ul> In addition to synagogues, other buildings of significance in Judaism include <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">yeshivas</a>, or institutions of Jewish learning, and <a href="/wiki/Mikvah" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikvah">mikvahs</a>, which are ritual baths. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dietary_laws:_kashrut">Dietary laws: kashrut</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></div> The Jewish dietary laws are known as <a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">kashrut</a>. Food prepared in accordance with them is termed <a href="/wiki/Kosher_foods" title="Kosher foods">kosher</a>, and food that is not kosher is also known as treifah or treif. People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be "keeping kosher".<a href="#cite_note-JEdietary-178">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011212–14"Dietary_Laws"-179">[178]</a> Many of the laws apply to animal-based foods. For example, in order to be considered kosher, mammals must have split <a href="/wiki/Hooves" class="mw-redirect" title="Hooves">hooves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruminants" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruminants">chew their cud</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">pig</a> is arguably the most well-known example of a non-kosher animal.<a href="#cite_note-The_Kosher_Pig?-180">[179]</a> Although it has split hooves, it does not chew its cud. For <a href="/wiki/Seafood" title="Seafood">seafood</a> to be kosher, the animal must have <a href="/wiki/Fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Fins">fins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scale_(zoology)" title="Scale (zoology)">scales</a>. Certain types of seafood, such as <a href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crustaceans" class="mw-redirect" title="Crustaceans">crustaceans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eel" title="Eel">eels</a>, are therefore considered non-kosher. Concerning birds, a list of non-kosher species is given in the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>. The exact <a href="/wiki/Translations" class="mw-redirect" title="Translations">translations</a> of many of the species have not survived, and some non-kosher birds' identities are no longer certain. However, <a href="/wiki/Traditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditions">traditions</a> exist about the kashrut status of a few birds. For example, both <a href="/wiki/Chickens" class="mw-redirect" title="Chickens">chickens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkeys">turkeys</a> are permitted in most communities. Other types of animals, such as <a href="/wiki/Amphibians" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibians">amphibians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reptiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Reptiles">reptiles</a>, and most <a href="/wiki/Insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Insects">insects</a>, are prohibited altogether.<a href="#cite_note-JEdietary-178">[177]</a> In addition to the requirement that the species be considered kosher, meat and poultry (but not fish) must come from a healthy animal slaughtered in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Shechitah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shechitah">shechitah</a>. Without the proper <a href="/wiki/Animal_slaughter" title="Animal slaughter">slaughtering</a> practices even an otherwise kosher animal will be rendered treif. The slaughtering process is intended to be quick and relatively painless to the animal. Forbidden parts of animals include the <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, some <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fats</a>, and the area in and around the <a href="/wiki/Sciatic_nerve" title="Sciatic nerve">sciatic nerve</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JEdietary-178">[177]</a> Halakha also forbids the consumption of meat and dairy products together. The waiting period between eating meat and eating dairy varies by the order in which they are consumed and by community and can extend for up to six hours. Based on the Biblical injunction against cooking a kid in its mother's milk, this rule is mostly derived from the Oral Torah, the Talmud and Rabbinic law. Chicken and other kosher birds are considered the same as meat under the laws of kashrut, but the prohibition is rabbinic, not biblical.<a href="#cite_note-shulchan-181">[180]</a> The use of <a href="/wiki/Dishware" class="mw-redirect" title="Dishware">dishes</a>, serving utensils, and <a href="/wiki/Oven" title="Oven">ovens</a> may make food treif that would otherwise be kosher. Utensils that have been used to prepare non-kosher food, or dishes that have held meat and are now used for dairy products, render the food treif under certain conditions.<a href="#cite_note-JEdietary-178">[177]</a> Furthermore, all Orthodox and some Conservative authorities forbid the consumption of processed <a href="/wiki/Grape" title="Grape">grape</a> products made by non-Jews, due to ancient <a href="/wiki/Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan">pagan</a> practices of using wine in rituals. Some Conservative authorities permit wine and grape juice made without rabbinic supervision.<a href="#cite_note-rabbinicalassembly-182">[181]</a> The Torah does not give specific reasons for most of the laws of kashrut. However, a number of explanations have been offered, including maintaining ritual purity, teaching impulse control, encouraging obedience to God, improving health, reducing <a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">cruelty to animals</a> and preserving the distinctness of the Jewish community.<a href="#cite_note-JEdietary-178">[177]</a> The various categories of dietary laws may have developed for different reasons, and some may exist for multiple reasons. For example, people are forbidden from consuming the blood of birds and mammals because, according to the Torah, this is where animal souls are contained. In contrast, the Torah forbids Israelites from eating non-kosher species because "they are unclean".<a href="#cite_note-leviticus11-183">[182]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> describes sparks of holiness that are released by the act of eating kosher foods but are too tightly bound in non-kosher foods to be released by eating.<a href="#cite_note-JEdietary-178">[177]</a> Survival concerns supersede all the laws of kashrut, as they do for most halakhot.<a href="#cite_note-jewishmag-184">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-biu-185">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laws_of_ritual_purity">Laws of ritual purity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tumah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumah">Tumah</a></div> The Tanakh describes circumstances in which a person who is tahor or ritually pure may become tamei or ritually impure. Some of these circumstances are contact with human <a href="/wiki/Corpses" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpses">corpses</a> or <a href="/wiki/Grave_(burial)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grave (burial)">graves</a>, seminal flux, vaginal flux, <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a>, and contact with people who have become impure from any of these.<a href="#cite_note-leviticus15-186">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-bamidbar-187">[186]</a> In Rabbinic Judaism, <a href="/wiki/Kohanim" class="mw-redirect" title="Kohanim">Kohanim</a>, members of the hereditary <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a> that served as <a href="/wiki/Priests" class="mw-redirect" title="Priests">priests</a> in the time of the Temple, are mostly restricted from entering grave sites and touching dead bodies.<a href="#cite_note-Torah_tidbits-188">[187]</a> During the Temple period, such priests (<a href="/wiki/Kohanim" class="mw-redirect" title="Kohanim">Kohanim</a>) were required to eat their bread offering (<a href="/wiki/Terumah" class="mw-redirect" title="Terumah">Terumah</a>) in a state of ritual purity, which laws eventually led to more rigid laws being enacted, such as <a href="/wiki/Handwashing_in_Judaism" title="Handwashing in Judaism">hand-washing</a> which became a requisite of all Jews before consuming ordinary bread.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusner1993-189">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFonrobert2005-190">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011"Purity_and_Unpurity,_Ritual"-191">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Family_purity">Family purity</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fauteuil_de_circoncision_(%22Fauteuil_d%27Elie%22).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Fauteuil_de_circoncision_%28%22Fauteuil_d%27Elie%22%29.jpg/250px-Fauteuil_de_circoncision_%28%22Fauteuil_d%27Elie%22%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="382" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Fauteuil_de_circoncision_%28%22Fauteuil_d%27Elie%22%29.jpg/375px-Fauteuil_de_circoncision_%28%22Fauteuil_d%27Elie%22%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Fauteuil_de_circoncision_%28%22Fauteuil_d%27Elie%22%29.jpg/500px-Fauteuil_de_circoncision_%28%22Fauteuil_d%27Elie%22%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="524" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>18th-century circumcision chair <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_et_d%27Histoire_du_Juda%C3%AFsme" title="Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme">Museum of Jewish Art and History</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Judaism" title="Women in Judaism">Women in Judaism</a></div> An important subcategory of the ritual purity laws relates to the segregation of menstruating <a href="/wiki/Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Women">women</a>. These laws are also known as <a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">niddah</a>, literally "separation", or family purity. Vital aspects of halakha for traditionally observant Jews, they are not usually followed by Jews in liberal denominations.<a href="#cite_note-JEniddah-192">[191]</a> Especially in <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a>, the Biblical laws are augmented by Rabbinical injunctions. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> mandates that a woman in her normal menstrual period must abstain from <a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">sexual intercourse</a> for seven days. A woman whose menstruation is prolonged must continue to abstain for seven more days after bleeding has stopped.<a href="#cite_note-leviticus15-186">[185]</a> The Rabbis conflated ordinary niddah with this extended menstrual period, known in the Torah as <a href="/wiki/Zavah" title="Zavah">zavah</a>, and mandated that a woman may not have sexual intercourse with her husband from the time she begins her <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">menstrual</a> flow until seven days after it ends. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbinical law">Rabbinical law</a> forbids the <a href="/wiki/Husband" title="Husband">husband</a> from touching or sharing a bed with his wife during this period. Afterwards, purification can occur in a ritual bath called a <a href="/wiki/Mikveh" title="Mikveh">mikveh</a><a href="#cite_note-JEniddah-192">[191]</a> Traditional <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Jews">Ethiopian Jews</a> keep menstruating women in separate huts and, similar to Karaite practice, do not allow menstruating women into their <a href="/wiki/Temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Temples">temples</a> because of a temple's special sanctity. Emigration to Israel and the influence of other Jewish denominations have led to Ethiopian Jews adopting more normative Jewish practices.<a href="#cite_note-Karaites-193">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-Women_and_water:_menstruation_in_Jewish_life_and_law-194">[193]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_32596_Bar_mitzva.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/PikiWiki_Israel_32596_Bar_mitzva.jpg/220px-PikiWiki_Israel_32596_Bar_mitzva.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/PikiWiki_Israel_32596_Bar_mitzva.jpg/330px-PikiWiki_Israel_32596_Bar_mitzva.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/PikiWiki_Israel_32596_Bar_mitzva.jpg/440px-PikiWiki_Israel_32596_Bar_mitzva.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Two boys wearing <a href="/wiki/Tallit" title="Tallit">tallit</a> at a <a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah">bar mitzvah</a>. The torah is visible in the foreground.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life-cycle_events">Life-cycle events</h3></div> Life-cycle events, or <a href="/wiki/Rites_of_passage" class="mw-redirect" title="Rites of passage">rites of passage</a>, occur throughout a Jew's life that serves to strengthen Jewish identity and bind him/her to the entire community: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit milah</a> – Welcoming male babies into the covenant through the rite of <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">circumcision</a> on their eighth day of life. The baby boy is also given his Hebrew name in the ceremony. A naming ceremony intended as a parallel ritual for girls, named <a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">zeved habat</a> or brit bat, enjoys limited popularity.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Mitzvah_/_Bat_Mitzvah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar Mitzvah / Bat Mitzvah">Bar mitzvah and Bat mitzvah</a> – This passage from childhood to adulthood takes place when a female Jew is twelve and a male Jew is thirteen years old among Orthodox and some Conservative congregations. In the Reform movement, both girls and boys have their bat/bar mitzvah at age thirteen. This is often commemorated by having the new adults, male only in the Orthodox tradition, lead the congregation in prayer and publicly read a "portion" of the Torah.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a> – Marriage is an extremely important lifecycle event and an ideal human state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Marriage"-195">[194]</a> A wedding takes place under a <a href="/wiki/Chuppah" title="Chuppah">chuppah</a>, or wedding canopy, which symbolizes a happy house. At the end of the ceremony, the groom breaks a glass with his foot, symbolizing the continuous mourning for the destruction of the Temple, and the scattering of the Jewish people. An <a href="/wiki/Interfaith_marriage_in_Judaism" title="Interfaith marriage in Judaism">intermarriage</a> is prohibited, except as within Reform Judaism:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011381–2"Intermarriage"-196">[195]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moshe_Rynecki-_Le_Get_(divorce).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Moshe_Rynecki-_Le_Get_%28divorce%29.jpg/220px-Moshe_Rynecki-_Le_Get_%28divorce%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Moshe_Rynecki-_Le_Get_%28divorce%29.jpg/330px-Moshe_Rynecki-_Le_Get_%28divorce%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Moshe_Rynecki-_Le_Get_%28divorce%29.jpg/440px-Moshe_Rynecki-_Le_Get_%28divorce%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="502" /></a><figcaption>Le Get (The Divorce) by <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Rynecki" title="Moshe Rynecki">Moshe Rynecki</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1930</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">Divorce</a> – Divorce is allowed in accordance with Halakha. The divorce ceremony involves the husband giving the short <a href="/wiki/Get_(divorce_document)" title="Get (divorce document)">get</a> document written in Aramaic into the hand of the wife in rabbinical court, that is all. But, since the 11th century among the Ashkenazim and many Sephardim a divorce became prohibited against will of a wife, than a man had way for <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011216–7"Divorce"-197">[196]</a> The get contains declaration: "You are hereby permitted to all men."</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%90_%D7%9B%D7%98_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%90_%D7%9B%D7%98_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8.jpg/220px-%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%90_%D7%9B%D7%98_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%90_%D7%9B%D7%98_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8.jpg/330px-%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%90_%D7%9B%D7%98_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%90_%D7%9B%D7%98_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8.jpg/440px-%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%90_%D7%9B%D7%98_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1006" data-file-height="637" /></a><figcaption>The Bereavement (Yahrtzeit) Hasidic <a href="/wiki/Tish_(Hasidic_celebration)" title="Tish (Hasidic celebration)">tish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bnei_Brak" title="Bnei Brak">Bnei Brak</a>, Israel</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Death and Mourning</a> (Avelut) – The Torah requires burial as soon as possible, even for executed criminals.<a href="#cite_note-198">[197]</a> Judaism has a multi-staged <a href="/wiki/Mourning" title="Mourning">mourning</a> practice. The first stage is called the <a href="/wiki/Shiva_(Judaism)" title="Shiva (Judaism)">shiva</a> (literally "seven", observed for one week) during which it is traditional to sit at home and be comforted by friends and family, the second is the shloshim (observed for one month) and for those who have lost one of their parents, there is a third stage, avelut yud bet chodesh, which is observed for eleven months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011205–6"Death"-199">[198]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">cremation</a> within Orthodox Judaism permited only by some leading rabbis in West Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011193–4"Cremation"-200">[199]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Community_leadership">Community leadership</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_priesthood">Classical priesthood</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg/220px-Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg/330px-Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg/440px-Jewish_Children_with_their_Teacher_in_Samarkand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3067" data-file-height="2749" /></a><figcaption>Jewish students with their teacher in <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1910.</figcaption></figure> The role of the priesthood in Judaism has significantly diminished since the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> in 70 CE when priests attended to the Temple and sacrifices. The priesthood is an inherited position, and although priests no longer have any but ceremonial duties, they are still honored in many Jewish communities. Many Orthodox Jewish communities believe that they will be needed again for a future <a href="/wiki/Third_Temple" title="Third Temple">Third Temple</a> and need to remain in readiness for future duty: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kohen" title="Kohen">Kohen</a> (priest) – patrilineal descendant of <a href="/wiki/Aaron" title="Aaron">Aaron</a>, brother of <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>. In the Temple, the kohanim were charged with performing the sacrifices. Today, a Kohen is the first one called up at the reading of the Torah, performs the <a href="/wiki/Priestly_Blessing" title="Priestly Blessing">Priestly Blessing</a>, as well as complying with other unique laws and ceremonies, including the ceremony of redemption of the first-born.</li> <li>Levi (<a href="/wiki/Levite" title="Levite">Levite</a>) – Patrilineal descendant of <a href="/wiki/Levi" title="Levi">Levi</a> the son of <a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a>, the levites sang <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a>, performed construction, maintenance, janitorial, and guard duties, assisted the priests, and sometimes interpreted the law and Temple ritual to the public. Today, a Levite is called up second to the reading of the Torah.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prayer_leaders">Prayer leaders</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magen_David_Synagogue_Interiors_after_restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Magen_David_Synagogue_Interiors_after_restoration.jpg/220px-Magen_David_Synagogue_Interiors_after_restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Magen_David_Synagogue_Interiors_after_restoration.jpg/330px-Magen_David_Synagogue_Interiors_after_restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Magen_David_Synagogue_Interiors_after_restoration.jpg/440px-Magen_David_Synagogue_Interiors_after_restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6393" data-file-height="4262" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Magen_David_Synagogue_(Kolkata)" title="Magen David Synagogue (Kolkata)">Magen David Synagogue</a> in Kolkata, India</figcaption></figure> From the time of the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and Talmud to the present, Judaism has required specialists or authorities for the practice of very few rituals or ceremonies. A Jew can fulfill most requirements for prayer by himself. Some activities—reading the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haftarah" class="mw-redirect" title="Haftarah">haftarah</a> (a supplementary portion from the Prophets or Writings), the prayer for mourners, the blessings for bridegroom and bride, the complete grace after meals—require a <a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">minyan</a>, the presence of ten Jews. The most common professional clergy in a <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a> are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a> of a congregation – Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation. This role requires ordination by the congregation's preferred authority (i.e., from a respected Orthodox rabbi or, if the congregation is Conservative or Reform, from academic seminaries). A congregation does not necessarily require a rabbi. Some congregations have a rabbi but also allow members of the congregation to act as shatz or baal kriyah (see below). <ul><li>Hassidic <a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a> – rabbi who is the head of a <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> dynasty.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a> (note: the "h" denotes <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">voiceless pharyngeal fricative</a>) (cantor) – a trained vocalist who acts as shatz. Chosen for a good voice, knowledge of traditional tunes, understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them. A congregation does not need to have a dedicated hazzan.</li></ul> Jewish prayer services do involve two specified roles, which are sometimes, but not always, filled by a rabbi or hazzan in many congregations. In other congregations these roles are filled on an ad-hoc basis by members of the congregation who lead portions of services on a rotating basis: <ul><li>Shaliach tzibur or Shatz (leader—literally "agent" or "representative"—of the congregation) leads those assembled in prayer and sometimes prays on behalf of the community. When a shatz recites a prayer on behalf of the congregation, he is not acting as an intermediary but rather as a facilitator. The entire congregation participates in the recital of such prayers by saying amen at their conclusion; it is with this act that the shatz's prayer becomes the prayer of the congregation. Any adult capable of reciting the prayers clearly may act as shatz. In Orthodox congregations and some Conservative congregations, only men can be prayer leaders, but all <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Judaism">Progressive</a> communities now allow women to serve in this function.</li> <li>The Baal kriyah or baal koreh (master of the reading) reads the weekly <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> portion. The requirements for being the baal kriyah are the same as those for the shatz. These roles are not mutually exclusive. The same person is often qualified to fill more than one role and often does. Often there are several people capable of filling these roles and different services (or parts of services) will be led by each.</li></ul> Many congregations, especially larger ones, also rely on a: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gabbai" title="Gabbai">Gabbai</a> (sexton) – Calls people up to the Torah, appoints the shatz for each prayer session if there is no standard shatz, and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied.</li></ul> The three preceding positions are usually voluntary and considered an honor. Since the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> large synagogues have often adopted the practice of hiring rabbis and hazzans to act as shatz and baal kriyah, and this is still typically the case in many Conservative and Reform congregations. However, in most Orthodox synagogues these positions are filled by laypeople on a rotating or ad-hoc basis. Although most congregations hire one or more Rabbis, the use of a professional hazzan is generally declining in American congregations, and the use of professionals for other offices is rarer still. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_scribe_writing_the_Torah.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jewish_scribe_writing_the_Torah.jpg/220px-Jewish_scribe_writing_the_Torah.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jewish_scribe_writing_the_Torah.jpg/330px-Jewish_scribe_writing_the_Torah.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jewish_scribe_writing_the_Torah.jpg/440px-Jewish_scribe_writing_the_Torah.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4469" data-file-height="3373" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemeni</a> sofer writing a torah in the 1930s</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialized_religious_roles">Specialized religious roles</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beth_din#Officers_of_a_beth_din" title="Beth din">Dayan</a> (judge) – An ordained rabbi with special legal training who belongs to a <a href="/wiki/Beth_din" title="Beth din">beth din</a> (rabbinical court). In Israel, religious courts handle marriage and divorce cases, conversion and financial disputes in the Jewish community.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohel" title="Mohel">Mohel</a> (circumciser) – An expert in the laws of circumcision who has received training from a previously qualified mohel and performs the <a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">brit milah</a> (circumcision).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shechita" title="Shechita">Shochet</a> (ritual slaughterer) – In order for meat to be kosher, it must be slaughtered by a shochet who is an expert in the laws of kashrut and has been trained by another shochet.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofer_(scribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sofer (scribe)">Sofer</a> (scribe) – <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> scrolls, <a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">tefillin</a> (phylacteries), <a href="/wiki/Mezuzah" title="Mezuzah">mezuzot</a> (scrolls put on doorposts), and gittin (bills of divorce) must be written by a sofer who is an expert in Hebrew calligraphy and has undergone rigorous training in the laws of writing sacred texts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosh_yeshiva" title="Rosh yeshiva">Rosh yeshiva</a> – A Torah scholar who runs a <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">yeshiva</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashgiach_ruchani" title="Mashgiach ruchani">Mashgiach/Mashgicha</a> of a yeshiva – Depending on which yeshiva, might either be the person responsible for ensuring attendance and proper conduct, or even supervise the emotional and spiritual welfare of the students and give lectures on <a href="/wiki/Mussar_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mussar movement">mussar</a> (Jewish ethics).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashgiach" title="Mashgiach">Mashgiach/Mashgicha</a> – Supervises manufacturers of kosher food, importers, caterers and restaurants to ensure that the food is kosher. Must be an expert in the laws of <a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">kashrut</a> and trained by a rabbi, if not a rabbi himself or herself.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_Jewish_groupings_(to_1700)">Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700)</h3></div> Around the 1st century CE, there were several small Jewish sects: the <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Christians</a>. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, these sects vanished.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a> Christianity survived, but by breaking with Judaism and <a href="/wiki/Schism_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Schism (religion)">becoming a separate religion</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a> survived but in the form of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a> (today, known simply as "Judaism").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003-19">[18]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a> rejected the <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">divine inspiration</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Prophets</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Writings</a>, relying only on the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> as divinely inspired. Consequently, a number of other core tenets of the Pharisees' belief system (which became the basis for modern Judaism), were also dismissed by the Sadducees. (The <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a> practiced a similar religion, which is traditionally considered separate from Judaism.) Like the Sadducees who relied only on the Torah, some Jews in the 8th and 9th centuries rejected the authority and divine inspiration of the oral law as recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> (and developed by later rabbis in the two Talmuds), relying instead only upon the Tanakh. These included the <a href="/wiki/Isunians" class="mw-redirect" title="Isunians">Isunians</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yudganites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yudganites (page does not exist)">Yudganites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Malikites" class="mw-redirect" title="Malikites">Malikites</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] and others. They soon developed oral traditions of their own, which differed from the rabbinic traditions, and eventually formed the <a href="/wiki/Karaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaism">Karaite</a> sect. Karaites exist in small numbers today, mostly living in Israel. Rabbinical and Karaite Jews each hold that the others are Jews, but that the other faith is erroneous. Over a long time, Jews formed distinct ethnic groups in several different geographic areas—amongst others, the Ashkenazi Jews (of <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">central</a> and Eastern Europe), the <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a> (of Spain, Portugal, and North Africa), the <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> of Ethiopia, the <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite Jews</a> from the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula and the <a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Malabari and Cochin Jews</a> from Kerala . Many of these groups have developed differences in their prayers, traditions and accepted canons; however, these distinctions are mainly the result of their being formed at some cultural distance from normative (rabbinic) Judaism, rather than based on any doctrinal dispute. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persecutions">Persecutions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution of Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">History of antisemitism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a> arose during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, in the form of persecutions, <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forced conversions</a>, expulsions, social restrictions and <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghettoization</a>. This was different in quality from the repressions of Jews which had occurred in ancient times. Ancient repressions were politically motivated and Jews were treated the same as members of other ethnic groups. With the rise of the Churches, the main motive for attacks on Jews changed from politics to religion and the religious motive for such attacks was specifically derived from Christian views about Jews and Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-History,_religion,_and_antisemitism-202">[201]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, Jewish people who lived under Muslim rule generally experienced tolerance and integration,<a href="#cite_note-Cohen,_Mark_R_1991-203">[202]</a> but there were occasional outbreaks of violence like <a href="/wiki/Almohads#Status_of_non-Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohads">Almohad's persecutions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ugr-204">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hasidism">Hasidism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</a></div> Hasidic Judaism was founded by <a href="/wiki/Yisroel_ben_Eliezer_(The_Baal_Shem_Tov)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yisroel ben Eliezer (The Baal Shem Tov)">Yisroel ben Eliezer</a> (1700–1760), also known as the Ba'al Shem Tov (or Besht). It originated in a time of persecution of the Jewish people when European Jews had turned inward to Talmud study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish life had become too "academic", and that they no longer had any emphasis on spirituality or joy. Its adherents favored small and informal gatherings called <a href="/wiki/Shtiebel" title="Shtiebel">Shtiebel</a>, which, in contrast to a traditional synagogue, could be used both as a place of worship and for celebrations involving dancing, eating, and socializing.<a href="#cite_note-205">[204]</a> Ba'al Shem Tov's disciples attracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across Europe. Unlike other religions, which typically expanded through word of mouth or by use of print, Hasidism spread largely owing to <a href="/wiki/Tzadik" title="Tzadik">Tzadiks</a>, who used their influence to encourage others to follow the movement. Hasidism appealed to many Europeans because it was easy to learn, did not require full immediate commitment, and presented a compelling spectacle.<a href="#cite_note-206">[205]</a> Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Eastern Europe. Waves of Jewish immigration in the 1880s carried it to the United States. The movement itself claims to be nothing new, but a refreshment of original Judaism. As some have put it: "they merely re-emphasized that which the generations had lost". Nevertheless, early on there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. European Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbed by the Hasidim as <a href="/wiki/Misnagdim" title="Misnagdim">Misnagdim</a>, (lit. "opponents"). Some of the reasons for the rejection of Hasidic Judaism were the exuberance of Hasidic worship, its deviation from tradition in ascribing infallibility and miracles to their leaders, and the concern that it might become a messianic sect. Over time differences between the Hasidim and their opponents have slowly diminished and both groups are now considered part of Haredi Judaism. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Enlightenment_and_new_religious_movements">The Enlightenment and new religious movements</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Jewish religious movements</a></div> In the late 18th century CE, Europe was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements known as the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>. The Enlightenment led to reductions in the European laws that prohibited Jews to interact with the wider secular world, thus allowing Jews access to secular education and experience. A parallel Jewish movement, <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> or the "Jewish Enlightenment", began, especially in Central Europe and Western Europe, in response to both the Enlightenment and these new freedoms. It placed an emphasis on integration with secular society and a pursuit of non-religious knowledge through reason. With the promise of political emancipation, many Jews saw no reason to continue to observe halakha and increasing numbers of Jews assimilated into Christian Europe. Modern religious movements of Judaism all formed in reaction to this trend. In Central Europe, followed by Great Britain and the United States, <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform (or Liberal) Judaism</a> developed, relaxing legal obligations (especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews), emulating <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> decorum in prayer, and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism's Prophetic tradition. <a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern Orthodox Judaism</a> developed in reaction to Reform Judaism, by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citizens equal to Christians while maintaining the observance of halakha. Meanwhile, in the United States, wealthy Reform Jews helped European scholars, who were Orthodox in practice but critical (and skeptical) in their study of the Bible and Talmud, to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from Eastern Europe. These left-wing Orthodox rabbis were joined by right-wing Reform rabbis who felt that halakha should not be entirely abandoned, to form the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative movement</a>. Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah formed <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Orthodox_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Haredi Orthodox Judaism">Haredi Orthodox Judaism</a>. After massive movements of Jews following <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> and the creation of the state of Israel, these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spectrum_of_observance">Spectrum of observance</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_National_Library_of_Israel_-_The_Daily_Prayers_translated_from_Hebrew_to_Marathi_1388495_2340601-10-0007_WEB.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/The_National_Library_of_Israel_-_The_Daily_Prayers_translated_from_Hebrew_to_Marathi_1388495_2340601-10-0007_WEB.jpg/220px-The_National_Library_of_Israel_-_The_Daily_Prayers_translated_from_Hebrew_to_Marathi_1388495_2340601-10-0007_WEB.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/The_National_Library_of_Israel_-_The_Daily_Prayers_translated_from_Hebrew_to_Marathi_1388495_2340601-10-0007_WEB.jpg/330px-The_National_Library_of_Israel_-_The_Daily_Prayers_translated_from_Hebrew_to_Marathi_1388495_2340601-10-0007_WEB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/The_National_Library_of_Israel_-_The_Daily_Prayers_translated_from_Hebrew_to_Marathi_1388495_2340601-10-0007_WEB.jpg/440px-The_National_Library_of_Israel_-_The_Daily_Prayers_translated_from_Hebrew_to_Marathi_1388495_2340601-10-0007_WEB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1413" data-file-height="2197" /></a><figcaption>Judaism is practiced around the world. This is an 1889 <a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">siddur</a> published in Hebrew and <a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a> for use by the <a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a> community</figcaption></figure> Jewish religious practice varies widely through all levels of observance. According to the 2001 edition of the <a href="/wiki/National_Jewish_Population_Survey" title="National Jewish Population Survey">National Jewish Population Survey</a>, in the United States' Jewish community—the world's second largest—4.3 million Jews out of 5.1 million had some sort of connection to the religion.<a href="#cite_note-207">[206]</a> Of that population of connected Jews, 80% participated in some sort of Jewish religious observance, but only 48% belonged to a congregation, and fewer than 16% attend regularly.<a href="#cite_note-harrisinteractive-208">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Judaism_and_other_religions">Judaism and other religions</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity_and_Judaism">Christianity and Judaism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christianity and Judaism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_antisemitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity and antisemitism">Christianity and antisemitism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian%E2%80%93Jewish_reconciliation" title="Christian–Jewish reconciliation">Christian–Jewish reconciliation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinagoga_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_la_Blanca_2_Toledo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Sinagoga_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_la_Blanca_2_Toledo.jpg/220px-Sinagoga_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_la_Blanca_2_Toledo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Sinagoga_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_la_Blanca_2_Toledo.jpg/330px-Sinagoga_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_la_Blanca_2_Toledo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Sinagoga_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_la_Blanca_2_Toledo.jpg/440px-Sinagoga_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_la_Blanca_2_Toledo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1333" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>The 12th century <a href="/wiki/Synagogue_of_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_la_Blanca" title="Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca">Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca</a> in <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a>, Spain was converted to a church shortly after anti-Jewish <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> in 1391</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> was originally a sect of <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a>, but the two religions <a href="/wiki/Split_of_early_Christianity_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Split of early Christianity and Judaism">diverged in the first century</a>. The differences between Christianity and Judaism originally centered on whether Jesus was the Jewish Messiah but eventually became irreconcilable. Major differences between the two faiths include the nature of the Messiah, of <a href="/wiki/Atonement_in_Judaism" title="Atonement in Judaism">atonement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_sin" title="Jewish views on sin">sin</a>, the status of God's commandments to Israel, and perhaps most significantly of the <a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">nature of God</a> himself. Due to these differences, Judaism traditionally regards Christianity as <a href="/wiki/Shituf" title="Shituf">Shituf</a> or worship of the God of Israel which is not monotheistic. Christianity has traditionally regarded Judaism as obsolete with the invention of Christianity and Jews as a people replaced by the Church, though a Christian belief in <a href="/wiki/Dual-covenant_theology" title="Dual-covenant theology">dual-covenant theology</a> emerged as a phenomenon following Christian reflection on how their theology influenced the Nazi <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a>.<a href="#cite_note-209">[208]</a> Since the time of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_during_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity during the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> upheld the <a href="/wiki/Sicut_Judaeis" title="Sicut Judaeis">Constitutio pro Judæis</a> (Formal Statement on the Jews), which stated: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">We decree that no Christian shall use violence to force them to be baptized, so long as they are unwilling and refuse.…Without the judgment of the political authority of the land, no Christian shall presume to wound them or kill them or rob them of their money or change the good customs that they have thus far enjoyed in the place where they live."<a href="#cite_note-BaskinSeeskin2010-210">[209]</a></blockquote> Until <a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">their emancipation</a> in the late 18th and the 19th century, Jews in Christian lands were subject to humiliating legal restrictions and limitations. They included provisions requiring Jews to wear specific and identifying clothing such as the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_hat" title="Jewish hat">Jewish hat</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge">yellow badge</a>, restricting Jews to certain cities and towns or in certain parts of towns (<a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_Europe" title="Jewish ghettos in Europe">ghettos</a>), and forbidding Jews to enter certain trades (for example selling new clothes in medieval <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>). Disabilities also included special taxes levied on Jews, exclusion from public life, restraints on the performance of religious ceremonies, and linguistic censorship. Some countries went even further and completely expelled Jews, for example, <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Expulsion" title="Edict of Expulsion">England</a> in 1290 (Jews were readmitted in 1655) and <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Jews_from_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of the Jews from Spain">Spain</a> in 1492 (readmitted in 1868). The first Jewish settlers in North America arrived in the Dutch colony of <a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a> in 1654; they were forbidden to hold public office, open a retail shop, or establish a synagogue. When the colony was seized by the British in 1664 Jewish rights remained unchanged, but by 1671 <a href="/wiki/Asser_Levy" title="Asser Levy">Asser Levy</a> was the first Jew to serve on a jury in North America.<a href="#cite_note-gotham-211">[210]</a> In 1791, <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">Revolutionary France</a> was the first country to abolish disabilities altogether, followed by <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> in 1848. <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom">Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom</a> was achieved in 1858 after an almost 30-year struggle championed by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Lyon_Goldsmid" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac Lyon Goldsmid">Isaac Lyon Goldsmid</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a> with the ability of Jews to sit in parliament with the passing of the <a href="/wiki/Jews_Relief_Act_1858" title="Jews Relief Act 1858">Jews Relief Act 1858</a>. The newly created <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> in 1871 abolished Jewish disabilities in Germany, which were reinstated in the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a> in 1935. Jewish life in Christian lands was marked by frequent <a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">blood libels</a>, expulsions, <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forced conversions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">massacres</a>. Religious prejudice was an underlying source against Jews in Europe. Christian rhetoric and antipathy towards Jews developed in the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">early years of Christianity</a> and was reinforced by ever increasing anti-Jewish measures over the ensuing centuries. The action taken by Christians against Jews included acts of violence, and murder culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HarriesAfter-213">[212]</a>: 21 <a href="#cite_note-Kung-214">[213]</a>: 169 <a href="#cite_note-Dawidowicz-215">[214]</a> These attitudes were reinforced by Christian preaching, in art and popular teaching for two millennia which expressed contempt for Jews,<a href="#cite_note-JCPSHorst-216">[215]</a> as well as statutes which were designed to humiliate and stigmatise Jews. The <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> was known for its <a href="/wiki/Kirchenkampf" title="Kirchenkampf">persecution of Christian Churches</a>; many of them, such as the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Confessing_Church" title="Confessing Church">Confessing Church</a> and the Catholic Church,<a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a>, aided and rescued Jews who were being targeted by the antireligious régime.<a href="#cite_note-Gottfried2001-218">[217]</a> The attitude of Christians and Christian Churches toward the Jewish people and Judaism have changed in a mostly positive direction since <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Pope <a href="/wiki/John_Paul_II" class="mw-redirect" title="John Paul II">John Paul II</a> and the Catholic Church have "upheld the Church's acceptance of the continuing and permanent election of the Jewish people" as well as a <a href="/wiki/Dual-covenant_theology" title="Dual-covenant theology">reaffirmation of the covenant</a> between <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> and the Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Wigoder1988-219">[218]</a> In December 2015, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Vatican</a> released a 10,000-word document that, among other things, stated that Catholics should work with Jews to fight antisemitism.<a href="#cite_note-news.va-220">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam_and_Judaism">Islam and Judaism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam and Judaism">Islam and Judaism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Essaouira_-_Fontaine_publique.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Essaouira_-_Fontaine_publique.jpg/220px-Essaouira_-_Fontaine_publique.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Essaouira_-_Fontaine_publique.jpg/330px-Essaouira_-_Fontaine_publique.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Essaouira_-_Fontaine_publique.jpg/440px-Essaouira_-_Fontaine_publique.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Muslim women in the <a href="/wiki/Mellah" title="Mellah">mellah</a> of <a href="/wiki/Essaouira" title="Essaouira">Essaouira</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cropped_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Cropped_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9.jpg/220px-Cropped_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Cropped_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9.jpg/330px-Cropped_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Cropped_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9.jpg/440px-Cropped_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1076" /></a><figcaption>The bimah of the <a href="/wiki/Ben_Ezra_Synagogue" title="Ben Ezra Synagogue">Ben Ezra Synagogue</a> in Cairo, Egypt</figcaption></figure> Both Judaism and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> track their origins from the patriarch Abraham, and they are therefore considered <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a>. In both Jewish and <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> tradition, the Jewish and <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab peoples</a> are descended from the two sons of Abraham—<a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ishmael" title="Ishmael">Ishmael</a>, respectively. While both religions are <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheistic</a> and share many commonalities, they differ based on the fact that Jews do not consider <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Jesus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> to be prophets. The religions' adherents have interacted with each other since the 7th century when <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> originated and spread in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a>. Indeed, the years 712 to 1066 CE under the <a href="/wiki/Ummayad" class="mw-redirect" title="Ummayad">Ummayad</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> rulers have been called the <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain</a>. Non-Muslim monotheists living in these countries, including Jews, were known as <a href="/wiki/Dhimmis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhimmis">dhimmis</a>. Dhimmis were allowed to practice their own religions and administer their own internal affairs, but they were subject to certain restrictions that were not imposed on Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis-84-221">[220]</a> For example, they had to pay the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a>, a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males,<a href="#cite_note-Lewis-84-221">[220]</a> and they were also forbidden to bear arms or testify in court cases involving Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-lewis14-222">[221]</a> Many of the laws regarding dhimmis were highly symbolic. For example, dhimmis in some countries were required to wear <a href="/wiki/Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge">distinctive clothing</a>, a practice not found in either the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Hadiths" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadiths">hadiths</a> but invented in <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and inconsistently enforced.<a href="#cite_note-lewis15-223">[222]</a> Jews in Muslim countries were not entirely free from persecution—for example, many were killed, exiled or forcibly converted in the 12th century, in <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, and by the rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Almohad" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad">Almohad</a> dynasty in North Africa and <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-stillman-224">[223]</a> as well as by the Zaydi imams of Yemen in the 17th century (see: <a href="/wiki/Mawza_Exile" title="Mawza Exile">Mawza Exile</a>). At times, Jews were also restricted in their choice of residence—in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, for example, Jews were confined to walled quarters (<a href="/wiki/Mellah" title="Mellah">mellahs</a>) beginning in the 15th century and increasingly since the early 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-lewis16-225">[224]</a> In the mid-20th century, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_and_Muslim_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries">Jews were expelled</a> from nearly all of the Arab countries.<a href="#cite_note-226">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[226]</a> Most have chosen to live in Israel. Today, antisemitic themes including <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a> have become commonplace in the propaganda of Islamic movements such as <a href="/wiki/Hizbullah" class="mw-redirect" title="Hizbullah">Hizbullah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hamas" title="Hamas">Hamas</a>, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Republic of Iran">Islamic Republic of Iran</a>, and even in the newspapers and other publications of <a href="/wiki/Refah_Partisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Refah Partisi">Refah Partisi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis_MEQ-228">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syncretic_movements_incorporating_Judaism">Syncretic movements incorporating Judaism</h3></div> There are some movements in other religions that include elements of Judaism. Among Christianity these are a number of denominations of ancient and contemporary <a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a>. The most well-known of these is <a href="/wiki/Messianic_Judaism" title="Messianic Judaism">Messianic Judaism</a>, a religious movement, which arose in the 1960s,<a href="#cite_note-Feher1998p140-229">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ariel2006p191b-230">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ariel2006p194a-231">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-Meltonp373a-232">[231]</a> In this, elements of the messianic traditions in Judaism,<a href="#cite_note-233">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[233]</a> are incorporated in, and melded with the <a href="/wiki/Christianity#Beliefs" title="Christianity">tenets of Christianity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Meltonp373a-232">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ariel2006p191a-235">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ariel2006p194b-236">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sherbok_179-237">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ariel2000p223-238">[237]</a> The movement generally states that <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> is the Jewish Messiah, that he is one of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Three Divine Persons</a>,<a href="#cite_note-UMJC-3-239">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trinitarianism-240">[239]</a> and that <a href="/wiki/Salvation_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvation (Christianity)">salvation</a> is only achieved through acceptance of Jesus as one's savior.<a href="#cite_note-JeC3-241">[240]</a> Some members of Messianic Judaism argue that it is a sect of Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-MJSelfID-242">[241]</a> Jewish organizations of every denomination reject this, stating that Messianic Judaism is a Christian sect, because it teaches creeds which are identical to those of <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Christianity" title="Pauline Christianity">Pauline Christianity</a>, and because the conditions for Messiah to have come accordingly within traditional Jewish thought have not yet been met.<a href="#cite_note-243">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-Denominations-244">[243]</a> Another religious movement is the <a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hebrew Israelite">Black Hebrew Israelite</a> group, which not to be confused with less syncretic <a href="/wiki/Black_Judaism" title="Black Judaism">Black Judaism</a> (a constellation of movements which, depending on their adherence to normative Jewish tradition, receive varying degrees of recognition by the broader Jewish community). Other examples of <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> include <a href="/wiki/Semitic_neopaganism" title="Semitic neopaganism">Semitic neopaganism</a>, loosely organized sects which incorporate <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess movement</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wiccan</a> beliefs with some Jewish religious practices;<a href="#cite_note-RaphaelMelissa-245">[244]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Jewish Buddhists</a>, another loosely organized group that incorporates elements of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and other Asian spirituality in their faith.<a href="#cite_note-246">[245]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal Jews</a> borrow freely and openly from Buddhism, <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a>, and other faiths.<a href="#cite_note-Magid2005-156">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegal2008123–129-157">[156]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah_Centre" title="Kabbalah Centre">Kabbalah Centre</a>, which employs teachers from multiple religions, is a one of "<a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> Judaism" movements<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003354–370"New_Age_Judaism"-247">[246]</a> that claims to popularize the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">kabbalah</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_mysticism" title="Jewish mysticism">Jewish esoteric tradition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-248">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Judaism" title="Criticism of Judaism">Criticism of Judaism</a></div> Criticism of Judaism may include those that require <a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">revisionism</a> to classical Orthodox Judaism, such as that of the modernized denomination of <a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist Judaism</a> as established by American rabbi <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Kaplan" title="Mordecai Kaplan">Mordecai Kaplan</a>, who believed that classical Orthodox Judaism is outdated as a religious belief on its own, and should represent the <a href="/wiki/Judaism_as_a_Civilization" title="Judaism as a Civilization">Jewish culture as a progressive civilization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-delusion-249">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[249]</a> Orthodox Jewish <a href="/wiki/Public_intellectual" class="mw-redirect" title="Public intellectual">public intellectual</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> <a href="/wiki/Yeshayahu_Leibowitz" title="Yeshayahu Leibowitz">Yeshayahu Leibowitz</a> regarded <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a> as a "historical distortion of the Jewish religion".<a href="#cite_note-251">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-252">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/24px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/36px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/48px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/31px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/47px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/62px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heaven_in_Judaism" title="Heaven in Judaism">Heaven in Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_21st-century_religious_leaders#Judaism" title="List of 21st-century religious leaders">List of 21st-century religious leaders#Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations#Jewish_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">List of religious organizations#Jewish organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_by_country" title="Judaism by country">Judaism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">Outline of Judaism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendes-Flohr2005_1-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFMendes-Flohr2005">Mendes-Flohr 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevenson20123-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevenson20123_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevenson2012">Levenson 2012</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehrman_2005-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Ehrman_2005_3-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Ehrman, Bart D.</a> (2005) [2003]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA95">"At Polar Ends of the Spectrum: Early Christian Ebionites and Marcionites"</a>. Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 95–112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0009640700110273">10.1017/s0009640700110273</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518249-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518249-1"><bdi>978-0-19-518249-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-6407">0009-6407</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003053097">2003053097</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:152458823">152458823</a>. Retrieved 20 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=At+Polar+Ends+of+the+Spectrum%3A+Early+Christian+Ebionites+and+Marcionites&rft.btitle=Lost+Christianities%3A+The+Battles+for+Scripture+and+the+Faiths+We+Never+Knew&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=95-112&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A152458823%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0009640700110273&rft.issn=0009-6407&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003053097&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518249-1&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DURdACxKubDIC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hurtado_2005-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Hurtado_2005_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurtado2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Hurtado" title="Larry Hurtado">Hurtado, Larry W.</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi5xIxgnNgcC&pg=PA13">"How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Approaches to Jesus-Devotion in Earliest Christianity"</a>. How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Historical Questions about Earliest Devotion to Jesus. <a href="/wiki/Grand_Rapids,_Michigan" title="Grand Rapids, Michigan">Grand Rapids, Michigan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge, UK</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wm._B._Eerdmans" class="mw-redirect" title="Wm. B. Eerdmans">Wm. B. Eerdmans</a>. pp. 13–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2861-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2861-3"><bdi>978-0-8028-2861-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+on+Earth+Did+Jesus+Become+a+God%3F+Approaches+to+Jesus-Devotion+in+Earliest+Christianity&rft.btitle=How+on+Earth+Did+Jesus+Become+a+God%3F+Historical+Questions+about+Earliest+Devotion+to+Jesus&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan+and+Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=13-55&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2861-3&rft.aulast=Hurtado&rft.aufirst=Larry+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXi5xIxgnNgcC%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Freeman_(historian)" title="Charles Freeman (historian)">Freeman, Charles</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5_in-6VLgRoC&pg=PA31">"Breaking Away: The First Christianities"</a>. A New History of Early Christianity. <a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. pp. 31–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12987%2F9780300166583">10.12987/9780300166583</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12581-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12581-8"><bdi>978-0-300-12581-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq44w">j.ctt1nq44w</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009012009">2009012009</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170124789">170124789</a>. Retrieved 20 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Breaking+Away%3A+The+First+Christianities&rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+Early+Christianity&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pages=31-46&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1nq44w%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12987%2F9780300166583&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009012009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170124789%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12581-8&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5_in-6VLgRoC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilken2013" class="citation book cs1">Wilken, Robert Louis (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA6">"Beginning in Jerusalem"</a>. 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Retrieved 20 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beginning+in+Jerusalem&rft.btitle=The+First+Thousand+Years%3A+A+Global+History+of+Christianity&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pages=6-16&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2012021755&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A160590164%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt32bd7m%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-300-11884-1&rft.aulast=Wilken&rft.aufirst=Robert+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiW1-JImrwQUC%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLietaert_Peerbolte2013" class="citation book cs1">Lietaert Peerbolte, Bert Jan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MoKxIeOTkqYC&pg=PA238">"How Antichrist Defeated Death: The Development of Christian Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Early Church"</a>. 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Retrieved 13 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+Antichrist+Defeated+Death%3A+The+Development+of+Christian+Apocalyptic+Eschatology+in+the+Early+Church&rft.btitle=Paul%2C+John%2C+and+Apocalyptic+Eschatology%3A+Studies+in+Honour+of+Martinus+C.+de+Boer&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Novum+Testamentum%3A+Supplements&rft.pages=238-255&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004250369_016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191738355%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0167-9732&rft.isbn=978-90-04-25026-0&rft.aulast=Lietaert+Peerbolte&rft.aufirst=Bert+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMoKxIeOTkqYC%26pg%3DPA238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JEjudaism-9"><a href="#cite_ref-JEjudaism_9-0">^</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohler1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kaufmann_Kohler" title="Kaufmann Kohler">Kohler, Kaufmann</a> (1901–1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/9028-judaism">"Judaism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/traditions/judaism">the original</a> on 27 August 2011. Retrieved 22 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Knowledge+Resources%3A+Judaism&rft.pub=Berkley+Center+for+Religion%2C+Peace%2C+and+World+Affairs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fberkleycenter.georgetown.edu%2Fresources%2Ftraditions%2Fjudaism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aish.com-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Aish.com_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFried2011" class="citation news cs1">Fried, Yerachmiel (18 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aish.com/what-is-torah/">"What is Torah?"</a>. Aish. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220311174152/https://aish.com/what-is-torah/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=What+is+Torah%3F.&rft.date=2011-08-18&rft.aulast=Fried&rft.aufirst=Yerachmiel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faish.com%2Fwhat-is-torah%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bamidbar_Rabah-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Bamidbar_Rabah_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/22645?lang=bi">"Bamidbar Rabah"</a>. sefaria.org. sefaria. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220311174951/https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/22645?lang=bi">Archived</a> from the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sefaria.org&rft.atitle=Bamidbar+Rabah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sefaria.org%2Fsheets%2F22645%3Flang%3Dbi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Islam,_Judaism,_and_Christianity:_Theological_and_Historical_Affiliations-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Islam,_Judaism,_and_Christianity:_Theological_and_Historical_Affiliations_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeribert_Busse1998" class="citation book cs1">Heribert Busse (1998). Islam, Judaism, and Christianity: Theological and Historical Affiliations. Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 63–112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-144-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-144-5"><bdi>978-1-55876-144-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%2C+Judaism%2C+and+Christianity%3A+Theological+and+Historical+Affiliations&rft.pages=63-112&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-144-5&rft.au=Heribert+Busse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Historical_Muhammad-16"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Historical_Muhammad_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrving_M._Zeitlin2007" class="citation book cs1">Irving M. Zeitlin (2007). The Historical Muhammad. <a href="/wiki/Polity_(publisher)" title="Polity (publisher)">Polity</a>. pp. 92–93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3999-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3999-4"><bdi>978-0-7456-3999-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Muhammad&rft.pages=92-93&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-3999-4&rft.au=Irving+M.+Zeitlin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cambridge_University_Historical_Series-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Historical_Series_17-0">^</a> Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p.40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200378–92-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200378–92_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200378–92_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200378–92_18-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeusnerAvery-Peck2003">Neusner & Avery-Peck 2003</a>, pp. 78–92. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003_19-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003_19-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003_19-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffman2003_19-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchiffman2003">Schiffman 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Brabbinic-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brabbinic_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brabbinic_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/rabbinic-judaism">"Rabbinic Judaism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> Online. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200612181058/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rabbinic-Judaism">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rabbinic+Judaism&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Frabbinic-judaism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-What_is_the_oral_Torah?-21"><a href="#cite_ref-What_is_the_oral_Torah?_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torah.org/learning/basics/primer/torah/oraltorah.html">"What is the oral Torah?"</a>. Torah.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020112052251/http://www.torah.org/learning/basics/primer/torah/oraltorah.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2002. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+the+oral+Torah%3F&rft.pub=Torah.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.torah.org%2Flearning%2Fbasics%2Fprimer%2Ftorah%2Foraltorah.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200358–77-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200358–77_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck200358–77_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeusnerAvery-Peck2003">Neusner & Avery-Peck 2003</a>, pp. 58–77. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bsadducee-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Bsadducee_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sadducee">"Sadducee"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> Online. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308032107/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sadducee">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 7 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sadducee&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FSadducee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JEkaraites-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JEkaraites_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JEkaraites_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JEkaraites_24-2">c</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohlerHarkavy1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kaufmann_Kohler" title="Kaufmann Kohler">Kohler, Kaufmann</a>; <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Harkavy" title="Abraham Harkavy">Harkavy, Abraham</a> (1901–1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/9211-karaites-and-karaism">"Karaites and Karaism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Karaites+and+Karaism&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rft.aulast=Kohler&rft.aufirst=Kaufmann&rft.au=Harkavy%2C+Abraham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F9211-karaites-and-karaism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mendes-Flohr2000-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Mendes-Flohr2000_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMendes-Flohr2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Mendes-Flohr" title="Paul R. Mendes-Flohr">Mendes-Flohr, Paul</a> (2003) [2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bEyD_MaeqP4C&pg=PA461">"Secular Forms of Jewishness"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a>; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bEyD_MaeqP4C">The Blackwell Companion to Judaism</a> (Reprint ed.). Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publ. pp. 461–476. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57718-058-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-57718-058-5"><bdi>1-57718-058-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230710092803/https://books.google.com/books?id=bEyD_MaeqP4C">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Secular+Forms+of+Jewishness&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass&rft.pages=461-476&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publ.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-57718-058-5&rft.aulast=Mendes-Flohr&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbEyD_MaeqP4C%26pg%3DPA461&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005221"Humanistic_Judaism"-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005221"Humanistic_Judaism"_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005221"Humanistic_Judaism"_26-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKareshHurvitz2005">Karesh & Hurvitz 2005</a>, p. 221, "Humanistic Judaism". </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAckerman2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ackerman, Ari (May 2010). "Eliezer Schweid on the Religious Dimension of a Secular Jewish Renewal". Modern Judaism. 30 (2): 209–228. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmj%2Fkjq005">10.1093/mj/kjq005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0276-1114">0276-1114</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40604707">40604707</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143106665">143106665</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Judaism&rft.atitle=Eliezer+Schweid+on+the+Religious+Dimension+of+a+Secular+Jewish+Renewal&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=209-228&rft.date=2010-05&rft.issn=0276-1114&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143106665%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40604707%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmj%2Fkjq005&rft.aulast=Ackerman&rft.aufirst=Ari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Troen, Ilan (April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295688653_Secular_Judaism_in_Israel">Secular Judaism in Israel</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230731050337/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295688653_Secular_Judaism_in_Israel">Archived</a> 31 July 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Society_(journal)" title="Society (journal)">Society</a>, Vol. 53, Issue 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRudavsky1979">Rudavsky 1979</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael1984-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael1984_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaphael1984">Raphael 1984</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007_31-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007_31-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2007_31-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacobs2007">Jacobs 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979218–270,_367–402-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979218–270,_367–402_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979218–270,_367–402_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRudavsky1979">Rudavsky 1979</a>, pp. 218–270, 367–402. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael1984125–176-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael1984125–176_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael1984125–176_33-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaphael1984">Raphael 1984</a>, pp. 125–176. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003311–333-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003311–333_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003311–333_34-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeusnerAvery-Peck2003">Neusner & Avery-Peck 2003</a>, pp. 311–333. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Orthodox_Judaism"-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Orthodox_Judaism"_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Orthodox_Judaism"_35-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacobs2003">Jacobs 2003</a>, "Orthodox Judaism". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979317–346-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979317–346_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979317–346_36-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRudavsky1979">Rudavsky 1979</a>, pp. 317–346. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael198479–124-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael198479–124_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael198479–124_37-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaphael1984">Raphael 1984</a>, pp. 79–124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003334–353-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003334–353_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003334–353_38-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeusnerAvery-Peck2003">Neusner & Avery-Peck 2003</a>, pp. 334–353. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Conservative_Judaism"-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Conservative_Judaism"_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Conservative_Judaism"_39-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacobs2003">Jacobs 2003</a>, "Conservative Judaism". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979156–185,_285–316-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979156–185,_285–316_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979156–185,_285–316_40-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRudavsky1979">Rudavsky 1979</a>, pp. 156–185, 285–316. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael19841–78-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael19841–78_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael19841–78_41-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaphael1984">Raphael 1984</a>, pp. 1–78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003291–310-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003291–310_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003291–310_42-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeusnerAvery-Peck2003">Neusner & Avery-Peck 2003</a>, pp. 291–310. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Reform_Judaism"-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Reform_Judaism"_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Reform_Judaism"_43-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacobs2003">Jacobs 2003</a>, "Reform Judaism". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005419–422"Reform_Judaism"-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005419–422"Reform_Judaism"_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005419–422"Reform_Judaism"_44-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKareshHurvitz2005">Karesh & Hurvitz 2005</a>, pp. 419–422, "Reform Judaism". </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica_Online_Encyclopedia:_Bet_Din-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_Online_Encyclopedia:_Bet_Din_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63134/bet-din">"Bet Din"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> Online. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150427092415/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63134/bet-din">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bet+Din&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F63134%2Fbet-din&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ethnoreligious-46"><a href="#cite_ref-Ethnoreligious_46-0">^</a> See, for example, <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Dash_Moore" title="Deborah Dash Moore">Deborah Dash Moore</a>, American Jewish Identity Politics, University of Michigan Press, 2008, p. 303; Ewa Morawska, Insecure Prosperity: Small-Town Jews in Industrial America, 1890–1940, Princeton University Press, 1999. p. 217; Peter Y. Medding, Values, interests and identity: Jews and politics in a changing world, Volume 11 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 64; Ezra Mendelsohn, People of the city: Jews and the urban challenge, Volume 15 of Studies in contemporary Jewry, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 55; Louis Sandy Maisel, Ira N. Forman, Donald Altschiller, Charles Walker Bassett, Jews in American politics: essays, <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>, 2004, p. 158; <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Martin_Lipset" title="Seymour Martin Lipset">Seymour Martin Lipset</a>, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword, W.W. Norton & Company, 1997, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDashefskyDella-PergolaSheskin2021" class="citation report cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Dashefsky" title="Arnold Dashefsky">Dashefsky, Arnold</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sergio_Della_Pergola" title="Sergio Della Pergola">Della-Pergola, Sergio</a>; Sheskin, Ira, eds. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishdatabank.org/api/download/?studyId=1185&mediaId=bjdb%5c2021_World_Jewish_Population_AJYB_(DellaPergola)_DB_Public.pdf">World Jewish Population</a> (PDF) (Report). <a href="/wiki/Berman_Jewish_DataBank" class="mw-redirect" title="Berman Jewish DataBank">Berman Jewish DataBank</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230906084243/https://www.jewishdatabank.org/api/download/?studyId=1185&mediaId=bjdb%5C2021_World_Jewish_Population_AJYB_(DellaPergola)_DB_Public.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 6 September 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=World+Jewish+Population&rft.pub=Berman+Jewish+DataBank&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishdatabank.org%2Fapi%2Fdownload%2F%3FstudyId%3D1185%26mediaId%3Dbjdb%255c2021_World_Jewish_Population_AJYB_%28DellaPergola%29_DB_Public.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErnest_KrauszGitta_Tulea1997" class="citation book cs1">Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dnxv-Mlz0JIC&pg=PA90">Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]</a>. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2689-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2689-1"><bdi>978-1-4128-2689-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Survival%3A+The+Identity+Problem+at+the+Close+of+the+Twentieth+Century%3B+%26%2391%3B...+International+Workshop+at+Bar-Ilan+University+on+the+18th+and+19th+of+March%2C+1997%26%2393%3B&rft.pages=90-&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-2689-1&rft.au=Ernest+Krausz&rft.au=Gitta+Tulea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddnxv-Mlz0JIC%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> "A person born Jewish who refutes Judaism may continue to assert a Jewish identity, and if he or she does not convert to another religion, even religious Jews will recognize the person as a Jew" </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/jewish-population-by-country">"Jewish Population by Country 2023"</a>. worldpopulationreview.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203455/https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/jewish-population-by-country">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 24 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=worldpopulationreview.com&rft.atitle=Jewish+Population+by+Country+2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworldpopulationreview.com%2Fcountry-rankings%2Fjewish-population-by-country&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LSJverb-50"><a href="#cite_ref-LSJverb_50-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0058:entry=*)ioudai/zw">ἰουδαΐζειν</a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a>; <a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-bibleinterp_mason3-51"><a href="#cite_ref-bibleinterp_mason3_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMason2009" class="citation web cs1">Mason, Steve (August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/mason3">"Methods and Categories: Judaism and Gospel"</a>. bibleinterp.arizona.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200729033722/https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/mason3">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bibleinterp.arizona.edu&rft.atitle=Methods+and+Categories%3A+Judaism+and+Gospel&rft.date=2009-08&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbibleinterp.arizona.edu%2Farticles%2Fmason3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-askoxford8-52"><a href="#cite_ref-askoxford8_52-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050507081307/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/judaism?view=uk">Judaism</a>, AskOxford </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_53-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2021" class="citation web cs1">Schwartz, Daniel R. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240316100256/https://www.thetorah.com/article/judea-versus-judaism-between-1-and-2-maccabees">"Judea versus Judaism: Between 1 and 2 Maccabees"</a>. TheTorah.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetorah.com/article/judea-versus-judaism-between-1-and-2-maccabees">the original</a> on 16 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheTorah.com&rft.atitle=Judea+versus+Judaism%3A+Between+1+and+2+Maccabees&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Daniel+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetorah.com%2Farticle%2Fjudea-versus-judaism-between-1-and-2-maccabees&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-influence-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-influence_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-influence_54-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkarsaune2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Oskar_Skarsaune" title="Oskar Skarsaune">Skarsaune, Oskar</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2q6qTb-A7GwC&pg=RA1-PA39">In the Shadow of the Temple: Jewish Influences on Early Christianity</a>. InterVarsity Press. pp. 39ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2670-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2670-4"><bdi>978-0-8308-2670-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Shadow+of+the+Temple%3A+Jewish+Influences+on+Early+Christianity&rft.pages=39ff&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-2670-4&rft.aulast=Skarsaune&rft.aufirst=Oskar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2q6qTb-A7GwC%26pg%3DRA1-PA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Shaye J.D. Cohen 1999 The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties University of California Press. 105–106 </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> "He anon renouncyd his Iudaisme or Moysen Lawe, And was cristenyd, and lyued after as a Cristen Man." (Robert Fabian, New Chronicles of England and France, reprint London 1811, p. 334.) </li> <li id="cite_note-dictionary-57"><a href="#cite_ref-dictionary_57-0">^</a> The Oxford English Dictionary. </li> <li id="cite_note-jewishencyclopedia.com-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jewishencyclopedia.com_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jewishencyclopedia.com_58-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilhelm_Bacher" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Wilhelm Bacher. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14213-talmud">"Talmud"</a>. Jewish Encyclopedia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190503060143/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14213-talmud">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Talmud&rft.btitle=Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.au=Wilhelm+Bacher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F14213-talmud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-yehezkal-59"><a href="#cite_ref-yehezkal_59-0">^</a> Yehezkal Kauffman, The Religion of Israel </li> <li id="cite_note-biblical-60"><a href="#cite_ref-biblical_60-0">^</a> Robert Alter The Art of Biblical Poetry </li> <li id="cite_note-speiser-61"><a href="#cite_ref-speiser_61-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/E._A._Speiser" class="mw-redirect" title="E. A. Speiser">E. A. Speiser</a> Genesis (The Anchor Bible) </li> <li id="cite_note-history-62"><a href="#cite_ref-history_62-0">^</a> John Bright A History of Israel </li> <li id="cite_note-history12-63"><a href="#cite_ref-history12_63-0">^</a> Martin Noth The History of Israel </li> <li id="cite_note-ephraim-64"><a href="#cite_ref-ephraim_64-0">^</a> Ephraim Urbach The Sages </li> <li id="cite_note-beginnings-65"><a href="#cite_ref-beginnings_65-0">^</a> Shaye Cohen The beginnings of Jewishness </li> <li id="cite_note-goddesses-66"><a href="#cite_ref-goddesses_66-0">^</a> John Day Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-Broshi_2001_174-67"><a href="#cite_ref-Broshi_2001_174_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroshi2001" class="citation book cs1">Broshi, Maguen (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PAPA174">Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84127-201-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84127-201-6"><bdi>978-1-84127-201-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203455/https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PAPA174">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bread%2C+Wine%2C+Walls+and+Scrolls&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84127-201-6&rft.aulast=Broshi&rft.aufirst=Maguen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DetTUEorS1zMC%26pg%3DPAPA174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005507-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005507_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKareshHurvitz2005">Karesh & Hurvitz 2005</a>, p. 507. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarna1966" class="citation book cs1">Sarna, Nahum M. (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V8KGDwAAQBAJ&q=Nahum++1969+Understanding+Genesis">Understanding Genesis</a>. Schocken Books. pp. 9–10, 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-0253-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-0253-3"><bdi>978-0-8052-0253-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203455/https://books.google.com/books?id=V8KGDwAAQBAJ&q=Nahum++1969+Understanding+Genesis">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Genesis&rft.pages=9-10%2C+14&rft.pub=Schocken+Books&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-8052-0253-3&rft.aulast=Sarna&rft.aufirst=Nahum+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV8KGDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DNahum%2B%2B1969%2BUnderstanding%2BGenesis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-google1-70"><a href="#cite_ref-google1_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeusner2003" class="citation book cs1">Neusner, Jacob (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=asYoIwz9z2UC&pg=PA230">"Defining Judaism"</a>. In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan (eds.). The Blackwell companion to Judaism. Blackwell. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57718-059-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57718-059-3"><bdi>978-1-57718-059-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203503/https://books.google.com/books?id=asYoIwz9z2UC&pg=PA230">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Defining+Judaism&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+companion+to+Judaism&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-57718-059-3&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DasYoIwz9z2UC%26pg%3DPA230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-everlasting-71"><a href="#cite_ref-everlasting_71-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0117.htm#3">Gen. 17:3–8</a> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a> 17: 3–8: Abram fell facedown, and God said to him, "As for me, this is my covenant with you: You will be the father of many nations. No longer will you be called Abram; your name will be Abraham, for I have made you a father of many nations. I will make you very fruitful; I will make nations of you, and kings will come from you. I will establish my covenant as an everlasting covenant between me and you and your descendants after you for the generations to come, to be your God and the God of your descendants after you. The whole land of Canaan, where you are now an alien, I will give as an everlasting possession to you and your descendants after you; and I will be their God;" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0122.htm#17">Gen. 22:17–18</a> Genesis 22: 17–18: I will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore. Your descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies, and through your offspring, all nations on earth will be blessed, because you have obeyed me." </li> <li id="cite_note-deuteronomy-72"><a href="#cite_ref-deuteronomy_72-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Exodus</a> 20:3 "You shall have no other gods before me; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0506.htm#5">Deut. 6:5</a> <a href="/wiki/Deuteronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a> 6:5 "Love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength." </li> <li id="cite_note-leviticus-73"><a href="#cite_ref-leviticus_73-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0319.htm#18">Lev. 19:18</a> <a href="/wiki/Leviticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Leviticus">Leviticus</a> 19:18: "'Do not seek revenge or bear a grudge against one of your people, but love your neighbor as yourself. I am the Lord" </li> <li id="cite_note-publishing-74"><a href="#cite_ref-publishing_74-0">^</a> Kadushin, Max, 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. p. 194 </li> <li id="cite_note-publishing2-75"><a href="#cite_ref-publishing2_75-0">^</a> Kadushin, Max, 1972 The Rabbinic Mind. New York: Bloch Publishing Company. p. 203 </li> <li id="cite_note-mechon-mamre-76"><a href="#cite_ref-mechon-mamre_76-0">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Books_of_Kings" title="Books of Kings">Books of Melachim (Kings)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Book of Yeshaiahu (Isaiah)</a> in the Tanakh contain a few of the many Biblical accounts of Israelite kings and segments of ancient Israel's population worshiping other gods. For example: King Solomon's "wives turned away his heart after other gods…[and he] did that which was evil in the sight of the LORD, and went not fully after the LORD" (elaborated in 1 Melachim 11:4–10); King Ahab "went and served Baal, and worshiped him…And Ahab made the Asherah [a pagan place of worship]; and Ahab did yet more to provoke the LORD, the God of Israel, than all the kings of Israel that were before him" (1 Melachim 16:31–33); the prophet <a href="/wiki/Isaiah" title="Isaiah">Isaiah</a> condemns the people who "prepare a table for [the idol] Fortune, and that offer mingled wine in full measure unto [the idol] Destiny" (Yeshaiahu 65:11–12). Translation: JPS (<a href="/wiki/Jewish_Publication_Society" title="Jewish Publication Society">Jewish Publication Society</a>) edition of the Tanakh, from 1917, available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0.htm">Mechon Mamre</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100612191925/http://mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0.htm">Archived</a> 12 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Jewish_roots_of_Christological_monotheism:_papers_from_the_St._Andrews_conference_on_the_historical_origins_of_the_worship_of_Jesus-77"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Jewish_roots_of_Christological_monotheism:_papers_from_the_St._Andrews_conference_on_the_historical_origins_of_the_worship_of_Jesus_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewmanDavilaLewis1999" class="citation book cs1">Newman, Carey C.; Davila, James R.; Lewis, Gladys S., eds. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9ST5wISvTaQC&q=Jewish+monotheism">The Jewish roots of Christological monotheism: papers from the St. Andrews conference on the historical origins of the worship of Jesus</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11361-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11361-9"><bdi>978-90-04-11361-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418075120/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ST5wISvTaQC&q=Jewish+monotheism">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+roots+of+Christological+monotheism%3A+papers+from+the+St.+Andrews+conference+on+the+historical+origins+of+the+worship+of+Jesus&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11361-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9ST5wISvTaQC%26q%3DJewish%2Bmonotheism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaimes2013" class="citation web cs1">Maimes, Steven (January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283487502">"Is There a Jewish Theology or Not?"</a>. Retrieved 19 November 2018 – via ResearchGate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Is+There+a+Jewish+Theology+or+Not%3F&rft.date=2013-01&rft.aulast=Maimes&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F283487502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeptimus" class="citation news cs1">Septimus, Daniel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/must-a-jew-believe-in-god/">"Must a Jew Believe in God?"</a>. My Jewish Learning. 70 / Faces Media. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190425200432/https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/must-a-jew-believe-in-god/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=My+Jewish+Learning&rft.atitle=Must+a+Jew+Believe+in+God%3F&rft.aulast=Septimus&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.myjewishlearning.com%2Farticle%2Fmust-a-jew-believe-in-god%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jovanovich-80"><a href="#cite_ref-jovanovich_80-0">^</a> Steinberg, Milton 1947 Basic Judaism New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 36 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELangton2011161–4-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangton2011161–4_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLangton2011">Langton 2011</a>, pp. 161–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQueen_IIProtheroShattuck_Jr.1996" class="citation book cs1">Queen II, Edward L.; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Prothero" title="Stephen Prothero">Prothero, Stephen R.</a>; Shattuck Jr., Gardiner H. (1996). The Encyclopedia of American Religious History. Vol. 2. New York: Proseworks. p. 485. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-3545-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-3545-8"><bdi>0-8160-3545-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+American+Religious+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=485&rft.pub=Proseworks&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8160-3545-8&rft.aulast=Queen+II&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rft.au=Prothero%2C+Stephen+R.&rft.au=Shattuck+Jr.%2C+Gardiner+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JEarticles-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JEarticles_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JEarticles_83-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JEarticles_83-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JEarticles_83-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JEarticles_83-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JEarticles_83-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JEarticles_83-6">g</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohlerHirsch1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kaufmann_Kohler" title="Kaufmann Kohler">Kohler, Kaufmann</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emil_G._Hirsch" title="Emil G. Hirsch">Hirsch, Emil G.</a> (1901–1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1832-articles-of-faith">"Articles of Faith"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Articles+of+Faith&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rft.aulast=Kohler&rft.aufirst=Kaufmann&rft.au=Hirsch%2C+Emil+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F1832-articles-of-faith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011217–18"Dogma"-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011217–18"Dogma"_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011217–18"Dogma"_84-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBerlin2011">Berlin 2011</a>, pp. 217–18, "Dogma". </li> <li id="cite_note-montpelier-85"><a href="#cite_ref-montpelier_85-0">^</a> Rabbi S. of Montpelier, Yad Rama, Y. Alfacher, Rosh Amanah. </li> <li id="cite_note-mesora-86"><a href="#cite_ref-mesora_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mesora.org/13principles.html">"Maimonides' 13 Foundations of Judaism"</a>. Mesora. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160423015645/http://www.mesora.org/13principles.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2009. <q>However if he rejects one of these fundamentals he leaves the nation and is a denier of the fundamentals and is called a heretic, a denier, etc.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Maimonides%27+13+Foundations+of+Judaism&rft.pub=Mesora&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mesora.org%2F13principles.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maimonides,_13_Principles_of_Faith-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Maimonides,_13_Principles_of_Faith_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabbi_Mordechai_Blumenfeld2009" class="citation web cs1">Rabbi Mordechai Blumenfeld (9 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aish.com/sp/ph/48923722.html">"Maimonides, 13 Principles of Faith"</a>. Aish HaTorah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190927055733/https://www.aish.com/sp/ph/48923722.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2009. <q>According to the Rambam, their acceptance defines the minimum requirement necessary for one to relate to the Almighty and His Torah as a member of the People of Israel</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Maimonides%2C+13+Principles+of+Faith&rft.pub=Aish+HaTorah&rft.date=2009-05-09&rft.au=Rabbi+Mordechai+Blumenfeld&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aish.com%2Fsp%2Fph%2F48923722.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-learning-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-learning_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-learning_88-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-learning_88-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_Septimus" class="citation web cs1">Daniel Septimus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myjewishlearning.com/beliefs/Theology/Thinkers_and_Thought/Doctrine_and_Dogma/The_Middle_Ages/Principles_of_Faith.shtml">"The Thirteen Principles of Faith"</a>. MyJewishLearning.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150403004645/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/beliefs/Theology/Thinkers_and_Thought/Doctrine_and_Dogma/The_Middle_Ages/Principles_of_Faith.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Thirteen+Principles+of+Faith&rft.pub=MyJewishLearning.com&rft.au=Daniel+Septimus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.myjewishlearning.com%2Fbeliefs%2FTheology%2FThinkers_and_Thought%2FDoctrine_and_Dogma%2FThe_Middle_Ages%2FPrinciples_of_Faith.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_JPS_guide_to_Jewish_traditions-89"><a href="#cite_ref-The_JPS_guide_to_Jewish_traditions_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_L._Eisenberg2004" class="citation book cs1">Ronald L. Eisenberg (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qGHi_9K154C&pg=RA13-PA509">The JPS guide to Jewish traditions</a>. Jewish Publication Society. p. 509. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0760-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0760-6"><bdi>978-0-8276-0760-6</bdi></a>. <q>The concept of "dogma" is…not a basic idea in Judaism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+JPS+guide+to+Jewish+traditions&rft.pages=509&rft.pub=Jewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8276-0760-6&rft.au=Ronald+L.+Eisenberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qGHi_9K154C%26pg%3DRA13-PA509&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-medieval-90"><a href="#cite_ref-medieval_90-0">^</a> Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought, Menachem Kellner. </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Thirteen_Principles_of_the_Jewish_Faith-91"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Thirteen_Principles_of_the_Jewish_Faith_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hebrew4christians.net/Scripture/Shloshah-Asar_Ikkarim/shloshah-asar_ikkarim.html">"The Thirteen Principles of the Jewish Faith"</a>. Hebrew4Christians. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525144323/http://www.hebrew4christians.net/Scripture/Shloshah-Asar_Ikkarim/shloshah-asar_ikkarim.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Thirteen+Principles+of+the+Jewish+Faith&rft.pub=Hebrew4Christians&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hebrew4christians.net%2FScripture%2FShloshah-Asar_Ikkarim%2Fshloshah-asar_ikkarim.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-What_Do_Jews_Believe?-92"><a href="#cite_ref-What_Do_Jews_Believe?_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mechon-mamre.org/jewfaq/beliefs.htm">"What Do Jews Believe?"</a>. Mechon Mamre. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090406081613/http://www.mechon-mamre.org/jewfaq/beliefs.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2009. Retrieved 13 April 2009. <q>The closest that anyone has ever come to creating a widely accepted list of Jewish beliefs is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Do+Jews+Believe%3F&rft.pub=Mechon+Mamre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mechon-mamre.org%2Fjewfaq%2Fbeliefs.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-traditions-93"><a href="#cite_ref-traditions_93-0">^</a> The JPS guide to Jewish traditions, p. 510, "The one that eventually secured almost universal acceptance was the Thirteen Principles of faith" </li> <li id="cite_note-ontario-94"><a href="#cite_ref-ontario_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201105234706/http://www.religioustolerance.org/jud_desc.htm">"Description of Judaism, Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance"</a>. Religioustolerance.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religioustolerance.org/jud_desc.htm">the original</a> on 5 November 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Description+of+Judaism%2C+Ontario+Consultants+on+Religious+Tolerance&rft.pub=Religioustolerance.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.religioustolerance.org%2Fjud_desc.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-How_Do_You_Know_the_Exodus_Really_Happened?-95"><a href="#cite_ref-How_Do_You_Know_the_Exodus_Really_Happened?_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRietti,_Rabbi_Jonathan" class="citation web cs1">Rietti, Rabbi Jonathan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040918062910/http://jewishinspiration.com/tape.php?tape_id=41">"How Do You Know the Exodus Really Happened?"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishinspiration.com/tape.php?tape_id=41">the original</a> on 18 September 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Do+You+Know+the+Exodus+Really+Happened%3F&rft.au=Rietti%2C+Rabbi+Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishinspiration.com%2Ftape.php%3Ftape_id%3D41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> The word "emunah" has been translated incorrectly by the King James Bible as merely "belief" or "faith", when in actuality, it means conviction, which is a much more emphatic knowledge of God based on experience. </li> <li id="cite_note-sacred-texts-96"><a href="#cite_ref-sacred-texts_96-0">^</a> M. San 10:1. Translation available here <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://sacred-texts.com/jud/tsa/tsa37.htm">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100414001914/http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/tsa/tsa37.htm">Archived</a> 14 April 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKosior2015" class="citation book cs1">Kosior, Wojciech (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/15006583">"Some Remarks on the Self-Images of the Modern Judaism. Textual Analysis"</a>. In Piotr Mróz (ed.). Filozofia kultury. Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński. pp. 91–106. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817034301/https://www.academia.edu/15006583">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Some+Remarks+on+the+Self-Images+of+the+Modern+Judaism.+Textual+Analysis&rft.btitle=Filozofia+kultury&rft.place=Krak%C3%B3w&rft.pages=91-106&rft.pub=Uniwersytet+Jagiello%C5%84ski&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Kosior&rft.aufirst=Wojciech&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F15006583&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tanakh-98"><a href="#cite_ref-tanakh_98-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010219104140/http://www.ou.org/about/judaism/tanakh.htm">"Judaism 101: A Glossary of Basic Jewish Terms and Concepts"</a>. Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations in America. 12 April 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ou.org/about/judaism/tanakh.htm">the original</a> on 19 February 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Judaism+101%3A+A+Glossary+of+Basic+Jewish+Terms+and+Concepts&rft.date=2006-04-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ou.org%2Fabout%2Fjudaism%2Ftanakh.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanzinger" class="citation web cs1">Danzinger, Eliezer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/541686/jewish/How-Many-of-the-Torahs-Commandments-Still-Apply.htm">"How Many of the Torah's Commandments Still Apply?"</a>. Chabad.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170615042210/http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/541686/jewish/How-Many-of-the-Torahs-Commandments-Still-Apply.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chabad.org&rft.atitle=How+Many+of+the+Torah%27s+Commandments+Still+Apply%3F&rft.aulast=Danzinger&rft.aufirst=Eliezer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chabad.org%2Flibrary%2Farticle_cdo%2Faid%2F541686%2Fjewish%2FHow-Many-of-the-Torahs-Commandments-Still-Apply.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Codex Judaica Kantor 2006, p. 146" (as cited on <a href="/wiki/Judah_haNasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah haNasi">Judah haNasi</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Abraham ben David, Seder Ha-Kabbalah Leharavad, Jerusalem 1971, p.16 (Hebrew) (as cited on <a href="/wiki/Judah_haNasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah haNasi">Judah haNasi</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStudent" class="citation web cs1">Student, Gil. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aishdas.org/student/oral.htm">"Proofs for the Oral Law"</a>. The AishDas Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180308/http://www.aishdas.org/student/oral.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+AishDas+Society&rft.atitle=Proofs+for+the+Oral+Law&rft.aulast=Student&rft.aufirst=Gil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aishdas.org%2Fstudent%2Foral.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-translated-103"><a href="#cite_ref-translated_103-0">^</a> The Prayer book: Weekday, Sabbath, and Festival translated and arranged by Ben Zion Bokser. New York: Hebrew Publishing Company. pp. 9–10 </li> <li id="cite_note-publishing3-104"><a href="#cite_ref-publishing3_104-0">^</a> Kadushin, Max 1972 The Rabbinic Mind New York: Bloch Publishing. p. 213 </li> <li id="cite_note-invitation-105"><a href="#cite_ref-invitation_105-0">^</a> Neusner, Jacob 2003 Invitation to the Talmud Stipf and Son, Oregon xvii–xxii </li> <li id="cite_note-indeterminacy-106"><a href="#cite_ref-indeterminacy_106-0">^</a> Stern, David "Midrash and Indeterminacy" in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), p. 151. </li> <li id="cite_note-indeterminacy4-107"><a href="#cite_ref-indeterminacy4_107-0">^</a> Neusner, Jacob 2003 Invitation to the Talmud Stipf and Son, Oregon xvii-vix; Steinsaltz, Adin 1976 The Essential Talmud New York: Basic Books. 3–9; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95; Stern, David "Midrash and Indeterminacy" in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 132–161 </li> <li id="cite_note-indeterminacy5-108"><a href="#cite_ref-indeterminacy5_108-0">^</a> Stern, David "Midrash and Indeterminacy" in Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-introduction-109"><a href="#cite_ref-introduction_109-0">^</a> Cohen, Abraham 1949 Everyman's Talmud New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95 </li> <li id="cite_note-introduction6-110"><a href="#cite_ref-introduction6_110-0">^</a> Cohen, Abraham 1949 Everyman's Talmud New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. xxiv; Steinsaltz, Adin 1976 The Essential Talmud New Yorki: Basic Books. 222; Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. 95 </li> <li id="cite_note-introduction7-111"><a href="#cite_ref-introduction7_111-0">^</a> Strack, Hermann 1980 Introduction to the Midrash and Talmud New York: Atheneum. p. 95 </li> <li id="cite_note-jerusalem-112"><a href="#cite_ref-jerusalem_112-0">^</a> סדור רינת ישראל לבני חוײל Jerusalem: 1974, pp. 38–39 </li> <li id="cite_note-congregations-113"><a href="#cite_ref-congregations_113-0">^</a> Chief Rabbi Sir Jonathan Sacks, 2006 The Koren Sacks Siddur: Hebrew/English Prayer Book: The Authorized Daily Prayer Book of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth London: Harper Collins Publishers pp. 54–55 </li> <li id="cite_note-publications-114"><a href="#cite_ref-publications_114-0">^</a> Nosson Scherman 2003 The Complete Artscroll Siddur Third Edition Brooklyn, NY: Mesorah Publications pp. 49–53 </li> <li id="cite_note-publication-115"><a href="#cite_ref-publication_115-0">^</a> Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi, Nissen Mangel, 2003 Siddur Tehillat Hashem Kehot Publication Society. pp. 24–25 </li> <li id="cite_note-A_radical_Jew:_Paul_and_the_politics_of_identity-116"><a href="#cite_ref-A_radical_Jew:_Paul_and_the_politics_of_identity_116-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyarin1994" class="citation book cs1">Boyarin, Daniel (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft7w10086w&chunk.id=introduction&toc.depth=1&toc.id=introduction&brand=ucpress">"Introduction"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view%3bjsessionid=CVFQtGjpR4aPh1TA?docId=ft7w10086w&query=&brand=ucpress">A radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 13–38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08592-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08592-3"><bdi>978-0-520-08592-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/93036269">93036269</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203503/https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view%3Bjsessionid=CVFQtGjpR4aPh1TA?docId=ft7w10086w&query=&brand=ucpress">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 15 June 2006. <q>Paul was motivated by a Hellenistic desire for the One, which among other things produced an ideal of a universal human essence, beyond difference and hierarchy. This universal humanity, however, was predicated (and still is) on the dualism of the flesh and the spirit, such that while the body is particular, marked through practice as Jew or Greek, and through anatomy as male or female, the spirit is universal. Paul did not, however, reject the body—as did, for instance, the gnostics—but rather promoted a system whereby the body had its place, albeit subordinated to the spirit. Paul's anthropological dualism was matched by a hermeneutical dualism as well. Just as the human being is divided into a fleshy and a spiritual component, so also is language itself. It is composed of outer, material signs and inner, spiritual significations. When this is applied to the religious system that Paul inherited, the physical, fleshy signs of the Torah, of historical Judaism, are re-interpreted as symbols of that which Paul takes to be universal requirements and possibilities for humanity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=A+radical+Jew%3A+Paul+and+the+politics+of+identity&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=13-38&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F93036269&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08592-3&rft.aulast=Boyarin&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.cdlib.org%2Fxtf%2Fview%3FdocId%3Dft7w10086w%26chunk.id%3Dintroduction%26toc.depth%3D1%26toc.id%3Dintroduction%26brand%3Ducpress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_radical_Jew:_Paul_and_the_politics_of_identity10-117"><a href="#cite_ref-A_radical_Jew:_Paul_and_the_politics_of_identity10_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyarin1994" class="citation book cs1">Boyarin, Daniel (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft7w10086w&chunk.id=ch10&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch10&brand=ucpress">"Answering the Mail"</a>. A radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08592-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08592-3"><bdi>978-0-520-08592-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203503/https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7w10086w&chunk.id=ch10&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch10&brand=ucpress">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2006. <q>Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension with one another.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Answering+the+Mail&rft.btitle=A+radical+Jew%3A+Paul+and+the+politics+of+identity&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08592-3&rft.aulast=Boyarin&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.cdlib.org%2Fxtf%2Fview%3FdocId%3Dft7w10086w%26chunk.id%3Dch10%26toc.depth%3D1%26toc.id%3Dch10%26brand%3Ducpress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Who_is_a_Jew?-118"><a href="#cite_ref-Who_is_a_Jew?_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKertzer1996" class="citation book cs1">Kertzer, Morris (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatisjew00morr">What is a Jew?</a>. New York: Touchstone. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-84298-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-84298-X"><bdi>0-684-84298-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+a+Jew%3F&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Touchstone&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-684-84298-X&rft.aulast=Kertzer&rft.aufirst=Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhatisjew00morr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiedman2007" class="citation book cs1">Siedman, Lauren (2007). What Makes Someone a Jew?. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58023321-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58023321-7"><bdi>978-1-58023321-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Makes+Someone+a+Jew%3F&rft.place=Woodstock%2C+Vermont&rft.pub=Jewish+Lights+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-58023321-7&rft.aulast=Siedman&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Samuel G. Freedman, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/07/us/strains-grow-between-israel-and-many-jews-in-the-us.html">"Strains Grow Between Israel and Many Jews in the U.S."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210309013811/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/07/us/strains-grow-between-israel-and-many-jews-in-the-us.html">Archived</a> 9 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, 6 February 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-university-120"><a href="#cite_ref-university_120-0">^</a> Heschel, Susannah (1998) Abraham Geiger and the Jewish Jesus. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 157. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-32959-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-32959-3">0-226-32959-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Law_of_Return_5710-1950-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Law_of_Return_5710-1950_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071006035045/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1950_1959/Law%20of%20Return%205710-1950">"Law of Return 5710-1950"</a>. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1950_1959/Law%20of%20Return%205710-1950">the original</a> on 6 October 2007. Retrieved 22 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Law+of+Return+5710-1950&rft.pub=Israel+Ministry+of+Foreign+Affairs&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mfa.gov.il%2FMFA%2FMFAArchive%2F1950_1959%2FLaw%2520of%2520Return%25205710-1950&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jacob,_Walter_(1987)._Contemporary_American_Reform_Responsa._Mars,_PA:_Publishers_Choice_Book_Mfg.-122"><a href="#cite_ref-Jacob,_Walter_(1987)._Contemporary_American_Reform_Responsa._Mars,_PA:_Publishers_Choice_Book_Mfg._122-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacob1987" class="citation book cs1">Jacob, Walter (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6YbKqlxCZdsC&pg=PA100">Contemporary American Reform Responsa</a>. Mars, PA: Central Conference of American Rabbis. pp. 100–106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88123-003-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88123-003-1"><bdi>978-0-88123-003-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 28 September 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+American+Reform+Responsa&rft.place=Mars%2C+PA&rft.pages=100-106&rft.pub=Central+Conference+of+American+Rabbis&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-88123-003-1&rft.aulast=Jacob&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6YbKqlxCZdsC%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%207:1–5&version=nrsv">Deuteronomy 7:1–5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Leviticus%2024:10&version=nrsv">Leviticus 24:10</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Ezra%2010:2–3&version=nrsv">Ezra 10:2–3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19961018024300/http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-11.html">"What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?"</a>. Shamash.org. 4 September 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-11.html">the original</a> on 18 October 1996. Retrieved 9 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+the+origin+of+Matrilineal+Descent%3F&rft.pub=Shamash.org&rft.date=2003-09-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shamash.org%2Flists%2Fscj-faq%2FHTML%2Ffaq%2F10-11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081224205847/http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318">"What is the source of the law that a child is Jewish only if its mother is Jewish?"</a>. Torah.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318">the original</a> on 24 December 2008. Retrieved 9 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+the+source+of+the+law+that+a+child+is+Jewish+only+if+its+mother+is+Jewish%3F&rft.pub=Torah.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.torah.org%2Fqanda%2Fseequanda.php%3Fid%3D318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Klein2016-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Klein2016_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmma_Klein2016" class="citation book cs1">Emma Klein (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0BC_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">Lost Jews: The Struggle for Identity Today</a>. Springer. pp. 6–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-24319-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-24319-8"><bdi>978-1-349-24319-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Jews%3A+The+Struggle+for+Identity+Today&rft.pages=6-&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-349-24319-8&rft.au=Emma+Klein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0BC_DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schott2010-129"><a href="#cite_ref-Schott2010_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobin_May_Schott2010" class="citation book cs1">Robin May Schott (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6iFx-wHhMJMC&pg=PA67">Birth, Death, and Femininity: Philosophies of Embodiment</a>. Indiana University Press. pp. 67–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00482-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00482-6"><bdi>978-0-253-00482-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203459/https://books.google.com/books?id=6iFx-wHhMJMC&pg=PA67">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 6 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Birth%2C+Death%2C+and+Femininity%3A+Philosophies+of+Embodiment&rft.pages=67-&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-253-00482-6&rft.au=Robin+May+Schott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6iFx-wHhMJMC%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Dosick (2007), pp. 56–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/164179">"Data: Arab Growth Slows, Still Higher than Jewish Rate"</a>. Israel National News. 14 January 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180826113031/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/164179">Archived</a> from the original on 26 August 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data%3A+Arab+Growth+Slows%2C+Still+Higher+than+Jewish+Rate&rft.pub=Israel+National+News&rft.date=2013-01-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.israelnationalnews.com%2FNews%2FNews.aspx%2F164179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDellaPergola2016" class="citation cs2">DellaPergola, Sergio (2016), "World Jewish Population, 2015", in Dashefsky, Arnold; Sheskin, Ira M. (eds.), American Jewish Year Book 2015, vol. 115, Springer International Publishing, pp. 273–364, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-24505-8_7">10.1007/978-3-319-24505-8_7</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-24503-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-24503-4"><bdi>978-3-319-24503-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=World+Jewish+Population%2C+2015&rft.btitle=American+Jewish+Year+Book+2015&rft.pages=273-364&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-24505-8_7&rft.isbn=978-3-319-24503-4&rft.aulast=DellaPergola&rft.aufirst=Sergio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaltz2022" class="citation web cs1">Maltz, Judy (26 April 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2022-04-26/ty-article/world-jewish-population-totals-15-2-million-with-nearly-half-in-israel/00000180-66f6-d5ca-a986-7eff58900000">"World Jewish Population Totals 15.2 Million – With Nearly Half in Israel"</a>. Haaretz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230626023319/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2022-04-26/ty-article/world-jewish-population-totals-15-2-million-with-nearly-half-in-israel/00000180-66f6-d5ca-a986-7eff58900000">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2023. Retrieved 26 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+Jewish+Population+Totals+15.2+Million+%E2%80%93+With+Nearly+Half+in+Israel&rft.pub=Haaretz&rft.date=2022-04-26&rft.aulast=Maltz&rft.aufirst=Judy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fisrael-news%2F2022-04-26%2Fty-article%2Fworld-jewish-population-totals-15-2-million-with-nearly-half-in-israel%2F00000180-66f6-d5ca-a986-7eff58900000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/israels-jewish-population-passes-7-million-on-eve-of-rosh-hashanah/">"Israel's Jewish population passes 7 million on eve of Rosh Hashanah"</a>. Times of israel. 25 April 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230626022400/https://www.timesofisrael.com/israels-jewish-population-passes-7-million-on-eve-of-rosh-hashanah/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2023. Retrieved 26 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Israel%27s+Jewish+population+passes+7+million+on+eve+of+Rosh+Hashanah&rft.pub=Times+of+israel&rft.date=2022-04-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesofisrael.com%2Fisraels-jewish-population-passes-7-million-on-eve-of-rosh-hashanah%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/types-of-jews/">"Types of Jews"</a>. My Jewish Learning. Retrieved 18 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=My+Jewish+Learning&rft.atitle=Types+of+Jews&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.myjewishlearning.com%2Farticle%2Ftypes-of-jews%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://study.com/academy/lesson/jewish-ethnic-groups.html">"Jewish Ethnicity | People, History & Ethnic Groups"</a>. study.com. Retrieved 18 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=study.com&rft.atitle=Jewish+Ethnicity+%7C+People%2C+History+%26+Ethnic+Groups&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstudy.com%2Facademy%2Flesson%2Fjewish-ethnic-groups.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2016" class="citation web cs1">Mitchell, Travis (8 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religious-landscape-study/2016/03/08/religious-commitment/">"4. Religious commitment"</a>. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 18 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center%27s+Religion+%26+Public+Life+Project&rft.atitle=4.+Religious+commitment&rft.date=2016-03-08&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Travis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Freligious-landscape-study%2F2016%2F03%2F08%2Freligious-commitment%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12494">"RABBI"</a>. www.jewishencyclopedia.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231010133923/https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12494">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023. <q>After the foundation for a scientific treatment of Jewish history and religion had been laid by Leopold Zunz and his colaborers, a number of enthusiastic young rabbis, struggling against the most violent opposition, strove to bring about a reconciliation of rabbinism with the modern scientific spirit</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishencyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=RABBI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F12494&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017">Deshen, Liebman & Shokeid 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky197998–115-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudavsky197998–115_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRudavsky1979">Rudavsky 1979</a>, pp. 98–115. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Rebbe,_Hasidic"-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Rebbe,_Hasidic"_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacobs2003">Jacobs 2003</a>, "Rebbe, Hasidic". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENadler1997-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENadler1997_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNadler1997">Nadler 1997</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZohar2005-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZohar2005_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZohar2005_143-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZohar2005_143-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFZohar2005">Zohar 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESegal2008113–117-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegal2008113–117_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSegal2008">Segal 2008</a>, pp. 113–117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESegal2008121–123-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegal2008121–123_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSegal2008">Segal 2008</a>, pp. 121–123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillman1993-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGillman1993_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGillman1993">Gillman 1993</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElazarGeffen2012-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElazarGeffen2012_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFElazarGeffen2012">Elazar & Geffen 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Torah_MiSinai:Conservative_Views-148"><a href="#cite_ref-Torah_MiSinai:Conservative_Views_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Gordis" class="citation web cs1">Robert Gordis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070713183805/http://masortiworld.org/faq/theology-%20beliefs/torah-misinai.html">"Torah MiSinai:Conservative Views"</a>. A Modern Approach to a Living Halachah. Masorti World. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://masortiworld.org/faq/theology-%20beliefs/torah-misinai.html">the original</a> on 13 July 2007. <q>The Torah is an emanation of God…This conception does not mean, for us, that the process of revelation consisted of dictation by God.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=A+Modern+Approach+to+a+Living+Halachah&rft.atitle=Torah+MiSinai%3AConservative+Views&rft.au=Robert+Gordis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmasortiworld.org%2Ffaq%2Ftheology-%2520beliefs%2Ftorah-misinai.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conservative_Judaism-149"><a href="#cite_ref-Conservative_Judaism_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewlicious.com/2005/06/conservative-judaism/">"Conservative Judaism"</a>. Jewlicious. 16 June 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161203124813/http://jewlicious.com/2005/06/conservative-judaism/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2009. <q>We therefore understand this term as a metaphor to mean that the Torah is divine and that it reflects God's will.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conservative+Judaism&rft.pub=Jewlicious&rft.date=2005-06-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewlicious.com%2F2005%2F06%2Fconservative-judaism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer1988177–194-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer1988177–194_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeyer1988">Meyer 1988</a>, pp. 177–194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979347–366-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudavsky1979347–366_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRudavsky1979">Rudavsky 1979</a>, pp. 347–366. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael1984177–194-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael1984177–194_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaphael1984">Raphael 1984</a>, pp. 177–194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWertheimer1993169-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWertheimer1993169_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWertheimer1993">Wertheimer 1993</a>, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Reconstructionism"-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Reconstructionism"_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacobs2003">Jacobs 2003</a>, "Reconstructionism". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005416–418"Reconstructionist_Judaism"-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKareshHurvitz2005416–418"Reconstructionist_Judaism"_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKareshHurvitz2005">Karesh & Hurvitz 2005</a>, pp. 416–418, "Reconstructionist Judaism". </li> <li id="cite_note-Magid2005-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Magid2005_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Magid2005_156-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagid2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shaul_Magid" title="Shaul Magid">Magid, Shaul</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/41218249">"Jewish Renewal Movement"</a> (PDF). In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, Mi: Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 4868–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-865740-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-865740-3"><bdi>0-02-865740-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407073638/https://www.academia.edu/41218249">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jewish+Renewal+Movement&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Religion&rft.place=Farmington+Hills%2C+Mi&rft.pages=4868-74&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-02-865740-3&rft.aulast=Magid&rft.aufirst=Shaul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F41218249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESegal2008123–129-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegal2008123–129_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESegal2008123–129_157-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSegal2008">Segal 2008</a>, pp. 123–129. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohn-Sherbok2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dan_Cohn-Sherbok" title="Dan Cohn-Sherbok">Cohn-Sherbok, Dan</a> (2006). "Humanistic Judaism". In <a href="/wiki/Peter_B._Clarke" title="Peter B. Clarke">Clarke, Peter B.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=heeCAgAAQBAJ">Encyclopedia of new religious movements</a>. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 288–289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-78-0-415-26707-6" title="Special:BookSources/9-78-0-415-26707-6"><bdi>9-78-0-415-26707-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Humanistic+Judaism&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+new+religious+movements&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pages=288-289&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9-78-0-415-26707-6&rft.aulast=Cohn-Sherbok&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DheeCAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenthalHurwitz1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herman_Rosenthal" title="Herman Rosenthal">Rosenthal, Herman</a>; Hurwitz, S. (1901–1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14094-subbotniki">"Subbotniki ("Sabbatarians")"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Subbotniki+%28%22Sabbatarians%22%29&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rft.aulast=Rosenthal&rft.aufirst=Herman&rft.au=Hurwitz%2C+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F14094-subbotniki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDynner2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Glenn_Dynner" title="Glenn Dynner">Dynner, Glenn</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bYnlGaeUBx0C&pg=PA358">Holy Dissent: Jewish and Christian Mystics in Eastern Europe</a>. Detroit, Mi: Wayne State University Press. pp. 358–359. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3597-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3597-0"><bdi>978-0-8143-3597-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203459/https://books.google.com/books?id=bYnlGaeUBx0C&pg=PT358">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holy+Dissent%3A+Jewish+and+Christian+Mystics+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.place=Detroit%2C+Mi&rft.pages=358-359&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-3597-0&rft.aulast=Dynner&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbYnlGaeUBx0C%26pg%3DPA358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiss,_RuchamaBrackman,_Levi2010" class="citation news cs1">Weiss, Ruchama; Brackman, Levi (9 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3992298,00.html">"Russia's Subbotnik Jews get rabbi"</a>. Israel Jewish Scene. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210501183834/https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3992298,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Russia%27s+Subbotnik+Jews+get+rabbi&rft.date=2010-12-09&rft.au=Weiss%2C+Ruchama&rft.au=Brackman%2C+Levi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ynetnews.com%2Farticles%2F0%2C7340%2CL-3992298%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEichner,_Itamar2014" class="citation news cs1">Eichner, Itamar (11 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4497612,00.html">"Subbotnik Jews to resume aliyah"</a>. Israel Jewish Scene. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140409152315/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4497612,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Subbotnik+Jews+to+resume+aliyah&rft.date=2014-03-11&rft.au=Eichner%2C+Itamar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ynetnews.com%2Farticles%2F0%2C7340%2CL-4497612%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElazar" class="citation web cs1">Elazar, Daniel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles3/sephardic.htm">"Can Sephardic Judaism be Reconstructed?"</a>. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061022155306/http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles3/sephardic.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2006. Retrieved 15 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jerusalem+Center+for+Public+Affairs&rft.atitle=Can+Sephardic+Judaism+be+Reconstructed%3F&rft.aulast=Elazar&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jcpa.org%2Fdje%2Farticles3%2Fsephardic.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJager" class="citation news cs1">Jager, Elliot. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpost.com/Jerusalem-Report/Sephardi-Judaism-Straining-to-Stay-Non-Denominational-513181">"Sephardi Judaism Straining to Stay Non-Denominational"</a>. The Jerusalem Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180516014757/https://www.jpost.com/Jerusalem-Report/Sephardi-Judaism-Straining-to-Stay-Non-Denominational-513181">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2018. Retrieved 15 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post&rft.atitle=Sephardi+Judaism+Straining+to+Stay+Non-Denominational&rft.aulast=Jager&rft.aufirst=Elliot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2FJerusalem-Report%2FSephardi-Judaism-Straining-to-Stay-Non-Denominational-513181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer1988232–235-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyer1988232–235_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeyer1988">Meyer 1988</a>, pp. 232–235. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerziger2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferziger" title="Adam Ferziger">Ferziger, Adam S.</a> (Spring 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36844984">"Between 'Ashkenazi' and Sepharad: An Early Modern German Rabbinic Response to Religious Pluralism in the Spanish-Portuguese Community"</a>. Studia Rosenthaliana. 35 (1). Amsterdam University Press: 7–22. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41482436">41482436</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230716001528/https://www.academia.edu/36844984">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Rosenthaliana&rft.atitle=Between+%27Ashkenazi%27+and+Sepharad%3A+An+Early+Modern+German+Rabbinic+Response+to+Religious+Pluralism+in+the+Spanish-Portuguese+Community&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-22&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41482436%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ferziger&rft.aufirst=Adam+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F36844984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017Part_5_"The_Sephardic_Pattern"-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017Part_5_"The_Sephardic_Pattern"_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017">Deshen, Liebman & Shokeid 2017</a>, Part 5 "The Sephardic Pattern". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011166"Chief_Rabbinate"-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011166"Chief_Rabbinate"_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBerlin2011">Berlin 2011</a>, p. 166, "Chief Rabbinate". </li> <li id="cite_note-Tabory1990-169"><a href="#cite_ref-Tabory1990_169-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTabory2004" class="citation book cs1">Tabory, Ephraim (2004) [1990]. "Reform and Conservative Judaism in Israel". In Goldscheider, Calvin; <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2TxLAwAAQBAJ">Social Foundations of Judaism</a> (Reprint ed.). Eugene, Or: Wipf and Stock Publ. pp. 240–258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59244-943-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-59244-943-3"><bdi>1-59244-943-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230624193459/https://books.google.com/books?id=2TxLAwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2023. 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Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 385–387. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975927-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975927-9"><bdi>978-0-19-975927-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jewish+Religious+Life+in+State+of+Israel&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Jewish+Religion&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pages=385-387&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-975927-9&rft.aulast=Beit-Hallahmi&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhKAaJXvUaUoC%26pg%3DPA385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kedem-172">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kedem_172-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kedem_172-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKedem2017" class="citation book cs1">Kedem, Peri (2017) [1995]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XCNHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33">"Demensions of Jewish Religiosity"</a>. In Deshen, Shlomo; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Liebman" title="Charles Liebman">Liebman, Charles S.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Shokeid" title="Moshe Shokeid">Shokeid, Moshe</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XCNHDwAAQBAJ">Israeli Judaism: The Sociology of Religion in Israel</a>. Studies of Israeli Society, 7 (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Routledge. pp. 33–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-178-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-178-2"><bdi>978-1-56000-178-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230707163510/https://books.google.com/books?id=XCNHDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Demensions+of+Jewish+Religiosity&rft.btitle=Israeli+Judaism%3A+The+Sociology+of+Religion+in+Israel&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.series=Studies+of+Israeli+Society%2C+7&rft.pages=33-62&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-56000-178-2&rft.aulast=Kedem&rft.aufirst=Peri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXCNHDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011350-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011350_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBerlin2011">Berlin 2011</a>, p. 350. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017Part_4_"Nationalist_Orthodoxy"-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017Part_4_"Nationalist_Orthodoxy"_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017">Deshen, Liebman & Shokeid 2017</a>, Part 4 "Nationalist Orthodoxy". </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman2018" class="citation journal cs1">Feldman, Rachel Z. 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Retrieved 18 December 2020 – via <a href="/wiki/Project_MUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MUSE">Project MUSE</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nova+Religio%3A+The+Journal+of+Alternative+and+Emergent+Religions&rft.atitle=The+Children+of+Noah%3A+Has+Messianic+Zionism+Created+a+New+World+Religion%3F&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=115-128&rft.date=2018-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fnr.2018.22.1.115&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149940089%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Rachel+Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F737561%2Fpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-publishers-176"><a href="#cite_ref-publishers_176-0">^</a> "Tefillin", "The Book of Jewish Knowledge", Nathan Ausubel, Crown Publishers, NY, 1964, p. 458 </li> <li id="cite_note-JEsabbath-177"><a href="#cite_ref-JEsabbath_177-0">^</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirsch1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emil_G._Hirsch" title="Emil G. 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(1901–1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5191-dietary-laws">"Dietary Laws"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dietary+Laws&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rft.aulast=Schechter&rft.aufirst=Solomon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F5191-dietary-laws&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011212–14"Dietary_Laws"-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011212–14"Dietary_Laws"_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBerlin2011">Berlin 2011</a>, pp. 212–14, "Dietary Laws". </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Kosher_Pig?-180"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Kosher_Pig?_180-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaya_Shuchat2015" class="citation web cs1">Chaya Shuchat (25 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meaningfullife.com/torah/parsha/vayikra/shemini/The_Kosher_Pig.php">"The Kosher Pig?"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100323031149/http://www.meaningfullife.com/torah/parsha/vayikra/shemini/The_Kosher_Pig.php">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2010. Retrieved 1 November 2009. <q>It is also the most quintessentially "treif" of animals, with its name being nearly synonymous with non-kosher…Although far from alone in the litany of non-kosher animals, the pig seems to stand in a class of its own.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Kosher+Pig%3F&rft.date=2015-06-25&rft.au=Chaya+Shuchat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.meaningfullife.com%2Ftorah%2Fparsha%2Fvayikra%2Fshemini%2FThe_Kosher_Pig.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-shulchan-181"><a href="#cite_ref-shulchan_181-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoreh_De%27ah" title="Yoreh De'ah">Yoreh De'ah</a>, (87:3) </li> <li id="cite_note-rabbinicalassembly-182"><a href="#cite_ref-rabbinicalassembly_182-0">^</a> Elliot Dorff, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091222083350/http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/dorff_wines.pdf">"On the Use of All Wines"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 3 November 2009. <q>…certain prohibitions become allowed without a doubt because of lifethreatening circumstances, like for example eating non-kosher food</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Weekly+Pamphlet+%23805&rft.pub=Bar-Ilan+University%2C+Faculty+of+Jewish+Studies%2C+Rabbinical+office&rft.au=Y.+Lichtenshtein+M.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biu.ac.il%2FJH%2FParasha%2Fshmini%2Flict.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-leviticus15-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-leviticus15_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-leviticus15_186-1">b</a> Vayyiqra (Leviticus) 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-bamidbar-187"><a href="#cite_ref-bamidbar_187-0">^</a> Bamidbar (Numbers) 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-Torah_tidbits-188"><a href="#cite_ref-Torah_tidbits_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvi_Kehat" class="citation web cs1">Avi Kehat. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070317042450/http://www.ou.org/torah/tt/5767/shemot67/mikdash.htm">"Torah tidbits"</a>. Ou.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ou.org/torah/tt/5767/shemot67/mikdash.htm">the original</a> on 17 March 2007. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Torah+tidbits&rft.pub=Ou.org&rft.au=Avi+Kehat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ou.org%2Ftorah%2Ftt%2F5767%2Fshemot67%2Fmikdash.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusner1993-189"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusner1993_189-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeusner1993">Neusner 1993</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFonrobert2005-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFonrobert2005_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFonrobert2005">Fonrobert 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011"Purity_and_Unpurity,_Ritual"-191"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011"Purity_and_Unpurity,_Ritual"_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBerlin2011">Berlin 2011</a>, "Purity and Unpurity, Ritual". </li> <li id="cite_note-JEniddah-192">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JEniddah_192-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JEniddah_192-1">b</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacherLauterbach1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Bacher" title="Wilhelm Bacher">Bacher, Wilhelm</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Zallel_Lauterbach" title="Jacob Zallel Lauterbach">Lauterbach, Jacob Zallel</a> (1901–1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11529-niddah">"Niddah"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Niddah&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rft.aulast=Bacher&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm&rft.au=Lauterbach%2C+Jacob+Zallel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F11529-niddah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Karaites-193"><a href="#cite_ref-Karaites_193-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3458001508.html">"Karaites"</a>. Encyclopedia.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100523150434/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3458001508.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2010. Retrieved 22 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Karaites&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fdoc%2F1G2-3458001508.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Women_and_water:_menstruation_in_Jewish_life_and_law-194"><a href="#cite_ref-Women_and_water:_menstruation_in_Jewish_life_and_law_194-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWasserfall1999" class="citation book cs1">Wasserfall, Rahel (1999). Women and water: menstruation in Jewish life and law. Brandeis University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-960-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-960-0"><bdi>978-0-87451-960-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+water%3A+menstruation+in+Jewish+life+and+law&rft.pub=Brandeis+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-87451-960-0&rft.aulast=Wasserfall&rft.aufirst=Rahel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Marriage"-195"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2003"Marriage"_195-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJacobs2003">Jacobs 2003</a>, "Marriage". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011381–2"Intermarriage"-196"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011381–2"Intermarriage"_196-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBerlin2011">Berlin 2011</a>, pp. 381–2, "Intermarriage". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011216–7"Divorce"-197"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011216–7"Divorce"_197-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBerlin2011">Berlin 2011</a>, pp. 216–7, "Divorce". </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Deuteronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a> 21:23 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011205–6"Death"-199"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011205–6"Death"_199-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBerlin2011">Berlin 2011</a>, pp. 205–6, "Death". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011193–4"Cremation"-200"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011193–4"Cremation"_200-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBerlin2011">Berlin 2011</a>, pp. 193–4, "Cremation". </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSara_E._KareshMitchell_M._Hurvitz2005" class="citation book cs1">Sara E. Karesh; Mitchell M. Hurvitz (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2cCZBDm8F8C&pg=PA444">Encyclopedia of Judaism</a>. Infobase Publishing. pp. 444–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6982-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6982-8"><bdi>978-0-8160-6982-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203459/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2cCZBDm8F8C&pg=PA444">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 5 April 2018. <q>The Sadducees disappeared when the second Temple was destroyed in the year 70 C.E and Pharisaic Judaism became the preeminent Jewish sect.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Judaism&rft.pages=444-&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6982-8&rft.au=Sara+E.+Karesh&rft.au=Mitchell+M.+Hurvitz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2cCZBDm8F8C%26pg%3DPA444&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-History,_religion,_and_antisemitism-202"><a href="#cite_ref-History,_religion,_and_antisemitism_202-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangmuir1993" class="citation book cs1">Langmuir, Gavin (1993). History, religion, and antisemitism. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07728-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07728-7"><bdi>978-0-520-07728-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History%2C+religion%2C+and+antisemitism&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07728-7&rft.aulast=Langmuir&rft.aufirst=Gavin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen,_Mark_R_1991-203"><a href="#cite_ref-Cohen,_Mark_R_1991_203-0">^</a> Cohen, Mark R. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20140820234902/http://www.academia.edu/6560487/Neo_lachrymose_Conception_of_Jewish-Arab_History">The Neo-Lachrymose Conception of Jewish-Arab History</a>." Tikkun 6.3 (1991) </li> <li id="cite_note-ugr-204"><a href="#cite_ref-ugr_204-0">^</a> Amira K. Bennison and María Ángeles Gallego. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ugr.es/~estsemi/miscelanea/57/3.Gallego.08,33-51.pdf">Jewish Trading in Fes On The Eve of the Almohad Conquest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202838/http://www.ugr.es/~estsemi/miscelanea/57/3.Gallego.08,33-51.pdf">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." MEAH, sección Hebreo 56 (2007), 33–51 </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStampfer" class="citation book cs1">Stampfer, Shaul. How and Why Did Hasidism Spread?. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. pp. 205–207.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+and+Why+Did+Hasidism+Spread%3F&rft.place=The+Hebrew+University+of+Jerusalem&rft.pages=205-207&rft.aulast=Stampfer&rft.aufirst=Shaul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStampfer" class="citation book cs1">Stampfer, Shaul. How and Why Did Hasidism Spread?. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel. pp. 202–204.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+and+Why+Did+Hasidism+Spread%3F&rft.place=The+Hebrew+University+of+Jerusalem%2C+Jerusalem%2C+Israel&rft.pages=202-204&rft.aulast=Stampfer&rft.aufirst=Shaul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishdatabank.org/studies/details.cfm?StudyID=307">"National Jewish Population Survey (NJPS) 2000–01"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525151442/http://www.jewishdatabank.org/studies/details.cfm?StudyID=307">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Jewish+Population+Survey+%28NJPS%29+2000%E2%80%9301&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishdatabank.org%2Fstudies%2Fdetails.cfm%3FStudyID%3D307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrisinteractive-208"><a href="#cite_ref-harrisinteractive_208-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2003" class="citation web cs1">Taylor, Humphrey (15 October 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110109031643/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/Harris-Interactive-Poll-Research-While-Most-Americans-Believe-in-God-Only-36-pct-A-2003-10.pdf">"While Most Americans Believe in God, Only 36% Attend a Religious Service Once a Month or More Often"</a> (PDF). HarrisInteractive. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/Harris-Interactive-Poll-Research-While-Most-Americans-Believe-in-God-Only-36-pct-A-2003-10.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 January 2011. Retrieved 1 January 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=While+Most+Americans+Believe+in+God%2C+Only+36%25+Attend+a+Religious+Service+Once+a+Month+or+More+Often&rft.pub=HarrisInteractive&rft.date=2003-10-15&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Humphrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harrisinteractive.com%2Fvault%2FHarris-Interactive-Poll-Research-While-Most-Americans-Believe-in-God-Only-36-pct-A-2003-10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> R. Kendall Soulen, The God of Israel and Christian Theology, (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-2883-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-2883-3">978-0-8006-2883-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-BaskinSeeskin2010-210"><a href="#cite_ref-BaskinSeeskin2010_210-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaskinSeeskin2010" class="citation book cs1">Baskin, Judith R.; Seeskin, Kenneth (2010). The Cambridge Guide to Jewish History, Religion, and Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86960-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86960-7"><bdi>978-0-521-86960-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Guide+to+Jewish+History%2C+Religion%2C+and+Culture&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86960-7&rft.aulast=Baskin&rft.aufirst=Judith+R.&rft.au=Seeskin%2C+Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gotham-211"><a href="#cite_ref-gotham_211-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Burrows" title="Edwin G. Burrows">Burrows, Edwin G.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Mike_Wallace_(historian)" title="Mike Wallace (historian)">Wallace, Mike</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gotham:_A_History_of_New_York_City_to_1898" title="Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898">Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898</a>. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. pp. 60, 133–134 </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/237923/Sir-Isaac-Lyon-Goldsmid-1st-Baronet#ref213807">"Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, 1st Baronet"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140427062024/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/237923/Sir-Isaac-Lyon-Goldsmid-1st-Baronet#ref213807">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2014. Retrieved 23 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sir+Isaac+Lyon+Goldsmid%2C+1st+Baronet&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F237923%2FSir-Isaac-Lyon-Goldsmid-1st-Baronet%23ref213807&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HarriesAfter-213"><a href="#cite_ref-HarriesAfter_213-0">^</a> Richard Harries. After the evil: Christianity and Judaism in the shadow of the Holocaust. Oxford University Press, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926313-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926313-4">978-0-19-926313-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kung-214"><a href="#cite_ref-Kung_214-0">^</a> Hans Küng. On Being a Christian. Doubleday, Garden City, NY, 1976 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-02712-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-02712-0">978-0-385-02712-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dawidowicz-215"><a href="#cite_ref-Dawidowicz_215-0">^</a> Lucy Dawidowicz The War Against the Jews, 1933–1945. First published 1975; this Bantam edition 1986, p. 23. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-34532-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-553-34532-X">0-553-34532-X</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-JCPSHorst-216"><a href="#cite_ref-JCPSHorst_216-0">^</a> Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. 5 May 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jcpa.org/article/the-origins-of-christian-anti-semitism/">The Origins of Christian Anti-Semitism: Interview with Pieter van der Horst</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180726170352/http://jcpa.org/article/the-origins-of-christian-anti-semitism/">Archived</a> 26 July 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Gill, Anton (1994). An Honourable Defeat; A History of the German Resistance to Hitler. Heinemann Mandarin. 1995 paperback <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-434-29276-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-434-29276-9">978-0-434-29276-9</a>; p. 57 </li> <li id="cite_note-Gottfried2001-218"><a href="#cite_ref-Gottfried2001_218-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottfried2001" class="citation book cs1">Gottfried, Ted (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780761317173">Heroes of the Holocaust</a>. Twenty-First Century Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780761317173/page/24">24</a>–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7613-1717-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7613-1717-3"><bdi>978-0-7613-1717-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 14 January 2017. <q>Some groups that are known to have helped Jews were religious in nature. One of these was the Confessing Church, a Protestant denomination formed in May 1934, the year after Hitler became chancellor of Germany. One of its goals was to repeal the Nazi law "which required that the civil service would be purged of all those who were either Jewish or of partly Jewish descent." Another was to help those "who suffered through repressive laws, or violence." About 7,000 of the 17,000 Protestant clergy in Germany joined the Confessing Church. Much of their work has gone unrecognized, but two who will never forget them are Max Krakauer and his wife. Sheltered in sixty-six houses and helped by more than eighty individuals who belonged to the Confessing Church, they owe them their lives. German Catholic churches went out of their way to protect Catholics of Jewish ancestry. More inclusive was the principled stand taken by Catholic Bishop Clemens Count von Galen of Munster. He publicly denounced the Nazi slaughter of Jews and actually succeeded in having the problem halted for a short time.…Members of the Society of Friends—German Quakers working with organizations of Friends from other countries—were particularly successful in rescuing Jews.…Jehovah's Witnesses, themselves targeted for concentration camps, also provided help to Jews.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heroes+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Twenty-First+Century+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7613-1717-3&rft.aulast=Gottfried&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780761317173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wigoder1988-219"><a href="#cite_ref-Wigoder1988_219-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWigoder1988" class="citation book cs1">Wigoder, Geoffrey (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9N9RAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA87">Jewish-Christian Relations Since the Second World War</a>. Manchester University Press. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-2639-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-2639-3"><bdi>978-0-7190-2639-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203500/https://books.google.com/books?id=9N9RAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA87">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish-Christian+Relations+Since+the+Second+World+War&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-2639-3&rft.aulast=Wigoder&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9N9RAQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-news.va-220"><a href="#cite_ref-news.va_220-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171113203040/http://www.news.va/en/news/vatican-issues-new-document-on-christian-jewish-di">"Vatican issues new document on Christian-Jewish dialogue"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.news.va/en/news/vatican-issues-new-document-on-christian-jewish-di">the original</a> on 13 November 2017. Retrieved 14 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vatican+issues+new+document+on+Christian-Jewish+dialogue&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.news.va%2Fen%2Fnews%2Fvatican-issues-new-document-on-christian-jewish-di&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis-84-221">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis-84_221-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis-84_221-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1984">Lewis 1984</a>, pp. 10, 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-lewis14-222"><a href="#cite_ref-lewis14_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1984">Lewis 1984</a>, pp. 9, 27 </li> <li id="cite_note-lewis15-223"><a href="#cite_ref-lewis15_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1999">Lewis 1999</a>, p. 131 </li> <li id="cite_note-stillman-224"><a href="#cite_ref-stillman_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1984">Lewis 1984</a>, pp. 17, 18, 52, 94, 95; <a href="#CITEREFStillman1979">Stillman 1979</a>, pp. 27, 77 </li> <li id="cite_note-lewis16-225"><a href="#cite_ref-lewis16_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1984">Lewis 1984</a>, p. 28 </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> Shumsky, Dmitry. (12 September 2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/recognize-jews-as-refugees-from-arab-countries-1.464535">"Recognize Jews as refugees from Arab countries"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130714015124/http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/recognize-jews-as-refugees-from-arab-countries-1.464535">Archived</a> 14 July 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Haaretz. Retrieved on 28 July 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Meir, Esther. (9 October 2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/the-truth-about-the-expulsion.premium-1.468823">"The truth about the expulsion"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131011092041/http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/the-truth-about-the-expulsion.premium-1.468823">Archived</a> 11 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Haaretz. Retrieved on 28 July 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis_MEQ-228"><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis_MEQ_228-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_Lewis1998" class="citation journal cs1">Bernard Lewis (June 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meforum.org/396/muslim-anti-semitism">"Muslim Anti-Semitism"</a>. Middle East Quarterly: 43–49. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090625062233/http://www.meforum.org/396/muslim-anti-semitism">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2009. Retrieved 13 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Muslim+Anti-Semitism&rft.pages=43-49&rft.date=1998-06&rft.au=Bernard+Lewis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.meforum.org%2F396%2Fmuslim-anti-semitism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Feher1998p140-229"><a href="#cite_ref-Feher1998p140_229-0">^</a> Feher, Shoshanah. Passing over Easter: Constructing the Boundaries of Messianic Judaism, Rowman Altamira, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-8953-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-8953-0">978-0-7619-8953-0</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HJRNlnUmWZwC&pg=PA140">p. 140</a>. "This interest in developing a Jewish ethnic identity may not be surprising when we consider the 1960s, when Messianic Judaism arose." </li> <li id="cite_note-Ariel2006p191b-230"><a href="#cite_ref-Ariel2006p191b_230-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriel2006" class="citation book cs1">Ariel, Yaakov (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ClaySHbUEogC&pg=RA1-PA191">"Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism"</a>. In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (eds.). Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. Vol. 2. Westport, CN: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98714-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98714-5"><bdi>978-0-275-98714-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2006022954">2006022954</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/315689134">315689134</a>. <q>In the late 1960s and 1970s, both Jews and Christians in the United States were surprised to see the rise of a vigorous movement of Jewish Christians or Christian Jews.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Judaism+and+Christianity+Unite%21+The+Unique+Culture+of+Messianic+Judaism&rft.btitle=Jewish+and+Christian+Traditions&rft.place=Westport%2C+CN&rft.series=Introduction+to+New+and+Alternative+Religions+in+America&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F315689134&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006022954&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98714-5&rft.aulast=Ariel&rft.aufirst=Yaakov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DClaySHbUEogC%26pg%3DRA1-PA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ariel2006p194a-231"><a href="#cite_ref-Ariel2006p194a_231-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriel2006" class="citation book cs1">Ariel, Yaakov (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ClaySHbUEogC&pg=RA1-PA191">"Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism"</a>. In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (eds.). Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. Vol. 2. Westport, CN: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98714-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98714-5"><bdi>978-0-275-98714-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2006022954">2006022954</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/315689134">315689134</a>. <q>The Rise of Messianic Judaism. In the first phase of the movement, during the early and mid-1970s, Jewish converts to Christianity established several congregations at their own initiative. Unlike the previous communities of Jewish Christians, Messianic Jewish congregations were largely independent of control from missionary societies or Christian denominations, even though they still wanted the acceptance of the larger evangelical community.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Judaism+and+Christianity+Unite%21+The+Unique+Culture+of+Messianic+Judaism&rft.btitle=Jewish+and+Christian+Traditions&rft.place=Westport%2C+CN&rft.series=Introduction+to+New+and+Alternative+Religions+in+America&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F315689134&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006022954&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98714-5&rft.aulast=Ariel&rft.aufirst=Yaakov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DClaySHbUEogC%26pg%3DRA1-PA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meltonp373a-232">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meltonp373a_232-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meltonp373a_232-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelton2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._Gordon_Melton" title="J. Gordon Melton">Melton, J. Gordon</a>, ed. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bW3sXBjnokkC&pg=PA373">"Messianic Judaism"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bW3sXBjnokkC">Encyclopedia of Protestantism</a>. Encyclopedia of World Religions. New York: Facts On File. p. 373. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5456-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-5456-8"><bdi>0-8160-5456-8</bdi></a>. <q>Messianic Judaism is a Protestant movement that emerged in the last half of the 20th century among believers who were ethnically Jewish but had adopted an Evangelical Christian faith.…By the 1960s, a new effort to create a culturally Jewish Protestant Christianity emerged among individuals who began to call themselves Messianic Jews.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Messianic+Judaism&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Protestantism&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Encyclopedia+of+World+Religions&rft.pages=373&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8160-5456-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbW3sXBjnokkC%26pg%3DPA373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vittorio_Lanternari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vittorio Lanternari (page does not exist)">Vittorio Lanternari</a> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vittorio_Lanternari" class="extiw" title="it:Vittorio Lanternari">it</a>] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062037">'Messianism: Its Historical Origin and Morphology,'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421080954/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062037">Archived</a> 21 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Religions" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Religions">History of Religions</a> Vol. 2, No. 1 (Summer, 1962), pp. 52–72:'the same messianic complex which originated in Judaism and was confirmed in Christianity.' p. 53 </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Michael L. Morgan, Steven Weitzman, (eds.,) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d3OPBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">Rethinking the Messianic Idea in Judaism,</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203500/https://books.google.com/books?id=d3OPBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">Archived</a> 10 February 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a> 2014 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01477-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01477-1">978-0-253-01477-1</a> p. 1. <a href="/wiki/Gershom_Scholem" title="Gershom Scholem">Gershom Scholem</a> considered 'the messianic dimensions of the Kabbalah and of rabbinic Judaism as a central feature of a Jewish philosophy of history.' </li> <li id="cite_note-Ariel2006p191a-235"><a href="#cite_ref-Ariel2006p191a_235-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriel2006" class="citation book cs1">Ariel, Yaakov (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ClaySHbUEogC&pg=RA1-PA191">"Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism"</a>. In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (eds.). Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. Vol. 2. Westport, CN: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98714-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98714-5"><bdi>978-0-275-98714-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2006022954">2006022954</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/315689134">315689134</a>. <q>While Christianity started in the first century of the Common Era as a Jewish group, it quickly separated from Judaism and claimed to replace it; ever since the relationship between the two traditions has often been strained. But in the twentieth century groups of young Jews claimed that they had overcome the historical differences between the two religions and amalgamated Jewish identity and customs with the Christian faith.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Judaism+and+Christianity+Unite%21+The+Unique+Culture+of+Messianic+Judaism&rft.btitle=Jewish+and+Christian+Traditions&rft.place=Westport%2C+CN&rft.series=Introduction+to+New+and+Alternative+Religions+in+America&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F315689134&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006022954&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98714-5&rft.aulast=Ariel&rft.aufirst=Yaakov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DClaySHbUEogC%26pg%3DRA1-PA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ariel2006p194b-236"><a href="#cite_ref-Ariel2006p194b_236-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriel2006" class="citation book cs1">Ariel, Yaakov (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ClaySHbUEogC&pg=RA1-PA191">"Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism"</a>. In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (eds.). Jewish and Christian Traditions. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. Vol. 2. Westport, CN: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. pp. 194–195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98714-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98714-5"><bdi>978-0-275-98714-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2006022954">2006022954</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/315689134">315689134</a>. <q>When the term resurfaced in Israel in the 1940s and 1950s, it designated all Jews who accepted Christianity in its Protestant evangelical form. Missionaries such as the Southern Baptist Robert Lindsey noted that for Israeli Jews, the term nozrim, "Christians" in Hebrew, meant, almost automatically, an alien, hostile religion. Because such a term made it nearly impossible to convince Jews that Christianity was their religion, missionaries sought a more neutral term, one that did not arouse negative feelings. They chose Meshichyim, Messianic, to overcome the suspicion and antagonism of the term nozrim. Meshichyim as a term also had the advantage of emphasizing messianism as a major component of the Christian evangelical belief that the missions and communities of Jewish converts to Christianity propagated. It conveyed the sense of a new, innovative religion rather that [<a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a>] an old, unfavorable one. The term was used in reference to those Jews who accepted Jesus as their personal savior, and did not apply to Jews accepting Roman Catholicism who in Israel have called themselves Hebrew Christians. The term Messianic Judaism was adopted in the United States in the early 1970s by those converts to evangelical Christianity who advocated a more assertive attitude on the part of converts towards their Jewish roots and heritage.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Judaism+and+Christianity+Unite%21+The+Unique+Culture+of+Messianic+Judaism&rft.btitle=Jewish+and+Christian+Traditions&rft.place=Westport%2C+CN&rft.series=Introduction+to+New+and+Alternative+Religions+in+America&rft.pages=194-195&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F315689134&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2006022954&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98714-5&rft.aulast=Ariel&rft.aufirst=Yaakov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DClaySHbUEogC%26pg%3DRA1-PA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sherbok_179-237"><a href="#cite_ref-Sherbok_179_237-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohn-Sherbok2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dan_Cohn-Sherbok" title="Dan Cohn-Sherbok">Cohn-Sherbok, Dan</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5aOOlWdLpNwC&q=Evangelism+Jewish+people+heart+movement&pg=PA169">"Messianic Jewish mission"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5aOOlWdLpNwC">Messianic Judaism</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Continuum_International_Publishing_Group" title="Continuum International Publishing Group">Continuum International Publishing Group</a>. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-5458-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-5458-4"><bdi>978-0-8264-5458-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42719687">42719687</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210214008/https://books.google.com/books?id=5aOOlWdLpNwC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 10 August 2010. <q>Evangelism of the Jewish people is thus at the heart of the Messianic movement.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Messianic+Jewish+mission&rft.btitle=Messianic+Judaism&rft.place=London&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42719687&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-5458-4&rft.aulast=Cohn-Sherbok&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5aOOlWdLpNwC%26q%3DEvangelism%2BJewish%2Bpeople%2Bheart%2Bmovement%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ariel2000p223-238"><a href="#cite_ref-Ariel2000p223_238-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriel2000" class="citation book cs1">Ariel, Yaakov S. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r3hCgIZB790C&pg=PA223">"Chapter 20: The Rise of Messianic Judaism"</a>. Evangelizing the chosen people: missions to the Jews in America, 1880–2000. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4880-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4880-7"><bdi>978-0-8078-4880-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43708450">43708450</a>. Retrieved 10 August 2010. <q>Messianic Judaism, although it advocated the idea of an independent movement of Jewish converts, remained the offspring of the missionary movement, and the ties would never be broken. The rise of Messianic Judaism was, in many ways, a logical outcome of the ideology and rhetoric of the movement to evangelize the Jews as well as its early sponsorship of various forms of Hebrew Christian expressions. The missions have promoted the message that Jews who had embraced Christianity were not betraying their heritage or even their faith but were actually fulfilling their true Jewish selves by becoming Christians. The missions also promoted the dispensationalist idea that the Church equals the body of the true Christian believers and that Christians were defined by their acceptance of Jesus as their personal Savior and not by their affiliations with specific denominations and particular liturgies or modes of prayer. Missions had been using Jewish symbols in their buildings and literature and called their centers by Hebrew names such as Emanuel or Beth Sar Shalom. Similarly, the missions' publications featured Jewish religious symbols and practices such as the lighting of a menorah. Although missionaries to the Jews were alarmed when they first confronted the more assertive and independent movement of Messianic Judaism, it was they who were responsible for its conception and indirectly for its birth. The ideology, rhetoric, and symbols they had promoted for generations provided the background for the rise of a new movement that missionaries at first rejected as going too far but later accepted and even embraced.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+20%3A+The+Rise+of+Messianic+Judaism&rft.btitle=Evangelizing+the+chosen+people%3A+missions+to+the+Jews+in+America%2C+1880%E2%80%932000&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pages=223&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43708450&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-4880-7&rft.aulast=Ariel&rft.aufirst=Yaakov+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr3hCgIZB790C%26pg%3DPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UMJC-3-239"><a href="#cite_ref-UMJC-3_239-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151020172143/http://www.umjc.org/what-are-the-standards-of-the-umjc/">"What are the Standards of the UMJC?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Messianic_Jewish_Congregations" title="Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations">Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations</a>. June 1998. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umjc.org/what-are-the-standards-of-the-umjc/">the original</a> on 20 October 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2015. <q>1. We believe the Bible is the inspired, the only infallible, authoritative Word of G-d. 2. We believe that there is one G-d, eternally existent in three persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit. 3. We believe in the deity of the L-RD Yeshua, the Messiah, in His virgin birth, in His sinless life, in His miracles, in His vicarious and atoning death through His shed blood, in His bodily resurrection, in His ascension to the right hand of the Father, and in His personal return in power and glory.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+are+the+Standards+of+the+UMJC%3F&rft.pub=Union+of+Messianic+Jewish+Congregations&rft.date=1998-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.umjc.org%2Fwhat-are-the-standards-of-the-umjc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trinitarianism-240"><a href="#cite_ref-Trinitarianism_240-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael_b._Betzalel2009" class="citation web cs1">Israel b. Betzalel (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090427102320/http://jerusalemcouncil.org/articles/apologetics/trinitarianism/">"Trinitarianism"</a>. JerusalemCouncil.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jerusalemcouncil.org/articles/apologetics/trinitarianism/">the original</a> on 27 April 2009. Retrieved 3 July 2009. <q>This then is who Yeshua is: He is not just a man, and as a man, he is not from Adam, but from God. He is the Word of HaShem, the Memra, the Davar, the Righteous One, he didn't become righteous, he is righteous. He is called God's Son, he is the agent of HaShem called HaShem, and he is "HaShem" who we interact with and not die.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trinitarianism&rft.pub=JerusalemCouncil.org&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Israel+b.+Betzalel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjerusalemcouncil.org%2Farticles%2Fapologetics%2Ftrinitarianism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JeC3-241"><a href="#cite_ref-JeC3_241-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100806194736/http://jerusalemcouncil.org/articles/faqs/do-i-need-to-be-circumcised/">"Do I need to be Circumcised?"</a>. JerusalemCouncil.org. 10 February 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jerusalemcouncil.org/articles/faqs/do-i-need-to-be-circumcised/">the original</a> on 6 August 2010. Retrieved 18 August 2010. <q>To convert to the Jewish sect of HaDerech, accepting Yeshua as your King is the first act after one's heart turns toward HaShem and His Torah—as one can not obey a commandment of God if they first do not love God, and we love God by following his Messiah. Without first accepting Yeshua as the King and thus obeying Him, then getting circumcised for the purpose of Jewish conversion only gains you access to the Jewish community. It means nothing when it comes to inheriting a place in the World to Come....Getting circumcised apart from desiring to be obedient to HaShem, and apart from accepting Yeshua as your King, is nothing but a surgical procedure, or worse, could lead to you believe that Jewish identity grants you a portion in the World to Come—at which point, what good is Messiah Yeshua, the Word of HaShem to you? He would have died for nothing!...As a convert from the nations, part of your obligation in keeping the Covenant, if you are a male, is to get circumcised in fulfillment of the commandment regarding circumcision. Circumcision is not an absolute requirement of being a Covenant member (that is, being made righteous before HaShem, and thus obtaining eternal life), but it is a requirement of obedience to God's commandments, because circumcision is commanded for those who are of the seed of Abraham, whether born into the family, adopted, or converted....If after reading all of this you understand what circumcision is, and that is an act of obedience, rather than an act of gaining favor before HaShem for the purpose of receiving eternal life, then if you are male believer in Yeshua the Messiah for the redemption from death, the consequence of your sin of rebellion against Him, then pursue circumcision, and thus conversion into Judaism, as an act of obedience to the Messiah.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Do+I+need+to+be+Circumcised%3F&rft.pub=JerusalemCouncil.org&rft.date=2009-02-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjerusalemcouncil.org%2Farticles%2Ffaqs%2Fdo-i-need-to-be-circumcised%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MJSelfID-242"><a href="#cite_ref-MJSelfID_242-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jerusalemcouncil.org/halacha/giyur/jewish-conversion/">"Jewish Conversion – Giyur"</a>. JerusalemCouncil.org. 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2009. <q>We recognize the desire of people from the nations to convert to Judaism, through HaDerech (The Way)(Messianic Judaism), a sect of Judaism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=JerusalemCouncil.org&rft.atitle=Jewish+Conversion+%E2%80%93+Giyur&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjerusalemcouncil.org%2Fhalacha%2Fgiyur%2Fjewish-conversion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoss" class="citation web cs1">Moss, Aron. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/160992/jewish/Can-a-Jew-believe-in-Jesus.htm">"Can a Jew believe in Jesus?"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231010133031/https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/160992/jewish/Can-a-Jew-believe-in-Jesus.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Can+a+Jew+believe+in+Jesus%3F&rft.aulast=Moss&rft.aufirst=Aron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chabad.org%2Flibrary%2Farticle_cdo%2Faid%2F160992%2Fjewish%2FCan-a-Jew-believe-in-Jesus.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Denominations-244"><a href="#cite_ref-Denominations_244-0">^</a> ;<a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmons2009" class="citation web cs1">Simmons, Shraga (9 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aish.com/jw/s/48892792.html">"Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Aish_HaTorah" title="Aish HaTorah">Aish HaTorah</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160927110753/http://www.aish.com/jw/s/48892792.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2010. <q>Jews do not accept Jesus as the messiah because: #Jesus did not fulfill the messianic prophecies. #Jesus did not embody the personal qualifications of the Messiah. #Biblical verses "referring" to Jesus are mistranslations. #Jewish belief is based on national revelation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Jews+Don%27t+Believe+in+Jesus&rft.pub=Aish+HaTorah&rft.date=2009-05-09&rft.aulast=Simmons&rft.aufirst=Shraga&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aish.com%2Fjw%2Fs%2F48892792.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></dt> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaxman2006" class="citation web cs1">Waxman, Jonathan (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060628033541/http://www.uscj.org/Messianic_Jews_Not_J5480.html">"Messianic Jews Are Not Jews"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_Synagogue_of_Conservative_Judaism" title="United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism">United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uscj.org/Messianic_Jews_Not_J5480.html">the original</a> on 28 June 2006. Retrieved 14 February 2007. <q>Hebrew Christian, Jewish Christian, Jew for Jesus, Messianic Jew, Fulfilled Jew. The name may have changed over the course of time, but all of the names reflect the same phenomenon: one who asserts that s/he is straddling the theological fence between Christianity and Judaism, but in truth is firmly on the Christian side.…we must affirm as did the Israeli Supreme Court in the well-known Brother Daniel case that to adopt Christianity is to have crossed the line out of the Jewish community.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Messianic+Jews+Are+Not+Jews&rft.pub=United+Synagogue+of+Conservative+Judaism&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Waxman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uscj.org%2FMessianic_Jews_Not_J5480.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></dt> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060928080259/http://www.huc.edu/news/mi.html">"Missionary Impossible"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew Union College">Hebrew Union College</a>. 9 August 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huc.edu/news/mi.html">the original</a> on 28 September 2006. Retrieved 14 February 2007. <q>Missionary Impossible, an imaginative video and curriculum guide for teachers, educators, and rabbis to teach Jewish youth how to recognize and respond to "Jews-for-Jesus," "Messianic Jews," and other Christian proselytizers, has been produced by six rabbinic students at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion's Cincinnati School. The students created the video as a tool for teaching why Jewish college and high school youth and Jews in intermarried couples are primary targets of Christian missionaries.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Missionary+Impossible&rft.pub=Hebrew+Union+College&rft.date=1999-08-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huc.edu%2Fnews%2Fmi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></dt> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141023183108/https://www.aleph.org/faq.htm">"FAQ's About Jewish Renewal"</a>. Aleph.org. 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aleph.org/faq.htm">the original</a> on 23 October 2014. Retrieved 20 December 2007. <q>What is ALEPH's position on so called messianic Judaism? ALEPH has a policy of respect for other spiritual traditions, but objects to deceptive practices and will not collaborate with denominations which actively target Jews for recruitment. Our position on so-called "Messianic Judaism" is that it is Christianity and its proponents would be more honest to call it that.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FAQ%27s+About+Jewish+Renewal&rft.pub=Aleph.org&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aleph.org%2Ffaq.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></dd></dl> </li> <li id="cite_note-RaphaelMelissa-245"><a href="#cite_ref-RaphaelMelissa_245-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaphael1998" class="citation journal cs1">Raphael, Melissa (April 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://online.ucpress.edu/nr/article-abstract/1/2/198/70030/Goddess-Religion-Postmodern-Jewish-Feminism-and?redirectedFrom=PDF">"Goddess Religion, Postmodern Jewish Feminism, and the Complexity of Alternative Religious Identities"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a>. 1 (2): 198–215. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fnr.1998.1.2.198">10.1525/nr.1998.1.2.198</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230717021926/https://online.ucpress.edu/nr/article-abstract/1/2/198/70030/Goddess-Religion-Postmodern-Jewish-Feminism-and?redirectedFrom=PDF">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nova+Religio&rft.atitle=Goddess+Religion%2C+Postmodern+Jewish+Feminism%2C+and+the+Complexity+of+Alternative+Religious+Identities&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=198-215&rft.date=1998-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fnr.1998.1.2.198&rft.aulast=Raphael&rft.aufirst=Melissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonline.ucpress.edu%2Fnr%2Farticle-abstract%2F1%2F2%2F198%2F70030%2FGoddess-Religion-Postmodern-Jewish-Feminism-and%3FredirectedFrom%3DPDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohn-Sherbok2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dan_Cohn-Sherbok" title="Dan Cohn-Sherbok">Cohn-Sherbok, Dan</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kw8SBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98">"Jewish Buddhists"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kw8SBwAAQBAJ">Judaism Today</a>. London; New York: Continuum. pp. 98–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-3829-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-3829-4"><bdi>978-0-8264-3829-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230628053238/https://books.google.com/books?id=kw8SBwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jewish+Buddhists&rft.btitle=Judaism+Today&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pages=98-100&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-3829-4&rft.aulast=Cohn-Sherbok&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkw8SBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003354–370"New_Age_Judaism"-247"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusnerAvery-Peck2003354–370"New_Age_Judaism"_247-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeusnerAvery-Peck2003">Neusner & Avery-Peck 2003</a>, pp. 354–370, "New Age Judaism". </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyers2007" class="citation book cs1">Myers, Jody Elizabeth (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kabbalahspiritua0000myer">Kabbalah and the spiritual quest: the Kabbalah Centre in America</a>. Westport, Conn: Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98940-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98940-8"><bdi>978-0-275-98940-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kabbalah+and+the+spiritual+quest%3A+the+Kabbalah+Centre+in+America&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98940-8&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Jody+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkabbalahspiritua0000myer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-delusion-249"><a href="#cite_ref-delusion_249-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawkins2024" class="citation book cs1">Dawkins, Richard (11 May 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/goddelusion00dawk">The God delusion</a>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/goddelusion00dawk/page/37">37</a>, 245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0618680009" title="Special:BookSources/978-0618680009"><bdi>978-0618680009</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+God+delusion&rft.pages=37%2C+245&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2024-05-11&rft.isbn=978-0618680009&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgoddelusion00dawk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeeman" class="citation news cs1">Seeman, Isadore. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1999/09/21/reconstructionist-judaism/ec2210ea-38b6-45a6-bf09-f8f247e83b40/">"Reconstructionist Judaism"</a>. Washington Post. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240424034031/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1999/09/21/reconstructionist-judaism/ec2210ea-38b6-45a6-bf09-f8f247e83b40/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2024. Retrieved 23 April 2024. <q>In the 1930s Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan recognized that many Jews were losing interest in religious observance, except perhaps for the high holidays. As a cogent philosopher and the leader of a congregation in New York, Rabbi Kaplan began to evolve a fresh approach to Jewish belief and practice... The essence of Reconstructionism is that Judaism is not just a religion but an evolving religious civilization. Reconstructionists believe in the importance of music, art, dance, the Hebrew language, a dedication to the State of Israel and a sense of Jewish peoplehood...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Reconstructionist+Judaism&rft.aulast=Seeman&rft.aufirst=Isadore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fopinions%2F1999%2F09%2F21%2Freconstructionist-judaism%2Fec2210ea-38b6-45a6-bf09-f8f247e83b40%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpost.com/opinion/yeshayahu-leibowitz-idol-smasher-or-idol-maker-593342">"Yeshayahu Leibowitz: Idol smasher or idol maker?"</a>. The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 22 June 2019. Retrieved 13 May 2024. <q>Smashing idols was Leibowitz's mission. And there were many idols to smash: Reform Judaism, Jewish nationalism, Kabbalah, the mystical and messianic insights of Religious Zionism's Abraham Isaac Kook, the notion that the mitzvot are grounded in moral principles.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post+%7C+JPost.com&rft.atitle=Yeshayahu+Leibowitz%3A+Idol+smasher+or+idol+maker%3F&rft.date=2019-06-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2Fopinion%2Fyeshayahu-leibowitz-idol-smasher-or-idol-maker-593342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg1994" class="citation news cs1">Greenberg, Joel (19 August 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/19/obituaries/yeshayahu-leibowitz-91-iconoclastic-israeli-thinker.html">"Yeshayahu Leibowitz, 91, Iconoclastic Israeli Thinker"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 13 May 2024. <q>A staunch believer in the separation of state from religion, he argued that the blend of religion and politics in Israel corrupted the faith... He taught at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem for 36 years, lecturing in biochemistry, neurophysiology, philosophy and the history of science... A volume of his work was published in English under the title "Judaism, Human Values and the Jewish State" by Harvard University Press in 1992.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Yeshayahu+Leibowitz%2C+91%2C+Iconoclastic+Israeli+Thinker&rft.date=1994-08-19&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F08%2F19%2Fobituaries%2Fyeshayahu-leibowitz-91-iconoclastic-israeli-thinker.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selected_cited_works">Selected cited works</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdler2022" class="citation book cs1">Adler, Yonatan (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k8KREAAAQBAJ">The Origins of Judaism: An Archaeological-Historical Reappraisal</a>. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25490-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25490-7"><bdi>978-0-300-25490-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230521074421/https://books.google.com/books?id=k8KREAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Judaism%3A+An+Archaeological-Historical+Reappraisal&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Conn&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-300-25490-7&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Yonatan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk8KREAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertz1994a" class="citation book cs1">Albertz, Rainer (1994a) [1992]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GJS7BwAAQBAJ">A History of Israelite Religion. Vol. 1: From the Beginnings to the End of the Monarchy</a>. Translated by John Bowden (Reprint ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-664-21846-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-664-21846-6"><bdi>0-664-21846-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Israelite+Religion.+Vol.+1%3A+From+the+Beginnings+to+the+End+of+the+Monarchy&rft.place=Louisville%2C+Kentucky&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-664-21846-6&rft.aulast=Albertz&rft.aufirst=Rainer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGJS7BwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertz1994b" class="citation book cs1">Albertz, Rainer (1994b) [1992]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z5O7BwAAQBAJ">A History of Israelite Religion. Vol. 2: From the Exile to the Maccabees</a>. Translated by John Bowden (Reprint ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-664-21847-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-664-21847-4"><bdi>0-664-21847-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Israelite+Religion.+Vol.+2%3A+From+the+Exile+to+the+Maccabees&rft.place=Louisville%2C+Kentucky&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-664-21847-4&rft.aulast=Albertz&rft.aufirst=Rainer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz5O7BwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlin2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adele_Berlin" title="Adele Berlin">Berlin, Adele</a>, ed. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hKAaJXvUaUoC">The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion</a> (2nd ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975927-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975927-9"><bdi>978-0-19-975927-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Jewish+Religion&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-975927-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhKAaJXvUaUoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyarin1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Boyarin" title="Daniel Boyarin">Boyarin, Daniel</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view%3bjsessionid=CVFQtGjpR4aPh1TA?docId=ft7w10086w&query=&brand=ucpress">A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity</a>. Berkeley, Ca: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08592-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08592-3"><bdi>978-0-520-08592-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/93036269">93036269</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203503/https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view%3Bjsessionid=CVFQtGjpR4aPh1TA?docId=ft7w10086w&query=&brand=ucpress">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 13 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Radical+Jew%3A+Paul+and+the+Politics+of+Identity&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Ca&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F93036269&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08592-3&rft.aulast=Boyarin&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.escholarship.org%2Feditions%2Fview%253bjsessionid%3DCVFQtGjpR4aPh1TA%3FdocId%3Dft7w10086w%26query%3D%26brand%3Ducpress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenMendes-Flohr2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_A._Cohen" title="Arthur A. Cohen">Cohen, Arthur A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Mendes-Flohr" title="Paul R. Mendes-Flohr">Mendes-Flohr, Paul</a>, eds. (2009) [1987]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i4VnjMQsUU0C">20th Century Jewish Religious Thought: Original Essays on Critical Concepts, Movements, and Beliefs</a>. Philadelphia, Pa: Jewish Publication Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0892-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0892-4"><bdi>978-0-8276-0892-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=20th+Century+Jewish+Religious+Thought%3A+Original+Essays+on+Critical+Concepts%2C+Movements%2C+and+Beliefs&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pa&rft.pub=Jewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8276-0892-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di4VnjMQsUU0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Day, John (2000). Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. Chippenham: Sheffield Academic Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeshenLiebmanShokeid2017" class="citation book cs1">Deshen, Shlomo; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Liebman" title="Charles Liebman">Liebman, Charles S.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Shokeid" title="Moshe Shokeid">Shokeid, Moshe</a>, eds. (2017) [1995]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XCNHDwAAQBAJ">Israeli Judaism: The Sociology of Religion in Israel</a>. Studies of Israeli Society, 7 (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-178-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-178-2"><bdi>978-1-56000-178-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230707163510/https://books.google.com/books?id=XCNHDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israeli+Judaism%3A+The+Sociology+of+Religion+in+Israel&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.series=Studies+of+Israeli+Society%2C+7&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-56000-178-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXCNHDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Dever" title="William G. Dever">Dever, William G.</a> (2005). Did God Have a Wife?. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publ.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorffRosett1988" class="citation book cs1">Dorff, Elliot N.; Rosett, Arthur (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YId1U1DuTjUC">A Living Tree: The Roots and Growth of Jewish Law</a>. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88706-459-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-88706-459-0"><bdi>0-88706-459-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230731112239/https://books.google.com/books?id=YId1U1DuTjUC">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2023. Retrieved 31 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Living+Tree%3A+The+Roots+and+Growth+of+Jewish+Law&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-88706-459-0&rft.aulast=Dorff&rft.aufirst=Elliot+N.&rft.au=Rosett%2C+Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYId1U1DuTjUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDosick2007" class="citation book cs1">Dosick, Wayne (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/livingjudaismcom00dosi">Living Judaism: The Complete Guide to Jewish Belief, Tradition and Practice</a>. New York: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-062179-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-062179-7"><bdi>978-0-06-062179-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Judaism%3A+The+Complete+Guide+to+Jewish+Belief%2C+Tradition+and+Practice&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-06-062179-7&rft.aulast=Dosick&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flivingjudaismcom00dosi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElazarGeffen2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_J._Elazar" title="Daniel J. Elazar">Elazar, Daniel J.</a>; Geffen, Rela Mintz (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Lg6BmMTZGIC">The Conservative Movement in Judaism: Dilemmas and Opportunities</a>. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-9202-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-9202-4"><bdi>978-0-7914-9202-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conservative+Movement+in+Judaism%3A+Dilemmas+and+Opportunities&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-9202-4&rft.aulast=Elazar&rft.aufirst=Daniel+J.&rft.au=Geffen%2C+Rela+Mintz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Lg6BmMTZGIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Finkelstein" title="Israel Finkelstein">Finkelstein, Israel</a> (1996). "Ethnicity and Origin of the Iron I Settlers in the Highlands of Canaan: Can the Real Israel Please Stand Up?" The Biblical Archaeologist, 59(4).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFonrobert2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Fonrobert" title="Charlotte Fonrobert">Fonrobert, Charlotte Elisheva</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/purification-purification-judaism">"Purification in Judaism"</a>. In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion: 15-volume Set (2nd ed.). Detroit, Mi: MacMillan Reference USA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230716001429/https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/purification-purification-judaism">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2023 – via <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia.com" title="Encyclopedia.com">Encyclopedia.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Purification+in+Judaism&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Religion%3A+15-volume+Set&rft.place=Detroit%2C+Mi&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=MacMillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Fonrobert&rft.aufirst=Charlotte+Elisheva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fenvironment%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Fpurification-purification-judaism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillman1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gillman" title="Neil Gillman">Gillman, Neil</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J0U-JxuuuKYC">Conservative Judaism: The New Century</a>. New York: Behrman House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87441-547-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87441-547-0"><bdi>0-87441-547-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230621030608/https://books.google.com/books?id=J0U-JxuuuKYC">Archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2023. Retrieved 15 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conservative+Judaism%3A+The+New+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Behrman+House&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-87441-547-0&rft.aulast=Gillman&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ0U-JxuuuKYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGitelman2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Zvi_Gitelman" title="Zvi Gitelman">Gitelman, Zvi</a>, ed. (2009). Religion or Ethnicity? Jewish Identities in Evolution. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4450-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4450-2"><bdi>978-0-8135-4450-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+or+Ethnicity%3F+Jewish+Identities+in+Evolution&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-4450-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldenberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Goldenberg, Robert (2007). The Origins of Judaism: From Canaan to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84453-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84453-6"><bdi>978-0-521-84453-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Judaism%3A+From+Canaan+to+the+Rise+of+Islam&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84453-6&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldscheiderNeusner2004" class="citation book cs1">Goldscheider, Calvin; <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a>, eds. 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Retrieved 24 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Foundations+of+Judaism&rft.place=Eugene%2C+Or&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publ.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-59244-943-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2TxLAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGurock1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_S._Gurock" title="Jeffrey S. Gurock">Gurock, Jeffrey S.</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yWyxwAdgHWMC">American Jewish Orthodoxy in Historical Perspective</a>. Hoboken, NJ: KTAV Publ. 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Bloomington, In: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35291-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35291-0"><bdi>978-0-253-35291-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230704045201/https://books.google.com/books?id=MKyLmWOSCPoC">Archived</a> from the original on 4 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orthodox+Jews+in+America&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+In&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-253-35291-0&rft.aulast=Gurock&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMKyLmWOSCPoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Guttmann, Julius (1964). Trans. by David Silverman, Philosophies of Judaism. Philadelphia, Pa: Jewish Publication Society.</li> <li>Holtz, Barry W. (ed.), Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts. Summit Books.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacobs" title="Louis Jacobs">Jacobs, Louis</a> (1995). The Jewish Religion: A Companion. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-826463-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-826463-1"><bdi>0-19-826463-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31938398">31938398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Religion%3A+A+Companion&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31938398&rft.isbn=0-19-826463-1&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacobs" title="Louis Jacobs">Jacobs, Louis</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780192800886.001.0001/acref-9780192800886">A Concise Companion to the Jewish Religion</a> (Online Version). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-172644-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-172644-6"><bdi>978-0-19-172644-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230713041407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780192800886.001.0001/acref-9780192800886">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Companion+to+the+Jewish+Religion&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-172644-6&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780192800886.001.0001%2Facref-9780192800886&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacobs" title="Louis Jacobs">Jacobs, Louis</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/judaism/judaism/judaism">"Judaism"</a>. 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Detroit: Macmillan Reference. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4"><bdi>978-0-02-866097-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia.com" title="Encyclopedia.com">Encyclopedia.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Judaism&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.place=Detroit&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-02-866097-4&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fphilosophy-and-religion%2Fjudaism%2Fjudaism%2Fjudaism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Johnson, Paul</a> (1988). A History of the Jews. HarperCollins.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKareshHurvitz2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Karesh, Sara E.; Hurvitz, Mitchell M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2cCZBDm8F8C">Encyclopedia of Judaism</a>. Encyclopedia of World Religions. <a href="/wiki/J._Gordon_Melton" title="J. Gordon Melton">J. Gordon Melton</a>, Series Editor. New York: Facts On File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5457-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-5457-6"><bdi>0-8160-5457-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Judaism&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Encyclopedia+of+World+Religions.+J.+Gordon+Melton%2C+Series+Editor&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8160-5457-6&rft.aulast=Karesh&rft.aufirst=Sara+E.&rft.au=Hurvitz%2C+Mitchell+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2cCZBDm8F8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Khanbaghi, A. (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. 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Princeton, NJ; Oxford: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15569-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15569-2"><bdi>978-0-691-15569-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230604005111/https://books.google.com/books?id=EUO2Mhd-drcC">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 4 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inheriting+Abraham%3A+The+Legacy+of+the+Patriarch+in+Judaism%2C+Christianity%2C+and+Islam&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ%3B+Oxford&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-691-15569-2&rft.aulast=Levenson&rft.aufirst=Jon+Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEUO2Mhd-drcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton, NJ; Oxford: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00807-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-00807-8"><bdi>0-691-00807-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Islam&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ%3B+Oxford&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-691-00807-8&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-31839-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-31839-7"><bdi>0-393-31839-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semites+and+Anti-Semites%3A+An+Inquiry+into+Conflict+and+Prejudice&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Co&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-393-31839-7&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Mayer" title="Egon Mayer">Mayer, Egon</a>; Kosmin, Barry; Keysar, Ariela. "The American Jewish Identity Survey", a subset of The American Religious Identity Survey, City University of New York Graduate Center. An article on this survey is printed in The New York Jewish Week, 2 November 2001.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMendes-Flohr2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Mendes-Flohr" title="Paul R. Mendes-Flohr">Mendes-Flohr, Paul</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/judaism/judaism/judaism">"Judaism"</a>. In Thomas Riggs (ed.). Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices. Vol. 1. Farmington Hills, Mi: Thomson Gale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-6611-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-6611-8"><bdi>978-0-7876-6611-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230610122657/https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/judaism/judaism/judaism">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2023. Retrieved 29 November 2020 – via <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia.com" title="Encyclopedia.com">Encyclopedia.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Judaism&rft.btitle=Worldmark+Encyclopedia+of+Religious+Practices&rft.place=Farmington+Hills%2C+Mi&rft.pub=Thomson+Gale&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7876-6611-8&rft.aulast=Mendes-Flohr&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fphilosophy-and-religion%2Fjudaism%2Fjudaism%2Fjudaism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_A._Meyer" title="Michael A. Meyer">Meyer, Michael A.</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M12toEjI5PEC">Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505167-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505167-4"><bdi>978-0-19-505167-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Response+to+Modernity%3A+A+History+of+the+Reform+Movement+in+Judaism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505167-4&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM12toEjI5PEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadler1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Allan_Nadler" title="Allan Nadler">Nadler, Allan</a> (1997). The Faith of the Mithnagdim: Rabbinic Responses to Hasidic Rapture. Johns Hopkins Jewish studies. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6182-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6182-6"><bdi>978-0-8018-6182-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Faith+of+the+Mithnagdim%3A+Rabbinic+Responses+to+Hasidic+Rapture&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Md&rft.series=Johns+Hopkins+Jewish+studies&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6182-6&rft.aulast=Nadler&rft.aufirst=Allan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeusner1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z3oZVjrDcgC">A Short History of Judaism: Three Meals, Three Epochs</a>. Minneapolis, Mn: Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8006-2552-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8006-2552-8"><bdi>0-8006-2552-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230625095320/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z3oZVjrDcgC">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2023. Retrieved 25 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Judaism%3A+Three+Meals%2C+Three+Epochs&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+Mn&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8006-2552-8&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5Z3oZVjrDcgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeusner1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a> (1993). Purity in Rabbinic Judaism. A Systematic Account of the Sources, Media, Effects, and Removal of Uncleanness. South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism, 95. Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55540-929-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-55540-929-6"><bdi>1-55540-929-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Purity+in+Rabbinic+Judaism.+A+Systematic+Account+of+the+Sources%2C+Media%2C+Effects%2C+and+Removal+of+Uncleanness&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+Ga&rft.series=South+Florida+Studies+in+the+History+of+Judaism%2C+95&rft.pub=Scholars+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=1-55540-929-6&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeusnerAvery-Peck2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a>; Avery-Peck, Alan J., eds. (2003) [2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bEyD_MaeqP4C">The Blackwell Companion to Judaism</a> (Reprint ed.). Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57718-058-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-57718-058-5"><bdi>1-57718-058-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230710092803/https://books.google.com/books?id=bEyD_MaeqP4C">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publ.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-57718-058-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbEyD_MaeqP4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaphael1984" class="citation book cs1">Raphael, Marc Lee (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/profilesinameric00raph">Profiles in American Judaism: the Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist traditions in historical perspective</a>. San Francisco, Ca: Harper & Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06066801-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06066801-6"><bdi>0-06066801-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Profiles+in+American+Judaism%3A+the+Reform%2C+Conservative%2C+Orthodox%2C+and+Reconstructionist+traditions+in+historical+perspective&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+Ca&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-06066801-6&rft.aulast=Raphael&rft.aufirst=Marc+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprofilesinameric00raph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenak1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Rosenak" title="Michael Rosenak">Rosenak, Michael</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q6D1GFBSptcC">Commandments and Concerns: Jewish Religious Education in Secular Society</a>. Philadelphia, Pa: Jewish Publ. Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8276-0279-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8276-0279-0"><bdi>0-8276-0279-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230731113937/https://books.google.com/books?id=q6D1GFBSptcC">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2023. Retrieved 31 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commandments+and+Concerns%3A+Jewish+Religious+Education+in+Secular+Society&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pa&rft.pub=Jewish+Publ.+Society&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-8276-0279-0&rft.aulast=Rosenak&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq6D1GFBSptcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudavsky1979" class="citation book cs1">Rudavsky, David (1979) [1967]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernjewishreli0000ruda/page/n8/mode/1up">Modern Jewish Religious Movements: A History of Emancipation and Abjustment</a> (3rd rev. ed.). New York: Behrman House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87441-286-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-87441-286-2"><bdi>0-87441-286-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Jewish+Religious+Movements%3A+A+History+of+Emancipation+and+Abjustment&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd+rev.&rft.pub=Behrman+House&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-87441-286-2&rft.aulast=Rudavsky&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernjewishreli0000ruda%2Fpage%2Fn8%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiffman2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Schiffman" title="Lawrence Schiffman">Schiffman, Lawrence H.</a> (2003). Jon Bloomberg; Samuel Kapustin (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nQDkLzQimk8C">Understanding Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism</a>. Jersey, NJ: KTAV Publ. House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-813-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-813-4"><bdi>978-0-88125-813-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Second+Temple+and+Rabbinic+Judaism&rft.place=Jersey%2C+NJ&rft.pub=KTAV+Publ.+House&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-88125-813-4&rft.aulast=Schiffman&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnQDkLzQimk8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegal2008" class="citation book cs1">Segal, Eliezer (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fdiZZqE0hkkC">Judaism: The e-Book</a>. State College, Pa: Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-09801633-1-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-09801633-1-5"><bdi>978-09801633-1-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judaism%3A+The+e-Book&rft.place=State+College%2C+Pa&rft.pub=Journal+of+Buddhist+Ethics+Online+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-09801633-1-5&rft.aulast=Segal&rft.aufirst=Eliezer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfdiZZqE0hkkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Simon, Reeva; Laskier, Michael; Reguer, Sara (eds.) (2002). The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa In Modern Times, New York: Columbia University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al., eds. (1901–1906). <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day</a>. Vol. 1–12. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia%3A+A+Descriptive+Record+of+the+History%2C+Religion%2C+Literature%2C+and+Customs+of+the+Jewish+People+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com">Online version</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121206210430/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/">Archived</a> 6 December 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStillman1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Stillman" title="Norman Stillman">Stillman, Norman</a> (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia, Pa: Jewish Publication Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8276-0198-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8276-0198-0"><bdi>0-8276-0198-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Arab+Lands%3A+A+History+and+Source+Book&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pa&rft.pub=Jewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-8276-0198-0&rft.aulast=Stillman&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVisotzkyFishman2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Burton_Visotzky" title="Burton Visotzky">Visotzky, Burton L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Fishman" title="David Fishman">Fishman, David E.</a>, eds. (2018) [1999]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x1JPDwAAQBAJ">From Mesopotamia to Modernity: Ten Introductions to Jewish History and Literature</a> (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-6717-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-6717-0"><bdi>978-0-8133-6717-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230708222500/https://books.google.com/books?id=x1JPDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Mesopotamia+to+Modernity%3A+Ten+Introductions+to+Jewish+History+and+Literature&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-6717-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx1JPDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Walsh, J.P.M. (1987). The Mighty from Their Thrones. Eugene, Or: Wipf and Stock Publ.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaxman2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chaim_I._Waxman" title="Chaim I. Waxman">Waxman, Chaim I.</a>, ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.yu.edu/handle/20.500.12202/4529">Religious Zionism Post Disengagement: Future Directions</a>. Orthodox Forum Series. New York: Michael Scharf Publ. Trust, Yeshiva University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60280-022-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60280-022-9"><bdi>978-1-60280-022-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230705180452/https://repository.yu.edu/handle/20.500.12202/4529">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 6 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Zionism+Post+Disengagement%3A+Future+Directions&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Orthodox+Forum+Series&rft.pub=Michael+Scharf+Publ.+Trust%2C+Yeshiva+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-60280-022-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.yu.edu%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12202%2F4529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber, Max</a> (1967). <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Judaism_(book)" title="Ancient Judaism (book)">Ancient Judaism</a>. Glencoe, Il: The Free Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-934130-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-934130-2">0-02-934130-2</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWertheimer1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Wertheimer" title="Jack Wertheimer">Wertheimer, Jack</a>, ed. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-G8TCgAAQBAJ">The Modern Jewish Experience: A Reader's Guide</a>. New York; London: NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-9261-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-9261-8"><bdi>0-8147-9261-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230609070712/https://books.google.com/books?id=-G8TCgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 9 June 2023. Retrieved 9 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+Jewish+Experience%3A+A+Reader%27s+Guide&rft.place=New+York%3B+London&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8147-9261-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-G8TCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaronPessahQanaïEl-Gamil2003" class="citation book cs1">Yaron, Y.; Pessah, Joe; <a href="/wiki/Avraham_Qana%C3%AF" title="Avraham Qanaï">Qanaï, Avraham</a>; El-Gamil, Yosef (2003). An Introduction to Karaite Judaism: History, Theology, Practice and Culture. Albany, NY: Qirqisani Center. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9700775-4-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9700775-4-7"><bdi>978-0-9700775-4-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Karaite+Judaism%3A+History%2C+Theology%2C+Practice+and+Culture&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.pub=Qirqisani+Center&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-9700775-4-7&rft.aulast=Yaron&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft.au=Pessah%2C+Joe&rft.au=Qana%C3%AF%2C+Avraham&rft.au=El-Gamil%2C+Yosef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZohar2005" class="citation book cs1">Zohar, Zion, ed. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H6K1IcaHwd0C">Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry: From the Golden Age of Spain to Modern Times</a>. New York; London: NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-9705-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-9705-9"><bdi>0-8147-9705-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sephardic+and+Mizrahi+Jewry%3A+From+the+Golden+Age+of+Spain+to+Modern+Times&rft.place=New+York%3B+London&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8147-9705-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH6K1IcaHwd0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3></div> <dl><dt>Encyclopedias</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adele_Berlin" title="Adele Berlin">Berlin, Adele</a>, ed. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hKAaJXvUaUoC">The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion</a> (2nd ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975927-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975927-9"><bdi>978-0-19-975927-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Jewish+Religion&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-975927-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhKAaJXvUaUoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacobs" title="Louis Jacobs">Jacobs, Louis</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780192800886.001.0001/acref-9780192800886">A Concise Companion to the Jewish Religion</a> (Online Version). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-172644-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-172644-6"><bdi>978-0-19-172644-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Companion+to+the+Jewish+Religion&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-172644-6&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780192800886.001.0001%2Facref-9780192800886&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Karesh, Sara E.; Hurvitz, Mitchell M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2cCZBDm8F8C">Encyclopedia of Judaism</a>. Encyclopedia of World Religions. <a href="/wiki/J._Gordon_Melton" title="J. Gordon Melton">J. Gordon Melton</a>, Series Editor. New York: Facts On File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5457-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-5457-6"><bdi>0-8160-5457-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Judaism&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Encyclopedia+of+World+Religions.+J.+Gordon+Melton%2C+Series+Editor&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8160-5457-6&rft.aulast=Karesh&rft.aufirst=Sara+E.&rft.au=Hurvitz%2C+Mitchell+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2cCZBDm8F8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a>; Avery-Peck, Alan J.; Green, William Scott, eds. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/package/9789004105836">The Encyclopedia of Judaism</a>. Vol. 1–3. Leiden; New York: Brill; Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10583-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10583-6"><bdi>978-90-04-10583-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Judaism&rft.place=Leiden%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Brill%3B+Continuum&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10583-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fpackage%2F9789004105836&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a> (2000). The Halakhah: An Encyclopaedia of the Law of Judaism. The Brill Reference Library of Judaism. Vol. 1–5. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-11617-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-11617-6"><bdi>90-04-11617-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Halakhah%3A+An+Encyclopaedia+of+the+Law+of+Judaism&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=The+Brill+Reference+Library+of+Judaism&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=90-04-11617-6&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a>; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1m6CAgAAQBAJ">The Routledge Dictionary of Judaism</a> (e-Book). New York; London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-63391-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-203-63391-1"><bdi>0-203-63391-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Dictionary+of+Judaism&rft.place=New+York%3B+London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-203-63391-1&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft.au=Avery-Peck%2C+Alan+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1m6CAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al., eds. (1901–1906). <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day</a>. Vol. 1–12. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia%3A+A+Descriptive+Record+of+the+History%2C+Religion%2C+Literature%2C+and+Customs+of+the+Jewish+People+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com">Online version</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Skolnik" title="Fred Skolnik">Skolnik, Fred</a>, ed. (2007). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a>. Vol. 1–22 (2nd rev. ed.). Farmington Hills, Mi: Macmillan Reference USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-002-865-928-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-002-865-928-2"><bdi>978-002-865-928-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.place=Farmington+Hills%2C+Mi&rft.edition=2nd+rev.&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-002-865-928-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>General works</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dan_Cohn-Sherbok" title="Dan Cohn-Sherbok">Cohn-Sherbok, Dan</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dMbVhwqAnhkC">Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice</a>. London; New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-23660-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-23660-6"><bdi>0-415-23660-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judaism%3A+History%2C+Belief%2C+and+Practice&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-415-23660-6&rft.aulast=Cohn-Sherbok&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdMbVhwqAnhkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Dosick, Wayne (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/livingjudaismcom00dosi">Living Judaism: The Complete Guide to Jewish Belief, Tradition and Practice</a>. New York: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-062179-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-062179-7"><bdi>978-0-06-062179-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Judaism%3A+The+Complete+Guide+to+Jewish+Belief%2C+Tradition+and+Practice&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-06-062179-7&rft.aulast=Dosick&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flivingjudaismcom00dosi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacobs" title="Louis Jacobs">Jacobs, Louis</a> (1995). The Jewish Religion: A Companion. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-826463-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-826463-1"><bdi>0-19-826463-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31938398">31938398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Religion%3A+A+Companion&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31938398&rft.isbn=0-19-826463-1&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_de_Lange" title="Nicholas de Lange">de Lange, Nicholas</a> (2002) [2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju00nich">An Introduction to Judaism</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-46073-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-46073-5"><bdi>0-521-46073-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Judaism&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-46073-5&rft.aulast=de+Lange&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoju00nich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6M8oxDql1KIC">An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader</a>. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster/John Knox Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-664-25348-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-664-25348-2"><bdi>0-664-25348-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Judaism%3A+A+Textbook+and+Reader&rft.place=Louisville%2C+Kentucky&rft.pub=Westminster%2FJohn+Knox+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-664-25348-2&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6M8oxDql1KIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a>; Avery-Peck, Alan J., eds. (2003) [2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bEyD_MaeqP4C">The Blackwell Companion to Judaism</a> (Reprint ed.). Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57718-058-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-57718-058-5"><bdi>1-57718-058-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publ.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-57718-058-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbEyD_MaeqP4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Segal, Eliezer (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fdiZZqE0hkkC">Judaism: The e-Book</a>. State College, Pa: Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-09801633-1-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-09801633-1-5"><bdi>978-09801633-1-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judaism%3A+The+e-Book&rft.place=State+College%2C+Pa&rft.pub=Journal+of+Buddhist+Ethics+Online+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-09801633-1-5&rft.aulast=Segal&rft.aufirst=Eliezer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfdiZZqE0hkkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Wertheimer" title="Jack Wertheimer">Wertheimer, Jack</a>, ed. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-G8TCgAAQBAJ">The Modern Jewish Experience: A Reader's Guide</a>. New York; London: NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-9261-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-9261-8"><bdi>0-8147-9261-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+Jewish+Experience%3A+A+Reader%27s+Guide&rft.place=New+York%3B+London&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8147-9261-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-G8TCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Regional contemporary</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Deshen, Shlomo; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Liebman" title="Charles Liebman">Liebman, Charles S.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Shokeid" title="Moshe Shokeid">Shokeid, Moshe</a>, eds. (2017) [1995]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XCNHDwAAQBAJ">Israeli Judaism: The Sociology of Religion in Israel</a>. Studies of Israeli Society, 7 (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-178-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-178-2"><bdi>978-1-56000-178-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israeli+Judaism%3A+The+Sociology+of+Religion+in+Israel&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.series=Studies+of+Israeli+Society%2C+7&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-56000-178-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXCNHDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Liebman" title="Charles Liebman">Liebman, Charles S.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Steven_M._Cohen" title="Steven M. Cohen">Cohen, Steven Martin</a> (1990). Two Worlds of Judaism: The Israeli and American Experiences. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04726-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-04726-4"><bdi>978-0-300-04726-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Worlds+of+Judaism%3A+The+Israeli+and+American+Experiences&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Conn&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-300-04726-4&rft.aulast=Liebman&rft.aufirst=Charles+S.&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Steven+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Raphael, Marc Lee (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/judaisminamerica00raph">Judaism in America</a>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-12060-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-12060-5"><bdi>0-231-12060-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judaism+in+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-231-12060-5&rft.aulast=Raphael&rft.aufirst=Marc+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjudaisminamerica00raph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Rebhum, Uzi (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cb6lDAAAQBAJC">Jews and the American Religious Landscape</a>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-17826-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-17826-6"><bdi>978-0-231-17826-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+and+the+American+Religious+Landscape&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-231-17826-6&rft.aulast=Rebhum&rft.aufirst=Uzi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcb6lDAAAQBAJC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Wertheimer" title="Jack Wertheimer">Wertheimer, Jack</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1DthDwAAQBAJ">The New American Judaism: How Jews Practice Their Religion Today</a>. Princeton, NJ; Oxford: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18129-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18129-5"><bdi>978-0-691-18129-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+American+Judaism%3A+How+Jews+Practice+Their+Religion+Today&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ%3B+Oxford&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-691-18129-5&rft.aulast=Wertheimer&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1DthDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Christianity originated in 1st-century <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judea</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christian</a> sect of <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ehrman_2005-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hurtado_2005-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output 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li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Judaism at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Judaism" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Judaism">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" 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Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Judaism" class="extiw" title="q:Judaism">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Judaism" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Judaism">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Judaism" class="extiw" title="b:Judaism">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Judaism" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Judaism">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Judaism" class="extiw" title="voy:Judaism">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li></ul></div></div> </div> <dl><dt>General</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacobs" title="Louis Jacobs">Jacobs, Louis</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780192800886.001.0001/acref-9780192800886">A Concise Companion to the Jewish Religion</a> (Online ed.). Oxford Reference. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280088-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280088-6"><bdi>978-0-19-280088-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Companion+to+the+Jewish+Religion&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+Reference&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280088-6&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780192800886.001.0001%2Facref-9780192800886&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeusner" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a>; et al. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-judaism">Encyclopedia of Judaism Online</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Judaism+Online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fbrowse%2Fencyclopaedia-of-judaism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com">Online version</a> of <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a> (1901–1906)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.learnreligions.com/judaism-4684864">About Judaism</a> by <a href="/wiki/Dotdash" class="mw-redirect" title="Dotdash">Dotdash</a> (formerly About.com)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070520062334/http://shamash.org/trb/judaism.html">Shamash's Judaism and Jewish Resources</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Orthodox/Haredi</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ou.org/">Orthodox Judaism – The Orthodox Union</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myjli.com/index.html">Rohr Jewish Learning Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/363_Transp/08_Orthodoxy.html">The Various Types of Orthodox Judaism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051103102409/http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/363_Transp/08_Orthodoxy.html">Archived</a> 3 November 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aish.com/">Aish HaTorah</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ohr.edu/">Ohr Somayach</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Traditional/Conservadox</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utj.org/">Union for Traditional Judaism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Conservative</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160420025531/http://www.uscj.org/index1.html">The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.masorti.org/">Masorti (Conservative) Movement in Israel</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usy.org/">United Synagogue Youth</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Reform/Progressive</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.urj.org/">The Union for Reform Judaism (USA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reformjudaism.org.uk/">Reform Judaism (UK)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.liberaljudaism.org/">Liberal Judaism (UK)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wupj.org/">World Union for Progressive Judaism (Israel)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Reconstructionist</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161220012139/http://www4.jrf.org/">Jewish Reconstructionist Federation</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Renewal</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aleph.org/">ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ohalah.org/">OHALAH Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Humanistic</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shj.org/">Society for Humanistic Judaism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Karaite</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.karaite-korner.org/">World Movement for Karaite Judaism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Jewish religious literature and texts</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/t/t0.htm">Complete Tanakh</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181120092142/http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/t/t0.htm">Archived</a> 20 November 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (in Hebrew, with vowels).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0.htm">Parallel Hebrew-English Tanakh</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090210134451/http://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0.htm">Archived</a> 10 February 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0.htm">English Tanakh</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100612191925/http://mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0.htm">Archived</a> 12 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the 1917 Jewish Publication Society version.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torah.org/">Torah.org</a> (also known as Project Genesis) – contains Torah commentaries and studies of Tanakh, along with Jewish ethics, philosophy, holidays and other classes.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.e-daf.com/">The complete formatted Talmud online</a> – audio files of lectures for each page from an Orthodox viewpoint are provided in French, English, Yiddish and Hebrew. Reload the page for an image of a page of the Talmud.</li></ul> See also <a href="/wiki/Torah_database" title="Torah database">Torah database</a> for links to more Judaism e-texts. <dl><dt>Wikimedia Torah study projects</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div lang="mul" style="margin-left: 10px;"><a href="https://wikisource.org/wiki/Pentateuch" class="extiw" title="oldwikisource:Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a> </div></div></div> </div> Text study projects at <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Wikisource" class="extiw" title="s:Wikisource">Wikisource</a>. In many instances, the Hebrew versions of these projects are more fully developed than the English. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikraot_Gedolot" title="Mikraot Gedolot">Mikraot Gedolot</a> (Rabbinic Bible) in <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/he:%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%92%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA" class="extiw" title="s:he:מקראות גדולות">Hebrew</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/he:%D7%9E%22%D7%92_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%90_%D7%90" class="extiw" title="s:he:מ"ג איכה א א">(sample)</a> and <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Mikraot_Gedolot" class="extiw" title="s:Mikraot Gedolot">English</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/MG_Numbers_1:1" class="extiw" title="s:MG Numbers 1:1">(sample)</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">Cantillation</a> at the "Vayavinu Bamikra" Project in <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/he:%D7%95%D7%99%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95_%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%90" class="extiw" title="s:he:ויבינו במקרא">Hebrew</a> (lists nearly 200 recordings) and <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Vayavinu_Bamikra" class="extiw" title="s:Vayavinu Bamikra">English</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> in <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/he:%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%94" class="extiw" title="s:he:משנה">Hebrew</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/he:%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A7_%D7%90_%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%90" class="extiw" title="s:he:ברכות פרק א משנה א">(sample)</a> and <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Mishnah" class="extiw" title="s:Mishnah">English</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Mishnah_Berakhot_1:1" class="extiw" title="s:Mishnah Berakhot 1:1">(sample)</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a> in <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/he:%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9F_%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9A" class="extiw" title="s:he:שולחן ערוך">Hebrew</a> and <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" class="extiw" title="s:Shulchan Aruch">English</a> (Hebrew text with English translation).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jews_and_Judaism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Template:Jews and Judaism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Template talk:Jews and Judaism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jews and Judaism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jews_and_Judaism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judaism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">Outline of Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Jewish_history-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of Jewish history-related articles">Index of Jewish history-related articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Judaism" title="Origins of Judaism">Origins of Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogal_Judaism" title="Synagogal Judaism">Synagogal Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Atheists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta_Christianity" title="Xueta Christianity">Xueta Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism,_race_and_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionism, race and genetics">Zionism, race and genetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groups_claiming_affiliation_with_Israelites" title="Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites">Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Diaspora" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner-Jews" title="Afrikaner-Jews">Afrikaner-Jode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuts" title="Chuts">Chuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galitzianers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Lita'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlander_Jews" title="Oberlander Jews">Oberlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Udmurtia_and_Tatarstan" title="History of the Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan">Udmurt and Tatar Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unterlander_Jews" title="Unterlander Jews">Unterlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekke" title="Yekke">Yekkes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Abraham" title="Beta Abraham">Beta Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falash_Mura" title="Falash Mura">Falash Mura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_Jews" title="Desi Jews">Desi Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Kochinim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzínim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinopolitan_Karaites" title="Constantinopolitan Karaites">Constantinopolitan Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdish Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alexandria" title="History of the Jews in Alexandria">Alexandrian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Jews" title="Baghdadi Jews">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egyptian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urfalim" title="Urfalim">Urfalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adeni_Jews" title="Adeni Jews">Adeni Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbani_Jews" title="Habbani Jews">Ḥabbanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hadramaut" title="History of the Jews in Hadramaut">Hadhrami Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saada" title="History of the Jews in Saada">Saada Jews</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musta%27arabi_Jews" title="Musta'arabi Jews">Mustaʿravim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Jewish tribes of Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Eastern Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Livorno" title="History of the Jews in Livorno">Livornese Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_Sephardim" title="North African Sephardim">North African Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradesi_Jews" title="Paradesi Jews">Paradesi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meshuchrarim" title="Meshuchrarim">Meshuchrarim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Sephardic Bnei Anusim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xuetes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Diasporic</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language#List_of_signed_languages" title="Manually coded language">Signed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Amazigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Judaeo-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Borujerdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Borujerdi">Judeo-Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judeo-Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani">Judeo-Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judeo-Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayliñña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Kivruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwareña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Shassagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_authority" title="Rabbinic authority">Rabbinic authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosen people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Eschatology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_in_Judaism" title="Holiness in Judaism">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sefirot" title="Sefirot">Sefirot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of Judaism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvishe" class="mw-redirect" title="Litvishe">Litvaks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolog_Judaism" title="Neolog Judaism">Neolog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationships_between_Jewish_religious_movements" title="Relationships between Jewish religious movements">relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Sifrei Kodesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a>/Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_texts_of_Kabbalah" title="Primary texts of Kabbalah">Kabbalah texts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hekhalot_literature" title="Hekhalot literature">Hekhalot literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_Rimonim" title="Pardes Rimonim">Pardes Rimonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_HaBahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer HaBahir">Sefer HaBahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etz_Chaim_(book)" title="Etz Chaim (book)">Sefer HaEtz Chaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Raziel_HaMalakh" title="Sefer Raziel HaMalakh">Sefer Raziel HaMalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Yetzirah" title="Sefer Yetzirah">Sefer Yetzirah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_astrology" title="Jewish astrology">Astrology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_astrology" title="Jewish views on astrology">perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monen" title="Monen">Monen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leadership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Divorce in Judaism">Divorce</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_name" title="Jewish name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_studies" title="Jewish studies">Studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Jewish_History" title="Center for Jewish History">Center for Jewish History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Historical_Society" title="American Jewish Historical Society">American Jewish Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sephardi_Federation" title="American Sephardi Federation">American Sephardi Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baeck_Institute_New_York" title="Leo Baeck Institute New York">Leo Baeck Institute New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva_University_Museum" title="Yeshiva University Museum">Yeshiva University Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO Institute for Jewish Research</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_Contemporary_Jewish_Documentation" title="Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation">Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Jew (word)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_YIVO_Encyclopedia_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Europe" title="The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe">YIVO Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" title="United States Holocaust Memorial Museum">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Holocaust" title="Encyclopedia of the Holocaust">Encyclopedia of the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Encyclopedia">Holocaust Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_other_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Anabaptist–Jewish relations">Anabaptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Mormonism" title="Judaism and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Judaism" title="Protestantism and Judaism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Halloween" title="Jews and Halloween">Jews and Halloween</a></li></ul></li> <li>non-Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/14px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/21px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/28px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_topics" title="Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_topics" title="Template talk:Religion topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religious_groups_and_denominations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religious groups and denominations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judaism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>/<a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren" title="Schwarzenau Brethren">Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#Associated_Bible_Students" title="Bible Student movement">Associated Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Bible_Students" title="Free Bible Students">Free Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Kitawala" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Kitawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laymen%27s_Home_Missionary_Movement" title="Laymen's Home Missionary Movement">Laymen's Home Missionary Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">Swedenborgianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Modernist Salafism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Illahism" title="Ali-Illahism">Ali-Illahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishikism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Alevism" title="Kurdish Alevism">Kurdish Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdawi_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdawi movement">Mahdavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milah_Abraham" title="Milah Abraham">Milah Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azali" title="Azali">Azalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm-e-Khshnoom" title="Ilm-e-Khshnoom">Ilm-e-Khshnoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdaznan" title="Mazdaznan">Mazdaznan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kurdish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Assianism/Uatsdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roshani_movement" title="Roshani movement">Roshani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvationist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto_sects_and_schools" title="Shinto sects and schools">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeung_San_Do" title="Jeung San Do">Jeungsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_M%E1%BA%ABu" title="Đạo Mẫu">Đạo Mẫu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hoahaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_B%E1%BB%ADu_S%C6%A1n_K%E1%BB%B3_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương">Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishnaism" title="Krishnaism">Krishnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sampradaya" title="Brahma Sampradaya">Brahma Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushtimarg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtimarg">Pushtimarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanandi_Sampradaya" title="Ramanandi Sampradaya">Ramanandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warkari" title="Warkari">Warkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapatya" title="Ganapatya">Ganapatya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingayatism" title="Lingayatism">Lingayatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Nath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saura_(Hinduism)" title="Saura (Hinduism)">Sauraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mat" title="Sant Mat">Sant Mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Neo-Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Amidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Neo-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_people#Religion" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kirat Mundhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda#Religion" title="Vedda">Vedda religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidassia" title="Ravidassia">Ravidassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sects_of_Sikhism" title="Sects of Sikhism">Sects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_creation_myth" title="Tungusic creation myth">Tungusic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenks#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarna_(place)" title="Sarna (place)">Sarnaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Batak Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayak_people#Religion_and_festivals" title="Dayak people">Dayak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Sabahan_religions" title="Traditional Sabahan religions">Traditional Sabahan religions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indonesian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_Kepercayaan" title="Aliran Kepercayaan">Aliran Kepercayaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapitayan" title="Kapitayan">Kapitayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemena" title="Pemena">Karo Pemena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine Dayawism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Sumbese Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sundanese Wiwitan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaskan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Anishinaabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe#Spiritual_beliefs" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache#Religion" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_religion" title="Pomo religion">Pomo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_religion" title="Crow religion">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Cherokee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people#Religion" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Muscogee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_mythology" title="Seneca mythology">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyandot religion">Wyandot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_peoples#Religion" title="Jivaroan peoples">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_religion" title="Purépecha religion">Purépecha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo#Spiritual_and_religious_beliefs" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology" title="Nuu-chah-nulth mythology">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_religion" title="Pueblo religion">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo#Religion" title="Acoma Pueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux#Religion" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_religion" title="Lakota religion">Lakota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology" title="Tsimshian mythology">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_mythology" title="Ute mythology">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions#Washat_Dreamers_Religion" title="Native American religions">Washat Dreamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui#Yaqui_cosmology_and_religion" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Hmongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Guanche church</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Sub-Saharan African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Akamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogon religion">Dogon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_people" title="Ik people">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotuko_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotuko mythology">Lotuko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Odinala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_mythology" title="Tumbuka mythology">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waaqeffanna" title="Waaqeffanna">Waaqeffanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">Diasporic</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_Orisha" title="Trinidad Orisha">Trinidad Orisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Siberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syncretic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Religion" title="Coconut Religion">Coconut Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meivazhi" title="Meivazhi">Meivazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modekngei" title="Modekngei">Modekngei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roerichism" title="Roerichism">Roerichism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensegrity_(Castaneda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensegrity (Castaneda)">Tensegrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Theosophy" title="Neo-Theosophy">Neo-Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Yoga" title="Agni Yoga">Agni Yoga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">White Brotherhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern paganism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetanism" title="Hetanism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Xabze" title="Adyghe Xabze">Circassian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(modern_religion)" title="Hellenism (modern religion)">Hellenism (modern religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Roman_religion" title="Reconstructionist Roman religion">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Authentism" title="Russian Authentism">Authentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Finnish_paganism" title="Modern Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_religion" title="Mari religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzyan_native_religion" title="Erzyan native religion">Erzya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">De novo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eckankar" title="Eckankar">Eckankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jediism" title="Jediism">Jediism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology" title="Scientology">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historical religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Religion" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians#Spiritual_culture" title="Fuegians">Fuegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(religion)" title="Orphism (religion)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#System_of_beliefs" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Harappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederacy#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Confederacy">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Jamaican Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_Indigenous_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauruan Indigenous religion">Nauruan Indigenous religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian mythology">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_III_Era#Culture_and_religion" title="Basketmaker III Era">Ancestral Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_II_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo II Period">Pueblo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_III_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo III Period">Pueblo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_IV_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo IV Period">Pueblo IV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cult of Magna Mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu#Religion" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization#Religion_and_Myth" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Religious_disaffiliation" title="Religious disaffiliation">Disaffiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_to_prayer" title="Call to prayer">Call to prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(religion)" title="Covenant (religion)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">Denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novice" title="Novice">Novice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Bodies of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains" title="Sacred mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">Trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_religion" title="Water and religion">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Astral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Place</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_and_society" title="Category:Religion and society">Religion and society</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_agriculture" title="Religion and agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_business" title="Religion and business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_assimilation" title="Religious assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_religion" title="Growth of religion">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_happiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_church" title="National church">National church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">National religiosity levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_politics" title="Religion in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_populations" title="List of religious populations">Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiocentrism" title="Religiocentrism">Religiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_video_games" title="Religion and video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_and_religion" title="Wealth and religion">Wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Overviews and <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion-related_lists" title="Category:Religion-related lists">lists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_prophets_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_have_been_considered_deities" title="List of people who have been considered deities">Deification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_religion-related_articles" title="Index of religion-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_peaceful_gatherings" title="List of largest peaceful gatherings">Mass gatherings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_religion" title="Outline of religion">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions and spiritual traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Angola" title="Religion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Benin" title="Religion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Botswana" title="Religion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Religion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burundi" title="Religion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cameroon" title="Religion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Religion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Religion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chad" title="Religion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Comoros" title="Religion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Religion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eritrea" title="Religion in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eswatini" title="Religion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ethiopia" title="Religion in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Gabon" title="Religion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Gambia" title="Religion in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ghana" title="Religion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea" title="Religion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Religion in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Religion in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kenya" title="Religion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lesotho" title="Religion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liberia" title="Religion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Libya" title="Religion in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malawi" title="Religion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mali" title="Religion in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritania" title="Religion in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritius" title="Religion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco" title="Religion in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mozambique" title="Religion in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Namibia" title="Religion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niger" title="Religion in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Senegal" title="Religion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Seychelles" title="Religion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Religion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Sudan" title="Religion in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sudan" title="Religion in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tanzania" title="Religion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Togo" title="Religion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tunisia" title="Religion in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uganda" title="Religion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zambia" title="Religion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bahrain" title="Religion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bhutan" title="Religion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brunei" title="Religion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cambodia" title="Religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cyprus" title="Religion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_East_Timor" title="Religion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jordan" title="Religion in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Korea" title="Religion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kuwait" title="Religion in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Religion in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Laos" title="Religion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Maldives" title="Religion in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oman" title="Religion in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Philippines" title="Religion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Qatar" title="Religion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Religion in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tajikistan" title="Religion in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Thailand" title="Religion in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkmenistan" title="Religion in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Religion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uzbekistan" title="Religion in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Yemen" title="Religion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Europe" title="Religion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andorra" title="Religion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bulgaria" title="Religion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Croatia" title="Religion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Denmark" title="Religion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Estonia" title="Religion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Greece" title="Religion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hungary" title="Religion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kosovo" title="Religion in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Latvia" title="Religion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Religion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malta" title="Religion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Moldova" title="Religion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Religion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Portugal" title="Religion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Romania" title="Religion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_San_Marino" title="Religion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Serbia" title="Religion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovakia" title="Religion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia" title="Religion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden" title="Religion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Religion in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Religion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Barbados" title="Religion in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belize" title="Religion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Religion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cuba" title="Religion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Dominica" title="Religion in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_El_Salvador" title="Religion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guatemala" title="Religion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Haiti" title="Religion in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Honduras" title="Religion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jamaica" title="Religion in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Panama" title="Religion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Religion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Zealand" title="Religion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Palau" title="Religion in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Religion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Samoa" title="Religion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Religion in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tonga" title="Religion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tuvalu" title="Religion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vanuatu" title="Religion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_America" title="Religion in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Argentina" title="Religion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bolivia" title="Religion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brazil" title="Religion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chile" title="Religion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Colombia" title="Religion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ecuador" title="Religion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guyana" title="Religion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Paraguay" title="Religion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Peru" title="Religion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Suriname" title="Religion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uruguay" title="Religion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Venezuela" title="Religion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion" title="Category:Religion">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9268#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9268#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9268#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4114087-4">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85070835">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb133184292">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb133184292">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00574409">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114838&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX4659796">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000054364&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007536271505171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.e-lir.ch/e-LIR___Lexicon.1117.450.0.html">Lexicon Istoric Retic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10639246">NARA</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/yahudilik">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judaism&oldid=1259051673">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judaism&oldid=1259051673</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Judaism" title="Category:Judaism">Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Jews and Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Abrahamic_religions" title="Category:Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li><li><a 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