India | History, Map, Population, Economy, & Facts

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data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India">India</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/India">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref46358"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India#ref46358">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46359"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India#ref46359">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46360" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas">The Himalayas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46361"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46361">The Outer Himalayas (the Siwalik Range)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46362"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46362">The Lesser Himalayas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46363"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46363">The Great Himalayas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46364"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46364">Associated ranges and hills</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46365"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46365">The Indo-Gangetic Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46366" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan">The Deccan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46367"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46367">The Western Ghats</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46368"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46368">The Eastern Ghats</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46369"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46369">Inland regions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46370"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46370">Coastal areas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46371"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46371">Islands</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46372"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46372">Drainage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46373" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal">Drainage into the Bay of Bengal</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46374"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46374">The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46375"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46375">Peninsular rivers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46376"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46376">Drainage into the Arabian Sea</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46377"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46377">Lakes and inland drainage</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46378"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46378">Soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273210" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref273210">In situ soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46380"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46380">Red-to-yellow soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46381"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils">Black soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46379"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46379">Alluvial soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46382"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46382">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46383" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46383">The monsoons</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46384"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46384">The southwest monsoon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46385"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon">Rainfall during the retreating monsoon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46386"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46386">Tropical cyclones</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46387"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46387">Importance to agriculture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46388"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46388">Temperatures</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46389"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46390"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46390">Vegetation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46391" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46391">Animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46392"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46392">Mammals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46393"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46393">Birds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46394"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46394">Reptiles, fish, and insects</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46395"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46395">Conservation</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46396"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46397"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People#ref46397">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46398"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People#ref46398">Languages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages">Indo-European languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46400"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46400">Dravidian and other languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46401"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46401">Lingua francas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46402"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46402">Minor languages and dialects</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46403"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46403">Religions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46404"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste">Caste</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46405"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46405">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46406"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46406">Population density</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46407"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46407">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46408"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46408">Urban settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46409"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Demographic-trends">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46410"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Demographic-trends#ref46410">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46415"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46416" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46416">Agriculture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273192"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref273192">Crops</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273193"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref273193">Livestock</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46417"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46417">Forestry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46418"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46418">Fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46411"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Resources-and-power">Resources and power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46419"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Resources-and-power#ref46419">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46424"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273194"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273194">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273195"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273195">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273196"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273196">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46425"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref46425">Transportation and telecommunications</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46426"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads">Railways and roads</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46427"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46427">Water and air transport</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273197"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref273197">Telecommunications</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46428"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46428">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46429"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46429">Constitutional framework</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46430"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure">Constitutional structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46431" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46431">Union government</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46432"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46432">Executive branch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46433"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46433">Legislative branch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46434"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46434">Bureaucracy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46439"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46439">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46435"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46435">State and local governments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46436"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46436">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46437"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46437">Political process</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46438"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46438">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46441"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273190"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref273190">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46440"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref46440">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46442"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref46442">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273200"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref273200">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46443"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs">Daily life and social customs</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46444"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref46444">Family and kinship</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273201"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref273201">Festivals and holidays</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46445"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref46445">Cuisine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46446"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing">Clothing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46447"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref46447">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273202"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273202">Architecture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273203"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273203">Dance and music</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273204"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273204">Theatre, film, and literature</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273205"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46448"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions#ref46448">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46449"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions#ref46449">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214184"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History#ref46800">India from the Paleolithic Period to the decline of the Indus civilization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46801" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History#ref46801">The early prehistoric period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic">The Indian Paleolithic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46803">Mesolithic hunters</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46804" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46804">The earliest agriculturalists and pastoralists</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46805">Neolithic agriculture in the Indus valley and Baluchistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin">Developments in the Ganges basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46807">Earliest settlements in peninsular India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46808">Earliest settlements in eastern India</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46809" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46809">The rise of urbanism in the Indus valley</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46810">Extent and chronology of Early Harappan culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46811"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46811">Principal sites</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46812"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46812">Subsistence and technology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46813"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46813">Culture and religion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46814" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization">The Indus civilization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46815"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46815">Character and significance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46816"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46816">Chronology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46817"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46817">Extent</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46818"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46818">Planning and architecture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46819"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46819">Important sites</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46820"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46820">Mohenjo-daro</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46821"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa">Harappa</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46822"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46822">Kalibangan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46823"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46823">Lothal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46824"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46824">Other important sites</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46825"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46825">Population</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46826"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry">Agriculture and animal husbandry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46827"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46827">Communications</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46828"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46828">Craft and technology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46829"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46829">Trade and external contacts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46830"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46830">Language and scripts, weights and measures</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46831"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46831">Social and political system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46832"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46832">Art</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46833"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46833">Religion and burial customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46834"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization">The end of the Indus civilization</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46835" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46835">Post-Harappan developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46836"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46836">The Post-Urban Period in northwestern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46837"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46837">The appearance of Indo-Aryan speakers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46838"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46838">The late 2nd millennium and the reemergence of urbanism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46839"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46839">Peninsular India in the aftermath of the Indus civilization (c. 2000–1000 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46840"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce">The development of Indian civilization from c. 1500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> to c. 1200 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273188"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref273188">Traditional approaches to Indian historiography</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273189"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref273189">Trends in early Indian society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46841" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref46841">From c. 1500 to c. 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46842"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Early-Vedic-period">Early Vedic period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46843"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Early-Vedic-period#ref46843">Later Vedic period (c. 800–c. 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46844" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce">The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46845"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46845">Pre-Mauryan states</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46846"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46846">Location</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46847"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46847">Political systems</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46848"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46848">Economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46849"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46849">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46850"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy">Magadhan ascendancy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46851"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46851">Campaigns of Alexander the Great</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46852"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46852">The Mauryan empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46853"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46853">Chandragupta Maurya</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46854"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46854">Bindusara</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46855"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors">Ashoka and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46856"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46856">Financial base for the empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46857"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46857">Mauryan society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46858"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46858">Mauryan government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46859"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts">Ashoka’s edicts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46860"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46860">Mauryan decline</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46861"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46861">The concept of the state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46862" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46862">From 150 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> to 300 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46863"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46863">Rise of small kingdoms in the north</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46864"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46864">Indo-Greek rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46865"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46865">Central Asian rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46866"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46866">Oligarchies and kingdoms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46867"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom">The Shunga kingdom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46868"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46868">Kalinga</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46869"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46869">The Andhras and their successors</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46870"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46870">Southern Indian kingdoms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46871"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West">Contacts with the West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46872"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46872">Society and culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46873"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46873">Guilds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46874"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46874">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46875"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46875">Impact of trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46876"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46876">Religious patronage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46877"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46878"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46878">Assimilation of foreigners</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46879" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46879">From 300 to 750 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46880"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46880">Northern India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46881"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46881">The Guptas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46882"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46882">Successor states</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46883"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46883">The Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46884"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India">Southern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46885"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46885">Society and culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46886" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46886">From 750 to c. 1200</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46887"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46887">Northern India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46888"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46888">The tripartite struggle</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46889"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs">The Rajputs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46890"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46890">The coming of the Turks</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46891"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46891">The Deccan and the south</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46892"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46892">The Colas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46893"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46893">The Hoysalas and Pandyas</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46894"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture">Society and culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46895"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46895">The economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46896"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46896">Social mobility</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46897"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46897">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46898"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46898">Literature and the arts</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46899"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46899">The early Muslim period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46900" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46900">North India under Muslim hegemony, c. 1200–1526</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46901"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46901">The Delhi sultanate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46902"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46902">The Turkish conquest</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46903"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans">The early Turkish sultans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46904"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans#ref46904">Consolidation of the sultanate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46905"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis">The Khaljīs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46906"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46906">Centralization and expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46907"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46907">Taxation and distribution of revenue resources</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46908"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46908">Expansion and conquests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46909"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46909">The urban economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46910"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs">The Tughluqs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46911"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs#ref46911">Reversal and rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46912"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs#ref46912">Society and the state under the Tughluqs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46913"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate">Decline of the sultanate</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46914"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46914">The rise of regional states</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46915"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46915">Struggle for supremacy in northern India</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46916" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46916">The Muslim states of southern India, c. 1350–1680</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46917"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46917">The Bahmani sultanate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46918"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Bahmani-consolidation-of-the-Deccan">Bahmanī consolidation of the Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46919"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Bahmani-consolidation-of-the-Deccan#ref46919">External and internal rivalries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref273208"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan">Vizierate of Maḥmūd Gāwān</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46920"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan#ref46920">Bahmanī decline</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46921"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan#ref46921">Successors to the Bahmanī</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46922" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646">The Vijayanagar empire, 1336–1646</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46923">Development of the state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46924">Conquests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46925"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46925">Consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46926"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries">Wars and rivalries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46927"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46927">Decentralization and loss of territory</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46928"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46928">Later dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46929"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46929">Reconsolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46930"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46930">Growth of power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46931"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46931">Renewed decentralization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46932"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46932">Relations with the Muslim states</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46933"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar">Decline of Vijayanagar</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46934"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46934">Military policies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46935"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46935">Loss of central control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46936">Breakup of the empire</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46937"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46937">Administration of the empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46938"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761">The Mughal Empire, 1526–1761</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46939"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46939">The significance of Mughal rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46940" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46940">The establishment of the Mughal Empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46941">Bābur</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46942"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46942">Conquest of Hindustan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46943">Bābur’s achievements</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun">Humāyūn</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun#ref46945">Sher Shah and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun#ref46946">Restoration of Humāyūn</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46947" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great">The reign of Akbar the Great</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46948"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46948">Extension and consolidation of the empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46949"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46949">The early years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46950">Struggle for firm personal control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46951">Subjugation of Rajasthan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46952">Conquest of Gujarat and Bengal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46953">The frontiers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46954"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46954">The state and society under Akbar</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46955"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46955">Central, provincial, and local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46956"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility">The composition of the Mughal nobility</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46957"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46957">Organization of the nobility and the army</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46958">Revenue system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46959"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46959">Fiscal administration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46960">Coinage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46961">Evolution of a nonsectarian state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46962">Akbar in historical perspective</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46963" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46963">The empire in the 17th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46964"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir">Jahāngīr</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46965"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46965">Loss of Kandahār</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46966"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46966">Submission of Mewar</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46967"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46967">Developments in the Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46968"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46968">Rebellion of Khurram (Shah Jahān)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46969"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46969">Mahābat Khan’s coup</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46970"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan">Shah Jahān</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46971"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46971">The Deccan problem</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46972"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46972">Central Asian policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46973"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46973">War of succession</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46974"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46975"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46975">Local and peasant uprisings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46976"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46976">Assessment of Aurangzeb</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46977" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46977">Mughal decline in the 18th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46978"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings">The Sikh uprisings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46979"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46979">Cracks in the core</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46980"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46980">Struggle for a new power center</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46981"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46981">The emperor, the nobility, and the provinces</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46982"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46982">Nādir Shah’s invasion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46983"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46983">The Afghan-Maratha struggle for northern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46984"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46984">Political and economic decentralization during the Mughal decline</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46985"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46985">Regional states, c. 1700–1850</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46986" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas">The Marathas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46987"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46987">Early history</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46988"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46988">Rise of the <em>peshwa</em>s</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46989"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46989">Subordinate Maratha rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46990"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century">Mughal mystique in the 18th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46991"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46991">The case of Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46992"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46992">Challenge from the northwest</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46993"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46993">The Afghan factor in northern India, 1747–72</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46994" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab">The Sikhs in the Punjab</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab#ref46995">Early history</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46996"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab#ref46996">From Banda Singh Bahadur to Ranjit Singh</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46997"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century">Rajasthan in the 18th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46998"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century#ref46998">The south: Travancore and Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46999"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy">Politics and the economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47000"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47000">Cultural aspects of the late precolonial order</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47001"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47001">India and European expansion, c. 1500–1858</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47002" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47002">European activity in India, 1498–c. 1760</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47003"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47003">The Portuguese</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47004"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47004">The Dutch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47005"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-British-1600-1740">The British, 1600–1740</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47006"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-British-1600-1740#ref47006">The French</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47007"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Anglo-French-struggle-1740-63">The Anglo-French struggle, 1740–63</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47008"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Anglo-French-struggle-1740-63#ref47008">European military superiority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47009"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal">Revolution in Bengal</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47010" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal#ref47010">The extension of British power, 1760–1856</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47011"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal#ref47011">The period of disorder, 1760–72</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47012"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur">The Company Bahadur</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47013"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur#ref47013">The company and the state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47014"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur#ref47014">Relations with the Marathas and Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47015"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy">The ascent to paramountcy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy#ref47016">The government of Lord Wellesley</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy#ref47017">The government of Lord Minto</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47018"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings">The government of Lord Hastings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47019"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47019">The settlement of 1818</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47020"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47020">Organization and policy in British India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47021"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47021">Organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47022"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy">The determination of policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47023"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy#ref47023">The completion of dominion and expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47024"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy#ref47024">The first century of British influence</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47025"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects">Political effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47026"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47026">Economic effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47027"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47027">Social effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47028"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47028">Cultural effects</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47029" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59">The mutiny and great revolt of 1857–59</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47030"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47030">Nature and causes of the rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47031"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47031">The revolt and its aftermath</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47032"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47032">British imperial power, 1858–1947</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47033" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47033">Climax of the raj, 1858–85</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273209"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858">Government of India Act of 1858</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47034"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47034">Social policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47035"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47035">Government organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47036"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47036">Economic policy and development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47037" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy">Foreign policy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47038"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47038">The northwest frontier</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47039"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47039">The Second Anglo-Afghan War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47040"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47040">The incorporation of Burma</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47041" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920">Indian nationalism and the British response, 1885–1920</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47042"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920#ref47042">Origins of the nationalist movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47043"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920#ref47043">The early Congress movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47044"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-first-partition-of-Bengal">The first partition of Bengal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47045"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-first-partition-of-Bengal#ref47045">Nationalism in the Muslim community</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47046"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals">Reforms of the British Liberals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47047"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47047">Moderate and militant nationalism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47048" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47048">World War I and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47049"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47049">India’s contributions to the war effort</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47050"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Anti-British-activity">Anti-British activity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47051"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Anti-British-activity#ref47051">The postwar years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47052"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre">Jallianwala Bagh massacre</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47053"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre#ref47053">Gandhi’s strategy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47054" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre#ref47054">Prelude to independence, 1920–47</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47055"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-reforms">Constitutional reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47056"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-reforms#ref47056">The Congress’s ambivalent strategy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47057"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism">Muslim separatism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47058"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism#ref47058">The impact of World War II</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47059"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism#ref47059">British wartime strategy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47060"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries">The transfer of power and the birth of two countries</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47061"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries#ref47061">The Republic of India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47062" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries#ref47062">The Nehru era, 1947–64</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47063"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics">Government and politics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47064"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47064">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47065"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47065">Economic planning and development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47066" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47066">Post-Nehru politics and foreign policy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47067"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47067">The 1965 war with Pakistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47068"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact">Indira Gandhi’s impact</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47069"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47069">The Bangladesh war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47070"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47070">Emergency rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47071"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47071">The Janata interlude and the return of Indira Gandhi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47072"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism">Sikh separatism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47073" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47073">From Rajiv to Rao: India from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47074"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47074">The premiership of Rajiv Gandhi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47075"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47075">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47076"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall">V.P. Singh’s coalition—its brief rise and fall</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref47077">Congress government of P.V. Narasimha Rao</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref321317" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref321317">India since the mid-1990s</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273206"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref273206">The first and second BJP governments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342918"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref342918">The BJP becomes the largest party in the Lok Sabha</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342919"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref342919">BJP gains in elections</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342920"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref342920">Divisiveness of BJP government</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273207"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh">Congress Party rule under Manmohan Singh</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342921"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref342921">Domestic policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342922"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref342922">Foreign policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref321318"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref321318">Return of the BJP 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Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Bhārat, Bhāratavarsha, Republic of India</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Frank-Raymond-Allchin/48" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Frank Raymond Allchin</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Emeritus Reader in Indian Studies, University of Cambridge. Coauthor of <em>The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan.</em></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Frank Raymond Allchin</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/KR-Dikshit/3929" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">K.R. Dikshit</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Honorary Editor, Transactions of the Institute of Indian Geographers; former Professor of Geography, University of Poona, Pune. Author of <i>Environment, Forest Ecology and Man in the Western Ghats</i>...</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> K.R. Dikshit</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-23T00:00:00CST" >Nov 23, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "FAQPage", "mainEntity": [ { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What countries border India?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "India shares borders with Pakistan to the northwest; with Nepal, China, and Bhutan to the north; and with Myanmar and Bangladesh to the east. The island country of Sri Lanka is situated some 40 miles (65 kilometres) off the southeast coast of India." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What are the oldest known civilizations of India?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The expansive alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganges (Ganga) river basins in India provided the environment and focus for the rise of two great phases of city life: the civilization of the Indus valley, known as the Indus civilization, during the 3rd millennium BCE; and, during the 1st millennium BCE, that of the Ganges." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What are the major holidays and festivals of India?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The major secular holidays are Independence Day (August 15) and Republic Day (January 26). The most popular religious festivals celebrated over the greater part of India are Vasantpanchami, in honour of Sarasvati, the goddess of learning; Holi, a time when traditional hierarchical relationships are forgotten and celebrants throw coloured water and powder at one another; Dussehra, when the story of the Ramayana is reenacted, and Diwali (Divali), a time for lighting lamps and exchanging gifts." } } ] } </script> <div class="top-questions qa-accordion d-flex flex-column module-spacing"><div class="font-weight-bold font-14 mb-5"> Top Questions </div><div id="intent-accordion" class="md-intent-accordion"><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="1"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What countries border India?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>India shares borders with Pakistan to the northwest; with Nepal, China, and Bhutan to the north; and with Myanmar and Bangladesh to the east. The island country of Sri Lanka is situated some 40 miles (65 kilometres) off the southeast coast of India.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="2"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What are the oldest known civilizations of India?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The expansive alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganges (Ganga) river basins in India provided the environment and focus for the rise of two great phases of city life: the civilization of the Indus valley, known as the Indus civilization, during the 3rd millennium BCE; and, during the 1st millennium BCE, that of the Ganges.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="3"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What are the major holidays and festivals of India?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The major secular holidays are Independence Day (August 15) and Republic Day (January 26). The most popular religious festivals celebrated over the greater part of India are Vasantpanchami, in honour of Sarasvati, the goddess of learning; Holi, a time when traditional hierarchical relationships are forgotten and celebrants throw coloured water and powder at one another; Dussehra, when the story of the Ramayana is reenacted, and Diwali (Divali), a time for lighting lamps and exchanging gifts.</p></div></div></div></div></div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/8ab629945660ee97d58cdbef10136f35" rel="nofollow">A $300B a year deal for climate cash at UN summit sparks outrage for some and hope for others</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 23, 2024, 8:46 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/6cc84c72d4b00e0a49160123efdd48e7" rel="nofollow">Modi's party heads for victory in Maharashtra state election while opposition wins Jharkhand</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 23, 2024, 10:47 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/de2f999332e6cc8be1ea78c7fdfb6590" rel="nofollow">2 convicted in human smuggling case after Indian family froze to death on US-Canada border</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 6:28 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/997837af54ebd0c963da8d30854a41ec" rel="nofollow">Today he is a high school football player. Soon he'll be a Buddhist lama in the Himalayas</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 12:16 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/21c3ffa3c4c17639b18d1719dd98b1a3" rel="nofollow">US bribery and fraud charges are a big test yet for India's Adani, one of Asia's richest men</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 6:14 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref487149"></span>India</strong>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country</a> that occupies the greater part of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Asia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">South Asia</a>. It is made up of 28 states and eight <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/union-territory" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">union territories</a>, and its national capital is <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/New-Delhi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">New Delhi</a>, built in the 20th century just south of the historic hub of Old Delhi to serve as India’s administrative center. Its government is a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitutional" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitutional" data-type="MW">constitutional</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/republic-government" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">republic</a> that represents a highly <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="diverse" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diverse" data-type="MW">diverse</a> population consisting of thousands of ethnic groups and hundreds of languages. India became the world’s most populous country in 2023, according to estimates by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">United Nations</a>. </p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">It is known from archaeological evidence that a highly sophisticated urbanized culture—the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indus civilization</a>—dominated the northwestern part of the subcontinent from about 2600 to 2000 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>. From that period on, India functioned as a virtually self-contained political and cultural arena, which gave rise to a distinctive tradition that was associated primarily with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hinduism</a>, the roots of which possibly can be traced to the Indus civilization. Other religions, notably <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Buddhism</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jainism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jainism</a>, originated in India—though their presence there is now quite small—and throughout the centuries residents of the subcontinent developed a rich <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="intellectual" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intellectual" data-type="MW">intellectual</a> life in such fields as mathematics, astronomy, architecture, literature, music, and the fine arts.</p><div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="qf-title font-weight-bold font-14 mb-10 text-center"> Quick Facts</div> <div class="m-n10 "> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 media-slider card-snap-slider col-100"> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex col-100"> <div class="rw-track w-100"> <div class="pt-10 d-inline-flex col-100"> <div class="w-100"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/61301" class="media-overlay-link card-media d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center px-20" > <div class="position-relative"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg" alt="Flag of India" class="cropped-false w-100 " /> <em class="material-icons qf-zoom" data-icon="zoom_in"></em> </div> </a> <div class="card-body text-center pt-5 pb-10 font-14"> <span>See article: <a href="/topic/flag-of-India">flag of India</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue btn-blue-dark" aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue btn-blue-dark" aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> <audio src="https://cdn.britannica.com/12/145712-005-9F42565C/instrumental-national-anthem-India.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" controls=""></audio> <div class="text-center font-12 mt-5"> <span>Audio File:</span> National anthem of India</div> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Also Known As: </dt> <dd>Bhāratavarsha</dd> <dd>Republic of India</dd> <dd>Bhārat</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Head Of Government: </dt> <dd>Prime Minister: <a href="/biography/Narendra-Modi">Narendra Modi</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Capital: </dt> <dd><a href="/place/Delhi">New Delhi</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Population: </dt> <dd>(2024 est.) 1,384,380,000</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Currency Exchange Rate: </dt> <dd>1 USD equals 83.492 Indian rupee</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Head Of State: </dt> <dd>President: <a href="/biography/Droupadi-Murmu">Droupadi Murmu</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Form Of Government: </dt> <dd>multiparty federal republic with two legislative houses (Council of States [245<sup>1</sup>]; House of the People [545<sup>2</sup>])</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Official Languages: </dt> <dd>Hindi; English</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Official Religion: </dt> <dd>none</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Official Name: </dt> <dd>Bharat (Hindi); Republic of India (English)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Total Area (Sq Km): </dt> <dd>3,287,469</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Total Area (Sq Mi): </dt> <dd>1,269,292</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Monetary Unit: </dt> <dd>Indian rupee ₨<sup>3</sup></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Urban-Rural Population: </dt> <dd>Urban: (2018) 34%</dd> <dd>Rural: (2018) 66%</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Life Expectancy At Birth: </dt> <dd>Male: (2021–2025) 69.4 years</dd> <dd>Female: (2021–2025) 72.7 years</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Literacy: Percentage Of Population Age 15 And Over Literate: </dt> <dd>Male: (2018) 82%</dd> <dd>Female: (2018) 66%</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Gni Per Capita (U.S.$): </dt> <dd>(2023) 2,540</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>On the Web: </dt> <dd><a href="https://www.ijcmas.com/6-12-2017/Srabani%20Das,%20et%20al.pdf" target="_blank">International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences - Studies on the Adaptability of Tulip (Tulipa sp.) in Sub-Tropics of West Bengal, India</a> (Nov. 07, 2024)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="footnotes mb-15"> <ol> <li>Includes 12 members appointed by the president.</li> <li>Includes 2 Anglo-Indians appointed by the president.</li> <li>The first symbol for the rupee was officially approved in July 2010, and coins and banknotes with the new symbol began being issued in late 2011.</li> </ol> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/India"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> <button class="facts-list-show-more-btn mt-15 p-0 mx-auto btn font-14 d-block font-weight-normal"> <span class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></span> <span class="show-more-label">Show More</span> </button> </div><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="303219" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/75501-050-26B6A00F/taj-mahal-agra-india.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/303219"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/75501-050-26B6A00F/taj-mahal-agra-india.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/75501-050-26B6A00F/taj-mahal-agra-india.jpg?w=300" alt="Agra, India: Taj Mahal" data-width="1600" data-height="1065" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">1 of 2</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/75501-050-26B6A00F/taj-mahal-agra-india.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/303219">Agra, India: Taj Mahal</a><span>The Taj Mahal in Agra, Uttar Pradesh state, India, designated a World Heritage site in 1983.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="1976" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/1617-050-752A1D62/Rajput-fort-Jaisalmer-Rajasthan-India.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/1976"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/1617-050-752A1D62/Rajput-fort-Jaisalmer-Rajasthan-India.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/1617-050-752A1D62/Rajput-fort-Jaisalmer-Rajasthan-India.jpg?w=300" alt="Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, India: fort" data-width="1600" data-height="1056" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">2 of 2</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/1617-050-752A1D62/Rajput-fort-Jaisalmer-Rajasthan-India.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/1976">Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, India: fort</a><span>Rajput fort overlooking (foreground) Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, India, designated a World Heritage site in 2013.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Throughout its history, India was intermittently disturbed by incursions from beyond its northern mountain wall. Especially important was the coming of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Islam</a>, brought from the northwest by Arab, Turkish, Persian, and other raiders beginning early in the 8th century <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>. Eventually, some of those raiders stayed; by the 13th century much of the subcontinent was under Muslim rule, and the number of Muslims steadily increased. Only after the arrival of the Portuguese navigator <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vasco-da-Gama" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Vasco da Gama</a> in 1498 and the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="subsequent" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/subsequent" data-type="EB">subsequent</a> establishment of European maritime supremacy in the region did India become exposed to major external influences arriving by sea, a process that culminated in the decline of the ruling Muslim elite and absorption of the subcontinent within the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/British-Empire" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">British Empire</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Direct administration by the British, which began in 1858, effected a political and economic unification of the subcontinent. As a result of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-Independence-Movement" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Indian Independence Movement</a>, British rule came to an end on August 14-15, 1947, celebrated annually as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Independence-Day-Indian-holiday" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Independence Day</a>. The subcontinent was then partitioned along religious lines into two separate countries—India, with a majority of Hindus, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pakistan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pakistan</a>, with a majority of Muslims; the eastern portion of Pakistan later split off to form <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bangladesh" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bangladesh</a>. Many British institutions stayed in place (such as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/parliamentary-system" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">parliamentary system</a> of government); English continued to be a widely used lingua franca; and India remained within the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Commonwealth-association-of-states" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Commonwealth</a>. Hindi became the official language (and a number of other local languages achieved official status), while a vibrant English-language intelligentsia <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="thrived" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/thrived" data-type="EB">thrived</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span><div class="mb-20"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="313134" data-asm-type="infogram"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="infogram"><script id="infogram_0__/S4JyIR8c28nsbJ7OkFSF" src="https://e.infogram.com/js/dist/embed.js?Itp" type="text/javascript" title="Timeline of the Indian Independence Movement"></script></div></figure></div></div><span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">India remains one of the most ethnically diverse countries in the world. Apart from its many religions and sects, India is home to innumerable castes and tribes, as well as to more than a dozen major and hundreds of minor linguistic groups from several language families unrelated to one another. Religious minorities, including Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Jains, still account for a significant proportion of the population. Earnest attempts have been made to instill a spirit of nationhood in so varied a population, but tensions between neighboring groups have remained and at times have resulted in outbreaks of violence. Yet social legislation has done much to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="alleviate" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alleviate" data-type="MW">alleviate</a> the disabilities previously suffered by formerly “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dalit" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">untouchable</a>” castes, tribal populations, women, and other traditionally disadvantaged segments of society. At independence, India was blessed with several leaders of world stature, most notably <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahatma-Gandhi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jawaharlal-Nehru" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>, who were able to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="galvanize" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/galvanize" data-type="MW">galvanize</a> the masses at home and bring <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="prestige" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/prestige" data-type="MW">prestige</a> to India abroad. The country has played an increasing role in global affairs.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-population-quiz" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/91/142291-131-1FF39F2D/Flags-world-blue-sky-Countries-Globalization-relations-2010.jpg" alt="Flags of the world against blue sky. Countries, International. Globalization, global relations, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, Poland, Palestine, Japan. Homepage 2010, arts and entertainment, history and society" class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">Which Country Is Larger By Population? Quiz</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="95244" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/84526-050-45452C37/Gateway-monument-India-entrance-Mumbai-Harbour-coast.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/95244"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/84526-050-45452C37/Gateway-monument-India-entrance-Mumbai-Harbour-coast.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/84526-050-45452C37/Gateway-monument-India-entrance-Mumbai-Harbour-coast.jpg?w=300" alt="Mumbai, India: Gateway of India monument" data-width="1600" data-height="1067" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/84526-050-45452C37/Gateway-monument-India-entrance-Mumbai-Harbour-coast.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/95244">Mumbai, India: Gateway of India monument</a><span>Gateway of India monument near the entrance to Mumbai (Bombay) Harbour, western India, on the east coast of the Arabian Sea.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Contemporary India’s increasing physical prosperity and cultural dynamism—despite continued domestic challenges and economic inequality—are seen in its well-developed <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="infrastructure" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/infrastructure" data-type="MW">infrastructure</a> and a highly diversified industrial base, in its pool of scientific and engineering personnel (one of the largest in the world), in the pace of its agricultural expansion, and in its rich and vibrant cultural exports of music, literature, and cinema. Though the country’s population remains largely rural, India has three of the most populous and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="cosmopolitan" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cosmopolitan" data-type="MW">cosmopolitan</a> cities in the world—<span id="ref971740"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mumbai" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mumbai</a> (Bombay), <span id="ref971741"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kolkata" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kolkata</a> (Calcutta), and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Delhi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Delhi</a>. Three other Indian cities—<a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bangalore-India" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bengaluru</a> (Bangalore), <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Chennai" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Chennai</a> (Madras), and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hyderabad-India" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hyderabad</a>—are among the world’s fastest-growing high-technology centers, and most of the world’s major information technology and software companies now have offices in India.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The history section of the articles <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pakistan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pakistan</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bangladesh" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bangladesh</a> discuss those countries since their creation.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref46358"> <h2 class="h1"><span id="ref487150"></span>Land</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="1973" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/12/1612-050-8A4D277F/Settlement-Kullu-Valley-India-Himachal-Pradesh.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/1973"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/12/1612-050-8A4D277F/Settlement-Kullu-Valley-India-Himachal-Pradesh.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/12/1612-050-8A4D277F/Settlement-Kullu-Valley-India-Himachal-Pradesh.jpg?w=300" alt="Himachal Pradesh, India: Kullu Valley" data-width="1423" data-height="1121" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/12/1612-050-8A4D277F/Settlement-Kullu-Valley-India-Himachal-Pradesh.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/1973">Himachal Pradesh, India: Kullu Valley</a><span>Settlement in the Kullu Valley, central Himachal Pradesh, India.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">India’s frontier, which is roughly one-third coastline, abuts six countries. It is bounded to the northwest by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pakistan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pakistan</a>, to the north by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Nepal" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nepal</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">China</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bhutan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bhutan</a>; and to the east by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Myanmar" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Myanmar</a> (Burma). <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bangladesh" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bangladesh</a> to the east is surrounded by India to the north, east, and west. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/island" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">island</a> country of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sri-Lanka" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sri Lanka</a> is situated some 40 miles (65 km) off the southeast coast of India across the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Palk-Strait" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Palk Strait</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gulf-of-Mannar" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gulf of Mannar</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="238229" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/196757-050-BDAD8752/slopes-foothills-mountains-Himalayan-Kalimpong-West-Bengal.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/238229"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/196757-050-BDAD8752/slopes-foothills-mountains-Himalayan-Kalimpong-West-Bengal.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/196757-050-BDAD8752/slopes-foothills-mountains-Himalayan-Kalimpong-West-Bengal.jpg?w=300" alt="Himalayas" data-width="1600" data-height="1089" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/196757-050-BDAD8752/slopes-foothills-mountains-Himalayan-Kalimpong-West-Bengal.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/238229">Himalayas</a><span>Forested slopes of the foothills of the Himalayan mountains near Kalimpong, northern West Bengal, India.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The land of India—together with Bangladesh and most of Pakistan—forms a well-defined subcontinent, set off from the rest of Asia by the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="imposing" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/imposing" data-type="EB">imposing</a> northern mountain rampart of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Himalayas</a> and by adjoining mountain ranges to the west and east. In area, India ranks as the seventh largest country in the world.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Much of India’s territory lies within a large peninsula, surrounded by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabian-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Arabian Sea</a> to the west and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bay-of-Bengal" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bay of Bengal</a> to the east; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cape-Comorin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cape Comorin</a>(Kanniyakumari), the southernmost point of the Indian mainland, marks the dividing line between those two bodies of water. India has two <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/union-territory" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">union territories</a> composed entirely of islands: <span id="ref971815"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Lakshadweep" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Lakshadweep</a>, in the Arabian Sea, and the <span id="ref971816"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Andaman-and-Nicobar-Islands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a>, which lie between the Bay of Bengal and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Andaman-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Andaman Sea</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="2" id="ref46359"> <h2 class="h2">Relief</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="61303" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/1634-050-BC7E72FA/map-India-Physical-locator.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/61303"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/1634-050-BC7E72FA/map-India-Physical-locator.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/1634-050-BC7E72FA/map-India-Physical-locator.jpg?w=300" alt="Physical features of India" data-width="1253" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/1634-050-BC7E72FA/map-India-Physical-locator.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/61303">Physical features of India</a><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">It is now generally accepted that India’s geographic position, continental outline, and basic geologic structure resulted from a process of <span id="ref487151"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/plate-tectonics" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">plate tectonics</a>—the shifting of enormous, rigid crustal plates over the Earth’s <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="underlying" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/underlying" data-type="EB">underlying</a> layer of molten material. India’s landmass, which forms the northwestern portion of the <span id="ref487152"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Indian-Australian-Plate" class="md-crosslink ">Indian-Australian Plate</a>, began to drift slowly northward toward the much larger Eurasian Plate several hundred million years ago (after the former broke away from the ancient southern-hemispheric supercontinent known as <span id="ref487153"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gondwana-supercontinent" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gondwana</a>, or Gondwanaland). When the two finally collided (approximately 50 million years ago), the northern edge of the Indian-Australian Plate was thrust under the Eurasian Plate at a low angle. The collision reduced the speed of the oncoming plate, but the underthrusting, or subduction, of the plate has continued into contemporary times.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The effects of the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="collision" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/collision" data-type="EB">collision</a> and continued subduction are numerous and extremely complicated. An important consequence, however, was the slicing off of crustal rock from the top of the underthrusting plate. Those slices were thrown back onto the northern edge of the Indian landmass and came to form much of the Himalayan mountain system. The new mountains—together with vast amounts of sediment eroded from them—were so heavy that the Indian-Australian Plate just south of the range was forced downward, creating a zone of crustal subsidence. Continued rapid erosion of the Himalayas added to the sediment accumulation, which was subsequently carried by mountain streams to fill the subsidence zone and cause it to sink more.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD14 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">India’s present-day relief features have been <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="superimposed" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/superimposed" data-type="EB">superimposed</a> on three basic structural units: the Himalayas in the north, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Deccan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Deccan</a> (peninsular plateau region) in the south, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Indo-Gangetic-Plain" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a> (lying over the subsidence zone) between the two. Further information on the geology of India is found in the article <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Asia</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD14 mod-inline"></span> </section></section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":85,"pageId":285248,"pageLength":1263,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"D","adLeg":"D","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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India | History, Map, Population, Economy, & Facts | Britannica