CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Infection - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"222dd490-6a87-4d5d-9fc1-1d0165cadbd1","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Infection","wgTitle":"Infection","wgCurRevisionId":1252306756,"wgRevisionId":1252306756,"wgArticleId":37220,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2020","Webarchive template archiveis links","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from August 2018","Articles with permanently dead external links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles needing additional references from September 2024","All articles needing additional references", "All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2021","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023","Pages using div col with small parameter","Commons category link is locally defined","Infectious diseases","Epidemiology"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Infection","wgRelevantArticleId":37220,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000, "wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q166231","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.tablesorter.styles":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.tablesorter","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cjquery.tablesorter.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Malaria.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Malaria.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="800"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Malaria.jpg/640px-Malaria.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="640"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Infection - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Infection rootpage-Infection skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Infection" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Infection" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Infection" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Infection" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signs_and_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Signs and symptoms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Signs and symptoms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bacterial_or_viral" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bacterial_or_viral"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Bacterial or viral</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bacterial_or_viral-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathophysiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathophysiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Pathophysiology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Pathophysiology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Colonization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Colonization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Transmission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diagnosis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Symptomatic_diagnostics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symptomatic_diagnostics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Symptomatic diagnostics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symptomatic_diagnostics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microbial_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microbial_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Microbial culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microbial_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microscopy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microscopy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Microscopy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microscopy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biochemical_tests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biochemical_tests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Biochemical tests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biochemical_tests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-PCR-based_diagnostics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PCR-based_diagnostics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>PCR-based diagnostics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PCR-based_diagnostics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metagenomic_sequencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metagenomic_sequencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Metagenomic sequencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metagenomic_sequencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indication_of_tests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indication_of_tests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Indication of tests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indication_of_tests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subclinical_versus_clinical_(latent_versus_apparent)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subclinical_versus_clinical_(latent_versus_apparent)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.1</span> <span>Subclinical versus clinical (latent versus apparent)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subclinical_versus_clinical_(latent_versus_apparent)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Course_of_infection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Course_of_infection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.2</span> <span>Course of infection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Course_of_infection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_versus_opportunistic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_versus_opportunistic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.3</span> <span>Primary versus opportunistic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_versus_opportunistic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_pathogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_pathogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.3.1</span> <span>Primary pathogens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_pathogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opportunistic_pathogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opportunistic_pathogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.3.2</span> <span>Opportunistic pathogens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opportunistic_pathogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_infection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_infection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.3.3</span> <span>Secondary infection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_infection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_types_of_infection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_types_of_infection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.3.4</span> <span>Other types of infection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_types_of_infection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infectious_or_not" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infectious_or_not"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.4</span> <span>Infectious or not</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infectious_or_not-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contagiousness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contagiousness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.5</span> <span>Contagiousness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contagiousness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_anatomic_location" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_anatomic_location"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.6</span> <span>By anatomic location</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_anatomic_location-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Prevention</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prevention subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Immunity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Immunity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Host_genetic_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Host_genetic_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Host genetic factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Host_genetic_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Treatments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Susceptibility_to_infection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Susceptibility_to_infection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Susceptibility to infection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Susceptibility_to_infection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Epidemiology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Epidemiology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historic_pandemics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historic_pandemics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Historic pandemics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historic_pandemics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emerging_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emerging_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Emerging diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emerging_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germ_theory_of_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germ_theory_of_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Germ theory of disease</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Germ_theory_of_disease-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Germ theory of disease subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Germ_theory_of_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medical_specialists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_specialists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Medical specialists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_specialists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fossil_record" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossil_record"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Fossil record</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossil_record-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outer_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outer_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Outer space</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outer_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Infection</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 96 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-96" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">96 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksie" title="Infeksie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Infeksie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektion" title="Infektion – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Infektion" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%89" title="عدوى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عدوى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infecci%C3%B3n" title="Infección – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Infección" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3" title="সংক্ৰমণ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="সংক্ৰমণ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%B1ata" title="Añata – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Añata" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nfeksiya" title="İnfeksiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnfeksiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A3" title="সংক্রমণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সংক্রমণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Інфекцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Інфекцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Інфэкцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Інфэкцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeksyon" title="Impeksyon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Impeksyon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Инфекция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Инфекция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekcija" title="Infekcija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Infekcija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infecci%C3%B3" title="Infecció – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Infecció" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekce" title="Infekce – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Infekce" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haint" title="Haint – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Haint" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektion" title="Infektion – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Infektion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektion" title="Infektion – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Infektion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektsioon" title="Infektsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Infektsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%BF%CE%AF%CE%BC%CF%89%CE%BE%CE%B7" title="Λοίμωξη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λοίμωξη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infecci%C3%B3n" title="Infección – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Infección" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekto" title="Infekto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Infekto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekzio" title="Infekzio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Infekzio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA" title="عفونت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عفونت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection" title="Infection – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Infection" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionfhabht%C3%BA" title="Ionfhabhtú – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ionfhabhtú" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infecci%C3%B3n" title="Infección – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Infección" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%90%EC%97%BC" title="감염 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="감염" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF" title="Վարակ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վարակ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3" title="संक्रमण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संक्रमण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaraza" title="Zaraza – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zaraza" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekto" title="Infekto – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Infekto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksi" title="Infeksi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Infeksi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isifo_esosulelayo" title="Isifo esosulelayo – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Isifo esosulelayo" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smitun" title="Smitun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Smitun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infezione" title="Infezione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Infezione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9D_(%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94)" title="זיהום (רפואה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זיהום (רפואה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%81" title="ಸೋಂಕು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸೋಂಕು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ინფექცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ინფექცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D2%B1%D2%9B%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%83" title="Жұқтыру – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жұқтыру" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maambukizo" title="Maambukizo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Maambukizo" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfeksyon" title="Enfeksyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Enfeksyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Инфекция – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Инфекция" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagio" title="Contagio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Contagio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekcija" title="Infekcija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Infekcija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekcija" title="Infekcija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Infekcija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectie" title="Infectie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Infectie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeta" title="Infeta – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Infeta" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fert%C5%91z%C3%A9s" title="Fertőzés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fertőzés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Зараза – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Зараза" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A7" title="അണുബാധ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അണുബാധ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ინფექცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ინფექცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7" title="عدوا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عدوا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jangkitan" title="Jangkitan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jangkitan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Халдвар – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Халдвар" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB%E1%80%95%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9D%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ရောဂါပိုးဝင်ရောက်ခြင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရောဂါပိုးဝင်ရောက်ခြင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tauvitaki" title="Tauvitaki – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Tauvitaki" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectie" title="Infectie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Infectie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E6%9F%93" title="感染 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="感染" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksjon" title="Infeksjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Infeksjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksjon" title="Infeksjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Infeksjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacawwii" title="Bacawwii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Bacawwii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksiya" title="Infeksiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Infeksiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%86" title="انفیکشن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انفیکشن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AA_(%D9%BE%D9%87_%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%BA%DB%8D_%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%87_%DA%A9%DB%90%D8%AF%D9%84_%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%BA%DB%8D_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AA)" title="عفونيت (په ناروغۍ اخته کېدل يا د ناروغۍ سرايت) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عفونيت (په ناروغۍ اخته کېدل يا د ناروغۍ سرايت)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaka%C5%BCenie" title="Zakażenie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zakażenie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infec%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Infecção – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Infecção" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infec%C8%9Bie" title="Infecție – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Infecție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Инфекция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Инфекция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mafu_a_t%C5%A1oaetsanoang" title="Mafu a tšoaetsanoang – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Mafu a tšoaetsanoang" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infeksioni" title="Infeksioni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Infeksioni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nfizzioni" title="Nfizzioni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Nfizzioni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%84_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%9C" title="ක්ෂුද්‍ර ජීවීන් සහ රෝග – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ක්ෂුද්‍ර ජීවීන් සහ රෝග" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection" title="Infection – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Infection" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekcia" title="Infekcia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Infekcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oku%C5%BEba" title="Okužba – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Okužba" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caabuq" title="Caabuq – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Caabuq" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B4%DB%95%D9%86%D8%A7" title="تەشەنا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تەشەنا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Инфекција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Инфекција" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infekcija" title="Infekcija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Infekcija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektio" title="Infektio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Infektio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infektion" title="Infektion – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Infektion" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagkakahawa" title="Pagkakahawa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagkakahawa" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="நோய்த்தொற்று – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நோய்த்தொற்று" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igem" title="Igem – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Igem" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD" title="การติดเชื้อ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การติดเชื้อ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfeksiyon" title="Enfeksiyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Enfeksiyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Інфекція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Інфекція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%B6_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="مرض متعدی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مرض متعدی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infesion" title="Infesion – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Infesion" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nhi%E1%BB%85m_tr%C3%B9ng" title="Nhiễm trùng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhiễm trùng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infesyon" title="Infesyon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Infesyon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E6%9F%93" title="感染 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="感染" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A2" title="אינפעקציע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אינפעקציע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E6%9F%93" title="感染 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="感染" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E6%9F%93" title="感染 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="感染" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q166231#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Infection" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Infection" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Infection"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Infection"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Infection" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Infection" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&oldid=1252306756" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Infection&id=1252306756&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FInfection"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FInfection"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Infection&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Infectious_diseases_and_disorders" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q166231" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Invasion of an organism's body by pathogenic agents</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Infection_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Infection (disambiguation)">Infection (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Infectious disease" redirects here. For the medical specialty, see <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases (medical specialty)</a>. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Infectious_Diseases_(journal)" title="Infectious Diseases (journal)"><i>Infectious Disease</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Infection</th></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Malaria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Malaria.jpg/220px-Malaria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Malaria.jpg/330px-Malaria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Malaria.jpg/440px-Malaria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">False-colored <a href="/wiki/Electron_micrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron micrograph">electron micrograph</a> showing a <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> <a href="/wiki/Sporozoite" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporozoite">sporozoite</a> migrating through the mosquito midgut epithelial cell</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Bacterial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viral_disease" title="Viral disease">viral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">parasitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycosis">fungal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">prion</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span lang="ml" dir="ltr">An</span> <b>infection</b> is the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>, their multiplication, and the reaction of <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a> tissues to the infectious agent and the <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> they produce.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <b>infectious disease</b>, also known as a <b>transmissible disease</b> or <b>communicable disease</b>, is an <a href="/wiki/Disease#Terminology" title="Disease">illness</a> resulting from an infection. </p><p>Infections can be caused by a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>, most prominently <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hosts can fight infections using their <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune systems</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammalian</a> hosts react to infections with an <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate</a> response, often involving <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a>, followed by an <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive</a> response. </p><p>Specific <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">medications</a> used to treat infections include <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">antivirals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antifungal_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Antifungal medication">antifungals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antiprotozoal_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiprotozoal agent">antiprotozoals</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Antihelminthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihelminthic">antihelminthics</a>. Infectious diseases resulted in 9.2 million deaths in 2013 (about 17% of all deaths).<sup id="cite_ref-GDB2013_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GDB2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The branch of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> that focuses on infections is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">infectious diseases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Infections are caused by infectious agents (<a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>) including: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Bacteria</a> (e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Staphylococcus aureus">Staphylococcus aureus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_botulinum" title="Clostridium botulinum">Clostridium botulinum</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a></i> spp.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Viral infection">Viruses</a> and related agents such as <a href="/wiki/Viroid" title="Viroid">viroids</a>. (E.g. <i><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Rhinovirus" title="Rhinovirus">Rhinovirus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Lyssavirus" title="Lyssavirus">Lyssaviruses</a></i> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Rabies_virus" title="Rabies virus">Rabies virus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ebolavirus" title="Ebolavirus">Ebolavirus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2">Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_infection" title="Fungal infection">Fungi</a>, further subclassified into: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a>, including yeasts such as <a href="/wiki/Candida_(fungus)" title="Candida (fungus)"><i>Candida</i></a> (the most common <a href="/wiki/Fungal_infection" title="Fungal infection">fungal infection</a>); filamentous fungi such as <i><a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a>;</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Pneumocystis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumocystis">Pneumocystis</a></i> species; and <a href="/wiki/Dermatophytosis" title="Dermatophytosis">dermatophytes</a>, a group of organisms causing infection of skin and other superficial structures in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a>, including the human-pathogenic genus <i><a href="/wiki/Cryptococcus" title="Cryptococcus">Cryptococcus</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">Parasites</a>, which are usually divided into:<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Unicellular organisms (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">malaria</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Babesia" title="Babesia">Babesia</a></i>)</li> <li>Macroparasites<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Parasitic_worm" title="Parasitic worm">worms or helminths</a>) including <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Parasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roundworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundworm">roundworms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pinworm_(parasite)" title="Pinworm (parasite)">pinworms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tapeworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapeworm">tapeworms</a> (cestodes), and flukes (<a href="/wiki/Trematodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trematodes">trematodes</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Schistosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Schistosomes">schistosomes</a>). Diseases caused by <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_worm" title="Parasitic worm">helminths</a> are sometimes termed infestations, but are sometimes called infections.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Tick" title="Tick">ticks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mite" title="Mite">mites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lice">lice</a>, can also cause human disease, which conceptually are similar to infections, but invasion of a human or animal body by these macroparasites is usually termed <a href="/wiki/Infestation" title="Infestation">infestation</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Prions</a> (although they do not secrete toxins)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">signs and symptoms</a> of an infection depend on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as <a href="/wiki/Fatigue" title="Fatigue">fatigue</a>, loss of appetite, weight loss, <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fevers</a>, night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as skin <a href="/wiki/Rash" title="Rash">rashes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cough" title="Cough">coughing</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Rhinorrhea" title="Rhinorrhea">runny nose</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In certain cases, infectious diseases may be <a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic" title="Asymptomatic">asymptomatic</a> for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a "disease" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an <a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">asymptomatic carrier</a>. An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacterial_or_viral">Bacterial or viral</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bacterial or viral"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As bacterial and viral infections can both cause the same kinds of symptoms, it can be difficult to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection.<sup id="cite_ref-nipa_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nipa-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Distinguishing the two is important, since viral infections cannot be cured by <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a> whereas bacterial infections can.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Comparison of viral and bacterial infection </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Characteristic </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Viral_disease" title="Viral disease">Viral infection</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Bacterial infection</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Typical symptoms </td> <td>In general, viral infections are systemic. This means they involve many different parts of the body or more than one body system at the same time; i.e. a runny nose, sinus congestion, cough, body aches etc. They can be local at times as in viral <a href="/wiki/Conjunctivitis" title="Conjunctivitis">conjunctivitis</a> or "pink eye" and herpes. Only a few viral infections are painful, like <a href="/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus" title="Herpes simplex virus">herpes</a>. The pain of viral infections is often described as itchy or burning.<sup id="cite_ref-nipa_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nipa-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>The classic symptoms of a bacterial infection are localized redness, heat, swelling and pain. One of the hallmarks of a bacterial infection is local pain, pain that is in a specific part of the body. For example, if a cut occurs and is infected with bacteria, pain occurs at the site of the infection. Bacterial throat pain is often characterized by more pain on one side of the throat. An <a href="/wiki/Ear_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Ear infection">ear infection</a> is more likely to be diagnosed as bacterial if the pain occurs in only one ear.<sup id="cite_ref-nipa_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nipa-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A cut that produces pus and milky-colored liquid is most likely infected.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cause</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenic viruses">Pathogenic viruses</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Pathogenic bacteria</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pathophysiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chain_of_Infection.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chain_of_Infection.png/220px-Chain_of_Infection.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chain_of_Infection.png/330px-Chain_of_Infection.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chain_of_Infection.png/440px-Chain_of_Infection.png 2x" data-file-width="2211" data-file-height="1701" /></a><figcaption>Chain of infection; the chain of events that lead to infection</figcaption></figure> <p>There is a general chain of events that applies to infections, sometimes called the <b>chain of infection</b><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>transmission chain</b>. The chain of events involves several steps – which include the infectious agent, reservoir, entering a susceptible host, exit and transmission to new hosts. Each of the links must be present in a chronological order for an infection to develop. Understanding these steps helps health care workers target the infection and prevent it from occurring in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonization">Colonization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Colonization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg/220px-Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg/330px-Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg/440px-Dit_del_peu_gros_infectat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="469" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Infection of an <a href="/wiki/Ingrown_nail" title="Ingrown nail">ingrown toenail</a>; there is pus (yellow) and resultant inflammation (redness and swelling around the nail).</figcaption></figure> <p>Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those with compromised or weakened immune systems have an increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> are particularly susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">opportunistic infections</a>. Entrance to the host at <a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93pathogen_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Host–pathogen interface">host–pathogen interface</a>, generally occurs through the <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucosa</a> in orifices like the <a href="/wiki/Oral_cavity" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral cavity">oral cavity</a>, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">Wound</a> colonization refers to non-replicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organisms</a> are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Commensal" class="mw-redirect" title="Commensal">commensal</a> relationship with the host. An example of the former is the <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">anaerobic bacteria</a> species, which colonizes the <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammalian</a> <a href="/wiki/Colon_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Colon (anatomy)">colon</a>, and an example of the latter are the various species of <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">staphylococcus</a> that exist on <a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">human skin</a>. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most <a href="/wiki/Virulent" class="mw-redirect" title="Virulent">virulent</a> organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Corynebacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Corynebacteria">Corynebacteria</a> sp.</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Viridans_streptococci" title="Viridans streptococci">Viridans streptococci</a></i>, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding <a href="/wiki/Wound_healing" title="Wound healing">wound healing</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pathogenic_Infection.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Pathogenic_Infection.png/220px-Pathogenic_Infection.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Pathogenic_Infection.png/330px-Pathogenic_Infection.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Pathogenic_Infection.png/440px-Pathogenic_Infection.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>This image depicts the steps of pathogenic infection.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include: </p> <ul><li>the route of entry of the <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> and the access to host regions that it gains</li> <li>the intrinsic <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a> of the particular organism</li> <li>the quantity or load of the initial inoculant</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune</a> status of the host being colonized</li></ul> <p>As an example, several <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">staphylococcal</a> species remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally <a href="/wiki/Sterile_technique" class="mw-redirect" title="Sterile technique">sterile</a> space, such as in the capsule of a <a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">joint</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Peritoneum" title="Peritoneum">peritoneum</a>, multiply without resistance and cause harm.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An interesting fact that <a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography%E2%80%93mass_spectrometry" title="Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry">gas chromatography–mass spectrometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/16S_ribosomal_RNA" title="16S ribosomal RNA">16S ribosomal RNA</a> analysis, <a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">omics</a>, and other advanced technologies have made more apparent to humans in recent decades is that microbial colonization is very common even in environments that humans think of as being nearly <a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">sterile</a>. Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds can be classified as infected and how much risk of progression exists. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in the <a href="/wiki/JAMA" title="JAMA">Journal of the American Medical Association</a>'s "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain [likelihood ratio (LR) range, 11–20] makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64–0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64–0.88). </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Persistent_infection"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disease">Disease</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">Disease</a> can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host. <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a> can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_tetani" title="Clostridium tetani">Clostridium tetani</a></i> releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">staphylococcus</a> releases toxins that produce shock and <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a>. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with <a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">polio</a> develop disease.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">prion</a> causing <a href="/wiki/Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy" title="Bovine spongiform encephalopathy">mad cow disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a> invariably kills all animals and people that are infected.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Persistent infections cause millions of deaths globally each year.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chronic infections by parasites account for a high morbidity and mortality in many underdeveloped countries.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission">Transmission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Transmission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Transmission (medicine)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CulexNil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/CulexNil.jpg/220px-CulexNil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/CulexNil.jpg/330px-CulexNil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/CulexNil.jpg/440px-CulexNil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption>A southern house mosquito (<i><a href="/wiki/Culex_quinquefasciatus" title="Culex quinquefasciatus">Culex quinquefasciatus</a></i>) is a <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">vector</a> that transmits the pathogens that cause <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_fever" title="West Nile fever">West Nile fever</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avian_malaria" title="Avian malaria">avian malaria</a> among others.</figcaption></figure><p>For infecting organisms to survive and repeat the infection cycle in other hosts, they (or their progeny) must leave an existing reservoir and cause infection elsewhere. Infection transmission can take place via many potential routes:<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><ul><li><b>Droplet contact</b>, also known as the <i>respiratory route</i>, and the resultant infection can be termed <a href="/wiki/Airborne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne disease">airborne disease</a>. If an infected person coughs or sneezes on another person the microorganisms, suspended in warm, moist droplets, may enter the body through the nose, mouth or eye surfaces.</li> <li><b>Fecal-oral transmission</b>, wherein foodstuffs or water become contaminated (by people not washing their hands before preparing food, or untreated sewage being released into a drinking water supply) and the people who eat and drink them become infected. Common <a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal-oral</a> transmitted pathogens include <i><a href="/wiki/Vibrio_cholerae" title="Vibrio cholerae">Vibrio cholerae</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Giardia" title="Giardia">Giardia</a></i> species, <a href="/wiki/Rotavirus" title="Rotavirus">rotaviruses</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Entamoeba_histolytica" title="Entamoeba histolytica">Entamoeba histolytica</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Tape_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Tape worm">tape worms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of these pathogens cause <a href="/wiki/Gastroenteritis" title="Gastroenteritis">gastroenteritis</a>.</li> <li><b>Sexual transmission</b>, with the result being called <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">sexually transmitted infection</a>.</li> <li><b>Oral transmission</b>, diseases that are transmitted primarily by oral means may be caught through direct oral contact such as <a href="/wiki/Kiss" title="Kiss">kissing</a>, or by indirect contact such as by sharing a drinking glass or a cigarette.</li> <li><b>Transmission by direct contact</b>, Some diseases that are transmissible by direct contact include <a href="/wiki/Athlete%27s_foot" title="Athlete's foot">athlete's foot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Impetigo" title="Impetigo">impetigo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wart" title="Wart">warts</a>.</li> <li><b>Vehicle transmission</b>, transmission by an inanimate reservoir (food, water, soil).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">Vertical transmission</a></b>, directly from the mother to an <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a> or baby during <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a>. It can occur as a result of a <a href="/wiki/Pre-existing_disease_in_pregnancy" title="Pre-existing disease in pregnancy">pre-existing infection</a> or one acquired during pregnancy.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Iatrogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Iatrogenic">Iatrogenic</a> transmission</b>, due to medical procedures such as <a href="/wiki/Injection_(medicine)" title="Injection (medicine)">injection</a> or <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">transplantation</a> of infected material.</li> <li><b>Vector-borne transmission</b>, transmitted by a <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector</a>, which is an <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> that does not cause <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> itself but that transmits infection by conveying <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> from one <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a> to another.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The relationship between <i><a href="/wiki/Optimal_virulence" title="Optimal virulence">virulence versus transmissibility</a></i> is complex; with studies have shown that there were no clear relationship between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is still a small number of evidence that partially suggests a link between virulence and transmissibility.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Diagnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice most minor infectious diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Wart" title="Wart">warts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cutaneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Cutaneous">cutaneous</a> <a href="/wiki/Abscesses" class="mw-redirect" title="Abscesses">abscesses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a> infections and <a href="/wiki/Diarrheal_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Diarrheal diseases">diarrheal diseases</a> are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by <a href="/wiki/Medical_history" title="Medical history">medical history</a> and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many infectious organisms are identified without culture and microscopy. This is especially true for viruses, which cannot grow in culture. For some suspected pathogens, doctors may conduct tests that examine a patient's blood or other body fluids for <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigens</a> or <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a> that indicate presence of a specific pathogen that the doctor suspects.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other techniques (such as <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/CAT_scans" class="mw-redirect" title="CAT scans">CAT scans</a>, <a href="/wiki/PET_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="PET scan">PET scans</a> or <a href="/wiki/NMR" class="mw-redirect" title="NMR">NMR</a>) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone <a href="/wiki/Abscess" title="Abscess">abscess</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Spongiform_encephalopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Spongiform encephalopathy">spongiform encephalopathy</a> produced by a <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">prion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is likely to be <a href="/wiki/Benign" class="mw-redirect" title="Benign">benign</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symptomatic_diagnostics">Symptomatic diagnostics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Symptomatic diagnostics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The diagnosis is aided by the presenting symptoms in any individual with an infectious disease, yet it usually needs additional diagnostic techniques to confirm the suspicion. Some signs are specifically characteristic and indicative of a disease and are called <a href="/wiki/Pathognomonic" title="Pathognomonic">pathognomonic</a> signs; but these are rare. Not all infections are symptomatic.<sup id="cite_ref-Sternak_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sternak-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In children the presence of <a href="/wiki/Cyanosis" title="Cyanosis">cyanosis</a>, rapid breathing, poor peripheral perfusion, or a <a href="/wiki/Petechial_rash" class="mw-redirect" title="Petechial rash">petechial rash</a> increases the risk of a serious infection by greater than 5 fold.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancet10_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancet10-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other important indicators include parental concern, clinical instinct, and temperature greater than 40 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-Lancet10_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lancet10-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microbial_culture">Microbial culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Microbial culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG/200px-K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG/300px-K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG/400px-K_pneumoniae_M_morganii_providencia_styphimuriuma.JPG 2x" data-file-width="772" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption>Four <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_agar" title="Nutrient agar">nutrient agar</a> plates growing colonies of common <a href="/wiki/Gram_negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram negative">Gram negative</a> bacteria</figcaption></figure> <p>Many diagnostic approaches depend on <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">microbiological culture</a> to isolate a pathogen from the appropriate clinical specimen.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a microbial culture, a <a href="/wiki/Growth_medium" title="Growth medium">growth medium</a> is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Many pathogenic <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> are easily grown on nutrient <a href="/wiki/Agar#Microbiology" title="Agar">agar</a>, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colony</a>, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its <a href="/wiki/Strain_(biology)" title="Strain (biology)">strain</a>), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit the growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>: the medium, in this case, being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque". <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">Eukaryotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasites">parasites</a> may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as <i><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_leprae" title="Mycobacterium leprae">Mycobacterium leprae</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Treponema_pallidum" title="Treponema pallidum">Treponema pallidum</a></i> can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryonated</a> eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent. <a href="/wiki/Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">Chagas disease</a> is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent, <i><a href="/wiki/Trypanosoma_cruzi" title="Trypanosoma cruzi">Trypanosoma cruzi</a></i> in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case, <a href="/wiki/Xenodiagnosis" title="Xenodiagnosis">xenodiagnosis</a> involves the use of the <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector</a> of the Chagas agent <i>T. cruzi</i>, an uninfected <a href="/wiki/Triatominae" title="Triatominae">triatomine</a> bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of <i>T. cruzi</i> within its gut.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microscopy">Microscopy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Microscopy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound <a href="/wiki/Light_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Light microscope">light microscope</a>, or with instruments as complex as an <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a>. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with <a href="/wiki/Biochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biochemical">biochemical</a> <a href="/wiki/Staining" title="Staining">staining</a> techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibody</a> based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent">fluorescent</a> (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigens</a> present on a pathogen. A <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_microscope" title="Fluorescence microscope">fluorescence microscope</a> is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyes</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic">electrostatic</a> attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as <a href="/wiki/Giemsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Giemsa">Giemsa</a> stain or <a href="/wiki/Crystal_violet" title="Crystal violet">crystal violet</a> allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures is used in the <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomic classification">taxonomic classification</a> of microbes as well. Two methods, the <a href="/wiki/Gram_stain" title="Gram stain">Gram stain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Acid-fast" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-fast">acid-fast</a> stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups <a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a>, both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinomycetota genera <i><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium" title="Mycobacterium">Mycobacterium</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Nocardia" title="Nocardia">Nocardia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biochemical_tests">Biochemical tests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Biochemical tests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biochemical tests used in the identification of infectious agents include the detection of <a href="/wiki/Metabolic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolic">metabolic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Enzymatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymatic">enzymatic</a> products characteristic of a particular infectious agent. Since bacteria ferment <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> in patterns characteristic of their <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, the detection of <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">fermentation</a> products is commonly used in bacterial identification. <a href="/wiki/Acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Acids">Acids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohols" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohols">alcohols</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Gases">gases</a> are usually detected in these tests when bacteria are grown in <a href="/wiki/Growth_medium#Selective_media" title="Growth medium">selective</a> liquid or solid media.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The isolation of <a href="/wiki/Enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymes">enzymes</a> from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither <a href="/wiki/RNA_replicase" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA replicase">RNA replicases</a> nor <a href="/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase" title="Reverse transcriptase">reverse transcriptase</a>, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic., of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein <a href="/wiki/Hemagglutinin" title="Hemagglutinin">hemagglutinin</a> to bind <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Red blood cells">red blood cells</a> together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an <i>enzyme</i> and has no metabolic function.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Serological" class="mw-redirect" title="Serological">Serological</a> methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test. For example, "<a href="/wiki/Strep_throat" class="mw-redirect" title="Strep throat">Strep throat</a>" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, <i><a href="/wiki/S._pyogenes" class="mw-redirect" title="S. pyogenes">S. pyogenes</a></i>, that is retrieved from a patient's throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a>. Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with the "strep test", they can be inexpensive.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as <a href="/wiki/Immunoassays" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunoassays">immunoassays</a>. Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro-magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow the destruction of the virus. </p><p>Instrumentation can be used to read extremely small signals created by secondary reactions linked to the antibody – antigen binding. Instrumentation can control sampling, reagent use, reaction times, signal detection, calculation of results, and data management to yield a cost-effective automated process for diagnosis of infectious disease. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PCR-based_diagnostics">PCR-based diagnostics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: PCR-based diagnostics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ID_Now_testing_(51038387158).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/ID_Now_testing_%2851038387158%29.jpg/220px-ID_Now_testing_%2851038387158%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/ID_Now_testing_%2851038387158%29.jpg/330px-ID_Now_testing_%2851038387158%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/ID_Now_testing_%2851038387158%29.jpg/440px-ID_Now_testing_%2851038387158%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6048" data-file-height="4024" /></a><figcaption>Nucleic acid testing conducted using an Abbott Laboratories ID Now device</figcaption></figure> <p>Technologies based upon the <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, <a href="/wiki/Primer_(molecular_biology)" title="Primer (molecular biology)">primers</a>, are derived from the <a href="/wiki/Genomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomes">genomes</a> of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known if they are not already.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically is currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the <a href="/wiki/Clostridia" title="Clostridia">clostridial</a> diseases (<a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">botulism</a>). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">neurotoxins</a>. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metagenomic_sequencing">Metagenomic sequencing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Metagenomic sequencing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Infection" title="Special:EditPage/Infection">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Infection%22">"Infection"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Infection%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Infection%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Infection%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Infection%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Infection%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Given the wide range of bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal, and helminthic pathogens that cause debilitating and life-threatening illnesses, the ability to quickly identify the cause of infection is important yet often challenging. For example, more than half of cases of <a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">encephalitis</a>, a severe illness affecting the brain, remain undiagnosed, despite extensive testing using the standard of care (<a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">microbiological culture</a>) and state-of-the-art clinical laboratory methods. <a href="/wiki/Metagenomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metagenomic">Metagenomic</a> sequencing-based diagnostic tests are currently being developed for clinical use and show promise as a sensitive, specific, and rapid way to diagnose infection using a single all-encompassing test.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This test is similar to current PCR tests; however, an untargeted whole genome amplification is used rather than <a href="/wiki/Primer_(molecular_biology)" title="Primer (molecular biology)">primers</a> for a specific infectious agent. This amplification step is followed by <a href="/wiki/Next-generation_sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Next-generation sequencing">next-generation sequencing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Third-generation_sequencing" title="Third-generation sequencing">third-generation sequencing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sequence_alignment" title="Sequence alignment">alignment comparisons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomic classification">taxonomic classification</a> using large databases of thousands of pathogen and commensal <a href="/wiki/Reference_genome" title="Reference genome">reference genomes</a>. Simultaneously, <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">antimicrobial resistance</a> genes within pathogen and <a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> genomes are sequenced and aligned to the taxonomically classified pathogen genomes to generate an antimicrobial resistance profile – analogous to <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_sensitivity_testing" title="Antibiotic sensitivity testing">antibiotic sensitivity testing</a> – to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_stewardship" title="Antimicrobial stewardship">antimicrobial stewardship</a> and allow for the optimization of treatment using the most effective drugs for a patient's infection. </p><p>Metagenomic sequencing could prove especially useful for diagnosis when the patient is <a href="/wiki/Immunocompromised" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunocompromised">immunocompromised</a>. An ever-wider array of infectious agents can cause serious harm to individuals with immunosuppression, so clinical screening must often be broader. Additionally, the expression of symptoms is often atypical, making a clinical diagnosis based on presentation more difficult. Thirdly, diagnostic methods that rely on the detection of antibodies are more likely to fail. A rapid, sensitive, specific, and untargeted test for all known human pathogens that detects the presence of the organism's DNA rather than antibodies is therefore highly desirable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indication_of_tests">Indication of tests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Indication of tests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BGSU_COVID-19_Drive-Thru_Testing_Site_Close_Up.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/BGSU_COVID-19_Drive-Thru_Testing_Site_Close_Up.jpg/220px-BGSU_COVID-19_Drive-Thru_Testing_Site_Close_Up.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/BGSU_COVID-19_Drive-Thru_Testing_Site_Close_Up.jpg/330px-BGSU_COVID-19_Drive-Thru_Testing_Site_Close_Up.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/BGSU_COVID-19_Drive-Thru_Testing_Site_Close_Up.jpg/440px-BGSU_COVID-19_Drive-Thru_Testing_Site_Close_Up.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>A temporary drive-in testing site for COVID-19 set up with tents in a parking lot</figcaption></figure> <p>There is usually an <a href="/wiki/Indication_(medicine)" title="Indication (medicine)">indication</a> for a specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of <a href="/wiki/Zidovudine" title="Zidovudine">AZT</a> for the treatment of <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> in specific communities permitted the advancement of <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">hypotheses</a> as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections. The specific <a href="/wiki/Serological" class="mw-redirect" title="Serological">serological</a> diagnostic identification, and later <a href="/wiki/Genotypic" class="mw-redirect" title="Genotypic">genotypic</a> or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">temporal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic">geographical</a> origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with <a href="/wiki/Anti-retroviral_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-retroviral drugs">anti-retroviral drugs</a>. Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subclinical_versus_clinical_(latent_versus_apparent)"><span id="Subclinical_versus_clinical_.28latent_versus_apparent.29"></span>Subclinical versus clinical (latent versus apparent)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Subclinical versus clinical (latent versus apparent)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Symptomatic infections are <i>apparent</i> and <i>clinical</i>, whereas an infection that is active but does not produce noticeable symptoms may be called <i>inapparent,</i> <i>silent,</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Subclinical_infection" title="Subclinical infection">subclinical</a></i>, or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/occult#Adj1" class="extiw" title="wikt:occult">occult</a>. An infection that is inactive or dormant is called a <i>latent infection</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of a latent bacterial infection is <a href="/wiki/Latent_tuberculosis" title="Latent tuberculosis">latent tuberculosis</a>. Some viral infections can also be latent, examples of <a href="/wiki/Virus_latency" title="Virus latency">latent viral infections</a> are any of those from the <i><a href="/wiki/Herpesviridae" title="Herpesviridae">Herpesviridae</a></i> family.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>infection</i> can <a href="/wiki/Denotation" title="Denotation">denote</a> any presence of a particular pathogen at all (no matter how little) but also is often used in a <a href="/wiki/Word_sense" title="Word sense">sense</a> implying a <i>clinically apparent</i> infection (in other words, a case of infectious disease). This fact occasionally creates some <a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">ambiguity</a> or prompts some <a href="/wiki/Usage" class="mw-redirect" title="Usage">usage</a> discussion; to get around this it is common for <a href="/wiki/Health_professional" title="Health professional">health professionals</a> to speak of <i><a href="#Colonization">colonization</a></i> (rather than <i>infection</i>) when they mean that some of the pathogens are present but that no clinically apparent infection (no disease) is present.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Course_of_infection">Course of infection</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Course of infection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different terms are used to describe how and where infections present over time. In an <i>acute</i> infection, symptoms develop rapidly; its course can either be rapid or protracted. In <i>chronic</i> infection, symptoms usually develop gradually over weeks or months and are slow to resolve.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>subacute</i> infections, symptoms take longer to develop than in acute infections but arise more quickly than those of chronic infections. A <i>focal</i> infection is an initial site of infection from which organisms travel <a href="/wiki/Bloodborne_pathogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloodborne pathogen">via the bloodstream</a> to another area of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_versus_opportunistic">Primary versus opportunistic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Primary versus opportunistic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Coinfection" title="Coinfection">Coinfection</a></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Primary_versus_secondary"></span> Among the many varieties of <a href="/wiki/Microorganisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Microorganisms">microorganisms</a>, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Baron_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baron-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen depend upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However, a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians, therefore, classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses – either as <i>primary pathogens</i> or as <i><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">opportunistic pathogens</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29135922_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29135922-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Primary_pathogens">Primary pathogens</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Primary pathogens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Primary pathogens cause disease as a result of their presence or activity within the normal, healthy host, and their intrinsic <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a> (the severity of the disease they cause) is, in part, a necessary consequence of their need to reproduce and spread. Many of the most common primary pathogens of humans only infect humans, however, many serious diseases are caused by organisms acquired from the environment or that infect non-human hosts.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid31027668_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid31027668-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Opportunistic_pathogens">Opportunistic pathogens</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Opportunistic pathogens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></div> <p>Opportunistic pathogens can cause an infectious disease in a host with depressed resistance (<a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">immunodeficiency</a>) or if they have unusual access to the inside of the body (for example, via <a href="/wiki/Major_trauma" title="Major trauma">trauma</a>). <a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a> may be caused by microbes ordinarily in contact with the host, such as <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">pathogenic bacteria</a> or fungi in the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal">gastrointestinal</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper respiratory tract">upper respiratory tract</a>, and they may also result from (otherwise innocuous) microbes acquired from other hosts (as in <i><a href="/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile" title="Clostridioides difficile">Clostridioides difficile</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Colitis" title="Colitis">colitis</a>) or from the environment as a result of <a href="/wiki/Physical_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical trauma">traumatic</a> introduction (as in <a href="/wiki/Surgical" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical">surgical</a> wound infections or <a href="/wiki/Compound_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound fracture">compound fractures</a>). An opportunistic disease requires impairment of host defenses, which may occur as a result of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_defect" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic defect">genetic defects</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Chronic_granulomatous_disease" title="Chronic granulomatous disease">chronic granulomatous disease</a>), exposure to <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">antimicrobial</a> drugs or <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunosuppressive">immunosuppressive</a> chemicals (as might occur following <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisoning</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>), exposure to <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>, or as a result of an infectious disease with immunosuppressive activity (such as with <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> or <a href="/wiki/HIV_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV disease">HIV disease</a>). Primary pathogens may also cause more severe disease in a host with depressed resistance than would normally occur in an immunosufficient host.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Secondary_infection">Secondary infection</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Secondary infection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While a primary infection can practically be viewed as the <a href="/wiki/Root_cause_analysis" title="Root cause analysis">root cause</a> of an individual's current health problem, a secondary infection is a <a href="/wiki/Sequela" title="Sequela">sequela</a> or <a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">complication</a> of that root cause. For example, an infection due to a <a href="/wiki/Burn" title="Burn">burn</a> or <a href="/wiki/Penetrating_trauma" title="Penetrating trauma">penetrating trauma</a> (the root cause) is a secondary infection. Primary pathogens often cause primary infection and often cause secondary infection. Usually, opportunistic infections are viewed as secondary infections (because immunodeficiency or <a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">injury</a> was the predisposing factor).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29135922_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29135922-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Other_types_of_infection">Other types of infection</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Other types of infection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other types of infection consist of mixed, <a href="/wiki/Iatrogenic_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Iatrogenic infections">iatrogenic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hospital-acquired_infection" title="Hospital-acquired infection">nosocomial</a>, and community-acquired infection. A mixed infection is an infection that is caused by two or more pathogens. An example of this is <a href="/wiki/Appendicitis" title="Appendicitis">appendicitis</a>, which is caused by <i><a href="/wiki/Bacteroides_fragilis" title="Bacteroides fragilis">Bacteroides fragilis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i>. The second is an iatrogenic infection. This type of infection is one that is transmitted from a health care worker to a patient. A nosocomial infection is also one that occurs in a health care setting. Nosocomial infections are those that are acquired during a hospital stay. Lastly, a community-acquired infection is one in which the infection is acquired from a whole community.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infectious_or_not">Infectious or not</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Infectious or not"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One manner of proving that a given disease is infectious, is to satisfy <a href="/wiki/Koch%27s_postulates" title="Koch's postulates">Koch's postulates</a> (first proposed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>), which require that first, the <a href="/wiki/Infectious_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious agent">infectious agent</a> be identifiable only in patients who have the disease, and not in healthy controls, and second, that patients who contract the infectious agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that <a href="/wiki/Mycobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycobacteria">Mycobacteria</a> species cause <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid28515626_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28515626-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Koch's postulates cannot usually be tested in modern practice for ethical reasons. Proving them would require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> produced as a pure culture. Conversely, even clearly infectious diseases do not always meet the infectious criteria; for example, <i><a href="/wiki/Treponema_pallidum" title="Treponema pallidum">Treponema pallidum</a></i>, the causative <a href="/wiki/Spirochete" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochete">spirochete</a> of <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, cannot be <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">cultured</a> <i>in vitro</i> – however the organism can be cultured in rabbit <a href="/wiki/Testes" class="mw-redirect" title="Testes">testes</a>. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid31440916_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid31440916-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a>, or the study and analysis of who, why and where disease occurs, and what determines whether various populations have a disease, is another important tool used to understand infectious disease. Epidemiologists may determine differences among groups within a population, such as whether certain age groups have a greater or lesser rate of infection; whether groups living in different neighborhoods are more likely to be infected; and by other factors, such as gender and race. Researchers also may assess whether a disease <a href="/wiki/Outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbreak">outbreak</a> is sporadic, or just an occasional occurrence; <a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">endemic</a>, with a steady level of regular cases occurring in a region; <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a>, with a fast arising, and unusually high number of cases in a region; or <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a>, which is a global epidemic. If the cause of the infectious disease is unknown, epidemiology can be used to assist with tracking down the sources of infection.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid31325286_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid31325286-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contagiousness">Contagiousness</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Contagiousness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Infectious diseases are sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Contagious_disease" title="Contagious disease">contagious diseases</a> when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious, transmissible, or communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called <a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">quarantine</a>) of those affected. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use. Infectious diseases are commonly transmitted from person to person through direct contact. The types of contact are through person to person and droplet spread. Indirect contact such as airborne transmission, contaminated objects, food and drinking water, animal person contact, animal reservoirs, insect bites, and environmental reservoirs are another way infectious diseases are transmitted.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="By_anatomic_location">By anatomic location</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: By anatomic location"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Infections can be classified by the <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomic</a> location or <a href="/wiki/Organ_system" title="Organ system">organ system</a> infected, including:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection" title="Urinary tract infection">Urinary tract infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_infection" title="Skin infection">Skin infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection" title="Respiratory tract infection">Respiratory tract infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odontogenic_infection" title="Odontogenic infection">Odontogenic infection</a> (an infection that originates within a <a href="/wiki/Tooth" title="Tooth">tooth</a> or in the closely surrounding tissues)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaginal infections">Vaginal infections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intra-amniotic_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Intra-amniotic infection">Intra-amniotic infection</a></li></ul> <p>In addition, locations of <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> where infection is the most common cause include <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salpingitis" title="Salpingitis">salpingitis</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Prevention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OCD_handwash.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/OCD_handwash.jpg/220px-OCD_handwash.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/OCD_handwash.jpg/330px-OCD_handwash.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/OCD_handwash.jpg/440px-OCD_handwash.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Washing one's hands, a form of <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a>, is an effective way to prevent the spread of infectious disease.<sup id="cite_ref-handhygiene_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-handhygiene-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another. <a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">Aseptic technique</a> was introduced in medicine and surgery in the late 19th century and greatly reduced the incidence of infections caused by surgery. Frequent <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">hand washing</a> remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a <a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">condom</a>, wearing gloves, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobials" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimicrobials">Antimicrobial substances</a> used to prevent transmission of infections include:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiseptics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiseptics">antiseptics</a>, which are applied to living <a href="/wiki/Biological_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological tissue">tissue</a>/<a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">disinfectants</a>, which destroy microorganisms found on non-living objects.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Prophylactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophylactic">prophylactic</a> when given as prevention rather as treatment of infection. However, long term use of antibiotics leads to resistance of bacteria. While humans do not become immune to antibiotics, the bacteria does. Thus, avoiding using antibiotics longer than necessary helps preventing bacteria from forming mutations that aide in antibiotic resistance.</li></ul> <p>One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Watts_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watts-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a>, distance traveled by those affected, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a> virus, for example, incapacitate those infected extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, those affected by this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the eye. Thus, the initial stage of <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a> is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Human_immunodeficiency_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human immunodeficiency virus">human immunodeficiency virus</a> (<a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of <a href="/wiki/Small-world_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Small-world networks">small-world networks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Watts_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watts-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Foot-and-mouth" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot-and-mouth">foot-and-mouth</a> virus in 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A general method to prevent transmission of <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector</a>-borne pathogens is <a href="/wiki/Pest_control" title="Pest control">pest control</a>. </p><p>In cases where infection is merely suspected, individuals may be <a href="/wiki/Quarantined" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarantined">quarantined</a> until the incubation period has passed and the disease manifests itself or the person remains healthy. Groups may undergo quarantine, or in the case of communities, a <a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(medicine)" title="Cordon sanitaire (medicine)">cordon sanitaire</a> may be imposed to prevent infection from spreading beyond the community, or in the case of <a href="/wiki/Protective_sequestration" title="Protective sequestration">protective sequestration</a>, into a community. Public health authorities may implement other forms of <a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">social distancing</a>, such as school closings, <a href="/wiki/Lockdown" title="Lockdown">lockdowns</a> or temporary restrictions (e.g. <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_Singapore_circuit_breaker_measures" title="2020–21 Singapore circuit breaker measures">circuit breakers</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to control an epidemic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immunity">Immunity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Immunity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mallon-Mary_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mallon-Mary_01.jpg/220px-Mallon-Mary_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mallon-Mary_01.jpg/330px-Mallon-Mary_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Mallon-Mary_01.jpg/440px-Mallon-Mary_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2843" data-file-height="2248" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Mary Mallon</a> (a.k.a. Typhoid Mary) was an asymptomatic carrier of <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a>. Over the course of her career as a cook, she infected 53 people, three of whom died.</figcaption></figure> <p>Infection with most pathogens does not result in death of the host and the offending organism is ultimately cleared after the symptoms of the disease have waned.<sup id="cite_ref-Baron_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baron-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process requires <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune mechanisms</a> to kill or inactivate the <a href="/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">inoculum</a> of the pathogen. Specific acquired <a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">immunity</a> against infectious diseases may be mediated by <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/T_lymphocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="T lymphocyte">T lymphocytes</a>. Immunity mediated by these two factors may be manifested by: </p> <ul><li>a direct effect upon a pathogen, such as antibody-initiated <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement</a>-dependent bacteriolysis, <a href="/wiki/Opsonin" title="Opsonin">opsonoization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a> and killing, as occurs for some bacteria,</li> <li>neutralization of viruses so that these organisms cannot enter cells,</li> <li>or by T lymphocytes, which will kill a cell parasitized by a microorganism.</li></ul> <p>The immune system response to a microorganism often causes symptoms such as a high <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a>, and has the potential to be more devastating than direct damage caused by a microbe.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherris_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Resistance to infection (<a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">immunity</a>) may be acquired following a disease, by <a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">asymptomatic carriage</a> of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a>. Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for <a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_pathogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Opportunistic pathogen">opportunistic pathogens</a>. There is also the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Herd_immunity" title="Herd immunity">herd immunity</a> which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections.<sup id="cite_ref-ofg_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ofg-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Immune resistance to an infectious disease requires a critical level of either antigen-specific antibodies and/or T cells when the host encounters the pathogen. Some individuals develop natural <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">serum</a> antibodies to the surface <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> of some agents although they have had little or no contact with the agent, these natural antibodies confer specific protection to adults and are <a href="/wiki/Passive_immunization" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive immunization">passively transmitted</a> to newborns. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Host_genetic_factors">Host genetic factors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Host genetic factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The organism that is the target of an infecting action of a specific infectious agent is called the host. The host harbouring an agent that is in a mature or sexually active stage phase is called the definitive host. The intermediate host comes in contact during the larvae stage. A host can be anything living and can attain to asexual and sexual reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients. For instance, for genotype 1 <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a> treated with <a href="/wiki/Pegylated_interferon-alpha-2a" class="mw-redirect" title="Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a">Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pegylated_interferon-alpha-2b" class="mw-redirect" title="Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b">Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b</a> (brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with <a href="/wiki/Ribavirin" title="Ribavirin">ribavirin</a>, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus. This finding, originally reported in <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others. Later report from <i>Nature</i><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatments">Treatments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Treatments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When infection attacks the body, <a href="/wiki/Infection_prevention_and_control" title="Infection prevention and control"><i>anti-infective</i> drugs</a> can suppress the infection. Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted; they include antibacterial (<a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotic</a>; including <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium#Pathogenicity" title="Mycobacterium">antitubercular</a>), <a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">antiviral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antifungal_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Antifungal medication">antifungal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antiparasitic" title="Antiparasitic">antiparasitic</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Antiprotozoal" title="Antiprotozoal">antiprotozoal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antihelminthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihelminthic">antihelminthic</a>) agents. Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied <a href="/wiki/Topical" class="mw-redirect" title="Topical">topically</a>. Severe infections of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a> are usually treated with <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy" title="Intravenous therapy">intravenous</a> antibiotics. Sometimes, multiple antibiotics are used in case there is <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">resistance</a> to one antibiotic. Antibiotics only work for bacteria and do not affect viruses. Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria. The most common classes of antibiotics used in medicine include <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin" title="Cephalosporin">cephalosporins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aminoglycoside" title="Aminoglycoside">aminoglycosides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macrolide" title="Macrolide">macrolides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic" title="Quinolone antibiotic">quinolones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tetracycline_antibiotics" title="Tetracycline antibiotics">tetracyclines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Not all infections require treatment, and for many <a href="/wiki/Self-limiting_(biology)" title="Self-limiting (biology)">self-limiting</a> infections the treatment may cause more side-effects than benefits. <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_stewardship" title="Antimicrobial stewardship">Antimicrobial stewardship</a> is the concept that healthcare providers should treat an infection with an antimicrobial that specifically works well for the target pathogen for the shortest amount of time and to only treat when there is a known or highly suspected pathogen that will respond to the medication.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Susceptibility_to_infection">Susceptibility to infection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Susceptibility to infection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pandemics such as <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> show that people dramatically differ in their susceptibility to infection. This may be because of general health, age, or their immune status, e.g. when they have been infected previously. However, it also has become clear that there are genetic factor which determine susceptibility to infection. For instance, up to 40% of <a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2" title="SARS-CoV-2">SARS-CoV-2</a> infections may be asymptomatic, suggesting that many people are naturally protected from disease.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large genetic studies have defined risk factors for severe SARS-CoV-2 infections, and <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome sequences</a> from 659 patients with severe COVID-19 revealed genetic variants that appear to be associated with life-threatening disease. One gene identified in these studies is type I <a href="/wiki/Interferon_type_I" title="Interferon type I">interferon</a> (IFN). Autoantibodies against type I IFNs were found in up to 13.7% of patients with life-threatening COVID-19, indicating that a complex interaction between genetics and the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> is important for natural resistance to Covid.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, mutations in the <a href="/wiki/ERAP2" title="ERAP2">ERAP2</a> gene, encoding endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase 2, seem to increase the susceptibility to the <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a>, the disease caused by an infection with the bacteria <i><a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a></i>. People who inherited two copies of a complete variant of the gene were twice as likely to have survived the plague as those who inherited two copies of a truncated variant.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Susceptibility also determined the epidemiology of infection, given that different populations have different genetic and environmental conditions that affect infections. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Epidemiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/290px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/435px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg/580px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map-Deaths_per_million_persons-WHO2012.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Deaths due to infectious and parasitic diseases per million persons in 2012: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 10em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff20; color:black;"> </span> 28–81</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffe820; color:black;"> </span> 82–114</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffd820; color:black;"> </span> 115–171</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc020; color:black;"> </span> 172–212</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffa020; color:black;"> </span> 213–283</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff9a20; color:black;"> </span> 284–516</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f08015; color:black;"> </span> 517–1,193</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#e06815; color:black;"> </span> 1,194–2,476</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d85010; color:black;"> </span> 2,477–3,954</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d02010; color:white;"> </span> 3,955–6,812</div></div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/290px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/435px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/580px-Infectious_and_parasitic_diseases_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">Disability-adjusted life year</a> for infectious and parasitic diseases per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004:<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1256394559">.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ol{margin-left:1.3em;margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media(min-width:300px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key,.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:2}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-narrow{column-count:1}}@media(min-width:450px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:3}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist image-key"><ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#b3b3b3; color:black;"> </span> no data</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff65; color:black;"> </span> ≤250</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fff200; color:black;"> </span> 250–500</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffdc00; color:black;"> </span> 500–1000</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffc600; color:black;"> </span> 1000–2000</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffb000; color:black;"> </span> 2000–3000</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff9a00; color:black;"> </span> 3000–4000</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff8400; color:black;"> </span> 4000–5000</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff6e00; color:black;"> </span> 5000–6250</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff5800; color:black;"> </span> 6250–12,500</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff4200; color:black;"> </span> 12,500–25,000</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff2c00; color:black;"> </span> 25,000–50,000</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cb0000; color:white;"> </span> ≥50,000</div></li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <p>An estimated 1,680 million people died of infectious diseases in the 20th century<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and about 10 million in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> collects information on global deaths by <a href="/wiki/ICD" class="mw-redirect" title="ICD">International Classification of Disease (ICD) code categories</a>. The following table lists the top infectious disease by number of deaths in 2002. 1993 data is included for comparison. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption><b>Worldwide mortality due to infectious diseases</b><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Rank</th> <th>Cause of death</th> <th>Deaths 2002<br /> (in millions)</th> <th>Percentage of<br /> all deaths</th> <th>Deaths 1993<br /> (in millions)</th> <th>1993 Rank </th></tr> <tr style="background:#ffdead;"> <td>N/A</td> <td style="background:#ffdead;">All infectious diseases</td> <td style="background:#ffdead;">14.7</td> <td style="background:#ffdead; text-align:center;">25.9%</td> <td style="background:#ffdead;">16.4</td> <td style="background:#ffdead; text-align:center;">32.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lower_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Lower respiratory tract infection">Lower respiratory infections</a><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>3.9</td> <td style="text-align:center;">6.9%</td> <td>4.1</td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>/<a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a></td> <td>2.8</td> <td style="text-align:center;">4.9%</td> <td>0.7</td> <td>7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gastroenteritis" title="Gastroenteritis">Diarrheal diseases</a><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>1.8</td> <td style="text-align:center;">3.2%</td> <td>3.0</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a> (TB)</td> <td>1.6</td> <td style="text-align:center;">2.7%</td> <td>2.7</td> <td>3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a></td> <td>1.3</td> <td style="text-align:center;">2.2%</td> <td>2.0</td> <td>4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">Measles</a></td> <td>0.6</td> <td style="text-align:center;">1.1%</td> <td>1.1</td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pertussis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pertussis">Pertussis</a></td> <td>0.29</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.5%</td> <td>0.36</td> <td>7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">Tetanus</a></td> <td>0.21</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.4%</td> <td>0.15</td> <td>12 </td></tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">Meningitis</a></td> <td>0.17</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.3%</td> <td>0.25</td> <td>8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">Syphilis</a></td> <td>0.16</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.3%</td> <td>0.19</td> <td>11 </td></tr> <tr> <td>11</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">Hepatitis B</a></td> <td>0.10</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.2%</td> <td>0.93</td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>12–17</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical diseases</a> (6)<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>0.13</td> <td style="text-align:center;">0.2%</td> <td>0.53</td> <td>9, 10, 16–18 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;" colspan="6"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>Note: Other causes of death include maternal and perinatal conditions (5.2%), nutritional deficiencies (0.9%),<br /> noncommunicable conditions (58.8%), and injuries (9.1%).</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The top three single agent/disease killers are <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>/<a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">TB</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>. While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold. Childhood diseases include <a href="/wiki/Pertussis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pertussis">pertussis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poliomyelitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Poliomyelitis">poliomyelitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a>. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths. In 2012, approximately 3.1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historic_pandemics">Historic pandemics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Historic pandemics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of epidemics">List of epidemics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg/220px-Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg/330px-Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg/440px-Marseille-peste-Serre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1419" data-file-height="1097" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Plague_of_Marseille" title="Great Plague of Marseille">Great Plague of Marseille</a> in 1720 killed 100,000 people in the city and the surrounding provinces.</figcaption></figure> <p>With their potential for unpredictable and explosive impacts, infectious diseases have been major actors in human <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fauci2012_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fauci2012-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a> (or global <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a>) is a disease that affects people over an extensive geographical area. For example: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a>, from 541 to 542, killed between 50% and 60% of Europe's population.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> of 1347 to 1352 killed 25 million in Europe over five years. The plague reduced the old world population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in the 14th century.</li> <li>The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, measles, and <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a> to the areas of Central and South America by European explorers during the 15th and 16th centuries caused pandemics among the native inhabitants. Between 1518 and 1568 disease pandemics are said to have caused the population of <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> to fall from 20 million to 3 million.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobson_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobson-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The first European <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a> epidemic occurred between 1556 and 1560, with an estimated mortality rate of 20%.<sup id="cite_ref-Dobson_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dobson-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">Smallpox</a> killed an estimated 60 million Europeans during the 18th century<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (approximately 400,000 per year).<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Up to 30% of those infected, including 80% of the children under 5 years of age, died from the disease, and one-third of the survivors went blind.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> killed an estimated one-quarter of the adult population of Europe;<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by 1918 one in six deaths in France were still caused by TB.</li> <li>The Influenza Pandemic of 1918 (or the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a>) killed 25–50 million people (about 2% of world population of 1.7 billion).<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">Influenza</a> kills about 250,000 to 500,000 worldwide each year.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emerging_diseases">Emerging diseases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Emerging diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In most cases, microorganisms live in harmony with their hosts via <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutual</a> or <a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">commensal</a> interactions. Diseases can emerge when existing parasites become pathogenic or when new pathogenic parasites enter a new host. </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> between <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a> can lead to hosts becoming <a href="/wiki/Immune_tolerance" title="Immune tolerance">resistant</a> to the parasites or the parasites may evolve greater <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a>, leading to <a href="/wiki/Immunopathology" title="Immunopathology">immunopathological disease</a>.</li> <li>Human activity is involved with many <a href="/wiki/Emerging_infectious_disease" title="Emerging infectious disease">emerging infectious diseases</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Environment_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment (ecology)">environmental change</a> enabling a parasite to occupy new <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niches</a>. When that happens, a <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> that had been confined to a remote habitat has a wider distribution and possibly a new <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host organism</a>. Parasites jumping from nonhuman to human hosts are known as <a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">zoonoses</a>. Under disease invasion, when a parasite invades a new host species, it may become pathogenic in the new host.<sup id="cite_ref-Krauss_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krauss-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Several human activities have led to the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Zoonotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoonotic">zoonotic</a> human pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and rickettsia,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and spread of <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector-borne</a> diseases,<sup id="cite_ref-Krauss_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krauss-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> see also <a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">globalization and disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_disease" title="Wildlife disease">wildlife disease</a>: </p> <ul><li>Encroachment on wildlife <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a>. The construction of new villages and housing developments in rural areas force animals to live in dense populations, creating opportunities for microbes to mutate and emerge.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Changes in <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. The introduction of new crops attracts new crop pests and the microbes they carry to farming communities, exposing people to unfamiliar diseases.</li> <li>The destruction of <a href="/wiki/Rain_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Rain forests">rain forests</a>. As countries make use of their rain forests, by building roads through forests and clearing areas for settlement or commercial ventures, people encounter insects and other animals harboring previously unknown microorganisms.</li> <li>Uncontrolled <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>. The rapid growth of cities in many developing countries tends to concentrate large numbers of people into crowded areas with poor sanitation. These conditions foster transmission of contagious diseases.</li> <li>Modern <a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">transport</a>. Ships and other cargo carriers often harbor unintended "passengers", that can spread diseases to faraway destinations. While with international jet-airplane travel, people infected with a disease can carry it to distant lands, or home to their families, before their first symptoms appear.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Germ_theory_of_disease">Germ theory of disease</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Germ theory of disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Antiquity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 460</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 400 BCE</span>) was the first person to write, in his account of the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Athens" title="Plague of Athens">plague of Athens</a>, that diseases could spread from an infected person to others.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i>On the Different Types of Fever</i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 175 AD</span>), the Greco-Roman physician <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> speculated that plagues were spread by "certain seeds of plague", which were present in the air.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a>, the ancient Indian physician <a href="/wiki/Sushruta" title="Sushruta">Sushruta</a> theorized: "Leprosy, fever, consumption, diseases of the eye, and other infectious diseases spread from one person to another by sexual union, physical contact, eating together, sleeping together, sitting together, and the use of same clothes, garlands and pastes."<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This book has been dated to about the sixth century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A basic form of contagion theory was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_medicine" title="Ancient Iranian medicine">Persian</a> physician <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sina">Ibn Sina</a> (known as Avicenna in Europe) in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a></i> (1025), which later became the most authoritative medical textbook in Europe up until the 16th century. In Book IV of the <i>Canon</i>, Ibn Sina discussed <a href="/wiki/Epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemics">epidemics</a>, outlining the classical <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory" title="Miasma theory">miasma theory</a> and attempting to blend it with his own early contagion theory. He mentioned that people can transmit disease to others by breath, noted contagion with <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, and discussed the transmission of disease through water and dirt.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of invisible contagion was later discussed by several <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic scholars</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid Sultanate">Ayyubid Sultanate</a> who referred to them as <i><a href="/wiki/Najasat" class="mw-redirect" title="Najasat">najasat</a></i> ("impure substances"). The <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">fiqh</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haj_al-Abdari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Haj al-Abdari">Ibn al-Haj al-Abdari</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250</span>–1336), while discussing <a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Islamic diet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">hygiene</a>, gave warnings about how contagion can contaminate water, food, and garments, and could spread through the water supply, and may have implied contagion to be unseen particles.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> reached <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> in the 14th century, the Arab physicians Ibn Khatima (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1369</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Khatib" title="Ibn al-Khatib">Ibn al-Khatib</a> (1313–1374) hypothesised that infectious diseases were caused by "minute bodies" and described how they can be transmitted through garments, vessels and earrings.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ideas of contagion became more popular in Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, particularly through the writing of the Italian physician <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Fracastoro" title="Girolamo Fracastoro">Girolamo Fracastoro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton van Leeuwenhoek">Anton van Leeuwenhoek</a> (1632–1723) advanced the science of <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a> by being the first to observe microorganisms, allowing for easy visualization of bacteria. </p><p>In the mid-19th century <a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Budd" title="William Budd">William Budd</a> did important work demonstrating the contagiousness of typhoid and cholera through contaminated water. Both are credited with decreasing epidemics of cholera in their towns by implementing measures to prevent contamination of water.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> proved beyond doubt that certain diseases are caused by infectious agents, and developed a vaccine for <a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a>. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a> provided the study of infectious diseases with a scientific basis known as <a href="/wiki/Koch%27s_postulates" title="Koch's postulates">Koch's postulates</a>. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Sabin" title="Albert Sabin">Albert Sabin</a> developed effective vaccines for <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">polio</a>, which would later result in the <a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious diseases">eradication</a> and near-eradication of these diseases, respectively. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> discovered the world's first <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a>, which Florey and Chain then developed. <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">sulphonamides</a>, the first broad spectrum <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">synthetic</a> antibacterial drugs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_specialists">Medical specialists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Medical specialists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medical treatment</a> of infectious diseases falls into the <a href="/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty (medicine)">medical field</a> of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">Infectious Disease</a> and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a>. Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by <a href="/wiki/Primary_care" title="Primary care">primary care</a> physicians or <a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">internal medicine</a> specialists. For example, an "uncomplicated" <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a> will generally be treated by the <a href="/wiki/Internist" class="mw-redirect" title="Internist">internist</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Pulmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmology">pulmonologist</a> (lung physician). The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">laboratory scientists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteriologist" title="Bacteriologist">bacteriologists</a> and other specialists.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An infectious disease team may be alerted when:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li>The disease has not been definitively diagnosed after an initial workup</li> <li>The patient is <a href="/wiki/Immunocompromised" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunocompromised">immunocompromised</a> (for example, in <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> or after <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>);</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Infectious_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious agent">infectious agent</a> is of an uncommon nature (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">tropical diseases</a>);</li> <li>The disease has not responded to first line <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>;</li> <li>The disease might be dangerous to other patients, and the patient might have to be isolated</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher <a href="/wiki/Fertility_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertility rate">fertility rates</a> and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with <a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygyny</a> which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygyny may also be due to a lower male: female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19683831_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19683831-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fossil_record">Fossil record</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Fossil record"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paleopathology" title="Paleopathology">Paleopathology</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herrerasaurus1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Skull of dinosaur with long jaws and teeth." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Herrerasaurus1.JPG/150px-Herrerasaurus1.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Herrerasaurus1.JPG/225px-Herrerasaurus1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Herrerasaurus1.JPG/300px-Herrerasaurus1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2008" data-file-height="1038" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Herrerasaurus" title="Herrerasaurus">Herrerasaurus</a></i> skull</figcaption></figure> <p>Evidence of infection in <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil remains</a> is a subject of interest for <a href="/wiki/Paleopathologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleopathologists">paleopathologists</a>, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms. Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs. When present, however, these infections seem to tend to be confined to only small regions of the body. A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur <i><a href="/wiki/Herrerasaurus_ischigualastensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis">Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis</a></i> exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone. The unusual texture of the bone around the wounds suggests they were affected by a short-lived, non-lethal infection. Scientists who studied the skull speculated that the bite marks were received in a fight with another <i>Herrerasaurus</i>. Other carnivorous dinosaurs with documented evidence of infection include <i><a href="/wiki/Acrocanthosaurus" title="Acrocanthosaurus">Acrocanthosaurus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Allosaurus" title="Allosaurus">Allosaurus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus</a></i> and a tyrannosaur from the <a href="/wiki/Kirtland_Formation" title="Kirtland Formation">Kirtland Formation</a>. The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the <i>Herrerasaurus</i> specimen.<sup id="cite_ref-molnar-pathology_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-molnar-pathology-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outer_space">Outer space</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Outer space"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_treatment_during_spaceflight" title="Medical treatment during spaceflight">Medical treatment during spaceflight</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></div> <p>A 2006 <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> experiment found that <i><a href="/wiki/Salmonella_typhimurium" class="mw-redirect" title="Salmonella typhimurium">Salmonella typhimurium</a></i>, a bacterium that can cause <a href="/wiki/Food_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Food poisoning">food poisoning</a>, became more <a href="/wiki/Virulent" class="mw-redirect" title="Virulent">virulent</a> when cultivated in <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">space</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ASU-20070923_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASU-20070923-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 29, 2013, scientists in <a href="/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute" title="Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute">Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute</a>, funded by <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>, reported that, during <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbes">microbes</a> seem to adapt to the <a href="/wiki/Space_environment" title="Space environment">space environment</a> in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and virulence".<sup id="cite_ref-PLos-20130429_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PLos-20130429-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, in 2017, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> were found to be more resistant to <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a> and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space.<sup id="cite_ref-GZM-20170913_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GZM-20170913-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a> have been observed to survive the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> of outer space.<sup id="cite_ref-Dose_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dose-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Horneck_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horneck-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood-borne_disease" title="Blood-borne disease">Blood-borne disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinfection" title="Coinfection">Coinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Consensus" title="Copenhagen Consensus">Copenhagen Consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(medicine)" title="Cordon sanitaire (medicine)">Cordon sanitaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_transition" title="Epidemiological transition">Epidemiological transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Foodborne illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital-acquired_infection" title="Hospital-acquired infection">Hospital-acquired infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious diseases">Eradication of infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_(health_care)" title="Isolation (health care)">Isolation (health care)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate" title="List of causes of death by rate">List of causes of death by rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diseases_caused_by_insects" class="mw-redirect" title="List of diseases caused by insects">List of diseases caused by insects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_infectious_diseases" title="List of infectious diseases">List of infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modelling of infectious disease">Mathematical modelling of infectious disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiplicity_of_infection" title="Multiplicity of infection">Multiplicity of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">Neglected tropical diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_infectious_disease_concepts" title="Outline of infectious disease concepts">Outline of infectious disease concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentinel_surveillance" title="Sentinel surveillance">Sentinel surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection" title="Spillover infection">Spillover infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threshold_host_density" title="Threshold host density">Threshold host density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Transmission (medicine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine-preventable_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaccine-preventable diseases">Vaccine-preventable diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/infection">"infection"</a>, <i>The Free Dictionary</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180719174225/https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/infection">archived</a> from the original on 2018-07-19<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-17</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Free+Dictionary&rft.atitle=infection&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com%2Finfection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSehgalLaddTotapally2020" class="citation journal cs1">Sehgal M, Ladd HJ, Totapally B (2020-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hosppeds.aappublications.org/content/10/12/1021">"Trends in Epidemiology and Microbiology of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock in Children"</a>. <i>Hospital Pediatrics</i>. <b>10</b> (12): 1021–1030. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fhpeds.2020-0174">10.1542/hpeds.2020-0174</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2154-1663">2154-1663</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33208389">33208389</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:227067133">227067133</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413210453/https://hosppeds.aappublications.org/content/10/12/1021">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hospital+Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Trends+in+Epidemiology+and+Microbiology+of+Severe+Sepsis+and+Septic+Shock+in+Children&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1021-1030&rft.date=2020-12-01&rft.issn=2154-1663&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A227067133%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33208389&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fhpeds.2020-0174&rft.aulast=Sehgal&rft.aufirst=Mukul&rft.au=Ladd%2C+Hugh+J.&rft.au=Totapally%2C+Balagangadhar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhosppeds.aappublications.org%2Fcontent%2F10%2F12%2F1021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Antiprotozoal+Drugs">"Antiprotozoal Drugs"</a>. <i>The Free Dictionary</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220122142518/https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Antiprotozoal+Drugs">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Free+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Antiprotozoal+Drugs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com%2FAntiprotozoal%2BDrugs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GDB2013-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GDB2013_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGBD_2013_Mortality_and_Causes_of_Death_Collaborators2014" class="citation journal cs1">GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators (17 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4340604">"Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study"</a>. <i>Lancet</i>. <b>385</b> (9963): 117–71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2814%2961682-2">10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4340604">4340604</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25530442">25530442</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.atitle=Global%2C+regional%2C+and+national+age-sex+specific+all-cause+and+cause-specific+mortality+for+240+causes+of+death%2C+1990%E2%80%932013%3A+a+systematic+analysis+for+the+Global+Burden+of+Disease+Study&rft.volume=385&rft.issue=9963&rft.pages=117-71&rft.date=2014-12-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4340604%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25530442&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2814%2961682-2&rft.au=GBD+2013+Mortality+and+Causes+of+Death+Collaborators&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4340604&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150206201010/https://www.aamc.org/cim/specialty/list/us/339608/infectious_disease_-internal_medicine.html">"Infectious Disease, Internal Medicine"</a>. Association of American Medical Colleges. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aamc.org/cim/specialty/list/us/339608/infectious_disease_-internal_medicine.html">the original</a> on 2015-02-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-20</span></span>. <q>Infectious disease is the subspecialty of internal medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of communicable diseases of all types, in all organs, and in all ages of patients.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Infectious+Disease%2C+Internal+Medicine&rft.pub=Association+of+American+Medical+Colleges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aamc.org%2Fcim%2Fspecialty%2Flist%2Fus%2F339608%2Finfectious_disease_-internal_medicine.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/index.html">"Types of Fungal Diseases"</a>. <i>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</i>. 2019-06-27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200401195307/https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-04-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=Types+of+Fungal+Diseases&rft.date=2019-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Ffungal%2Fdiseases%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadaJamilAlam2019" class="citation cs2">Mada PK, Jamil RT, Alam MU (2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431060/">"Cryptococcus (Cryptococcosis)"</a>, <i>StatPearls</i>, StatPearls Publishing, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28613714">28613714</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200619195643/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431060/">archived</a> from the original on 2020-06-19<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-09</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=StatPearls&rft.atitle=Cryptococcus+%28Cryptococcosis%29&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28613714&rft.aulast=Mada&rft.aufirst=Pradeep+Kumar&rft.au=Jamil%2C+Radia+T.&rft.au=Alam%2C+Mohammed+U.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK431060%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/about.html">"About Parasites"</a>. <i>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</i>. 2019-02-25. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191225043311/https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/about.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-12-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=About+Parasites&rft.date=2019-02-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fparasites%2Fabout.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1987" class="citation journal cs1">Brown PJ (1987). "Microparasites and Macroparasites". <i>Cultural Anthropology</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 155–71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fcan.1987.2.1.02a00120">10.1525/can.1987.2.1.02a00120</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/656401">656401</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cultural+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Microparasites+and+Macroparasites&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=155-71&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fcan.1987.2.1.02a00120&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F656401%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/17660-runny-nose">"Runny Nose: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment"</a>. <i>Cleveland Clinic</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220510130201/https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/17660-runny-nose">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Clinic&rft.atitle=Runny+Nose%3A+Symptoms%2C+Causes+%26+Treatment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmy.clevelandclinic.org%2Fhealth%2Fsymptoms%2F17660-runny-nose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sherris-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sherris_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyanRay2004" class="citation book cs1">Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. (2004). <i>Sherris Medical Microbiology</i> (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-8529-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-8529-0"><bdi>978-0-8385-8529-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sherris+Medical+Microbiology&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-8529-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nipa-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nipa_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nipa_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nipa_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antibiotics-info.org/bact02.html">"NIPA - Bacteria - Bacterial vs. Viral infections"</a>. <i>www.antibiotics-info.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110111321/http://www.antibiotics-info.org/bact02.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.antibiotics-info.org&rft.atitle=NIPA+-+Bacteria+-+Bacterial+vs.+Viral+infections&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.antibiotics-info.org%2Fbact02.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_N._GoldenFred_Peterson2009" class="citation book cs1">Robert N. Golden, Fred Peterson (2009). <i>The Truth About Illness and Disease</i>. Infobase Publishing. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1438126371" title="Special:BookSources/978-1438126371"><bdi>978-1438126371</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Truth+About+Illness+and+Disease&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1438126371&rft.au=Robert+N.+Golden&rft.au=Fred+Peterson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023556/http://www.rencareltd.com/conditions/infections/">"Infection"</a>. Rencare. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rencareltd.com/conditions/infections/">the original</a> on March 5, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Infection&rft.pub=Rencare&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rencareltd.com%2Fconditions%2Finfections%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://infectioncycle.com/">"Infection Cycle Symptoms and Treatment"</a>. <i>Infection Cycle</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231110111321/https://infectioncycle.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Infection+Cycle&rft.atitle=Infection+Cycle+Symptoms+and+Treatment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finfectioncycle.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Institutes_of_Health_(US)Study2007" class="citation cs2">National Institutes of Health (US), Study BS (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20370/">"Understanding Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases"</a>, <i>NIH Curriculum Supplement Series [Internet]</i>, National Institutes of Health (US), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230626004621/https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20370/">archived</a> from the original on 2023-06-26<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-17</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NIH+Curriculum+Supplement+Series+%5BInternet%5D&rft.atitle=Understanding+Emerging+and+Re-emerging+Infectious+Diseases&rft.date=2007&rft.au=National+Institutes+of+Health+%28US%29&rft.au=Study%2C+Biological+Sciences+Curriculum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK20370%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson1996" class="citation book cs1">Peterson JW (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8526/"><i>Bacterial Pathogenesis</i></a>. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780963117212" title="Special:BookSources/9780963117212"><bdi>9780963117212</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21413346">21413346</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160425080845/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8526/">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-04-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-10-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bacterial+Pathogenesis&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Medical+Branch+at+Galveston&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21413346&rft.isbn=9780963117212&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Johnny+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK8526%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNegutGrumezescuGrumezescu2018" class="citation journal cs1">Negut I, Grumezescu V, Grumezescu AM (2018-09-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6225154">"Treatment Strategies for Infected Wounds"</a>. <i>Molecules</i>. <b>23</b> (9): 2392. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fmolecules23092392">10.3390/molecules23092392</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1420-3049">1420-3049</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6225154">6225154</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30231567">30231567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecules&rft.atitle=Treatment+Strategies+for+Infected+Wounds&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2392&rft.date=2018-09-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6225154%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1420-3049&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30231567&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fmolecules23092392&rft.aulast=Negut&rft.aufirst=Irina&rft.au=Grumezescu%2C+Valentina&rft.au=Grumezescu%2C+Alexandru+Mihai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6225154&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuerkopHooper2013" class="citation journal cs1">Duerkop BA, Hooper LV (2013-07-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3760236">"Resident viruses and their interactions with the immune system"</a>. <i>Nature Immunology</i>. <b>14</b> (7): 654–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fni.2614">10.1038/ni.2614</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3760236">3760236</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23778792">23778792</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Immunology&rft.atitle=Resident+viruses+and+their+interactions+with+the+immune+system&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=654-59&rft.date=2013-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3760236%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23778792&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fni.2614&rft.aulast=Duerkop&rft.aufirst=Breck+A&rft.au=Hooper%2C+Lora+V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3760236&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/bacterial-pathogenesis/deck/11094651">"Bacterial Pathogenesis at Washington University"</a>. <i>StudyBlue</i>. St. Louis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161203060624/https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/bacterial-pathogenesis/deck/11094651">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-12-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=StudyBlue&rft.atitle=Bacterial+Pathogenesis+at+Washington+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.studyblue.com%2Fnotes%2Fnote%2Fn%2Fbacterial-pathogenesis%2Fdeck%2F11094651&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161202235200/http://www.lifeextension.com/magazine/2014/6/the-dangers-of-using-antibiotics-to-prevent-urinary-tract-infections/page-01?p=1">"Print Friendly"</a>. <i>www.lifeextension.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lifeextension.com/magazine/2014/6/the-dangers-of-using-antibiotics-to-prevent-urinary-tract-infections/page-01?p=1">the original</a> on 2016-12-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.lifeextension.com&rft.atitle=Print+Friendly&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lifeextension.com%2Fmagazine%2F2014%2F6%2Fthe-dangers-of-using-antibiotics-to-prevent-urinary-tract-infections%2Fpage-01%3Fp%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTongDavisEichenbergerHolland2015" class="citation journal cs1">Tong SY, Davis JS, Eichenberger E, Holland TL, Fowler VG (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4451395">"Staphylococcus aureus Infections: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Management"</a>. <i>Clinical Microbiology Reviews</i>. <b>28</b> (3): 603–661. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.00134-14">10.1128/CMR.00134-14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0893-8512">0893-8512</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4451395">4451395</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26016486">26016486</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+Reviews&rft.atitle=Staphylococcus+aureus+Infections%3A+Epidemiology%2C+Pathophysiology%2C+Clinical+Manifestations%2C+and+Management&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=603-661&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4451395%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0893-8512&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26016486&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FCMR.00134-14&rft.aulast=Tong&rft.aufirst=Steven+Y.+C.&rft.au=Davis%2C+Joshua+S.&rft.au=Eichenberger%2C+Emily&rft.au=Holland%2C+Thomas+L.&rft.au=Fowler%2C+Vance+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4451395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReddyGillWu2012" class="citation journal cs1">Reddy M, Gill SS, Wu W, et al. (Feb 2012). "Does this patient have an infection of a chronic wound?". <i>JAMA</i>. <b>307</b> (6): 605–11. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2012.98">10.1001/jama.2012.98</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22318282">22318282</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.atitle=Does+this+patient+have+an+infection+of+a+chronic+wound%3F&rft.volume=307&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=605-11&rft.date=2012-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjama.2012.98&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22318282&rft.aulast=Reddy&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Gill%2C+SS&rft.au=Wu%2C+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.immunize.org/catg.d/p4215.pdf">"Polio: Questions and Answers"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>immunize.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.immunize.org/catg.d/p4215.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=immunize.org&rft.atitle=Polio%3A+Questions+and+Answers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.immunize.org%2Fcatg.d%2Fp4215.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrent2005" class="citation journal cs1">Trent RJ (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7149788">"Infectious Diseases"</a>. <i>Molecular Medicine</i>: 193–220. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-012699057-7%2F50008-4">10.1016/B978-012699057-7/50008-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780126990577" title="Special:BookSources/9780126990577"><bdi>9780126990577</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7149788">7149788</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Medicine&rft.atitle=Infectious+Diseases&rft.pages=193-220&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7149788%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-012699057-7%2F50008-4&rft.isbn=9780126990577&rft.aulast=Trent&rft.aufirst=Ronald+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7149788&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRouseSehrawat2010" class="citation journal cs1">Rouse BT, Sehrawat S (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3899649">"Immunity and immunopathology to viruses: what decides the outcome?"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews Immunology</i>. <b>10</b> (7): 514–526. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnri2802">10.1038/nri2802</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1474-1741">1474-1741</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3899649">3899649</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20577268">20577268</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Immunology&rft.atitle=Immunity+and+immunopathology+to+viruses%3A+what+decides+the+outcome%3F&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=514-526&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3899649%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1474-1741&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20577268&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnri2802&rft.aulast=Rouse&rft.aufirst=Barry+T.&rft.au=Sehrawat%2C+Sharvan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3899649&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150722065612/http://www.persistentinfection.net/">"Chronic Infection Information"</a>. <i>persistentinfection.net</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persistentinfection.net/">the original</a> on July 22, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-01-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=persistentinfection.net&rft.atitle=Chronic+Infection+Information&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persistentinfection.net%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorgersonDevleesschauwerPraetSpeybroeck2015" class="citation journal cs1">Torgerson PR, Devleesschauwer B, Praet N, Speybroeck N, Willingham AL, Kasuga F, Rokni MB, Zhou XN, Fèvre EM, Sripa B, Gargouri N (2015-12-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4668834">"World Health Organization Estimates of the Global and Regional Disease Burden of 11 Foodborne Parasitic Diseases, 2010: A Data Synthesis"</a>. <i>PLOS Medicine</i>. <b>12</b> (12): e1001920. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1001920">10.1371/journal.pmed.1001920</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1549-1277">1549-1277</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4668834">4668834</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26633705">26633705</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Medicine&rft.atitle=World+Health+Organization+Estimates+of+the+Global+and+Regional+Disease+Burden+of+11+Foodborne+Parasitic+Diseases%2C+2010%3A+A+Data+Synthesis&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=e1001920&rft.date=2015-12-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4668834%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1549-1277&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26633705&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1001920&rft.aulast=Torgerson&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft.au=Devleesschauwer%2C+Brecht&rft.au=Praet%2C+Nicolas&rft.au=Speybroeck%2C+Niko&rft.au=Willingham%2C+Arve+Lee&rft.au=Kasuga%2C+Fumiko&rft.au=Rokni%2C+Mohammad+B.&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Xiao-Nong&rft.au=F%C3%A8vre%2C+Eric+M.&rft.au=Sripa%2C+Banchob&rft.au=Gargouri%2C+Neyla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4668834&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHotezBundyBeegleBrooker2006" class="citation cs2">Hotez PJ, Bundy DA, Beegle K, Brooker S, Drake L, de Silva N, Montresor A, Engels D, Jukes M (2006), Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, Alleyne G (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11748/">"Helminth Infections: Soil-transmitted Helminth Infections and Schistosomiasis"</a>, <i>Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries</i> (2nd ed.), Washington (DC): World Bank, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8213-6179-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8213-6179-5"><bdi>978-0-8213-6179-5</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21250326">21250326</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161010040542/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11748/">archived</a> from the original on 2016-10-10<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-08-13</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Disease+Control+Priorities+in+Developing+Countries&rft.atitle=Helminth+Infections%3A+Soil-transmitted+Helminth+Infections+and+Schistosomiasis&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21250326&rft.isbn=978-0-8213-6179-5&rft.aulast=Hotez&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Bundy%2C+Donald+A.+P.&rft.au=Beegle%2C+Kathleen&rft.au=Brooker%2C+Simon&rft.au=Drake%2C+Lesley&rft.au=de+Silva%2C+Nilanthi&rft.au=Montresor%2C+Antonio&rft.au=Engels%2C+Dirk&rft.au=Jukes%2C+Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK11748%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/spread/index.html">"How Infections Spread"</a>. <i>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</i>. 1 January 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230602112416/https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/spread/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=How+Infections+Spread&rft.date=2016-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Finfectioncontrol%2Fspread%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fungusfocus.com/html/flukes.htm">Intestinal Parasites and Infection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101028013944/http://fungusfocus.com/html/flukes.htm">Archived</a> 2010-10-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> fungusfocus.com – Retrieved on 2010-01-21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.microbiologybook.org/Infectious%20Disease/Infectious%20Disease%20Introduction.htm">"Clinical Infectious Disease – Introduction"</a>. <i>microbiologybook.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170420143405/http://www.microbiologybook.org/Infectious%20Disease/Infectious%20Disease%20Introduction.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-04-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=microbiologybook.org&rft.atitle=Clinical+Infectious+Disease+%E2%80%93+Introduction&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.microbiologybook.org%2FInfectious%2520Disease%2FInfectious%2520Disease%2520Introduction.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metapathogen.com/">Pathogens and vectors</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171005150918/http://www.metapathogen.com/">Archived</a> 2017-10-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>MetaPathogen.com</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHectorBooksmythe2019" class="citation journal cs1">Hector TE, Booksmythe I (April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fevo.13724">"Digest: Little evidence exists for a virulence-transmission trade-off*"</a>. <i>Evolution</i>. <b>73</b> (4): 858–859. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fevo.13724">10.1111/evo.13724</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30900249">30900249</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85448255">85448255</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft.atitle=Digest%3A+Little+evidence+exists+for+a+virulence-transmission+trade-off%2A&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=858-859&rft.date=2019-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85448255%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30900249&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fevo.13724&rft.aulast=Hector&rft.aufirst=Tobias+E.&rft.au=Booksmythe%2C+Isobel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fevo.13724&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcevedoDillemuthFlickFaldyn2019" class="citation journal cs1">Acevedo MA, Dillemuth FP, Flick AJ, Faldyn MJ, Elderd BD (April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/biosci_pubs/1193">"Virulence-driven trade-offs in disease transmission: A meta-analysis*"</a>. <i>Evolution</i>. <b>73</b> (4): 636–647. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fevo.13692">10.1111/evo.13692</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30734920">30734920</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73418339">73418339</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204210544/https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/biosci_pubs/1193/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-12-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution&rft.atitle=Virulence-driven+trade-offs+in+disease+transmission%3A+A+meta-analysis%2A&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=636-647&rft.date=2019-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73418339%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30734920&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fevo.13692&rft.aulast=Acevedo&rft.aufirst=Miguel+A.&rft.au=Dillemuth%2C+Forrest+P.&rft.au=Flick%2C+Andrew+J.&rft.au=Faldyn%2C+Matthew+J.&rft.au=Elderd%2C+Bret+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.lsu.edu%2Fbiosci_pubs%2F1193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEricsonBurdonMüller1999" class="citation journal cs1">Ericson L, Burdon JJ, Müller WJ (August 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2745.1999.00384.x">"Spatial and temporal dynamics of epidemics of the rust fungus Uromyces valerianae on populations of its host Valeriana salina"</a>. <i>Journal of Ecology</i>. <b>87</b> (4): 649–658. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999JEcol..87..649E">1999JEcol..87..649E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2745.1999.00384.x">10.1046/j.1365-2745.1999.00384.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86478171">86478171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ecology&rft.atitle=Spatial+and+temporal+dynamics+of+epidemics+of+the+rust+fungus+Uromyces+valerianae+on+populations+of+its+host+Valeriana+salina&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=649-658&rft.date=1999-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86478171%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1365-2745.1999.00384.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999JEcol..87..649E&rft.aulast=Ericson&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Burdon%2C+J.+J.&rft.au=M%C3%BCller%2C+W.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1046%252Fj.1365-2745.1999.00384.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMideoAlizonDay2008" class="citation journal cs1">Mideo N, Alizon S, Day T (September 2008). "Linking within- and between-host dynamics in the evolutionary epidemiology of infectious diseases". <i>Trends in Ecology & Evolution</i>. <b>23</b> (9): 511–517. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2008.05.009">10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18657880">18657880</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Linking+within-+and+between-host+dynamics+in+the+evolutionary+epidemiology+of+infectious+diseases&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=511-517&rft.date=2008-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2008.05.009&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18657880&rft.aulast=Mideo&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Alizon%2C+S&rft.au=Day%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMordecaiCohenEvansGudapati2017" class="citation journal cs1">Mordecai EA, Cohen JM, Evans MV, Gudapati P, Johnson LR, Lippi CA, Miazgowicz K, Murdock CC, Rohr JR, Ryan SJ, Savage V, Shocket MS, Stewart Ibarra A, Thomas MB, Weikel DP (27 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5423694">"Detecting the impact of temperature on transmission of Zika, dengue, and chikungunya using mechanistic models"</a>. <i>PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases</i>. <b>11</b> (4): e0005568. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0005568">10.1371/journal.pntd.0005568</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5423694">5423694</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28448507">28448507</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Neglected+Tropical+Diseases&rft.atitle=Detecting+the+impact+of+temperature+on+transmission+of+Zika%2C+dengue%2C+and+chikungunya+using+mechanistic+models&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e0005568&rft.date=2017-04-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5423694%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28448507&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0005568&rft.aulast=Mordecai&rft.aufirst=Erin+A.&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Jeremy+M.&rft.au=Evans%2C+Michelle+V.&rft.au=Gudapati%2C+Prithvi&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Leah+R.&rft.au=Lippi%2C+Catherine+A.&rft.au=Miazgowicz%2C+Kerri&rft.au=Murdock%2C+Courtney+C.&rft.au=Rohr%2C+Jason+R.&rft.au=Ryan%2C+Sadie+J.&rft.au=Savage%2C+Van&rft.au=Shocket%2C+Marta+S.&rft.au=Stewart+Ibarra%2C+Anna&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Matthew+B.&rft.au=Weikel%2C+Daniel+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5423694&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeventerHochberg2016" class="citation journal cs1">Seventer JM, Hochberg NS (October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7150340">"Principles of Infectious Diseases: Transmission, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control"</a>. <i>International Encyclopedia of Public Health</i>: 22–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6">10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128037089" title="Special:BookSources/9780128037089"><bdi>9780128037089</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7150340">7150340</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Principles+of+Infectious+Diseases%3A+Transmission%2C+Diagnosis%2C+Prevention%2C+and+Control&rft.pages=22-39&rft.date=2016-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7150340%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6&rft.isbn=9780128037089&rft.aulast=Seventer&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Hochberg%2C+NS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7150340&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVazquez-Pertejo2022" class="citation web cs1">Vazquez-Pertejo MT (October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240102154139/https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/diagnosis-of-infectious-disease/diagnosis-of-infectious-disease">"Diagnosis of Infectious Disease - Infections"</a>. <i>Merck Manuals Consumer Version</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/diagnosis-of-infectious-disease/diagnosis-of-infectious-disease">the original</a> on 2024-01-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merck+Manuals+Consumer+Version&rft.atitle=Diagnosis+of+Infectious+Disease+-+Infections&rft.date=2022-10&rft.aulast=Vazquez-Pertejo&rft.aufirst=Maria+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merckmanuals.com%2Fhome%2Finfections%2Fdiagnosis-of-infectious-disease%2Fdiagnosis-of-infectious-disease&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeaverOmarMarKlauser2022" class="citation journal cs1">Weaver JS, Omar IM, Mar WA, Klauser AS, Winegar BA, Mlady GW, McCurdy WE, Taljanovic MS (2022-03-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9047866">"Magnetic resonance imaging of musculoskeletal infections"</a>. <i>Polish Journal of Radiology</i>. <b>87</b>: e141–e162. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5114%2Fpjr.2022.113825">10.5114/pjr.2022.113825</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1733-134X">1733-134X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9047866">9047866</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35505859">35505859</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Polish+Journal+of+Radiology&rft.atitle=Magnetic+resonance+imaging+of+musculoskeletal+infections&rft.volume=87&rft.pages=e141-e162&rft.date=2022-03-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9047866%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1733-134X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35505859&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5114%2Fpjr.2022.113825&rft.aulast=Weaver&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+S.&rft.au=Omar%2C+Imran+M.&rft.au=Mar%2C+Winnie+A.&rft.au=Klauser%2C+Andrea+S.&rft.au=Winegar%2C+Blair+A.&rft.au=Mlady%2C+Gary+W.&rft.au=McCurdy%2C+Wendy+E.&rft.au=Taljanovic%2C+Mihra+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9047866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinskyHayden2019" class="citation journal cs1">Pinsky BA, Hayden RT (2019-08-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6711893">"Cost-Effective Respiratory Virus Testing"</a>. <i>Journal of Clinical Microbiology</i>. <b>57</b> (9): e00373–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJCM.00373-19">10.1128/JCM.00373-19</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0095-1137">0095-1137</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6711893">6711893</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31142607">31142607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Cost-Effective+Respiratory+Virus+Testing&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=e00373-19&rft.date=2019-08-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6711893%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0095-1137&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31142607&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FJCM.00373-19&rft.aulast=Pinsky&rft.aufirst=B.+A.&rft.au=Hayden%2C+R.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6711893&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sternak-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sternak_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLjubin-SternakMestrovic2014" class="citation journal cs1">Ljubin-Sternak S, Mestrovic T (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4295611">"Review: Chlamydia trachonmatis and Genital Mycoplasmias: Pathogens with an Impact on Human Reproductive Health"</a>. <i>Journal of Pathogens</i>. <b>2014</b> (183167): 3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2014%2F183167">10.1155/2014/183167</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4295611">4295611</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25614838">25614838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pathogens&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Chlamydia+trachonmatis+and+Genital+Mycoplasmias%3A+Pathogens+with+an+Impact+on+Human+Reproductive+Health&rft.volume=2014&rft.issue=183167&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4295611%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25614838&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2014%2F183167&rft.aulast=Ljubin-Sternak&rft.aufirst=Suncanica&rft.au=Mestrovic%2C+Tomislav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4295611&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lancet10-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lancet10_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lancet10_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_den_BruelHaj-HassanThompsonBuntinx2010" class="citation journal cs1">Van den Bruel A, Haj-Hassan T, Thompson M, Buntinx F, Mant D (March 2010). "Diagnostic value of clinical features at presentation to identify serious infection in children in developed countries: a systematic review". <i>Lancet</i>. <b>375</b> (9717): 834–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2809%2962000-6">10.1016/S0140-6736(09)62000-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20132979">20132979</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28014329">28014329</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.atitle=Diagnostic+value+of+clinical+features+at+presentation+to+identify+serious+infection+in+children+in+developed+countries%3A+a+systematic+review&rft.volume=375&rft.issue=9717&rft.pages=834-45&rft.date=2010-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28014329%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20132979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2809%2962000-6&rft.aulast=Van+den+Bruel&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Haj-Hassan%2C+T&rft.au=Thompson%2C+M&rft.au=Buntinx%2C+F&rft.au=Mant%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2021" class="citation book cs1">Murray PR (2021). "Laboratory Diagnosis of Bacterial Diseases". <i>Medical Microbiology</i> (9th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-67450-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-323-67450-8"><bdi>978-0-323-67450-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Laboratory+Diagnosis+of+Bacterial+Diseases&rft.btitle=Medical+Microbiology&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-323-67450-8&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Patrick+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoyceQueenerWekSullivan2010" class="citation journal cs1">Joyce BR, Queener SF, Wek RC, Sullivan WJ (2010-10-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2951449">"Phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor-2α promotes the extracellular survival of obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>107</b> (40): 17200–17205. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..10717200J">2010PNAS..10717200J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1007610107">10.1073/pnas.1007610107</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2951449">2951449</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20855600">20855600</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Phosphorylation+of+eukaryotic+initiation+factor-2%CE%B1+promotes+the+extracellular+survival+of+obligate+intracellular+parasite+Toxoplasma+gondii&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=40&rft.pages=17200-17205&rft.date=2010-10-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2951449%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..10717200J&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20855600&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1007610107&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Joyce&rft.aufirst=Bradley+R.&rft.au=Queener%2C+Sherry+F.&rft.au=Wek%2C+Ronald+C.&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+William+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2951449&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliotRodriguesLorenzoMartins-Filho2015" class="citation journal cs1">Elliot SL, Rodrigues Jd, Lorenzo MG, Martins-Filho OA, Guarneri AA (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4368190">"Trypanosoma cruzi, etiological agent of Chagas disease, is virulent to its triatomine vector Rhodnius prolixus in a temperature-dependent manner"</a>. <i>PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases</i>. <b>9</b> (3): e0003646. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0003646">10.1371/journal.pntd.0003646</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1935-2735">1935-2735</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4368190">4368190</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25793495">25793495</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Neglected+Tropical+Diseases&rft.atitle=Trypanosoma+cruzi%2C+etiological+agent+of+Chagas+disease%2C+is+virulent+to+its+triatomine+vector+Rhodnius+prolixus+in+a+temperature-dependent+manner&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=e0003646&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4368190%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1935-2735&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25793495&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0003646&rft.aulast=Elliot&rft.aufirst=Simon+L.&rft.au=Rodrigues%2C+Juliana+de+O.&rft.au=Lorenzo%2C+Marcelo+G.&rft.au=Martins-Filho%2C+Olindo+A.&rft.au=Guarneri%2C+Alessandra+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4368190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2021" class="citation book cs1">Murray PR (2021). "Microscopy and In Vitro Culture". <i>Medical Microbiology</i> (9th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-67450-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-323-67450-8"><bdi>978-0-323-67450-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Microscopy+and+In+Vitro+Culture&rft.btitle=Medical+Microbiology&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-323-67450-8&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Patrick+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParveenBorrenberghsRochaHendrix2018" class="citation journal cs1">Parveen N, Borrenberghs D, Rocha S, Hendrix J (2018-05-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5977243">"Single Viruses on the Fluorescence Microscope: Imaging Molecular Mobility, Interactions and Structure Sheds New Light on Viral Replication"</a>. <i>Viruses</i>. <b>10</b> (5): 250. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fv10050250">10.3390/v10050250</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1999-4915">1999-4915</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5977243">5977243</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29748498">29748498</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Viruses&rft.atitle=Single+Viruses+on+the+Fluorescence+Microscope%3A+Imaging+Molecular+Mobility%2C+Interactions+and+Structure+Sheds+New+Light+on+Viral+Replication&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=250&rft.date=2018-05-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5977243%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1999-4915&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29748498&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fv10050250&rft.aulast=Parveen&rft.aufirst=Nagma&rft.au=Borrenberghs%2C+Doortje&rft.au=Rocha%2C+Susana&rft.au=Hendrix%2C+Jelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5977243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaubolleSussland2003" class="citation journal cs1">Saubolle MA, Sussland D (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC254378">"Nocardiosis"</a>. <i>Journal of Clinical Microbiology</i>. <b>41</b> (10): 4497–4501. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJCM.41.10.4497-4501.2003">10.1128/JCM.41.10.4497-4501.2003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0095-1137">0095-1137</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC254378">254378</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14532173">14532173</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Nocardiosis&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=4497-4501&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC254378%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0095-1137&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14532173&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FJCM.41.10.4497-4501.2003&rft.aulast=Saubolle&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft.au=Sussland%2C+Den&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC254378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlintScottDuncanLouis2012" class="citation journal cs1">Flint HJ, Scott KP, Duncan SH, Louis P, Forano E (2012-07-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3463488">"Microbial degradation of complex carbohydrates in the gut"</a>. <i>Gut Microbes</i>. <b>3</b> (4): 289–306. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4161%2Fgmic.19897">10.4161/gmic.19897</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1949-0976">1949-0976</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3463488">3463488</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22572875">22572875</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gut+Microbes&rft.atitle=Microbial+degradation+of+complex+carbohydrates+in+the+gut&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=289-306&rft.date=2012-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3463488%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1949-0976&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22572875&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4161%2Fgmic.19897&rft.aulast=Flint&rft.aufirst=Harry+J.&rft.au=Scott%2C+Karen+P.&rft.au=Duncan%2C+Sylvia+H.&rft.au=Louis%2C+Petra&rft.au=Forano%2C+Evelyne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3463488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakkochPrachayangprechaPayungpornChieochansin2012" class="citation journal cs1">Makkoch J, Prachayangprecha S, Payungporn S, Chieochansin T, Songserm T, Amonsin A, Poovorawan Y (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3384809">"Erythrocyte Binding Preference of Human Pandemic Influenza Virus A and Its Effect on Antibody Response Detection"</a>. <i>Annals of Laboratory Medicine</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 276–282. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3343%2Falm.2012.32.4.276">10.3343/alm.2012.32.4.276</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2234-3806">2234-3806</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3384809">3384809</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22779069">22779069</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Laboratory+Medicine&rft.atitle=Erythrocyte+Binding+Preference+of+Human+Pandemic+Influenza+Virus+A+and+Its+Effect+on+Antibody+Response+Detection&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=276-282&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3384809%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2234-3806&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22779069&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3343%2Falm.2012.32.4.276&rft.aulast=Makkoch&rft.aufirst=Jarika&rft.au=Prachayangprecha%2C+Slinporn&rft.au=Payungporn%2C+Sunchai&rft.au=Chieochansin%2C+Thaweesak&rft.au=Songserm%2C+Thaweesak&rft.au=Amonsin%2C+Alongkorn&rft.au=Poovorawan%2C+Yong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3384809&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKozeraRapacz2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kozera B, Rapacz M (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3825189">"Reference genes in real-time PCR"</a>. <i>Journal of Applied Genetics</i>. <b>54</b> (4): 391–406. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13353-013-0173-x">10.1007/s13353-013-0173-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1234-1983">1234-1983</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3825189">3825189</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24078518">24078518</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Genetics&rft.atitle=Reference+genes+in+real-time+PCR&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=391-406&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3825189%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1234-1983&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24078518&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs13353-013-0173-x&rft.aulast=Kozera&rft.aufirst=Bart%C5%82omiej&rft.au=Rapacz%2C+Marcin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3825189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee" class="citation web cs1">Lee R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asm.org/articles/2019/november/metagenomic-next-generation-sequencing-how-does-it">"Metagenomic Next Generation Sequencing: How Does It Work and Is It Coming to Your Clinical Microbiology Lab?"</a>. <i>American Society for Microbiology</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Society+for+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Metagenomic+Next+Generation+Sequencing%3A+How+Does+It+Work+and+Is+It+Coming+to+Your+Clinical+Microbiology+Lab%3F&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Rose&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasm.org%2Farticles%2F2019%2Fnovember%2Fmetagenomic-next-generation-sequencing-how-does-it&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKayser,_Fritz_HKurt_A_BienzJohannes_EckertRolf_M_Zinkernagel2005" class="citation book cs1">Kayser, Fritz H, Kurt A Bienz, Johannes Eckert, Rolf M Zinkernagel (2005). <i>Medical microbiology</i>. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag. p. 398. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-13-131991-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-13-131991-3"><bdi>978-3-13-131991-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medical+microbiology&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=398&rft.pub=Georg+Thieme+Verlag&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-13-131991-3&rft.au=Kayser%2C+Fritz+H&rft.au=Kurt+A+Bienz&rft.au=Johannes+Eckert&rft.au=Rolf+M+Zinkernagel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrinde2013" class="citation journal cs1">Grinde B (2013-10-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3809354">"Herpesviruses: latency and reactivation – viral strategies and host response"</a>. <i>Journal of Oral Microbiology</i>. <b>5</b>: 22766. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3402%2Fjom.v5i0.22766">10.3402/jom.v5i0.22766</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0901-8328">0901-8328</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3809354">3809354</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24167660">24167660</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Oral+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Herpesviruses%3A+latency+and+reactivation+%E2%80%93+viral+strategies+and+host+response&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=22766&rft.date=2013-10-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3809354%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0901-8328&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24167660&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3402%2Fjom.v5i0.22766&rft.aulast=Grinde&rft.aufirst=Bj%C3%B8rn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3809354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDani2014" class="citation journal cs1">Dani A (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4074726">"Colonization and infection"</a>. <i>Central European Journal of Urology</i>. <b>67</b> (1): 86–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5173%2Fceju.2014.01.art19">10.5173/ceju.2014.01.art19</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2080-4806">2080-4806</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4074726">4074726</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24982790">24982790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Central+European+Journal+of+Urology&rft.atitle=Colonization+and+infection&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=86-87&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4074726%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2080-4806&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24982790&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5173%2Fceju.2014.01.art19&rft.aulast=Dani&rft.aufirst=Arpad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4074726&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoldoghAlbrechtPorter1996" class="citation cs2">Boldogh I, Albrecht T, Porter DD (1996), Baron S (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8538/">"Persistent Viral Infections"</a>, <i>Medical Microbiology</i> (4th ed.), University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9631172-1-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9631172-1-2"><bdi>978-0-9631172-1-2</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21413348">21413348</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200414121324/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8538/">archived</a> from the original on 2020-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-23</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Persistent+Viral+Infections&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21413348&rft.isbn=978-0-9631172-1-2&rft.aulast=Boldogh&rft.aufirst=Istvan&rft.au=Albrecht%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Porter%2C+David+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK8538%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2018" class="citation book cs1">Foster J (2018). <i>Microbiology</i>. New York: Norton. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-60257-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-60257-9"><bdi>978-0-393-60257-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microbiology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-393-60257-9&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baron-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baron_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baron_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">This section incorporates <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed">public domain</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090629132331/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed">Archived</a> 2009-06-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> materials included in the text: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=mmed.TOC&depth=10">Medical Microbiology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090701213330/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=mmed.TOC&depth=10">Archived</a> 2009-07-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Fourth Edition: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.chapter.594">Chapter 8</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090219005050/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.chapter.594">Archived</a> 2009-02-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1996). Baron, Samuel MD. The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaron1996" class="citation book cs1">Baron S (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed"><i>Medical Microbiology</i></a>. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780963117212" title="Special:BookSources/9780963117212"><bdi>9780963117212</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21413252">21413252</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090629132331/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medical+Microbiology&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Medical+Branch+at+Galveston&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21413252&rft.isbn=9780963117212&rft.aulast=Baron&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Frid%3Dmmed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid29135922-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid29135922_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid29135922_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatilGuoLuanSherwood2017" class="citation journal cs1">Patil NK, Guo Y, Luan L, Sherwood ER (November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5713381">"Targeting Immune Cell Checkpoints during Sepsis"</a>. <i>International Journal of Molecular Sciences</i>. <b>18</b> (11): 2413. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijms18112413">10.3390/ijms18112413</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5713381">5713381</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29135922">29135922</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Molecular+Sciences&rft.atitle=Targeting+Immune+Cell+Checkpoints+during+Sepsis&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2413&rft.date=2017-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5713381%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29135922&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fijms18112413&rft.aulast=Patil&rft.aufirst=NK&rft.au=Guo%2C+Y&rft.au=Luan%2C+L&rft.au=Sherwood%2C+ER&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5713381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid31027668-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid31027668_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcArthur2019" class="citation journal cs1">McArthur DB (June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7096727">"Emerging Infectious Diseases"</a>. <i>The Nursing Clinics of North America</i>. <b>54</b> (2): 297–311. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cnur.2019.02.006">10.1016/j.cnur.2019.02.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7096727">7096727</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31027668">31027668</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nursing+Clinics+of+North+America&rft.atitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=297-311&rft.date=2019-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7096727%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31027668&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cnur.2019.02.006&rft.aulast=McArthur&rft.aufirst=DB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7096727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid28515626-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid28515626_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarberisBragazziGalluzzoMartini2017" class="citation journal cs1">Barberis I, Bragazzi NL, Galluzzo L, Martini M (March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5432783">"The history of tuberculosis: from the first historical records to the isolation of Koch's bacillus"</a>. <i>Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene</i>. <b>58</b> (1): E9–E12. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5432783">5432783</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28515626">28515626</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Preventive+Medicine+and+Hygiene&rft.atitle=The+history+of+tuberculosis%3A+from+the+first+historical+records+to+the+isolation+of+Koch%27s+bacillus&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=E9-E12&rft.date=2017-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5432783%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28515626&rft.aulast=Barberis&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Bragazzi%2C+NL&rft.au=Galluzzo%2C+L&rft.au=Martini%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5432783&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid31440916-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid31440916_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHosainzadeganKhalilovGholizadeh2020" class="citation journal cs1">Hosainzadegan H, Khalilov R, Gholizadeh P (February 2020). "The necessity to revise Koch's postulates and its application to infectious and non-infectious diseases: a mini-review". <i>European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases</i>. <b>39</b> (2): 215–218. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10096-019-03681-1">10.1007/s10096-019-03681-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31440916">31440916</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201283277">201283277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Clinical+Microbiology+%26+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=The+necessity+to+revise+Koch%27s+postulates+and+its+application+to+infectious+and+non-infectious+diseases%3A+a+mini-review&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=215-218&rft.date=2020-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201283277%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31440916&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10096-019-03681-1&rft.aulast=Hosainzadegan&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Khalilov%2C+R&rft.au=Gholizadeh%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid31325286-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid31325286_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiley2019" class="citation journal cs1">Riley LW (July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10957193">"Differentiating Epidemic from Endemic or Sporadic Infectious Disease Occurrence"</a>. <i>Microbiology Spectrum</i>. <b>7</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2Fmicrobiolspec.AME-0007-2019">10.1128/microbiolspec.AME-0007-2019</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10957193">10957193</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31325286">31325286</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:198135563">198135563</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microbiology+Spectrum&rft.atitle=Differentiating+Epidemic+from+Endemic+or+Sporadic+Infectious+Disease+Occurrence&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2019-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10957193%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A198135563%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31325286&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2Fmicrobiolspec.AME-0007-2019&rft.aulast=Riley&rft.aufirst=LW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10957193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Higurea & Pietrangelo 2016 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-handhygiene-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-handhygiene_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloomfieldAielloCooksonO'Boyle2007" class="citation journal cs1">Bloomfield SF, Aiello AE, Cookson B, O'Boyle C, Larson EL (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ajicjournal.org/article/S0196-6553(07)00595-0/fulltext">"The effectiveness of hand hygiene procedures including hand-washing and alcohol-based hand sanitizers in reducing the risks of infections in home and community settings"</a>. <i>American Journal of Infection Control</i>. <b>35</b> (10): S27–S64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajic.2007.07.001">10.1016/j.ajic.2007.07.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7115270">7115270</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200619195845/https://www.ajicjournal.org/article/S0196-6553(07)00595-0/fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-06-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Infection+Control&rft.atitle=The+effectiveness+of+hand+hygiene+procedures+including+hand-washing+and+alcohol-based+hand+sanitizers+in+reducing+the+risks+of+infections+in+home+and+community+settings&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=S27-S64&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7115270%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ajic.2007.07.001&rft.aulast=Bloomfield&rft.aufirst=SF&rft.au=Aiello%2C+AE&rft.au=Cookson%2C+B&rft.au=O%27Boyle%2C+C&rft.au=Larson%2C+EL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ajicjournal.org%2Farticle%2FS0196-6553%2807%2900595-0%2Ffulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090924155114/https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/diseases/guide/fig4-longdesc.htm">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Generalized Infectious Cycle" Diagram Illustration"</a>. <i>science.education.nih.gov</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih1/diseases/guide/fig4-longdesc.htm">the original</a> on 2009-09-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-01-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=science.education.nih.gov&rft.atitle=%22Generalized+Infectious+Cycle%22+Diagram+Illustration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.education.nih.gov%2Fsupplements%2Fnih1%2Fdiseases%2Fguide%2Ffig4-longdesc.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watts-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Watts_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Watts_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatts,_Duncan2003" class="citation book cs1">Watts, Duncan (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sixdegrees00dunc"><i>Six degrees: the science of a connected age</i></a></span>. London: William Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04142-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04142-2"><bdi>978-0-393-04142-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Six+degrees%3A+the+science+of+a+connected+age&rft.place=London&rft.pub=William+Heinemann&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-393-04142-2&rft.au=Watts%2C+Duncan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsixdegrees00dunc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPreston,_Richard1995" class="citation book cs1">Preston, Richard (1995). <i>The hot zone</i>. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-49522-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-49522-6"><bdi>978-0-385-49522-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+hot+zone&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-385-49522-6&rft.au=Preston%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProgramsNormandVlahovMoses1995" class="citation book cs1">Programs NR, Normand J, Vlahov D, Moses LE (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232343/"><i>The Effects of Needle Exchange Programs</i></a>. National Academies Press (US). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210310033308/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232343/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-03-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-10-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Effects+of+Needle+Exchange+Programs&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press+%28US%29&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Programs&rft.aufirst=National+Research+Council+%28US%29+and+Institute+of+Medicine+%28US%29+Panel+on+Needle+Exchange+and+Bleach+Distribution&rft.au=Normand%2C+Jacques&rft.au=Vlahov%2C+David&rft.au=Moses%2C+Lincoln+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK232343%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFergusonDonnellyAnderson2001" class="citation journal cs1">Ferguson NM, Donnelly CA, Anderson RM (May 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1061020">"The foot-and-mouth epidemic in Great Britain: pattern of spread and impact of interventions"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>292</b> (5519): 1155–60. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Sci...292.1155F">2001Sci...292.1155F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1061020">10.1126/science.1061020</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11303090">11303090</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16914744">16914744</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+foot-and-mouth+epidemic+in+Great+Britain%3A+pattern+of+spread+and+impact+of+interventions&rft.volume=292&rft.issue=5519&rft.pages=1155-60&rft.date=2001-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1061020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16914744%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11303090&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001Sci...292.1155F&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=NM&rft.au=Donnelly%2C+CA&rft.au=Anderson%2C+RM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.1061020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Csefalvay2023" class="citation cs2">von Csefalvay C (2023), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780323953894000153">"Modeling the control of infectious disease"</a>, <i>Computational Modeling of Infectious Disease</i>, Elsevier, pp. 173–215, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-32-395389-4.00015-3">10.1016/b978-0-32-395389-4.00015-3</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-95389-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-323-95389-4"><bdi>978-0-323-95389-4</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230305033759/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780323953894000153">archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-05<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-02</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computational+Modeling+of+Infectious+Disease&rft.atitle=Modeling+the+control+of+infectious+disease&rft.pages=173-215&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-32-395389-4.00015-3&rft.isbn=978-0-323-95389-4&rft.aulast=von+Csefalvay&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FB9780323953894000153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ofg-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ofg_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vk.ovg.ox.ac.uk/herd-immunity">"Herd Immunity"</a>. Oxford Vaccine Group, University of Oxford. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190802220355/http://vk.ovg.ox.ac.uk/herd-immunity">Archived</a> from the original on 2 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Herd+Immunity&rft.pub=Oxford+Vaccine+Group%2C+University+of+Oxford&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvk.ovg.ox.ac.uk%2Fherd-immunity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarretoTeixeiraCarmo2006" class="citation journal cs1">Barreto ML, Teixeira MG, Carmo EH (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2465549">"Infectious diseases epidemiology"</a>. <i>Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health</i>. <b>60</b> (3): 192–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjech.2003.011593">10.1136/jech.2003.011593</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2465549">2465549</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16476746">16476746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Epidemiology+and+Community+Health&rft.atitle=Infectious+diseases+epidemiology&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=192-95&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2465549%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16476746&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fjech.2003.011593&rft.aulast=Barreto&rft.aufirst=ML&rft.au=Teixeira%2C+MG&rft.au=Carmo%2C+EH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2465549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeFellayThompsonSimon2009" class="citation journal cs1">Ge D, Fellay J, Thompson AJ, Simon JS, Shianna KV, Urban TJ, Heinzen EL, Qiu P, Bertelsen AH, Muir AJ, Sulkowski M, McHutchison JG, Goldstein DB (2009). "Genetic variation in IL28B predicts hepatitis C treatment-induced viral clearance". <i>Nature</i>. <b>461</b> (7262): 399–401. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.461..399G">2009Natur.461..399G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08309">10.1038/nature08309</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19684573">19684573</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1707096">1707096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Genetic+variation+in+IL28B+predicts+hepatitis+C+treatment-induced+viral+clearance&rft.volume=461&rft.issue=7262&rft.pages=399-401&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature08309&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1707096%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19684573&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Natur.461..399G&rft.aulast=Ge&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Fellay%2C+J&rft.au=Thompson%2C+AJ&rft.au=Simon%2C+JS&rft.au=Shianna%2C+KV&rft.au=Urban%2C+TJ&rft.au=Heinzen%2C+EL&rft.au=Qiu%2C+P&rft.au=Bertelsen%2C+AH&rft.au=Muir%2C+AJ&rft.au=Sulkowski%2C+M&rft.au=McHutchison%2C+JG&rft.au=Goldstein%2C+DB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasThioMartinQi2009" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas DL, Thio CL, Martin MP, Qi Y, Ge D, O'Huigin C, Kidd J, Kidd K, Khakoo SI, Alexander G, Goedert JJ, Kirk GD, Donfield SM, Rosen HR, Tobler LH, Busch MP, McHutchison JG, Goldstein DB, Carrington M (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3172006">"Genetic variation in IL28B and spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>461</b> (7265): 798–801. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Natur.461..798T">2009Natur.461..798T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08463">10.1038/nature08463</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3172006">3172006</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19759533">19759533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Genetic+variation+in+IL28B+and+spontaneous+clearance+of+hepatitis+C+virus&rft.volume=461&rft.issue=7265&rft.pages=798-801&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3172006%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19759533&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature08463&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Natur.461..798T&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=DL&rft.au=Thio%2C+CL&rft.au=Martin%2C+MP&rft.au=Qi%2C+Y&rft.au=Ge%2C+D&rft.au=O%27Huigin%2C+C&rft.au=Kidd%2C+J&rft.au=Kidd%2C+K&rft.au=Khakoo%2C+SI&rft.au=Alexander%2C+G&rft.au=Goedert%2C+JJ&rft.au=Kirk%2C+GD&rft.au=Donfield%2C+SM&rft.au=Rosen%2C+HR&rft.au=Tobler%2C+LH&rft.au=Busch%2C+MP&rft.au=McHutchison%2C+JG&rft.au=Goldstein%2C+DB&rft.au=Carrington%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3172006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairTor2014" class="citation journal cs1">Fair RJ, Tor Y (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4159373">"Antibiotics and Bacterial Resistance in the 21st Century"</a>. <i>Perspectives in Medicinal Chemistry</i>. <b>6</b>: 25–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4137%2FPMC.S14459">10.4137/PMC.S14459</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4159373">4159373</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25232278">25232278</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+in+Medicinal+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Antibiotics+and+Bacterial+Resistance+in+the+21st+Century&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=25-64&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4159373%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25232278&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4137%2FPMC.S14459&rft.aulast=Fair&rft.aufirst=RJ&rft.au=Tor%2C+Y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4159373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugs.com/article/antibiotics.html">"Antibiotics: List of Common Antibiotics & Types"</a>. <i>Drugs.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210310033311/https://www.drugs.com/article/antibiotics.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-03-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Drugs.com&rft.atitle=Antibiotics%3A+List+of+Common+Antibiotics+%26+Types&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugs.com%2Farticle%2Fantibiotics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'BrienGould2013" class="citation journal cs1">O'Brien DJ, Gould IM (August 2013). "Maximizing the impact of antimicrobial stewardship". <i>Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases</i>. <b>26</b> (4): 352–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FQCO.0b013e3283631046">10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283631046</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23806898">23806898</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5487584">5487584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Maximizing+the+impact+of+antimicrobial+stewardship&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=352-58&rft.date=2013-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5487584%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23806898&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FQCO.0b013e3283631046&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=Deirdre+J.&rft.au=Gould%2C+Ian+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOranTopol2020" class="citation journal cs1">Oran DP, Topol EJ (2020-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7281624">"Prevalence of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection : A Narrative Review"</a>. <i>Annals of Internal Medicine</i>. <b>173</b> (5): 362–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7326%2FM20-3012">10.7326/M20-3012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1539-3704">1539-3704</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7281624">7281624</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32491919">32491919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Internal+Medicine&rft.atitle=Prevalence+of+Asymptomatic+SARS-CoV-2+Infection+%3A+A+Narrative+Review&rft.volume=173&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=362-367&rft.date=2020-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7281624%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1539-3704&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32491919&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7326%2FM20-3012&rft.aulast=Oran&rft.aufirst=Daniel+P.&rft.au=Topol%2C+Eric+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7281624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckAksentijevich2020" class="citation journal cs1">Beck DB, Aksentijevich I (2020-10-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abe7591">"Susceptibility to severe COVID-19"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>370</b> (6515): 404–405. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abe7591">10.1126/science.abe7591</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33093097">33093097</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225041500">225041500</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Susceptibility+to+severe+COVID-19&rft.volume=370&rft.issue=6515&rft.pages=404-405&rft.date=2020-10-23&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225041500%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33093097&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abe7591&rft.aulast=Beck&rft.aufirst=David+B.&rft.au=Aksentijevich%2C+Ivona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.abe7591&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlunkVilgalysDemeureCheng2022" class="citation journal cs1">Klunk J, Vilgalys TP, Demeure CE, Cheng X, Shiratori M, Madej J, Beau R, Elli D, Patino MI, Redfern R, DeWitte SN, Gamble JA, Boldsen JL, Carmichael A, Varlik N (November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9580435">"Evolution of immune genes is associated with the Black Death"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>611</b> (7935): 312–319. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Natur.611..312K">2022Natur.611..312K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05349-x">10.1038/s41586-022-05349-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9580435">9580435</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36261521">36261521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+immune+genes+is+associated+with+the+Black+Death&rft.volume=611&rft.issue=7935&rft.pages=312-319&rft.date=2022-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9580435%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Natur.611..312K&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36261521&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05349-x&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft.aulast=Klunk&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Vilgalys%2C+Tauras+P.&rft.au=Demeure%2C+Christian+E.&rft.au=Cheng%2C+Xiaoheng&rft.au=Shiratori%2C+Mari&rft.au=Madej%2C+Julien&rft.au=Beau%2C+R%C3%A9mi&rft.au=Elli%2C+Derek&rft.au=Patino%2C+Maria+I.&rft.au=Redfern%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=DeWitte%2C+Sharon+N.&rft.au=Gamble%2C+Julia+A.&rft.au=Boldsen%2C+Jesper+L.&rft.au=Carmichael%2C+Ann&rft.au=Varlik%2C+N%C3%BCkhet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9580435&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/gbddeathdalycountryestimates2004.xls">"Age-standardized DALYs per 100,000 by cause, and Member State, 2004"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210828123901/https://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/gbddeathdalycountryestimates2004.xls">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-08-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Age-standardized+DALYs+per+100%2C000+by+cause%2C+and+Member+State%2C+2004&rft.date=2009-02&rft.au=World+Health+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fentity%2Fhealthinfo%2Fglobal_burden_disease%2Fgbddeathdalycountryestimates2004.xls&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David McCandless, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.informationisbeautiful.net/visualizations/20th-century-death">'20th Century Death'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210917222211/http://www.informationisbeautiful.net/visualizations/20th-century-death">Archived</a> 17 September 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/1.2802071">"Could Ebola rank among the deadliest communicable diseases?"</a>. CBC News. 20 October 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210827185958/https://www.cbc.ca/news/1.2802071">Archived</a> from the original on 27 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Could+Ebola+rank+among+the+deadliest+communicable+diseases%3F&rft.date=2014-10-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2F1.2802071&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/whr/2004/annex/topic/en/annex_2_en.pdf">"The World Health Report (Annex Table 2)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.who.int/whr/2004/annex/topic/en/annex_2_en.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+World+Health+Report+%28Annex+Table+2%29&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fwhr%2F2004%2Fannex%2Ftopic%2Fen%2Fannex_2_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/whr/1995/en/whr95_ch1_en.pdf">"Table 5"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 1995. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.who.int/whr/1995/en/whr95_ch1_en.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Table+5&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fwhr%2F1995%2Fen%2Fwhr95_ch1_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lower respiratory infections include various <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenzas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acute_bronchitis" title="Acute bronchitis">acute bronchitis</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diarrheal diseases are caused by many different organisms, including <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">botulism</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a></i> to name a few. See also: <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_infectious_diseases" title="Intestinal infectious diseases">Intestinal infectious diseases</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tropical diseases include <a href="/wiki/Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">Chagas disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filariasis" title="Filariasis">lymphatic filariasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">leishmaniasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">onchocerciasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">schistosomiasis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trypanosomiasis" title="Trypanosomiasis">trypanosomiasis</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/">"WHO | The top 10 causes of death"</a>. WHO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170530121727/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-05-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WHO+%7C+The+top+10+causes+of+death&rft.pub=WHO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fmediacentre%2Ffactsheets%2Ffs310%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fauci2012-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fauci2012_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFauciMorens2012" class="citation journal cs1">Fauci AS, Morens DM (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMra1108296">"The perpetual challenge of infectious diseases"</a>. <i>New England Journal of Medicine</i>. <b>366</b> (5): 454–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMra1108296">10.1056/NEJMra1108296</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22296079">22296079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+perpetual+challenge+of+infectious+diseases&rft.volume=366&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=454-61&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMra1108296&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22296079&rft.aulast=Fauci&rft.aufirst=AS&rft.au=Morens%2C+DM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1056%252FNEJMra1108296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/PlaguesandPeople/lecture3.html">"Infectious and Epidemic Disease in History"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120712145547/http://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbecker/PlaguesandPeople/lecture3.html">Archived</a> July 12, 2012, at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dobson-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dobson_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dobson_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobsonCarter1996" class="citation journal cs1">Dobson AP, Carter ER (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3gwynne/BIO418/Dobson1996.pdf">"Infectious Diseases and Human Population History"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>BioScience</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 115–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1312814">10.2307/1312814</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1312814">1312814</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231520/http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~w3gwynne/BIO418/Dobson1996.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=Infectious+Diseases+and+Human+Population+History&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=115-26&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1312814&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1312814%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dobson&rft.aufirst=AP&rft.au=Carter%2C+ER&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.erin.utoronto.ca%2F~w3gwynne%2FBIO418%2FDobson1996.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/smallpox">"NCpedia | NCpedia"</a>. <i>www.ncpedia.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230328055149/https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/smallpox">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ncpedia.org&rft.atitle=NCpedia+%7C+NCpedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncpedia.org%2Fanchor%2Fsmallpox&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=vacc.chapter.3">Smallpox and Vaccinia</a>. <i>National Center for Biotechnology Information.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090601172056/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=vacc.chapter.3">Archived</a> June 1, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarquet1997" class="citation journal cs1">Barquet N (15 October 1997). "Smallpox: The Triumph over the Most Terrible of the Ministers of Death". <i>Annals of Internal Medicine</i>. <b>127</b> (8_Part_1): 635–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7326%2F0003-4819-127-8_Part_1-199710150-00010">10.7326/0003-4819-127-8_Part_1-199710150-00010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9341063">9341063</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20357515">20357515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Internal+Medicine&rft.atitle=Smallpox%3A+The+Triumph+over+the+Most+Terrible+of+the+Ministers+of+Death&rft.volume=127&rft.issue=8_Part_1&rft.pages=635-42&rft.date=1997-10-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20357515%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9341063&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7326%2F0003-4819-127-8_Part_1-199710150-00010&rft.aulast=Barquet&rft.aufirst=Nicolau&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/TB/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm">Multidrug-Resistant "Tuberculosis"</a>. <i>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100309043219/http://www.cdc.gov/TB/pubs/mdrtb/default.htm">Archived</a> March 9, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060220113240/http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/influenza_main.htm">"Influenza of 1918 (Spanish Flu) and the US Navy"</a>. 20 February 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/influenza_main.htm">the original</a> on 20 February 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Influenza+of+1918+%28Spanish+Flu%29+and+the+US+Navy&rft.date=2006-02-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.navy.mil%2Flibrary%2Fonline%2Finfluenza_main.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krauss-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Krauss_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krauss_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauss_HWeber_AAppel_M2003" class="citation book cs1">Krauss H, Weber A, Appel M (2003). <i>Zoonoses: Infectious Diseases Transmissible from Animals to Humans</i> (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: ASM Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55581-236-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55581-236-2"><bdi>978-1-55581-236-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoonoses%3A+Infectious+Diseases+Transmissible+from+Animals+to+Humans&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=ASM+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-55581-236-2&rft.au=Krauss+H&rft.au=Weber+A&rft.au=Appel+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter_P2013" class="citation journal cs1">Potter P (July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3903457">"Summer buzz"</a>. <i>Emerg Infect Dis</i>. <b>19</b> (3): 1184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3201%2Feid1907.AC1907">10.3201/eid1907.AC1907</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3903457">3903457</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerg+Infect+Dis&rft.atitle=Summer+buzz&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1184&rft.date=2013-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3903457%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3201%2Feid1907.AC1907&rft.au=Potter+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3903457&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_DaszakAndrew_A._CunninghamAlex_D._Hyatt2000" class="citation journal cs1">Peter Daszak, Andrew A. Cunningham, Alex D. Hyatt (27 January 2000). "Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wildlife – Threats to Biodiversity and Human Health". <i>Science</i>. <b>287</b> (5452): 443–49. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Sci...287..443D">2000Sci...287..443D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.287.5452.443">10.1126/science.287.5452.443</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10642539">10642539</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Emerging+Infectious+Diseases+of+Wildlife+%E2%80%93+Threats+to+Biodiversity+and+Human+Health&rft.volume=287&rft.issue=5452&rft.pages=443-49&rft.date=2000-01-27&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10642539&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.287.5452.443&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Sci...287..443D&rft.au=Peter+Daszak&rft.au=Andrew+A.+Cunningham&rft.au=Alex+D.+Hyatt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015016778261?urlappend=%3Bseq=28">"Annals of medical history. v.1 1917"</a>. <i>HathiTrust</i>. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015016778261?urlappend=%3Bseq=28">2027/mdp.39015016778261</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231117122937/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/imgsrv/html?id=mdp.39015016778261&seq=31">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HathiTrust&rft.atitle=Annals+of+medical+history.+v.1+1917.&rft.pages=14&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015016778261%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015016778261%3Furlappend%3D%253Bseq%3D28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThucydidesCrawley1914" class="citation book cs1">Thucydides, Crawley R (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/pelocrawleyr00thucuoft"><i>History of the Peloponnesian War, done into English by Richard Crawley</i></a>. Robarts - University of Toronto. London Dent. pp. 131–132.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Peloponnesian+War%2C+done+into+English+by+Richard+Crawley&rft.pages=131-132&rft.pub=London+Dent&rft.date=1914&rft.au=Thucydides&rft.au=Crawley%2C+Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpelocrawleyr00thucuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNutton1983" class="citation journal cs1">Nutton V (January 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1139262">"The seeds of disease: an explanation of contagion and infection from the Greeks to the Renaissance"</a>. <i>Medical History</i>. <b>27</b> (1): 1–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025727300042241">10.1017/s0025727300042241</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-7273">0025-7273</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1139262">1139262</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6339840">6339840</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+History&rft.atitle=The+seeds+of+disease%3A+an+explanation+of+contagion+and+infection+from+the+Greeks+to+the+Renaissance.&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-34&rft.date=1983-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1139262%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0025-7273&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6339840&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0025727300042241&rft.aulast=Nutton&rft.aufirst=V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1139262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRastogiRastogi1985" class="citation journal cs1">Rastogi N, Rastogi R (1985-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/16797371">"Leprosy in ancient India"</a>. <i>International Journal of Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases</i>. <b>52</b> (4): 541–43. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6399073">6399073</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Leprosy+and+Other+Mycobacterial+Diseases&rft.atitle=Leprosy+in+ancient+India&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=541-43&rft.date=1985-01-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6399073&rft.aulast=Rastogi&rft.aufirst=Nalin&rft.au=Rastogi%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F16797371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusrutaBhishagratna1907–1916" class="citation book cs1">Susruta, Bhishagratna KL (1907–1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/englishtranslati00susruoft"><i>An English translation of the Sushruta samhita, based on original Sanskrit text. Edited and published by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna. With a full and comprehensive introd., translation of different readings, notes, comparative views, index, glossary and plates</i></a>. Gerstein – University of Toronto. Calcutta.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+English+translation+of+the+Sushruta+samhita%2C+based+on+original+Sanskrit+text.+Edited+and+published+by+Kaviraj+Kunja+Lal+Bhishagratna.+With+a+full+and+comprehensive+introd.%2C+translation+of+different+readings%2C+notes%2C+comparative+views%2C+index%2C+glossary+and+plates&rft.pub=Calcutta&rft.date=1907%2F1916&rft.au=Susruta&rft.au=Bhishagratna%2C+Kunja+Lal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenglishtranslati00susruoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoernle1907" class="citation book cs1">Hoernle AF (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/studiesinmedicin01hoeruoft"><i>Studies in the medicine of ancient India</i></a>. Gerstein – University of Toronto. Oxford : At the Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+medicine+of+ancient+India&rft.pub=Oxford+%3A+At+the+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Hoernle&rft.aufirst=A.+F.+Rudolf+%28August+Friedrich+Rudolf%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstudiesinmedicin01hoeruoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrne2012" class="citation book cs1">Byrne JP (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5KtDfvlSrDAC&pg=PA29"><i>Encyclopedia of the Black Death</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1598842531" title="Special:BookSources/978-1598842531"><bdi>978-1598842531</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Black+Death&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1598842531&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5KtDfvlSrDAC%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid2013" class="citation book cs1">Reid MH (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5fJ4AAAAQBAJ"><i>Law and Piety in Medieval Islam</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 106, 114, 189–90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107067110" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107067110"><bdi>978-1107067110</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+Piety+in+Medieval+Islam&rft.pages=106%2C+114%2C+189-90&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1107067110&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=Megan+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5fJ4AAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajeed2005" class="citation journal cs1">Majeed A (22 December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1322233">"How Islam changed medicine"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BMJ" class="mw-redirect" title="BMJ">BMJ</a></i>. <b>331</b> (7531): 1486–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.331.7531.1486">10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1486</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0959-8138">0959-8138</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1322233">1322233</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16373721">16373721</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=How+Islam+changed+medicine&rft.volume=331&rft.issue=7531&rft.pages=1486-87&rft.date=2005-12-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1322233%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0959-8138&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16373721&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.331.7531.1486&rft.aulast=Majeed&rft.aufirst=Azeem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1322233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeretta_M2003" class="citation journal cs1">Beretta M (2003). "The revival of Lucretian atomism and contagious diseases during the renaissance". <i>Medicina Nei Secoli</i>. <b>15</b> (2): 129–54. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15309812">15309812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medicina+Nei+Secoli&rft.atitle=The+revival+of+Lucretian+atomism+and+contagious+diseases+during+the+renaissance&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=129-54&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15309812&rft.au=Beretta+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorhead_Robert2002" class="citation journal cs1">Moorhead Robert (November 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1279260">"William Budd and typhoid fever"</a>. <i>J R Soc Med</i>. <b>95</b> (11): 561–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F014107680209501115">10.1177/014107680209501115</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1279260">1279260</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12411628">12411628</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+R+Soc+Med&rft.atitle=William+Budd+and+typhoid+fever&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=561-64&rft.date=2002-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1279260%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12411628&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F014107680209501115&rft.au=Moorhead+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1279260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2009" class="citation journal cs1">Evans AS (2009-05-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7176254/">"Epidemiological Concepts"</a>. <i>Bacterial Infections of Humans</i>: 1–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-09843-2_1">10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7176254">7176254</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bacterial+Infections+of+Humans&rft.atitle=Epidemiological+Concepts&rft.pages=1-50&rft.date=2009-05-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7176254%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-09843-2_1&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Alfred+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7176254%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid19683831-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid19683831_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNettle_D2009" class="citation journal cs1">Nettle D (2009). "Ecological influences on human behavioural diversity: a review of recent findings". <i>Trends Ecol. Evol</i>. <b>24</b> (11): 618–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2009.05.013">10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.013</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19683831">19683831</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+Ecol.+Evol.&rft.atitle=Ecological+influences+on+human+behavioural+diversity%3A+a+review+of+recent+findings&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=618-24&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2009.05.013&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19683831&rft.au=Nettle+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-molnar-pathology-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-molnar-pathology_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Molnar, R. E., 2001, "Theropod paleopathology: a literature survey": In: <i>Mesozoic Vertebrate Life</i>, edited by Tanke, D. H., and Carpenter, K., Indiana University Press, pp. 337–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ASU-20070923-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ASU-20070923_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaspermeyer2007" class="citation web cs1">Caspermeyer J (23 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170914172718/https://biodesign.asu.edu/news/space-flight-shown-alter-ability-bacteria-cause-disease">"Space flight shown to alter ability of bacteria to cause disease"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Arizona_State_University" title="Arizona State University">Arizona State University</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biodesign.asu.edu/news/space-flight-shown-alter-ability-bacteria-cause-disease">the original</a> on 14 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Arizona+State+University&rft.atitle=Space+flight+shown+to+alter+ability+of+bacteria+to+cause+disease&rft.date=2007-09-23&rft.aulast=Caspermeyer&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiodesign.asu.edu%2Fnews%2Fspace-flight-shown-alter-ability-bacteria-cause-disease&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PLos-20130429-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PLos-20130429_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kim W, et al. (April 29, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3639165">"Spaceflight Promotes Biofilm Formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/PLOS_ONE" class="mw-redirect" title="PLOS ONE">PLOS ONE</a></i>. <b>8</b> (4): e6237. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PLoSO...862437K">2013PLoSO...862437K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0062437">10.1371/journal.pone.0062437</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3639165">3639165</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23658630">23658630</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Spaceflight+Promotes+Biofilm+Formation+by+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e6237&rft.date=2013-04-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3639165%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23658630&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0062437&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PLoSO...862437K&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3639165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GZM-20170913-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GZM-20170913_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDvorsky2017" class="citation web cs1">Dvorsky G (13 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gizmodo.com/alarming-study-indicates-why-certain-bacteria-are-more-1805666249">"Alarming Study Indicates Why Certain Bacteria Are More Resistant to Drugs in Space"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Gizmodo" title="Gizmodo">Gizmodo</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170914011750/http://gizmodo.com/alarming-study-indicates-why-certain-bacteria-are-more-1805666249">Archived</a> from the original on 14 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gizmodo&rft.atitle=Alarming+Study+Indicates+Why+Certain+Bacteria+Are+More+Resistant+to+Drugs+in+Space&rft.date=2017-09-13&rft.aulast=Dvorsky&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgizmodo.com%2Falarming-study-indicates-why-certain-bacteria-are-more-1805666249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dose-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dose_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoseBieger-DoseDillmannGill1995" class="citation journal cs1">Dose K, Bieger-Dose A, Dillmann R, Gill M, Kerz O, Klein A, Meinert H, Nawroth T, Risi S, Stridde C (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publications.ub.uni-mainz.de/opus/volltexte/2008/11364/pdf/11364.pdf">"ERA-experiment "space biochemistry"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Advances in Space Research</i>. <b>16</b> (8): 119–29. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995AdSpR..16h.119D">1995AdSpR..16h.119D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0273-1177%2895%2900280-R">10.1016/0273-1177(95)00280-R</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11542696">11542696</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://publications.ub.uni-mainz.de/opus/volltexte/2008/11364/pdf/11364.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Space+Research&rft.atitle=ERA-experiment+%22space+biochemistry%22&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=119-29&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11542696&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0273-1177%2895%2900280-R&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995AdSpR..16h.119D&rft.aulast=Dose&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Bieger-Dose%2C+A.&rft.au=Dillmann%2C+R.&rft.au=Gill%2C+M.&rft.au=Kerz%2C+O.&rft.au=Klein%2C+A.&rft.au=Meinert%2C+H.&rft.au=Nawroth%2C+T.&rft.au=Risi%2C+S.&rft.au=Stridde%2C+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublications.ub.uni-mainz.de%2Fopus%2Fvolltexte%2F2008%2F11364%2Fpdf%2F11364.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horneck-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Horneck_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorneck_G.Eschweiler,_U.Reitz,_G.Wehner,_J.1995" class="citation journal cs1">Horneck G., Eschweiler, U., Reitz, G., Wehner, J., Willimek, R., Strauch, K. (1995). "Biological responses to space: results of the experiment "Exobiological Unit" of ERA on EURECA I". <i>Adv. Space Res</i>. <b>16</b> (8): 105–18. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995AdSpR..16h.105H">1995AdSpR..16h.105H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0273-1177%2895%2900279-N">10.1016/0273-1177(95)00279-N</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11542695">11542695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Adv.+Space+Res.&rft.atitle=Biological+responses+to+space%3A+results+of+the+experiment+%22Exobiological+Unit%22+of+ERA+on+EURECA+I&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=105-18&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11542695&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0273-1177%2895%2900279-N&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995AdSpR..16h.105H&rft.au=Horneck+G.&rft.au=Eschweiler%2C+U.&rft.au=Reitz%2C+G.&rft.au=Wehner%2C+J.&rft.au=Willimek%2C+R.&rft.au=Strauch%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInfection" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Infection&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166231" class="extiw" title="d:Q166231">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/A00">A00</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/B99">B99</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=001-139">001-139</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003141">D003141</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb28832.htm">28832</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Infectious_diseases_and_disorders" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Infectious diseases and disorders">Infectious diseases and disorders</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en">European Center for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/">U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>,</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idsociety.org/">Infectious Disease Society of America</a> (IDSA)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070817112159/http://www.vrc.nih.gov/">Vaccine Research Center</a> Information concerning vaccine research clinical trials for Emerging and re-Emerging Infectious Diseases.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/microbes-and-infection">Microbes & Infection</a></i> (journal)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Infectious_disease_and_microbiology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infectious_disease" title="Template:Infectious disease"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Infectious_disease" title="Template talk:Infectious disease"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infectious_disease" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infectious disease"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Infectious_disease_and_microbiology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Infectious disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disciplines and <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_disease" title="Viral disease">viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">prions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_fungus" title="Pathogenic fungus">Mycology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mycosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycosis">fungi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helminths" class="mw-redirect" title="Helminths">helminths</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_entomology" title="Medical entomology">Entomology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ectoparasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ectoparasite">ectoparasites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Concepts_in_infectious_disease_(Outline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Template:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Template talk:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Concepts_in_infectious_disease_(Outline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts in <a class="mw-selflink selflink">infectious disease</a> (<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_infectious_disease_concepts" title="Outline of infectious disease concepts">Outline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Determinants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">Agent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm#Infectious_diseases" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity">Infectivity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_infective_dose" title="Minimal infective dose">Infectious dose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenicity">Pathogenicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">Virulence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Endotoxin">Endotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">Exotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">factors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">Drug resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multidrug-resistant_bacteria" title="Multidrug-resistant bacteria">Multidrug-resistant bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_tropism" title="Host tropism">Host tropism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">Comorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_foot_infection" title="Diabetic foot infection">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93pathogen_interaction" title="Host–pathogen interaction">Host–pathogen interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">Immune response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">Immunosuppression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_symbiosis_and_immunity" title="Microbial symbiosis and immunity">Microbiome health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_of_infection" title="Risk of infection">Risk of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susceptible_individual" title="Susceptible individual">Susceptible individual</a> <ul><li>Age</li> <li>Gender</li> <li>Nutrition status</li> <li>Vaccination status</li> <li>Genetic predisposition</li> <li>Behavioral/lifestyle factors <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_tobacco#infection" title="Health effects of tobacco">Smoking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pregnancy</li> <li>Stress levels</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">Access to water, sanitation and hygiene</a></li> <li>Air quality</li> <li>Biodiversity loss</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Climate change</a></li> <li>Climate zones <ul><li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o#Health_and_social_impacts" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease#Relation_of_climate_to_tropical_diseases" title="Tropical disease">Tropical diseases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation#Health_effects" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_ecology" title="Disease ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity#Human_health" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_sharing" title="Needle sharing">Injection drug use</a></li> <li>Natural disaster <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flood#Health_effects" title="Flood">Flood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis#Farming,_ranching_and_animal_husbandry" title="Zoonosis">Poultry and livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization#Infections" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_epidemiology" title="Conflict epidemiology">War and conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Transmission</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Basic_concepts" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Basic <br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Pathophysiology">Chain of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incubation_period" title="Incubation period">Incubation period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_case" title="Index case">Index case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_period" title="Infectious period">Infectious period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_period_(epidemiology)" title="Latent period (epidemiology)">Latent period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_reservoir" title="Natural reservoir">Natural reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subclinical_infection" title="Subclinical infection">Silent/Subclinical infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superinfection" title="Superinfection">Superinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-spreader" class="mw-redirect" title="Super-spreader">Super-spreader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_load" title="Viral load">Viral load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Window_period" title="Window period">Window period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Endogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Endogenous overgrowth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome#Disease_and_death" title="Human microbiome">Normal flora overgrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus_latency" title="Virus latency">Endogenous reactivation</a></li> <li>Microbial translocation</li> <li>Endogenous seeding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a> formation</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Exogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Cross-species_transmission" title="Cross-species transmission">Cross-species</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection" title="Spillover infection">Spillover infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">Vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">Zoonosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">Reverse zoonosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human-to-human_transmission" title="Human-to-human transmission">Human-to-human</a><br />/Cross-infection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contagious_disease" title="Contagious disease">Contagious disease</a></li> <li>Source <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hospital-acquired_infection" title="Hospital-acquired infection">Nosocomial/Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">Iatrogenic/Medical care</a></li></ul></li> <li>Generational difference <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">Vertical/Congenital</a> <ul><li>Prenatal</li> <li>Perinatal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_infection" title="Neonatal infection">Neonatal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)#Horizontal_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Horizontal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_infection" title="Breakthrough infection">Breakthrough infection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Environment-<br />to-human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sapronosis" title="Sapronosis">Sapronosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Routes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Respiratory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne disease">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">Bioaerosol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol-generating_procedure" title="Aerosol-generating procedure">Aerosol-generating procedure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_aerosol" title="Dental aerosol">Dental aerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_droplet#Role_in_disease_transmission" title="Respiratory droplet">Respiratory droplet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Linked to<br />Vascular system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood-borne_disease" title="Blood-borne disease">Blood-borne disease</a></li> <li>Percutaneous inoculation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injection_(medicine)#Infection" title="Injection (medicine)">Injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy#Infection_and_inflammation" title="Intravenous therapy">Intravenous line</a></li> <li>Insect bite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite#Infection" title="Animal bite">Animal bite</a></li></ul></li> <li>Surgical intervention <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postoperative_wounds#Infection" title="Postoperative wounds">Postoperative wound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_site_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical site infection">Surgical site infection</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vector-borne <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">Mosquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease" title="Tick-borne disease">Tick</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Gastrointestinal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_contaminant" title="Food contaminant">Contamination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_contraindications" title="Breastfeeding contraindications">Breastmilk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_disease" title="Waterborne disease">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Feces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cutaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil-transmitted_helminthiasis" title="Soil-transmitted helminthiasis">Soil</a></li> <li>Open <a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wound</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Genitourinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Trans-placental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Prenatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cervico-vaginal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Perinatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Ocular (Eye) mucosal membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modelling of infectious disease">Modelling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Bacteria_aggregation_leading_to_biofilm_formation" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_disease_model" title="Animal disease model">Animal disease model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_reproduction_number" title="Basic reproduction number">Basic reproduction number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compartmental_models_in_epidemiology" title="Compartmental models in epidemiology">Compartmental models in epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_community_size" title="Critical community size">Critical community size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_of_infection" title="Force of infection">Force of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_immunity" title="Herd immunity">Herd immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_rate" title="Infection rate">Infection rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare" title="Artificial intelligence in healthcare">Machine learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiplicity_of_infection" title="Multiplicity of infection">Multiplicity of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_interval" title="Serial interval">Serial interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WAIFW_matrix" title="WAIFW matrix">WAIFW matrix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Occurrence<br />in population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_cluster" title="Disease cluster">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic_curve" title="Epidemic curve">Curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farr%27s_laws" title="Farr's laws">Farr's laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holoendemic" title="Holoendemic">Holoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperendemic" title="Hyperendemic">Hyperendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">Incidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inequality_in_disease" title="Inequality in disease">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoendemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoendemic">Mesoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_outbreak" title="Disease outbreak">Outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic#Seasonality" title="Epidemic">Seasonality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_epidemiology" title="Spatial epidemiology">Geographic distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporadic_disease" title="Sporadic disease">Sporadic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndemic" title="Syndemic">Syndemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twindemic" title="Twindemic">Twindemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomical <br />location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Respiratory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Upper respiratory tract infection">Ear-Nose-Throat/Upper respiratory tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Lower respiratory tract infection">Chest/Lower respiratory tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal infection">Gastrointestinal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_infectious_diseases" title="Intestinal infectious diseases">Intestinal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Genitourinary</li> <li>Nervous system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_infection" title="Skin infection">Skin</a></li> <li>Soft tissue</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone infection">Bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint infection">Joint</a></li> <li>Cardiovascular</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_disease" title="Systemic disease">Systemic/Generalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odontogenic_infection" title="Odontogenic infection">Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_infection" title="Mouth infection">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intra-amniotic_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Intra-amniotic infection">Fetus</a></li> <li>Eye</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infection_prevention_and_control" title="Infection prevention and control">Prevention<br />and Control<br />measures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Pharmaceutical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_prophylaxis" title="Antibiotic prophylaxis">prophylactic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifungal" title="Antifungal">Antifungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthelmintic" title="Anthelmintic">Anthelmintic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascaricide" title="Ascaricide">Ascaricide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">Antimicrobial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_stewardship" title="Antimicrobial stewardship">Antimicrobial stewardship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">Antiseptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antiviral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">Asepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combination_therapy" title="Combination therapy">Combination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Drug safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization" title="Immunization">Immunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunotherapy" title="Immunotherapy">Immunotherapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody_therapy" title="Monoclonal antibody therapy">Monoclonal antibody therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">Inoculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_therapy" title="Phage therapy">Phage therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Pre-exposure prophylaxis">Pre-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Post-exposure prophylaxis">Post-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_repositioning" title="Drug repositioning">Repurposed drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_efficacy" title="Vaccine efficacy">efficacy/effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_dose" title="Booster dose">booster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_resistance" title="Vaccine resistance">resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine-preventable_disease" title="Vaccine-preventable disease">Vaccine-preventable disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_vaccination" title="Ring vaccination">Ring vaccination</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Non-pharmaceutical_intervention_(epidemiology)" title="Non-pharmaceutical intervention (epidemiology)">Non-<br />pharmaceutical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contact_tracing" title="Contact tracing">Contact tracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(medicine)" title="Cordon sanitaire (medicine)">Cordon sanitaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">Disinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flattening_the_curve" title="Flattening the curve">Flattening the curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_glove" title="Medical glove">Gloves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_(health_care)" title="Isolation (health care)">Isolation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_nursing" title="Barrier nursing">Barrier nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stay-at-home_order" title="Stay-at-home order">Lockdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_sequestration" title="Protective sequestration">Protective sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a> services</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outbreak_response" title="Outbreak response">Outbreak response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_control_(respiratory_disease)" title="Source control (respiratory disease)">Respiratory source control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N95_respirator" title="N95 respirator">N95 respirator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_mask" title="Surgical mask">Surgical mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">PPE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(medicine)" title="Screening (medicine)">Screening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">Sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission-based_precautions" title="Transmission-based precautions">Transmission-based precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_ban" title="Travel ban">Travel restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_precautions" title="Universal precautions">Universal precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_surveillance" title="Wastewater surveillance">Wastewater surveillance</a></li> <li>Zoning</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emerging_infectious_disease" title="Emerging infectious disease">Emerging <br />infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_drift" title="Antigenic drift">Antigenic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_shift" title="Antigenic shift">Antigenic shift</a></li> <li>Antimicrobial resistance surveillance <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EARS-Net" title="EARS-Net">EARS-Net</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_X" title="Disease X">Disease X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_virus" title="Emergent virus">Emergent virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epidemiology" title="Evolutionary epidemiology">Evolutionary epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epidemiology" title="Genetic epidemiology">Genetic epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Health_Initiatives" title="Global Health Initiatives">Global Health Initiatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_phylogenetics" title="Microbial phylogenetics">Microbial phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Health_Model" title="One Health Model">One Health Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reassortment" title="Reassortment">Genomic reassortment</a></li> <li>Re-emerging disease</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">Reverse zoonosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure#Antibiotic_resistance" title="Evolutionary pressure">Selection pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phylodynamics" title="Viral phylodynamics">Viral phylodynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_disease-causing_pathogens" title="Discovery of disease-causing pathogens">Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious diseases">Eradication</a></li> <li>Economics of Infectious Diseases</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">Infectious disease (medical specialty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_informatics" title="Disease informatics">Infectious disease informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Microbial bioterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic_prevention" title="Pandemic prevention">Pandemic prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_infectious_diseases" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Template:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Template talk:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_infectious_diseases" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">infectious diseases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cholera" title="History of cholera">Cholera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_HIV/AIDS" title="History of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_leprosy" title="History of leprosy">Leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_malaria" title="History of malaria">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plague" title="History of plague">Plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_polio" title="History of polio">Polio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_smallpox" title="History of smallpox">Smallpox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_syphilis" title="History of syphilis">Syphilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_tuberculosis" title="History of tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_typhoid_fever" title="History of typhoid fever">Typhoid fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_yellow_fever" title="History of yellow fever">Yellow fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice Hilleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Ignaz Semmelweis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Jacob_Kligler" title="Israel Jacob Kligler">Israel Jacob Kligler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">Major epidemics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> (1346–1353)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS pandemic</a> (1981–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> (2019–present<abbr title="Peaked from 2020-2023">*</abbr>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_disease-causing_pathogens" title="Discovery of disease-causing pathogens">Discovery of disease-causing pathogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox_eradication" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallpox eradication">Smallpox eradication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_viruses" title="Social history of viruses">Social history of viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medicine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medicine" title="Template:Medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medicine" title="Template talk:Medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialties</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a> <ul><li><small>ENT</small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal<br />medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and<br />gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="/wiki/General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlebologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlebologist">Phlebology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical<br />education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD%E2%80%93PhD" title="MD–PhD">MD–PhD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Medicine" title="Category:Medicine">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pathology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pathology" title="Template:Pathology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pathology" title="Template talk:Pathology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pathology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pathology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pathology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles of pathology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">Disease</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">Neoplasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cause_(medicine)" title="Cause (medicine)">Cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">Pathogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemodynamics" title="Hemodynamics">Hemodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ischemia" title="Ischemia">Ischemia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">Inflammation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_damage" title="Cell damage">Cell damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wound_healing" title="Wound healing">Wound healing</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Cellular_adaptation" title="Cellular adaptation">Cellular adaptation</a></dt> <dd></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Atrophy" title="Atrophy">Atrophy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hypertrophy" title="Hypertrophy">Hypertrophy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hyperplasia" title="Hyperplasia">Hyperplasia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dysplasia" title="Dysplasia">Dysplasia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Metaplasia" title="Metaplasia">Metaplasia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Squamous_metaplasia" title="Squamous metaplasia">Squamous</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glandular_metaplasia" title="Glandular metaplasia">Glandular</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">Cell death</a></dt> <dd></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">Necrosis</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Coagulative_necrosis" title="Coagulative necrosis">Coagulative necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Liquefactive_necrosis" title="Liquefactive necrosis">Liquefactive necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">Gangrenous necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Caseous_necrosis" title="Caseous necrosis">Caseous necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fat_necrosis" title="Fat necrosis">Fat necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fibrinoid_necrosis" title="Fibrinoid necrosis">Fibrinoid necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Myocytolysis" title="Myocytolysis">Myocytolysis</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">Apoptosis</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pyknosis" title="Pyknosis">Pyknosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karyorrhexis" title="Karyorrhexis">Karyorrhexis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karyolysis" title="Karyolysis">Karyolysis</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><i>Accumulations</i></dt> <dd><i><a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigment</a></i> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Hemosiderin" title="Hemosiderin">Hemosiderin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lipochrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipochrome">Lipochrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lipofuscin" title="Lipofuscin">Lipofuscin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">Melanin</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Steatosis" title="Steatosis">Steatosis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical pathology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_pathology" title="Surgical pathology">Surgical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">Autopsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathology" title="Molecular pathology">Molecular pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Forensic pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_pathology" title="Oral and maxillofacial pathology">Oral and maxillofacial pathology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gross_processing" title="Gross processing">Gross processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">Histopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunohistochemistry" title="Immunohistochemistry">Immunohistochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">Electron microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunofluorescence" title="Immunofluorescence">Immunofluorescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_in_situ_hybridization" title="Fluorescence in situ hybridization">Fluorescence in situ hybridization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematopathology" title="Hematopathology">Hematopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunoassay" title="Immunoassay">Diagnostic immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunopathology" title="Immunopathology">Immunopathology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">Flow cytometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_bank" title="Blood bank">Blood bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">Microbiological culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serology" title="Serology">Serology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Artificial_induction_of_immunity_/_Immunization:_Vaccines,_Vaccination,_Infection,_Inoculation_(J07)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Vaccines" title="Template:Vaccines"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Vaccines" title="Template talk:Vaccines"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Vaccines" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Vaccines"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Artificial_induction_of_immunity_/_Immunization:_Vaccines,_Vaccination,_Infection,_Inoculation_(J07)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Artificial_induction_of_immunity" title="Artificial induction of immunity">Artificial induction of immunity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immunization" title="Immunization">Immunization</a>: <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Infection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">Inoculation</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J07" title="ATC code J07">J07</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immunologic_adjuvant" title="Immunologic adjuvant">Adjuvants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_ingredients" title="Vaccine ingredients">Vaccine ingredients</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vaccine_excipients" title="List of vaccine excipients">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_diseases" title="Mathematical modelling of infectious diseases">Mathematical modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_storage" title="Vaccine storage">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_vaccines" title="Timeline of human vaccines">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Trials</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjugate_vaccine" title="Conjugate vaccine">Conjugate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inactivated_vaccine" title="Inactivated vaccine">Inactivated</a></li> <li>Live <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attenuated_vaccine" title="Attenuated vaccine">Attenuated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterologous_vaccine" title="Heterologous vaccine">Heterologous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subunit_vaccine" title="Subunit vaccine">Subunit/component</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peptide_vaccine" title="Peptide vaccine">Peptide</a> / <a href="/wiki/Virus-like_particle" title="Virus-like particle">Virus-like particle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_vaccine" title="Synthetic vaccine">Synthetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_vaccine" title="DNA vaccine">DNA</a> / <a href="/wiki/MRNA_vaccine" title="MRNA vaccine">mRNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_vaccines" title="Therapeutic vaccines">Therapeutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxoid" title="Toxoid">Toxoid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Global: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GAVI" title="GAVI">GAVI Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Immunization_Technical_Advisory_Group" title="National Immunization Technical Advisory Group">NITAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Advisory_Group_of_Experts" title="Strategic Advisory Group of Experts">SAGE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_wastage" title="Vaccine wastage">Vaccine wastage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination_policy" title="Vaccination policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination_schedule" title="Vaccination schedule">Schedule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_adverse_event" title="Vaccine adverse event">Vaccine injury</a></li></ul></li> <li>US: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_on_Immunization_Practices" title="Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices">ACIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Vaccine_Injury_Compensation_Program" title="National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program">Vaccine court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_for_Children_Program" title="Vaccines for Children Program">Vaccines for Children Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_Adverse_Event_Reporting_System" title="Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System">VAERS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_Safety_Datalink" title="Vaccine Safety Datalink">VSD</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vaccines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bacterial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrax_vaccine" title="Anthrax vaccine">Anthrax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brucellosis_vaccine" title="Brucellosis vaccine">Brucellosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholera_vaccine" title="Cholera vaccine">Cholera</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphtheria_vaccine" title="Diphtheria vaccine">Diphtheria</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hib_vaccine" title="Hib vaccine">Hib</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptospirosis#Prevention" title="Leptospirosis">Leptospirosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease#Vaccination" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a><sup>‡</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meningococcal_vaccine" title="Meningococcal vaccine">Meningococcus</a><sup>#</sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MeNZB" title="MeNZB">MeNZB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135" title="NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135">NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertussis_vaccine" title="Pertussis vaccine">Pertussis</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_vaccine" title="Plague vaccine">Plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumococcal_vaccine" title="Pneumococcal vaccine">Pneumococcal</a><sup>#</sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pneumococcal_conjugate_vaccine" title="Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine">PCV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumococcal_polysaccharide_vaccine" title="Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine">PPSV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_fever#Prevention" title="Q fever">Q fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetanus_vaccine" title="Tetanus vaccine">Tetanus</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis_vaccines" title="Tuberculosis vaccines">Tuberculosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BCG_vaccine" title="BCG vaccine">BCG</a><sup>#</sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhoid_vaccine" title="Typhoid vaccine">Typhoid</a><sup>#</sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ty21a" title="Ty21a">Ty21a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vi_capsular_polysaccharide_vaccine" title="Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine">ViCPS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhus_vaccine" title="Typhus vaccine">Typhus</a></li> <li>combination: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DPT_vaccine" title="DPT vaccine">DPT/DTwP/DTaP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetanus_vaccine" title="Tetanus vaccine">Td/Tdap</a></li></ul></li> <li>research: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile_infection#Research" title="Clostridioides difficile infection">Clostridioides difficile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_B_streptococcal_infection#Vaccine" title="Group B streptococcal infection">Group B streptococcal disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigellosis#Vaccine" title="Shigellosis">Shigellosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Viral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenovirus_vaccine" title="Adenovirus vaccine">Adenovirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chikungunya_vaccine" title="Chikungunya vaccine">Chikungunya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebola_vaccine" title="Ebola vaccine">Ebola</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RVSV-ZEBOV_vaccine" title="RVSV-ZEBOV vaccine">rVSV-ZEBOV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influenza_vaccine" title="Influenza vaccine">Flu</a><sup>#</sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic_vaccine" title="2009 swine flu pandemic vaccine">H1N1</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pandemrix" title="Pandemrix">Pandemrix</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H5N1_vaccine" title="H5N1 vaccine">H5N1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H5N8_vaccine" title="H5N8 vaccine">H5N8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_attenuated_influenza_vaccine" title="Live attenuated influenza vaccine">LAIV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hantavirus_vaccine" title="Hantavirus vaccine">Hantavirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_A_vaccine" title="Hepatitis A vaccine">Hepatitis A</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B_vaccine" title="Hepatitis B vaccine">Hepatitis B</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_E#Vaccines" title="Hepatitis E">Hepatitis E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HPV_vaccine" title="HPV vaccine">HPV</a><sup>#</sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervarix" title="Cervarix">Cervarix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardasil" title="Gardasil">Gardasil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis_vaccine" title="Japanese encephalitis vaccine">Japanese encephalitis</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measles_vaccine" title="Measles vaccine">Measles</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpox_vaccine" class="mw-redirect" title="Mpox vaccine">Mpox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mumps_vaccine" title="Mumps vaccine">Mumps</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polio_vaccine" title="Polio vaccine">Polio</a><sup>#</sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polio_vaccine#Attenuated" title="Polio vaccine">Sabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polio_vaccine#Inactivated" title="Polio vaccine">Salk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabies_vaccine" title="Rabies vaccine">Rabies</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotavirus_vaccine" title="Rotavirus vaccine">Rotavirus</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubella_vaccine" title="Rubella vaccine">Rubella</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine" title="COVID-19 vaccine">SARS-CoV-2</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corbevax" title="Corbevax">Corbevax</a><sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covaxin" title="Covaxin">Bharat Biotech</a><sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convidecia" title="Convidecia">CanSino</a><sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CoronaVac" title="CoronaVac">CoronaVac</a><sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EpiVacCorona" title="EpiVacCorona">EpiVacCorona</a><sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janssen_COVID-19_vaccine" title="Janssen COVID-19 vaccine">Janssen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderna_COVID-19_vaccine" title="Moderna COVID-19 vaccine">Moderna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novavax_COVID-19_vaccine" title="Novavax COVID-19 vaccine">Novavax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID-19_vaccine" title="Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine">Oxford–AstraZeneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pfizer%E2%80%93BioNTech_COVID-19_vaccine" title="Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine">Pfizer–BioNTech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanofi%E2%80%93GSK_COVID-19_vaccine" title="Sanofi–GSK COVID-19 vaccine">Sanofi–GSK</a><sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinopharm_BIBP_COVID-19_vaccine" title="Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 vaccine">Sinopharm BIBP</a><sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skycovione" title="Skycovione">Skycovione</a><sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_V_COVID-19_vaccine" title="Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine">Sputnik V</a><sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valneva_COVID-19_vaccine" title="Valneva COVID-19 vaccine">Valneva</a><sup>†</sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_syncytial_virus_vaccine" title="Respiratory syncytial virus vaccine">Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine" title="Smallpox vaccine">Smallpox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_encephalitis_vaccine" title="Tick-borne encephalitis vaccine">Tick-borne encephalitis</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li>Varicella zoster <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Varicella_vaccine" title="Varicella vaccine">Chicken pox</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoster_vaccine" title="Zoster vaccine">Shingles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_vaccine" title="Yellow fever vaccine">Yellow fever</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li>combination: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_A_and_B_vaccine" title="Hepatitis A and B vaccine">Hepatitis A and B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MMR_vaccine" title="MMR vaccine">MMR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MMRV_vaccine" title="MMRV vaccine">MMRV</a></li></ul></li> <li>research: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cytomegalovirus_vaccine" title="Cytomegalovirus vaccine">Cytomegalovirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dengue_vaccine" title="Dengue vaccine">Dengue</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus_vaccine" title="Epstein–Barr virus vaccine">Epstein–Barr virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C_vaccine" title="Hepatitis C vaccine">Hepatitis C</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpes_simplex_research" title="Herpes simplex research">Herpes simplex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV_vaccine_development" title="HIV vaccine development">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zika_virus_vaccine" title="Zika virus vaccine">Zika</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protozoan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaria_vaccine" title="Malaria vaccine">Malaria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RTS,S" title="RTS,S">RTS,S</a></li></ul></li> <li>research: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trypanosomiasis_vaccine" title="Trypanosomiasis vaccine">Trypanosomiasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Helminthiasis" title="Helminthiasis">Helminthiasis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>research: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hookworm_vaccine" title="Hookworm vaccine">Hookworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis_vaccine" title="Schistosomiasis vaccine">Schistosomiasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Androvax" title="Androvax">Androvax (androstenedione albumin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_vaccine" title="Cancer vaccine">Cancer vaccines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ALVAC-CEA_vaccine" title="ALVAC-CEA vaccine">ALVAC-CEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BCG_vaccine" title="BCG vaccine">BCG</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B_vaccine" title="Hepatitis B vaccine">Hepatitis B</a><sup>#</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HPV_vaccine" title="HPV vaccine">HPV</a><sup>#</sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervarix" title="Cervarix">Cervarix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardasil" title="Gardasil">Gardasil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostvac" title="Prostvac">Prostvac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NicVAX" title="NicVAX">NicVAX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovandrotone_albumin" title="Ovandrotone albumin">Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TA-CD" title="TA-CD">TA-CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TA-NIC" title="TA-NIC">TA-NIC</a></li> <li>combination: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DTaP-IPV/Hib_vaccine" title="DTaP-IPV/Hib vaccine">DTaP-IPV/Hib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DTaP-IPV-HepB_vaccine" title="DTaP-IPV-HepB vaccine">DTaP-IPV-HepB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DTwP-HepB-Hib_vaccine" title="DTwP-HepB-Hib vaccine">DTwP-HepB-Hib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexavalent_vaccine" title="Hexavalent vaccine">Hexavalent vaccine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inventors/<br />researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Koprowski" title="Hilary Koprowski">Hilary Koprowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Franklin Enders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice Hilleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Plotkin" title="Stanley Plotkin">Stanley Plotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Fred_Clark" title="H. Fred Clark">H. Fred Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Offit" title="Paul Offit">Paul Offit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3" title="Katalin Karikó">Katalin Karikó</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drew_Weissman" title="Drew Weissman">Drew Weissman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Controversy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_hesitancy" title="Vaccine hesitancy">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MMR_vaccine_and_autism" title="MMR vaccine and autism">MMR</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lancet_MMR_autism_fraud" title="Lancet MMR autism fraud"><i>Lancet</i> MMR autism fraud</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Childhood_Vaccine_Injury_Act" title="National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act">NCVIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pox_party" title="Pox party">Pox party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiomersal_and_vaccines" title="Thiomersal and vaccines">Thiomersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_SIDS" title="Vaccines and SIDS">Vaccines and SIDS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cedillo_v._Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services">Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_vaccination_schedule" title="Alternative vaccination schedule">Alternative vaccination schedule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious diseases">Eradication of infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccinate_Your_Family" title="Vaccinate Your Family">Vaccinate Your Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vaccine_topics" title="List of vaccine topics">List of vaccine topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><sup>#</sup><a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li><sup>‡</sup><a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li><sup>§</sup>Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_Disease_groups" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Disease_groups" title="Template:Disease groups"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Disease_groups&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Disease groups (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Disease_groups" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Disease groups"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_Disease_groups" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major Disease groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">Parasitic disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benign_tumor" title="Benign tumor">Benign tumor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disease" title="Endocrine disease">Endocrine disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_disorder" title="Metabolic disorder">Metabolic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_disorder" title="Immune disorder">Immune disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hematologic_disease" title="Hematologic disease">Hematologic disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">Mental disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">Neurological disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Eye disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ear disease">Ear disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_disease" title="Lymphatic disease">Lymphatic disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">Respiratory disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maxillofacial_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxillofacial disorder">Maxillofacial disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_disease" title="Gastrointestinal disease">Gastrointestinal disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urologic_disease" title="Urologic disease">Urologic disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_disease" title="Female genital disease">Female genital disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_disease" title="Breast disease">Breast disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_genital_disease" title="Male genital disease">Male genital disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">Complications of pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_labor_complication" title="Obstetric labor complication">Obstetric labor complication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_disorder" title="Postpartum disorder">Postpartum disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skin_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin disease">Skin disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musculoskeletal_disorder" title="Musculoskeletal disorder">Musculoskeletal disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_tissue_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft tissue disorder">Soft tissue disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue_disease" title="Connective tissue disease">Connective tissue disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_disease" title="Bone disease">Bone disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chondropathy" title="Chondropathy">Chondropathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital disorder">Congenital disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetal disease">Fetal disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/8px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/16px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sida-aids.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/19px-Sida-aids.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/29px-Sida-aids.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/38px-Sida-aids.png 2x" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="290" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Viruses" title="Portal:Viruses">Viruses</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166231#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166231#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q166231#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4161650-9">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85066076">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Infections"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119771279">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Infections"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119771279">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="infekce"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph134832&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Infecciones"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX527198">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000081189&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007548356005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=12443">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infection&oldid=1252306756">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infection&oldid=1252306756</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Infectious_diseases" title="Category:Infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epidemiology" title="Category:Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2020" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2020">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_archiveis_links" title="Category:Webarchive template archiveis links">Webarchive template archiveis links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_August_2018" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from August 2018">Articles with dead external links from August 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_September_2024" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from September 2024">Articles needing additional references from September 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_div_col_with_small_parameter" title="Category:Pages using div col with small parameter">Pages using div col with small parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_locally_defined" title="Category:Commons category link is locally defined">Commons category link is locally defined</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 October 2024, at 19:33<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infection&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-tfkkl","wgBackendResponseTime":209,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.984","walltime":"2.363","ppvisitednodes":{"value":12594,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":521513,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":10832,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":25,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":532909,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1878.813 1 -total"," 47.51% 892.555 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.30% 381.456 59 Template:Cite_journal"," 10.76% 202.093 14 Template:Navbox"," 7.48% 140.524 6 Template:Citation"," 6.31% 118.473 2 Template:Short_description"," 6.22% 116.900 28 Template:Cite_web"," 5.79% 108.864 1 Template:Infobox_medical_condition_(new)"," 5.49% 103.056 1 Template:Medical_resources"," 4.73% 88.882 17 Template:Cite_book"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.151","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":9207725,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-profile":[["?","260","22.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","13.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","8.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","6.8"],["type","80","6.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","60","5.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","40","3.4"],["checkParams \u003Cmw.message.lua:36\u003E","40","3.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","40","3.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","40","3.4"],["[others]","280","23.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-wkmgf","timestamp":"20241122140434","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Infection","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infection","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q166231","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q166231","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-01-31T21:54:02Z","dateModified":"2024-10-20T19:33:23Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f1\/Malaria.jpg","headline":"invasion of and multiplication in a host by disease-causing pathogens or organisms, and the reaction of host tissues"}</script> </body> </html>