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Although its deltaic portion lies mostly in Bangladesh, the course of the Ganges within India is longer than that of any of the country’s other rivers. It has numerous headstreams that are fed by runoff and meltwater from Himalayan glaciers and mountain peaks. 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Although its deltaic portion lies mostly in Bangladesh, the course of the Ganges within India is longer than that of any of the country’s other rivers. It has numerous headstreams that are fed by runoff and meltwater from Himalayan glaciers and mountain peaks. 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class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <main> <div class="md-page-wrapper"> <div id="content" class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="285248"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India">India</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/India">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref46358"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India#ref46358">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46359"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India#ref46359">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46360" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas">The Himalayas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46361"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46361">The Outer Himalayas (the Siwalik Range)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46362"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46362">The Lesser Himalayas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46363"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46363">The Great Himalayas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46364"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46364">Associated ranges and hills</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46365"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46365">The Indo-Gangetic Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46366" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan">The Deccan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46367"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46367">The Western Ghats</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46368"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46368">The Eastern Ghats</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46369"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46369">Inland regions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46370"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46370">Coastal areas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46371"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46371">Islands</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46372"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46372">Drainage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46373" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal">Drainage into the Bay of Bengal</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46374"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46374">The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46375"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46375">Peninsular rivers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46376"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46376">Drainage into the Arabian Sea</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46377"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46377">Lakes and inland drainage</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46378"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46378">Soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273210" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref273210">In situ soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46380"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46380">Red-to-yellow soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46381"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils">Black soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46379"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46379">Alluvial soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46382"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46382">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46383" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46383">The monsoons</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46384"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46384">The southwest monsoon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46385"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon">Rainfall during the retreating monsoon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46386"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46386">Tropical cyclones</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46387"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46387">Importance to agriculture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46388"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46388">Temperatures</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46389"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46390"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46390">Vegetation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46391" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46391">Animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46392"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46392">Mammals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46393"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46393">Birds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46394"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46394">Reptiles, fish, and insects</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46395"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46395">Conservation</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46396"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46397"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People#ref46397">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46398"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People#ref46398">Languages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages">Indo-European languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46400"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46400">Dravidian and other languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46401"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46401">Lingua francas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46402"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46402">Minor languages and dialects</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46403"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46403">Religions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46404"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste">Caste</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46405"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46405">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46406"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46406">Population density</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46407"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46407">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46408"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46408">Urban settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46409"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Demographic-trends">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46410"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Demographic-trends#ref46410">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46415"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46416" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46416">Agriculture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273192"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref273192">Crops</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273193"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref273193">Livestock</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46417"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46417">Forestry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46418"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46418">Fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46411"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Resources-and-power">Resources and power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46419"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Resources-and-power#ref46419">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46424"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273194"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273194">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273195"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273195">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273196"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273196">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46425"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref46425">Transportation and telecommunications</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46426"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads">Railways and roads</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46427"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46427">Water and air transport</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273197"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref273197">Telecommunications</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46428"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46428">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46429"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46429">Constitutional framework</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46430"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure">Constitutional structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46431" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46431">Union government</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46432"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46432">Executive branch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46433"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46433">Legislative branch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46434"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46434">Bureaucracy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46439"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46439">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46435"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46435">State and local governments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46436"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46436">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46437"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46437">Political process</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46438"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46438">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46441"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273190"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref273190">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46440"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref46440">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46442"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref46442">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273200"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref273200">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46443"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs">Daily life and social customs</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46444"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref46444">Family and kinship</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273201"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref273201">Festivals and holidays</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46445"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref46445">Cuisine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46446"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing">Clothing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46447"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref46447">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273202"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273202">Architecture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273203"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273203">Dance and music</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273204"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273204">Theatre, film, and literature</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273205"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46448"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions#ref46448">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46449"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions#ref46449">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214184"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History#ref46800">India from the Paleolithic Period to the decline of the Indus civilization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46801" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History#ref46801">The early prehistoric period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic">The Indian Paleolithic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46803">Mesolithic hunters</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46804" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46804">The earliest agriculturalists and pastoralists</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46805">Neolithic agriculture in the Indus valley and Baluchistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin">Developments in the Ganges basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46807">Earliest settlements in peninsular India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46808">Earliest settlements in eastern India</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46809" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46809">The rise of urbanism in the Indus valley</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46810">Extent and chronology of Early Harappan culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46811"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46811">Principal sites</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46812"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46812">Subsistence and technology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46813"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46813">Culture and religion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46814" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization">The Indus civilization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46815"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46815">Character and significance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46816"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46816">Chronology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46817"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46817">Extent</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46818"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46818">Planning and architecture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46819"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46819">Important sites</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46820"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46820">Mohenjo-daro</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46821"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa">Harappa</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46822"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46822">Kalibangan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46823"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46823">Lothal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46824"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46824">Other important sites</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46825"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46825">Population</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46826"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry">Agriculture and animal husbandry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46827"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46827">Communications</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46828"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46828">Craft and technology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46829"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46829">Trade and external contacts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46830"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46830">Language and scripts, weights and measures</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46831"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46831">Social and political system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46832"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46832">Art</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46833"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46833">Religion and burial customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46834"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization">The end of the Indus civilization</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46835" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46835">Post-Harappan developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46836"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46836">The Post-Urban Period in northwestern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46837"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46837">The appearance of Indo-Aryan speakers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46838"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46838">The late 2nd millennium and the reemergence of urbanism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46839"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46839">Peninsular India in the aftermath of the Indus civilization (c. 2000–1000 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46840"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce">The development of Indian civilization from c. 1500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> to c. 1200 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273188"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref273188">Traditional approaches to Indian historiography</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273189"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref273189">Trends in early Indian society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46841" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref46841">From c. 1500 to c. 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46842"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Early-Vedic-period">Early Vedic period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46843"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Early-Vedic-period#ref46843">Later Vedic period (c. 800–c. 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46844" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce">The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46845"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46845">Pre-Mauryan states</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46846"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46846">Location</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46847"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46847">Political systems</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46848"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46848">Economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46849"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46849">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46850"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy">Magadhan ascendancy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46851"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46851">Campaigns of Alexander the Great</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46852"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46852">The Mauryan empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46853"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46853">Chandragupta Maurya</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46854"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46854">Bindusara</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46855"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors">Ashoka and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46856"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46856">Financial base for the empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46857"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46857">Mauryan society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46858"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46858">Mauryan government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46859"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts">Ashoka’s edicts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46860"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46860">Mauryan decline</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46861"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46861">The concept of the state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46862" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46862">From 150 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> to 300 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46863"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46863">Rise of small kingdoms in the north</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46864"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46864">Indo-Greek rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46865"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46865">Central Asian rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46866"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46866">Oligarchies and kingdoms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46867"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom">The Shunga kingdom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46868"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46868">Kalinga</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46869"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46869">The Andhras and their successors</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46870"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46870">Southern Indian kingdoms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46871"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West">Contacts with the West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46872"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46872">Society and culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46873"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46873">Guilds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46874"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46874">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46875"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46875">Impact of trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46876"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46876">Religious patronage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46877"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46878"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46878">Assimilation of foreigners</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46879" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46879">From 300 to 750 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46880"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46880">Northern India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46881"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46881">The Guptas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46882"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46882">Successor states</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46883"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46883">The Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46884"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India">Southern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46885"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46885">Society and culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46886" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46886">From 750 to c. 1200</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46887"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46887">Northern India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46888"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46888">The tripartite struggle</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46889"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs">The Rajputs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46890"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46890">The coming of the Turks</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46891"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46891">The Deccan and the south</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46892"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46892">The Colas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46893"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46893">The Hoysalas and Pandyas</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46894"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture">Society and culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46895"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46895">The economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46896"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46896">Social mobility</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46897"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46897">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46898"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46898">Literature and the arts</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46899"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46899">The early Muslim period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46900" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46900">North India under Muslim hegemony, c. 1200–1526</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46901"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46901">The Delhi sultanate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46902"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46902">The Turkish conquest</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46903"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans">The early Turkish sultans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46904"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans#ref46904">Consolidation of the sultanate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46905"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis">The Khaljīs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46906"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46906">Centralization and expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46907"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46907">Taxation and distribution of revenue resources</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46908"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46908">Expansion and conquests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46909"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46909">The urban economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46910"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs">The Tughluqs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46911"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs#ref46911">Reversal and rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46912"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs#ref46912">Society and the state under the Tughluqs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46913"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate">Decline of the sultanate</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46914"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46914">The rise of regional states</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46915"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46915">Struggle for supremacy in northern India</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46916" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46916">The Muslim states of southern India, c. 1350–1680</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46917"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46917">The Bahmani sultanate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46918"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Bahmani-consolidation-of-the-Deccan">Bahmanī consolidation of the Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46919"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Bahmani-consolidation-of-the-Deccan#ref46919">External and internal rivalries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref273208"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan">Vizierate of Maḥmūd Gāwān</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46920"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan#ref46920">Bahmanī decline</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46921"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan#ref46921">Successors to the Bahmanī</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46922" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646">The Vijayanagar empire, 1336–1646</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46923">Development of the state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46924">Conquests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46925"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46925">Consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46926"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries">Wars and rivalries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46927"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46927">Decentralization and loss of territory</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46928"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46928">Later dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46929"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46929">Reconsolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46930"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46930">Growth of power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46931"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46931">Renewed decentralization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46932"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46932">Relations with the Muslim states</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46933"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar">Decline of Vijayanagar</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46934"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46934">Military policies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46935"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46935">Loss of central control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46936">Breakup of the empire</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46937"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46937">Administration of the empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46938"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761">The Mughal Empire, 1526–1761</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46939"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46939">The significance of Mughal rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46940" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46940">The establishment of the Mughal Empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46941">Bābur</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46942"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46942">Conquest of Hindustan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46943">Bābur’s achievements</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun">Humāyūn</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun#ref46945">Sher Shah and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun#ref46946">Restoration of Humāyūn</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46947" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great">The reign of Akbar the Great</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46948"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46948">Extension and consolidation of the empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46949"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46949">The early years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46950">Struggle for firm personal control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46951">Subjugation of Rajasthan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46952">Conquest of Gujarat and Bengal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46953">The frontiers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46954"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46954">The state and society under Akbar</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46955"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46955">Central, provincial, and local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46956"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility">The composition of the Mughal nobility</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46957"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46957">Organization of the nobility and the army</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46958">Revenue system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46959"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46959">Fiscal administration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46960">Coinage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46961">Evolution of a nonsectarian state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46962">Akbar in historical perspective</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46963" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46963">The empire in the 17th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46964"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir">Jahāngīr</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46965"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46965">Loss of Kandahār</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46966"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46966">Submission of Mewar</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46967"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46967">Developments in the Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46968"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46968">Rebellion of Khurram (Shah Jahān)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46969"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46969">Mahābat Khan’s coup</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46970"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan">Shah Jahān</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46971"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46971">The Deccan problem</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46972"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46972">Central Asian policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46973"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46973">War of succession</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46974"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46975"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46975">Local and peasant uprisings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46976"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46976">Assessment of Aurangzeb</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46977" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46977">Mughal decline in the 18th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46978"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings">The Sikh uprisings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46979"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46979">Cracks in the core</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46980"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46980">Struggle for a new power center</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46981"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46981">The emperor, the nobility, and the provinces</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46982"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46982">Nādir Shah’s invasion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46983"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46983">The Afghan-Maratha struggle for northern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46984"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46984">Political and economic decentralization during the Mughal decline</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46985"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46985">Regional states, c. 1700–1850</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46986" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas">The Marathas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46987"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46987">Early history</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46988"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46988">Rise of the <em>peshwa</em>s</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46989"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46989">Subordinate Maratha rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46990"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century">Mughal mystique in the 18th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46991"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46991">The case of Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46992"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46992">Challenge from the northwest</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46993"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46993">The Afghan factor in northern India, 1747–72</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46994" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab">The Sikhs in the Punjab</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab#ref46995">Early history</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46996"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab#ref46996">From Banda Singh Bahadur to Ranjit Singh</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46997"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century">Rajasthan in the 18th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46998"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century#ref46998">The south: Travancore and Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46999"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy">Politics and the economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47000"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47000">Cultural aspects of the late precolonial order</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47001"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47001">India and European expansion, c. 1500–1858</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47002" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47002">European activity in India, 1498–c. 1760</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47003"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47003">The Portuguese</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47004"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47004">The Dutch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47005"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-British-1600-1740">The British, 1600–1740</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47006"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-British-1600-1740#ref47006">The French</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47007"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Anglo-French-struggle-1740-63">The Anglo-French struggle, 1740–63</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47008"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Anglo-French-struggle-1740-63#ref47008">European military superiority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47009"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal">Revolution in Bengal</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47010" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal#ref47010">The extension of British power, 1760–1856</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47011"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal#ref47011">The period of disorder, 1760–72</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47012"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur">The Company Bahadur</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47013"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur#ref47013">The company and the state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47014"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur#ref47014">Relations with the Marathas and Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47015"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy">The ascent to paramountcy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy#ref47016">The government of Lord Wellesley</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy#ref47017">The government of Lord Minto</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47018"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings">The government of Lord Hastings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47019"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47019">The settlement of 1818</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47020"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47020">Organization and policy in British India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47021"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47021">Organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47022"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy">The determination of policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47023"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy#ref47023">The completion of dominion and expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47024"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy#ref47024">The first century of British influence</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47025"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects">Political effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47026"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47026">Economic effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47027"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47027">Social effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47028"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47028">Cultural effects</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47029" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59">The mutiny and great revolt of 1857–59</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47030"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47030">Nature and causes of the rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47031"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47031">The revolt and its aftermath</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47032"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47032">British imperial power, 1858–1947</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47033" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47033">Climax of the raj, 1858–85</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273209"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858">Government of India Act of 1858</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47034"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47034">Social policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47035"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47035">Government organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47036"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47036">Economic policy and development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47037" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy">Foreign policy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47038"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47038">The northwest frontier</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47039"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47039">The Second Anglo-Afghan War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47040"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47040">The incorporation of Burma</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47041" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920">Indian nationalism and the British response, 1885–1920</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47042"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920#ref47042">Origins of the nationalist movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47043"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920#ref47043">The early Congress movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47044"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-first-partition-of-Bengal">The first partition of Bengal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47045"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-first-partition-of-Bengal#ref47045">Nationalism in the Muslim community</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47046"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals">Reforms of the British Liberals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47047"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47047">Moderate and militant nationalism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47048" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47048">World War I and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47049"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47049">India’s contributions to the war effort</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47050"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Anti-British-activity">Anti-British activity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47051"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Anti-British-activity#ref47051">The postwar years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47052"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre">Jallianwala Bagh massacre</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47053"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre#ref47053">Gandhi’s strategy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47054" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre#ref47054">Prelude to independence, 1920–47</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47055"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-reforms">Constitutional reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47056"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-reforms#ref47056">The Congress’s ambivalent strategy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47057"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism">Muslim separatism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47058"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism#ref47058">The impact of World War II</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47059"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism#ref47059">British wartime strategy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47060"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries">The transfer of power and the birth of two countries</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47061"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries#ref47061">The Republic of India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47062" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries#ref47062">The Nehru era, 1947–64</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47063"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics">Government and politics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47064"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47064">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47065"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47065">Economic planning and development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47066" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47066">Post-Nehru politics and foreign policy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47067"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47067">The 1965 war with Pakistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47068"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact">Indira Gandhi’s impact</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47069"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47069">The Bangladesh war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47070"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47070">Emergency rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47071"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47071">The Janata interlude and the return of Indira Gandhi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47072"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism">Sikh separatism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47073" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47073">From Rajiv to Rao: India from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47074"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47074">The premiership of Rajiv Gandhi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47075"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47075">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47076"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall">V.P. Singh’s coalition—its brief rise and fall</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref47077">Congress government of P.V. 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Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Bhārat, Bhāratavarsha, Republic of India</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Sanat-Pai-Raikar/12616791" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Sanat Pai Raikar</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Sanat Pai Raikar is a quizmaster and writer based out of Bangalore, India. His first quiz book, <em>Three's A Quiz</em>, was written from memory. Sanat has cofounded Quizarre, which provides quiz, crossword,...</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Sanat Pai Raikar</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Romila-Thapar/2935" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Romila Thapar</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Emeritus Professor of History, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Author of <i>Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas </i>and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Romila Thapar</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-23T00:00:00CST" >Nov 23, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/8ab629945660ee97d58cdbef10136f35" rel="nofollow">A $300B a year deal for climate cash at UN summit sparks outrage for some and hope for others</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 23, 2024, 8:46 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/6cc84c72d4b00e0a49160123efdd48e7" rel="nofollow">Modi's party heads for victory in Maharashtra state election while opposition wins Jharkhand</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 23, 2024, 10:47 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/de2f999332e6cc8be1ea78c7fdfb6590" rel="nofollow">2 convicted in human smuggling case after Indian family froze to death on US-Canada border</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 6:28 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/997837af54ebd0c963da8d30854a41ec" rel="nofollow">Today he is a high school football player. Soon he'll be a Buddhist lama in the Himalayas</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 12:16 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/21c3ffa3c4c17639b18d1719dd98b1a3" rel="nofollow">US bribery and fraud charges are a big test yet for India's Adani, one of Asia's richest men</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 6:14 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="2"><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3" id="ref46373">  <section data-level="4" id="ref46374"> <h2 class="h4">The <span id="ref487192"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ganges-Brahmaputra</a> river system</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, together with their tributaries, drain about one-third of India. The Ganges (Ganga), considered sacred by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country’s</a> Hindu population, is 1,560 miles (2,510 km) long. Although its deltaic portion lies mostly in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bangladesh" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Bangladesh</a>, the course of the Ganges within India is longer than that of any of the country’s other rivers. It has numerous headstreams that are fed by <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="runoff" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/runoff" data-type="EB">runoff</a> and meltwater from Himalayan glaciers and mountain peaks. The main headwater, the <span id="ref971827"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bhagirathi-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bhagirathi River</a>, rises at an elevation of about 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) at the foot of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gangotri-India" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gangotri</a> Glacier, considered sacred by Hindus.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="210434" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/189813-050-BF6163E7/Manikarnika-Ghat-cremation-site-Hindu-Ganges-River.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/210434"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/189813-050-BF6163E7/Manikarnika-Ghat-cremation-site-Hindu-Ganges-River.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/189813-050-BF6163E7/Manikarnika-Ghat-cremation-site-Hindu-Ganges-River.jpg?w=300" alt="Varanasi, India: Manikarnika Ghat" data-width="1264" data-height="942" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/189813-050-BF6163E7/Manikarnika-Ghat-cremation-site-Hindu-Ganges-River.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/210434">Varanasi, India: Manikarnika Ghat</a><span>Manikarnika Ghat, a Hindu cremation site along the Ganges River in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The Ganges enters the <span id="ref487193"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Indo-Gangetic-Plain" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a> at the city of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Haridwar" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Haridwar</a> (Hardwar). From Haridwar to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kolkata" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kolkata</a> it is joined by numerous tributaries. Proceeding from west to east, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghaghara-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ghaghara</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gandak-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gandak</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kosi-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kosi</a> rivers, all of which emerge from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Himalayas</a>, join the Ganges from the north, while the <span id="ref487194"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yamuna-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yamuna</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Son-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Son </a>are the two most important tributaries from the south. The Yamuna, which also has a Himalayan source (the Yamunotri glacier) and flows roughly parallel to the Ganges throughout its length, receives the flow of several important rivers, including the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Chambal-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Chambal</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Betwa-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Betwa</a>, and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="Ken" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Ken" data-type="EB">Ken</a>, which originate in India’s peninsular foreland. Of the northern tributaries of the Ganges, the <span id="ref487195"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kosi-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kosi</a>, India’s most-destructive river (referred to as the “Sorrow of Bihar”), warrants special mention. Because of its large catchment in the Himalayas of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Nepal" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Nepal</a> and its gentle gradient once it reaches the plain, the Kosi is unable to discharge the large volume of water it carries at its peak flows, and it frequently floods and changes its course.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The seasonal flows of the Ganges and other rivers fed by meltwaters from the Himalayas vary considerably less than those of the exclusively rain-fed peninsular rivers. That consistency of flow <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="enhances" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/enhances" data-type="MW">enhances</a> their suitability for irrigation and—where the diversion of water for irrigation is not excessive—for navigation as well.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="229628" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/33/197233-050-932B50CA/course-Brahmaputra-River-Himalayas-Tibet.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/229628"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/33/197233-050-932B50CA/course-Brahmaputra-River-Himalayas-Tibet.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/33/197233-050-932B50CA/course-Brahmaputra-River-Himalayas-Tibet.jpg?w=300" alt="Brahmaputra River" data-width="1600" data-height="1036" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/33/197233-050-932B50CA/course-Brahmaputra-River-Himalayas-Tibet.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/229628">Brahmaputra River</a><span>The upper course of the Brahmaputra River flows through Tibet in the Himalayas.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Although the total length of the <span id="ref487196"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Brahmaputra-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Brahmaputra</a> (about 1,800 miles [2,900 km]) exceeds that of the Ganges, only 450 miles (725 km) of its course lies within India. The Brahmaputra, like the Indus, has its source in a trans-Himalayan area about 60 miles (100 km) southeast of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Mapam" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mapam Lake</a> in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tibet" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Tibet Autonomous Region</a> of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">China</a>. The river runs east across Tibet for more than half its total length before cutting into India at the northern border of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Arunachal-Pradesh" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Arunachal Pradesh</a> state. It then flows south and west through the state of <span id="ref487197"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Assam-Valley" class="md-crosslink ">Assam</a> and south into Bangladesh, where it empties into the vast <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-delta" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Ganges-Brahmaputra delta</a>. The narrow Brahmaputra basin in Assam is prone to flooding because of its large catchment areas, parts of which experience exceedingly heavy precipitation.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref46375"> <h2 class="h4">Peninsular rivers</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The peninsular drainage into the Bay of Bengal includes a number of major rivers, most notably the Mahanadi, Godavari, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Krishna-district-India" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Krishna</a>, and Kaveri. Except for the Mahanadi, the headwaters of those rivers are in the high-rainfall zones of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Western-Ghats" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Western Ghats</a>, and they <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="traverse" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/traverse" data-type="MW">traverse</a> the entire width of the plateau (generally from northwest to southeast) before reaching the Bay of Bengal. The Mahanadi has its source at the southern edge of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Chhattisgarh-Plain" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Chhattisgarh Plain</a>.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">India’s peninsular rivers have relatively steep gradients and thus rarely give rise to floods of the type that occur in the plains of northern India, despite considerable variations in flow from the dry to wet seasons. The lower courses of a number of those rivers are marked by rapids and gorges, usually as they cross the Eastern Ghats. Because of their steep gradients, rocky underlying terrain, and variable flow regimes, the peninsular rivers are not navigable.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <section data-level="3" id="ref46376"> <h2 class="h3">Drainage into the <span id="ref487198"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabian-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Arabian Sea</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="259061" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/83465-050-0CF84222/Indus-River-Himalayas.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/259061"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/83465-050-0CF84222/Indus-River-Himalayas.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/83465-050-0CF84222/Indus-River-Himalayas.jpg?w=300" alt="Indus River" data-width="1600" data-height="1576" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/83465-050-0CF84222/Indus-River-Himalayas.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/259061">Indus River</a><span>In the upper part of its course the Indus River flows in the Himalayas of northern India.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">A substantial part of northwestern India is included in the <span id="ref487199"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indus</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/drainage-basin" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">drainage basin</a>, which India shares with China, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Afghanistan</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pakistan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Pakistan</a>. The Indus and its longest tributary, the <span id="ref487200"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sutlej-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sutlej</a>, both rise in the trans-Himalayan region of Tibet. The Indus initially flows to the northwest between towering mountain ranges and through <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jammu-and-Kashmir" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Jammu and Kashmir</a> state before entering the Pakistani-administered portion of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kashmir</a>. It then travels generally to the southwest through Pakistan until it reaches the Arabian Sea. The Sutlej also flows northwest from its source but enters India farther south, at the border of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Himachal-Pradesh" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Himachal Pradesh</a> state. From there it travels west into the Indian state of Punjab and eventually enters Pakistan, where it flows into the Indus.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="95867" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/51/10651-004-5E03D7B8/Jhelum-River-Srinagar-Jammu-and-Kashmir-India.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/95867"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/51/10651-004-5E03D7B8/Jhelum-River-Srinagar-Jammu-and-Kashmir-India.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/51/10651-004-5E03D7B8/Jhelum-River-Srinagar-Jammu-and-Kashmir-India.jpg?w=300" alt="Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India: Jhelum River" data-width="411" data-height="300" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/51/10651-004-5E03D7B8/Jhelum-River-Srinagar-Jammu-and-Kashmir-India.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/95867">Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India: Jhelum River</a><span>The Jhelum River at Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Between the Indus and the Sutlej lie several other major Indus tributaries. The <span id="ref487201"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jhelum-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jhelum</a>, the northernmost of those rivers, flows out of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pir-Panjal-Range" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Pir Panjal Range</a> into the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Vale-of-Kashmir" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Vale of Kashmir</a> and thence via <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Baramula" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Baramula</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="Gorge" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Gorge" data-type="EB">Gorge</a> into Pakistani-administered Kashmir. The three others—the <span id="ref487202"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Chenab-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Chenab</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ravi-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ravi</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Beas-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Beas</a>—originate in the Himalayas within Himachal Pradesh. The Chenab travels across Jammu and Kashmir before flowing into Pakistan; the <span id="ref487203"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ravi-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ravi</a> forms a part of the southern boundary between Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh states and thereafter a short stretch of the India-Pakistan border prior to entering Pakistan; and the <span id="ref487204"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Beas-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Beas</a> flows entirely within India, joining the Sutlej in the Indian state of <span id="ref487205"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Punjab-state-India" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Punjab</a>. The area through which the five Indus tributaries flow has traditionally been called the Punjab (from Persian <em>panj</em>, “five,” and <em>āb</em>, “water”). That area currently falls in the Indian state of <span id="ref487206"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Punjab-province-Pakistan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Punjab</a> (containing the Sutlej and the Beas) and the Pakistani province of Punjab. Despite low rainfall in the Punjab plains, the moderately high runoff from the Himalayas ensures a year-round flow in the Indus and its tributaries, which are extensively utilized for canal irrigation.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Farther to the south, another notable river flowing into the Arabian Sea is the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Luni-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Luni</a> of southern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Rajasthan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Rajasthan</a>, which in most years has carried enough water to reach the Great <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Rann-of-Kachchh" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Rann of Kachchh</a> in western <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gujarat" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gujarat</a>. Also flowing through Gujarat is the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mahi-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mahi River</a>, as well as the two most important west-flowing rivers of peninsular India—the <span id="ref487207"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Narmada-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Narmada</a> (drainage basin 38,200 square miles [98,900 square km]) and <span id="ref487208"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tapti-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tapi</a> (Tapti; 25,000 square miles [65,000 square km]). The Narmada and its basin have undergone large-scale multipurpose development. Most of the other peninsular rivers draining into the Arabian Sea have short courses, and those that flow westward from headwaters in the Western Ghats have seasonally torrential flows.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="3" id="ref46377"> <h2 class="h3">Lakes and inland drainage</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="95868" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/64/41264-004-8F69272C/Resort-house-Wular-Lake-state-Vale-of.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/95868"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/64/41264-004-8F69272C/Resort-house-Wular-Lake-state-Vale-of.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/64/41264-004-8F69272C/Resort-house-Wular-Lake-state-Vale-of.jpg?w=300" alt="Jammu and Kashmir, India: Wular Lake" data-width="550" data-height="384" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/64/41264-004-8F69272C/Resort-house-Wular-Lake-state-Vale-of.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/95868">Jammu and Kashmir, India: Wular Lake</a><span>Resort house on Wular Lake in the Vale of Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, India.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">For such a large country, India has few natural lakes. Most of the lakes in the Himalayas were formed when glaciers either dug out a basin or dammed an area with earth and rocks. <span id="ref487209"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Wular-Lake" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Wular Lake</a> in Jammu and Kashmir, by contrast, is the result of a tectonic depression. Although its area fluctuates, Wular Lake is the largest natural freshwater lake in India.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Inland drainage in India is mainly <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ephemeral" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ephemeral" data-type="MW">ephemeral</a> and almost entirely in the arid and semiarid part of northwestern India, particularly in the <span id="ref487210"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Thar-Desert" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Great Indian Desert</a> of Rajasthan, where there are several ephemeral <span id="ref487211"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/saline-lake" class="md-crosslink ">salt lakes</a>—most prominently <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sambhar-Salt-Lake" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sambhar Salt Lake</a>, the largest lake in India. Those lakes are fed by short <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="intermittent" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intermittent" data-type="MW">intermittent</a> streams, which experience flash floods during occasional intense rains and become dry and lose their identity once the rains are over. The water in the lakes also evaporates and subsequently leaves a layer of white saline soils, from which a considerable amount of salt is commercially produced. Many of India’s largest lakes are reservoirs formed by damming rivers.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref46378"> <h2 class="h2">Soils</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">There is a wide range of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/soil" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">soil</a> types in India. As products of natural environmental processes, they can be broadly divided into two groups: in situ soils and transported soils. The in situ soils get their distinguishing features from the parent rocks, which are sieved by flowing water, sliding glaciers, and drifting wind and are deposited on landforms such as river valleys and coastal plains. The process of sieving such soils has led to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="deposition" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/deposition" data-type="MW">deposition</a> of materials in layers without any marked pedologic horizons, though it has altered the original chemical <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="composition" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/composition" data-type="MW">composition</a> of the in situ soils.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Among the in situ soils are the red-to-yellow (including laterite) and black soils known locally as <em><span id="ref487214"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/regur" class="md-crosslink ">regur</a></em>. After those the alluvial soil is the third most-common type. Also significant are the desert soils of Rajasthan, the saline soils in Gujarat, southern Rajasthan, and some coastal areas, and the mountain soils of the Himalayas. The type of soil is determined by numerous factors, including climate, relief, elevation, and drainage, as well as by the composition of the underlying rock material.</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="3" id="ref273210"> <h2 class="h3">In situ soils</h2> <section data-level="4" id="ref46380"> <h2 class="h4"><span id="ref487213"></span>Red-to-yellow soils</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD14 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Those soils are <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="encountered" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/encountered" data-type="EB">encountered</a> over extensive nonalluvial tracts of peninsular India and are made up of such acidic rocks as granite, gneiss, and schist. They develop in areas in which rainfall leaches soluble minerals out of the ground and results in a loss of chemically basic constituents; a corresponding proportional increase in oxidized iron imparts a reddish hue to many such soils. Hence, they are commonly described as ferralitic soils. In extreme cases, the concentration of oxides of iron leads to formation of a hard crust, in which case they are described as <span id="ref971832"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/laterite" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">lateritic</a> (for <em>later</em>, the Latin term meaning “brick”) soils. The heavily leached red-to-yellow soils are concentrated in the high-rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, the western <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kathiawar-Peninsula" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kathiawar Peninsula</a>, eastern Rajasthan, the Eastern Ghats, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Chota-Nagpur" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Chota Nagpur</a> plateau region, and other upland tracts of northeastern India. Less-leached red-to-yellow soils occur in areas of low rainfall immediately east of the Western Ghats in the dry interior of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Deccan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Deccan</a>. Red-to-yellow soils are usually infertile, but that problem is partly <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ameliorated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ameliorated" data-type="MW">ameliorated</a> in forested tracts, where humus concentration and the recycling of nutrients help restore fertility in the topsoil.</p><span class="marker MOD14 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section></section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":4,"pagesTotal":85,"pageId":285248,"pageLength":1572,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":4,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>