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id="toc-Reciprocal_IVF-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developing_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developing_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Developing methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developing_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Statistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <button 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_orientation_and_gender_role"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Sexual orientation and gender role</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_orientation_and_gender_role-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_challenges_and_support_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_challenges_and_support_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Social challenges and support systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_challenges_and_support_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Misrepresentation_by_opponents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misrepresentation_by_opponents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Misrepresentation by opponents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misrepresentation_by_opponents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_aspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_aspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Other aspects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_aspects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other aspects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Body-feeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Body-feeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Body-feeding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Body-feeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lactation_as_a_trans_woman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lactation_as_a_trans_woman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Lactation as a trans woman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lactation_as_a_trans_woman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Marriage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trans_parenting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trans_parenting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Trans parenting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trans_parenting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stressors_for_trans_parents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stressors_for_trans_parents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Stressors for trans parents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stressors_for_trans_parents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> 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data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fam%C3%ADlia_homoparental" title="Família homoparental – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Família homoparental" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoparentalita" title="Homoparentalita – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Homoparentalita" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_homoparental" title="Familia homoparental – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Familia homoparental" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%87%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="بچه‌داری همجنس‌گرایان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بچه‌داری همجنس‌گرایان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoparentalit%C3%A9" title="Homoparentalité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Homoparentalité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omogenitorialit%C3%A0" title="Omogenitorialità – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Omogenitorialità" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%97%D7%93_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הורות חד מינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הורות חד מינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoseksual%C5%B3_t%C4%97vyst%C4%97" title="Homoseksualų tėvystė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Homoseksualų tėvystė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodzina_homoseksualna" title="Rodzina homoseksualna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rodzina homoseksualna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoparentalidade" title="Homoparentalidade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Homoparentalidade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Parenting of children by same-sex couples</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stephaniehaynes_family.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Stephaniehaynes_family.jpg/220px-Stephaniehaynes_family.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Stephaniehaynes_family.jpg/330px-Stephaniehaynes_family.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Stephaniehaynes_family.jpg/440px-Stephaniehaynes_family.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>A lesbian couple with their children.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_LGBTQ_topics" title="Outline of LGBTQ topics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ" title="LGBTQ">LGBTQ topics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span style="background:red; border:0px solid #000; vertical-align:center; padding-right:2.8em; padding-top:0ex; padding-bottom:0ex; line-height:100%"> </span><span style="background:orange; border:0px solid #000; vertical-align:center; padding-right:2.8em; padding-top:0ex; padding-bottom:0ex; line-height:100%"> </span><span style="background:yellow; border:0px solid #000; vertical-align:center; padding-right:2.8em; padding-top:0ex; padding-bottom:0ex; line-height:100%"> </span><span style="background:green; border:0px solid #000; vertical-align:center; padding-right:2.8em; padding-top:0ex; padding-bottom:0ex; line-height:100%"> </span><span style="background:blue; border:0px solid #000; vertical-align:center; padding-right:2.8em; padding-top:0ex; padding-bottom:0ex; line-height:100%"> </span><span style="background:purple; border:0px solid #000; vertical-align:center; padding-right:2.8em; padding-top:0ex; padding-bottom:0ex; line-height:100%"> </span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border: none; padding-bottom: 3px;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">Lesbian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gay_men" title="Gay men">Gay</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bisexuality" title="Bisexuality">Bisexual</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Queer" title="Queer">Queer</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aromanticism" title="Aromanticism">Aromanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asexuality" title="Asexuality">Asexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gray_asexuality" title="Gray asexuality">Gray asexuality</a> <ul><li><a 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href="/wiki/Gender_variance" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender variance">Gender variance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-heterosexual" title="Non-heterosexual">Non-heterosexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-binary_gender" title="Non-binary gender">Non-binary gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer" title="Queer">Queer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queer_heterosexuality" title="Queer heterosexuality">Queer heterosexuality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questioning_(sexuality_and_gender)" title="Questioning (sexuality and gender)">Questioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">Sexual identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex%E2%80%93gender_distinction" title="Sex–gender distinction">Sex–gender distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_man" title="Trans man">Trans man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_woman" title="Trans woman">Trans woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">Transsexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-spirit" title="Two-spirit">Two-spirit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_LGBTQ_history" title="Timeline of LGBTQ history">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_same-sex_marriage" title="Timeline of same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_homosexuality" title="History of homosexuality">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_movements" title="LGBTQ movements">Movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_same-sex_unions" title="History of same-sex unions">Same-sex unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Identities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism" title="History of lesbianism">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_homosexuality" title="History of homosexuality">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_bisexuality" title="History of bisexuality">Bisexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history" title="Transgender history">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_and_LGBT" title="Intersex and LGBT">Intersex</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture" title="LGBTQ culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ-owned_business" title="LGBTQ-owned business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coming_out" title="Coming out">Coming out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_community" title="LGBTQ community">Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBTQ_community" title="African-American LGBTQ community">African-American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyke_March" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyke March">Dyke March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_events" title="List of LGBTQ events">Events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_awareness_periods" title="List of LGBTQ awareness periods">Awareness periods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_LGBTQ_events" title="List of largest LGBTQ events">Largest events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_village" title="Gay village">Gay village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ%2B_media" title="LGBTQ+ media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ-related_films" title="List of LGBTQ-related films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_queer_cinema" title="New queer cinema">New queer cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_periodicals" title="List of LGBTQ periodicals">Periodicals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture" title="LGBTQ culture">LGBTQ culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture_in_New_York_City" title="LGBTQ culture in New York City">in New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pride_(LGBTQ_culture)" title="Pride (LGBTQ culture)">Pride</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pride_Month" title="Pride Month">Pride Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pride_parade" title="Pride parade">Parade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_art" title="Queer art">Queer art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queerplatonic_relationship" title="Queerplatonic relationship">QPR and QPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_relationship" title="Same-sex relationship">Same-sex relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_slang" title="LGBTQ slang">Slang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polari" title="Polari">Polari</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosocialization" title="Homosocialization">Socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_gender_identity-based_cultures" title="Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures">Subcultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols" title="LGBTQ symbols">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pride_flag" title="Pride flag">Flags</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takat%C4%81pui" title="Takatāpui">Takatāpui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moe_aik%C4%81ne" title="Moe aikāne">Moe aikāne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_tourism" title="LGBTQ tourism">Tourism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="LGBTQ rights by country or territory">Rights</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_union" title="Civil union">Civil union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decriminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Decriminalization of homosexuality">Decriminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_and_gender_identity_in_military_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual orientation and gender identity in military service">Military service</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="LGBTQ rights by country or territory">Rights by country or territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgender rights">Transgender rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta_Principles" title="Yogyakarta Principles">Yogyakarta Principles</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_and_the_LGBTQ_community" title="Healthcare and the LGBTQ community">Health</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Men who have sex with men">MSM</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">Blood donation restrictions</a> / <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_medical_organizations" title="List of LGBTQ medical organizations">LGBTQ medical organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_reproduction" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT reproduction">Reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_health_care" title="Transgender health care">Transgender health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_among_LGBTQ_youth" title="Suicide among LGBTQ youth">Youth suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detransition" title="Detransition">Detransition</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Societal_attitudes_toward_homosexuality" title="Societal attitudes toward homosexuality">Social attitudes</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allonormativity" title="Allonormativity">Allonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-orientation_marriage" title="Mixed-orientation marriage">Mixed-orientation marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_LGBTQ_people" title="Media portrayal of LGBTQ people">Media portrayal</a></li> <li>Religion and <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">homosexuality</a> / <a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_religion" title="Transgender people and religion">trans people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_diversity" title="Sexual diversity">Sexual diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_stereotypes" title="LGBTQ stereotypes">Stereotypes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)">Issues</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanticism#Discrimination_and_cultural_erasure" title="Aromanticism">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AIDS_stigma" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS stigma">AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">Grooming conspiracy theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_bullying" title="LGBTQ bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_LGBTQ_issues" title="Censorship of LGBTQ issues">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closeted" title="Closeted">Closeted</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outing" title="Outing">Outing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_heterosexuality" title="Compulsory heterosexuality">Comphet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_same-sex_relationships" title="Domestic violence in same-sex relationships">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_erasure" title="Queer erasure">Erasure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Straightwashing" title="Straightwashing">Straightwashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisexual_erasure" title="Bisexual erasure">Bisexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_erasure" title="Lesbian erasure">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_erasure" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans erasure">Trans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteropatriarchy" title="Heteropatriarchy">Heteropatriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_homophobia" title="Liberal homophobia">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Intersex discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li>LGBTQ youth <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_among_LGBTQ_youth" title="Suicide among LGBTQ youth">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_youth_vulnerability" title="LGBTQ youth vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_migration" title="LGBT migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_LGBT_community" title="Racism in the LGBT community">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexualism">Sexualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Trans women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans people</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dadaff; padding-left: 3px;;color: var(--color-base)">Academic fields and discourse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; margin-bottom: -4px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism_and_LGBT_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Communism and LGBT rights">Communism and LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">Lavender linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_conservatism" title="LGBTQ conservatism">LGBTQ conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_conservatism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT conservatism in the United States">LGBT conservatism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_anarchism" title="Queer anarchism">Queer anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_studies" title="Queer studies">Queer studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_theory" title="Queer theory">Queer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_and_LGBT_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialism and LGBT rights">Socialism and LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">Transfeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_studies" title="Transgender studies">Transgender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travesti_(gender_identity)#Academic_research" title="Travesti (gender identity)">Travesti</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top: none;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portal_LGBT.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Portal_LGBT.svg/25px-Portal_LGBT.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Portal_LGBT.svg/38px-Portal_LGBT.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Portal_LGBT.svg/50px-Portal_LGBT.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="442" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:LGBTQ" title="Portal:LGBTQ">LGBTQ portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:LGBTQ_sidebar" title="Template:LGBTQ sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:LGBTQ_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:LGBTQ sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:LGBTQ_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:LGBTQ sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Same-sex parenting</b> (also known as <b>rainbow families</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the <a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">parenting</a> of <a href="/wiki/Children" class="mw-redirect" title="Children">children</a> by <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_relationship" title="Same-sex relationship">same-sex couples</a> generally consisting of <a href="/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">gay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">lesbian</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Bisexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Bisexual">bisexual</a> people who are often in <a href="/wiki/Civil_partnership" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil partnership">civil partnerships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domestic_partnership" title="Domestic partnership">domestic partnerships</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_union" title="Civil union">civil unions</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">same-sex marriages</a>. </p><p>Opponents of same-sex parenting argue that it has an adverse impact on <a href="/wiki/Children" class="mw-redirect" title="Children">children</a>. However, scientific research consistently shows that <a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">lesbian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">gay</a> parents are as capable and fit as <a href="/wiki/Heterosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterosexual">heterosexual</a> parents and that <a href="/wiki/Children" class="mw-redirect" title="Children">children</a> reared by <a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">lesbian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">gay</a> parents are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as those reared by <a href="/wiki/Heterosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterosexual">heterosexual</a> parents.<sup id="cite_ref-cpa2006_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cpa2006-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-apsp_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apsp-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-amici2010_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amici2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major professional associations of <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychologist" title="Psychologist">psychologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychiatrist" title="Psychiatrist">psychiatrists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychoanalyst">psychoanalysts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pediatrician" class="mw-redirect" title="Pediatrician">pediatricians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Therapist" title="Therapist">therapists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_worker" class="mw-redirect" title="Social worker">social workers</a> have not identified credible empirical research that suggests otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-amici2010_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amici2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cpa2005_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cpa2005-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pediatrics_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pediatrics-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-herek2006_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herek2006-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-stacey2010_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stacey2010-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms">Forms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parents_SanFranciscoPrideParadeJun292008Flickr_files.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Parents_SanFranciscoPrideParadeJun292008Flickr_files.jpg/220px-Parents_SanFranciscoPrideParadeJun292008Flickr_files.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Parents_SanFranciscoPrideParadeJun292008Flickr_files.jpg/330px-Parents_SanFranciscoPrideParadeJun292008Flickr_files.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Parents_SanFranciscoPrideParadeJun292008Flickr_files.jpg/440px-Parents_SanFranciscoPrideParadeJun292008Flickr_files.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1667" /></a><figcaption>A gay couple with their children at <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Pride" title="San Francisco Pride">San Francisco Pride</a>, 2008.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Newcastle_Pride_2015,_Newcastle_upon_Tyne,_July_2015_(10).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Newcastle_Pride_2015%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne%2C_July_2015_%2810%29.JPG/220px-Newcastle_Pride_2015%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne%2C_July_2015_%2810%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Newcastle_Pride_2015%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne%2C_July_2015_%2810%29.JPG/330px-Newcastle_Pride_2015%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne%2C_July_2015_%2810%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Newcastle_Pride_2015%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne%2C_July_2015_%2810%29.JPG/440px-Newcastle_Pride_2015%2C_Newcastle_upon_Tyne%2C_July_2015_%2810%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="3672" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm/200px--The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="113" data-durationhint="141" data-mwtitle="The_Calling_-_Emma_(2021).webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:The_Calling_-_Emma_(2021).webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/95/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/95/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/95/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/95/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/95/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/95/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/95/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm/The_Calling_-_Emma_%282021%29.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>"<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Calling_(film_series)/Emma" class="extiw" title="s:The Calling (film series)/Emma">Emma</a>", an episode of the 2021 propaganda film series <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Calling_(film_series)" class="extiw" title="s:The Calling (film series)">The Calling</a></i>, released by the United States Army. The short film features a soldier recounting her childhood experience being raised by lesbian parents, and was widely criticized by conservative political and media figures.</figcaption></figure> <p>LGBT people can become parents through various means including current or former relationships, <a href="/wiki/Coparenting" title="Coparenting">coparenting</a>, <a href="/wiki/LGBT_adoption" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT adoption">adoption</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">foster care</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donor_insemination" class="mw-redirect" title="Donor insemination">donor insemination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_IVF" class="mw-redirect" title="Reciprocal IVF">reciprocal IVF</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Surrogate_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Surrogate pregnancy">surrogacy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Berkowitz_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berkowitz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A gay man, a lesbian, or a transgender person who transitions later in life may have children within an opposite-sex relationship, such as a <a href="/wiki/Mixed-orientation_marriage" title="Mixed-orientation marriage">mixed-orientation marriage</a>, for various reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-Brokeback_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brokeback-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moore07_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore07-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Married_Lesbian_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Married_Lesbian-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some children do not know they have an LGBT parent; <a href="/wiki/Coming_out" title="Coming out">coming out</a> issues vary and some parents may never disclose to their children that they identify as LGBT. Accordingly, how children respond to their LGBT parent(s) coming out has little to do with their sexual orientation or gender identification, but rather with how either parent responds to acts of coming out; i.e. whether there is dissolution of parental partnerships or rather if parents maintain a healthy, open, and communicative relationship after coming out or during transition in the case of trans parents.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunne_EJ_1987_213–22_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunne_EJ_1987_213–22-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-haworthpress.com_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haworthpress.com-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Faccio,_Elena_2013_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faccio,_Elena_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people are parents. In the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census,_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Census, 2000">2000 U.S. Census</a>, for example, 33 percent of female same-sex couple households and 22 percent of male same-sex couple households reported at least one child under the age of 18 living in the home.<sup id="cite_ref-apa_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apa-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2005, an estimated 270,313 children in the United States live in households headed by same-sex couples.<sup id="cite_ref-censussnapshot_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-censussnapshot-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adoption">Adoption</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Adoption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/LGBT_adoption" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT adoption">LGBT adoption</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_same-sex_adoption_laws.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/World_same-sex_adoption_laws.svg/450px-World_same-sex_adoption_laws.svg.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/World_same-sex_adoption_laws.svg/675px-World_same-sex_adoption_laws.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/World_same-sex_adoption_laws.svg/900px-World_same-sex_adoption_laws.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="856" data-file-height="434" /></a><figcaption>Legal status of adoption by same-sex couples around the world: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#800080; color:white;"> </span> Joint adoption allowed</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ba75ff; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Second-parent_adoption" title="Second-parent adoption">Second-parent adoption</a> allowed</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#CCCCCC; color:black;"> </span> No laws allowing adoption by same-sex couples and no same-sex marriage</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#E4D69D; color:black;"> </span> Same-sex marriage but adoption by married same-sex couples not allowed</div> </figcaption></figure> <p>Joint adoption by same-sex couples is legal in <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">35</a> countries and in some sub-national territories. Some <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">countries</a> include Argentina, Brazil, Columbia, Sweden, and the United States. Likewise, some sub-national territories include the Cayman Islands, Mexico City, and Puebla. Furthermore, two countries (Estonia and San Marino) and one sub-national jurisdiction or dependent territory (Hong Kong) have <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">legalized or permitted</a> some form of step-child adoption. Step-child adoption is defined as a partner adopting the child of their partner. However, step-child adoption is not legal or recognized in some countries, including <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">Italy</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism#Institutional_level" title="Heterosexism">Institutional heterosexism</a> (defined as unequal and inequitable attitudes and actions within an institution’s – schools, hospitals, etc. – decision-making and processing) can be observed in adoption policies in many parts of the world: some countries or states explicitly prohibit adoption by openly queer individuals, including lesbian, gay or bisexual people. <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">Other jurisdictions</a> make decisions about whether LGBT people may adopt on a <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">case-by-case</a> basis, with great variability between agencies depending upon the focus of the agency (special needs children, infants, etc.), the religious affiliation of the agency if any, and the disposition of area supervisors and placement workers. </p><p>There are also legal barriers to international adoptions, since currently no countries which are actively involved in international adoption (e.g. China, Guatemala) permit adoption by openly identified lesbian and gay people. Bisexual, transgender and transsexual people are not typically explicitly named, but are presumably included in these prohibitions.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notably, LGBT adoption rights are left to <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">judicial decision-making</a>. Opponents of LGBTQ adoption argue that LGBTQ individuals are not prepared to parent children and have <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">adverse effects</a> on children’s upbringing and growth. There are barriers present among LGBT families in the adoption process, including discrimination by agencies at every stage, stigma from social workers, birth parents, judges and attorneys, and other members of the birth family.<sup id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notably, adoption is generally the number one choice of family formation for LGBTQ individuals and the last resort for heterosexual individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, research supports that LGBTQ parents are just as capable of parenthood as heterosexual parents and are able to raise <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">physically and emotionally healthy</a> and well-adjusted children. There is a lot of <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">social pressure</a> that is connected to queer adoptive parenting, including fitting heteronormative gender roles, which is further promoted and encouraged by adoption agencies, particularly in the United States. Queer people are forced to hide or downplay their sexual orientation to fit these gender norms and appear as a more “suitable” and “legitimate” candidate for adoption.<sup id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There could be a mutually beneficial relationship between adoption agencies and LGTBQ+ individuals if stigma were removed, and with that the reduction of major stressors among LGBT individuals during this anxious time. However, research supports that, “LGBTQ people should be regarded as highly valuable assets by the child welfare system and adoption agencies.”<sup id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, adoption is a complex system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Judgements">Judgements</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Judgements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1968, California man Bill Jones became one of the first gay men to adopt a child. He later participated in the gay rights movement with Glide Memorial Church.<sup id="cite_ref-Scribd_1969_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scribd_1969-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Crosby-Cooper_2020_p._231_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crosby-Cooper_2020_p._231-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sandy Schuster and Madeleine Isaacson, who met at their Pentecostal church, won America's first custody battle in favor of a lesbian couple in 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 2008, the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights" title="European Court of Human Rights">European Court of Human Rights</a> ruled that an otherwise legally qualified and suitable candidate must not be excluded from <a href="/wiki/LGBT_adoption" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT adoption">adopting</a> based on their sexual orientation.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2010 a Florida court declared that "reports and studies find that there are no differences in the parenting of homosexuals or the adjustment of their children", therefore the <i>Court is satisfied that the issue is so far beyond dispute that it would be irrational to hold otherwise.</i><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Fulton_v._City_of_Philadelphia">Fulton v. City of Philadelphia</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fulton v. City of Philadelphia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Fulton_v._City_of_Philadelphia" title="Fulton v. City of Philadelphia">Fulton v. City of Philadelphia</a></i> is a Supreme Court case between Catholic Social Services (CSS) and the city of Philadelphia that took place from November 4, 2020, to June 17, 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city's contracts with adoption agencies prohibit discrimination of LGBTQ couples by law. The city of Philadelphia ended its contract with CSS because the agency refused to consider LGBTQ couples when screening for foster care parents, stating that their actions were due to the religious belief that marriage is between a man and a woman. CSS operates other types of foster care services, like group homes, and received millions of dollars from Philadelphia regardless of the dismissal of their contract.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the court case, CSS claimed that the dismissal of their contract with the city was impeding on their First Amendment right.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lawyer for Philadelphia, Neal Katyal, argued that, "You can't on Monday sign a contract that says we won't discriminate and on Tuesday go ahead and discriminate."<sup id="cite_ref-:03_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case also aimed to overturn a prior Supreme Court case, <i><a href="/wiki/Employment_Division_v._Smith" title="Employment Division v. Smith">Employment Division v. Smith</a></i> (1990), which concluded that the government's neutral enforcement of a general law is legitimate even if it negatively impacts a religious party.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court ruled that Philadelphia's decision to dismiss the contract violated the rights granted by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite siding with CSS in Fulton vs. City of Philadelphia, the court did not overturn the 1990 case ruling. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surrogacy">Surrogacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Surrogacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Surrogacy" title="Surrogacy">Surrogacy</a></div> <p>Some LGBTQ couples decide to have children via surrogacy. A surrogate is a person carrying an egg fertilized by sperm with the explicit intention of giving the baby to someone else to parent. Both the egg and sperm can be given by the surrogate, a donor, or one of the intended parents. Gestational carriers are a form of surrogate who carry a fetus which they do not have a genetic relationship to.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> One study suggests that gestational carriers have a higher success rates than carriers who use their own oocytes.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some people become surrogates for money, others for humanitarian reasons or both.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parents who use surrogacy services can be stigmatized, and the process of surrogacy faces criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stories of parents being misled about how much their surrogate was being paid have been reported, leading to questions about the ethics of monetized surrogacy.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insemination">Insemination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Insemination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">Artificial insemination</a></div> <p>Insemination is a relatively non-invasive method of conception. For couples where one or both partners have a uterus and ovaries and no infertility issues, donor sperm insemination can be a first-line approach to conception.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Insemination is when one partner with a uterus and ovaries is fertilized with donor sperm. Insemination may occur intravaginally at home, or as a procedure such as intrauterine insemination (IUI) in a medical facility.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Donor sperm may come from a sperm bank, from a family member, a friend, or an acquaintance. Couples who choose to conceive using sperm from a known donor may be required to draw up legal contracts with the donor outlining the parenting obligations and rights (or lack thereof) of the donor parent.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, this varies on a state-by-state basis. While some states require that a donor makes their donation through a medical facility in order for their parental rights to be forfeited, others only require a clear, written agreement prior to conception.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some people who produce sperm donate it for humanitarian reasons, others for money or both. In some countries, the donor can choose to be anonymous (for example in Spain) and in others, they cannot have their identity withheld (United Kingdom). A study on lesbian parenting experience highlights this for Greek women, saying, “In Greece, lesbians are not allowed access to in vitro fertilisation (IVF), while a solitary (‘single’) woman is allowed access for medical reasons.” <sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Couples who conceive using donor insemination may experience barriers to sharing legal custody of their children. Historically, courts generally favored the genetic parent over the non-genetic parent in custody cases.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the legalization of same-sex marriage has enabled some states to apply marriage-based paternity provisions in same-sex lesbian couples. Under these provisions, both partners are presumed to have legal parenthood over children conceived during the marriage. Alternatively, the non-gestational parent may go through second-parent adoption to become a legal parent of the child. Further, multiple courts have used doctrines such as psychological parenthood, equitable parenthood, and de facto parenthood to grant non-biological, non-adoptive parents custody of their children.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reciprocal_IVF">Reciprocal IVF</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Reciprocal IVF"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_IVF" class="mw-redirect" title="Reciprocal IVF">Reciprocal IVF</a></div> <p>Reciprocal IVF, also called Co-IVF, can enable couples to share biological parenthood. Reciprocal IVF is used by couples in which at least one partner has eggs and another has a uterus.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In reciprocal IVF, one partner shares their eggs. This partner undergoes hormonal stimulation and monitoring in addition to the oocyte retrieval.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gestational partner receives the embryo. This partner may also undergo hormonal treatment and monitoring, sonographic monitoring, and one or more embryo transfers.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Couples may choose their role as the oocyte provider or gestational parent depending on a number of factors, including biological reasons such as infertility and personal reasons such as desire to be pregnant.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  In some cases, both partners may go through the oocyte-sharing process, after which the oocytes are mixed, fertilized, and then implanted.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach allows couples to have a biological child without knowing which partner provided the genetic contribution. In addition, couples may plan to attempt dual partner conception, in which both partners plan to eventually conceive and gestate a child. One specific type of dual partner conception involves repeating the reciprocal IVF process twice, reversing roles for each attempt, so that each partner has both a gestational and a genetic connection with their children.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Given that reciprocal IVF typically also relies on sperm donation, couples using reciprocal IVF face many of the same challenges of legal parenthood as those using donor insemination. In addition, in the United States, different states have different laws regarding the recognition of parental rights. These laws are often not equipped to ensure parental rights for both partners in the case of reciprocal IVF, given that each parent has a different biological connection to the child. Though reciprocal IVF means that both parents are biologically connected to the child (either through genetic connections or gestational connections), not every state automatically offers parental rights to both parents. Further, if parents choose to pursue second-parent adoption to ensure parental rights for both parents, it is not always clear which parent should petition to adopt their child through second-parent adoption.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developing_methods">Developing methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Developing methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/LGBT_reproduction" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT reproduction">LGBT reproduction</a></div> <p>Currently scientists conduct research on alternative types of human parenthood which can aid same-sex couples to have children.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the possibilities is obtaining sperm from skin stem cells.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method is called in vitro gametogenesis, and it involves using adult cells and reprogramming them to function as sperm and egg cells.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has yet to be done with humans, but there have been ethical concerns raised about this method. Some are concerned from a eugenics point of view, as this method would allow people to modify the cells that they are using, giving them much more control over the genes that would be present in the offspring. However, this method would allow for parents to ensure their offspring did not have any dangerous health risks, something that could be useful to create healthy children. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Statistics">Statistics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Statistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trans_adoption.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Trans_adoption.png/220px-Trans_adoption.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Trans_adoption.png/330px-Trans_adoption.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Trans_adoption.png/440px-Trans_adoption.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="573" /></a><figcaption>Public acceptance of legal adoption by trans people (Ipsos, 2017)</figcaption></figure> <p>Data from a survey called the American Community Survey carried out from 2014 to 2016 estimated that the number of same-sex couples raising children in the United States was 114,000. Out of all of the same-sex couples in the US, the survey approximated that 24% of female same-sex couples were raising children in comparison to 8% of male same-sex couples. Additionally about 21% of same-sex partners had an adopted child.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2014 literature review of 51 surveys of Transgender people in the US found that between one quarter and one half reported being parents with more Trans women being parents than Trans men.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In comparison, a 2015 survey of about 27,700 Transgender and Gender Non-conforming people found that 18% reported being a parent to a child.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of gay and lesbian parents in the United States have been reported to range between 2 and 8 million , while estimates of children of lesbian and gay parents range from 4 to 14 million.<sup id="cite_ref-LAbate_1998_p._52_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LAbate_1998_p._52-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> An LGBT Family Building Survey compiled by an LGBT rights coalition called Family Equality found that, in the US, in 2019:</p><blockquote><p>63% of LGBTQ Millennials (aged 18-35) are considering expanding their families, either becoming parents for the first time, or by having more children </p><p>48% of LGBTQ Millennials are actively planning to grow their families, compared to 55% of non-LGBTQ Millennials, a gap that has narrowed significantly in comparison to older generations </p><p> 63% of LGBTQ people planning families expect to use assisted reproductive technology, foster care, or adoption to become parents, a significant shift away from older generations of LGBTQ parents for whom the majority of children were conceived through intercourse.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>A study on the empowerment of LGBT couples in Finland found there were 4 factors that contributed to higher feelings of support: </p><blockquote><p>1) Parents' willingness to create socially recognized families, 2) Parenthood support, 3) Respectful partnership with all parents, and 4) Accessible services.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>According to a 2013–14 survey conducted in Poland by the Institute of Psychology of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Polish Academy of Sciences">Polish Academy of Sciences</a> (IP PAN) on 3000 LGBT people in same-sex relationships living in the country, 9% (11.7% of women and 4.6% of men) of coupled LGBT people were parents.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/2011_Canadian_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Canadian Census">2011 Canadian Census</a> had similar conclusions to these of the Polish study: 9.4% of Canadian gay couples were bringing up children.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A literature review of LGBT families' economic well being in the US states that there is also greater food insecurity and less ability to access resources to relieve the effects of poverty among LGBTQ families because of the fear of discrimination.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One suggested reason for this is that the majority of LGBT couples belong to more than one marginalized group which have lower overall incomes than people in non-marginalized communities.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Family</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#aaddff; color:#000;;color: var(--color-base)">Marriage and other unions and status</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_marriages" title="Types of marriages">Types of marriages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohabitation" title="Cohabitation">Cohabitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">Concubinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common-law_marriage" title="Common-law marriage">Common-law marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_union" title="Civil union">Civil union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_partnership" title="Domestic partnership">Domestic partnership</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#aaddff; color:#000;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Validity of marriages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_licence" class="mw-redirect" title="Marriage licence">Marriage licence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_certificate" title="Marriage certificate">Marriage certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenuptial_agreement" title="Prenuptial agreement">Prenuptial agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrimonial_regime" title="Matrimonial regime">Matrimonial regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Void_marriage" title="Void marriage">Void</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voidable_marriage" title="Voidable marriage">Voidable marriages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annulment" title="Annulment">Annulment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriageable_age" title="Marriageable age">Marriageable age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sham_marriage" title="Sham marriage">Sham marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#aaddff; color:#000;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">Dissolution of marriages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">Adultery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grounds_for_divorce" title="Grounds for divorce">Grounds for divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-fault_divorce" title="No-fault divorce">No-fault divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrimonial_Causes_Act" title="Matrimonial Causes Act">Matrimonial Causes Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_separation" title="Legal separation">Legal separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alimony" title="Alimony">Alimony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting_plan" title="Parenting plan">Parenting plan</a></li> <li>Residence [UK (EW and NI)]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Custody_evaluation" title="Custody evaluation">Custody evaluator (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting_coordinator" title="Parenting coordinator">Parenting coordinator (US)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#aaddff; color:#000;;color: var(--color-base)">Children's issues</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paternity_law" title="Paternity law">Paternity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_paternity_testing" title="DNA paternity testing">DNA paternity testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(family_law)" title="Legitimacy (family law)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_custody" title="Child custody">Child custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_guardian" title="Legal guardian">Legal guardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tender_years_doctrine" title="Tender years doctrine">Tender years doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filial_responsibility_laws" title="Filial responsibility laws">Filial responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contact_(law)" title="Contact (law)">Contact & visitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_and_Family_Court_Advisory_and_Support_Service" title="Children and Family Court Advisory and Support Service">CAFCASS [UK (EW)]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandparent_visitation" title="Grandparent visitation">Grandparent visitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child" title="Convention on the Rights of the Child">UN Rights of the Child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_rights" title="Children's rights">Children's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_of_minors" title="Emancipation of minors">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">Foster care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ward_(law)" title="Ward (law)">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_support" title="Child support">Child support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_abortion" title="Paper abortion">Paper abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_child_abuse_cases_featuring_long-term_detention" class="mw-redirect" title="List of child abuse cases featuring long-term detention">List of child abuse cases featuring long-term detention</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#aaddff; color:#000;;color: var(--color-base)">Private international law</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Private international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_divorce_laws" title="Conflict of divorce laws">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_marriage_laws" title="Conflict of marriage laws">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Adoption_Convention" title="Hague Adoption Convention">Hague Convention (adoption)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_child_abduction" title="International child abduction">International child abduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_on_the_Civil_Aspects_of_International_Child_Abduction" title="Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction">Hague Convention (child abduction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_on_the_International_Recovery_of_Child_Support_and_Other_Forms_of_Family_Maintenance" title="Hague Convention on the International Recovery of Child Support and Other Forms of Family Maintenance">Hague Convention (maintenance)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#aaddff; color:#000;;color: var(--color-base)">Family and criminal code <br /> (or criminal law)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bigamy" title="Bigamy">Bigamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Protective_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="Child Protective Services">CPS (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_selling" title="Child selling">Child selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_incest" title="Legality of incest">Legality of incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_child_abduction" title="Parental child abduction">Parental child abduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_responsibility_(access_and_custody)" title="Parental responsibility (access and custody)">Parental duties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents%27_rights_movement" title="Parents' rights movement">Parents' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternity_fraud" title="Paternity fraud">Paternity fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternal_rights_and_abortion" title="Paternal rights and abortion">Paternal rights and abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_family_life" title="Right to family life">Right to family life</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Family_law" title="Template:Family law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Family_law" title="Template talk:Family law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Family_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Family law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Scientific research consistently shows that gay and lesbian parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as those reared by heterosexual parents.<sup id="cite_ref-cpa2006_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cpa2006-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-apsp_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apsp-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-amici2010_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amici2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major associations of mental health professionals in the U.S., Canada, and Australia have not identified credible empirical research that suggests otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-amici2010_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amici2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pediatrics_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pediatrics-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-herek2006_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herek2006-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-stacey2010_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stacey2010-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cpa2005_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cpa2005-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, studies on the effect of gay and lesbian parenting on children were first conducted in the 1970s, and expanded through the 1980s in the context of increasing numbers of gay and lesbian parents seeking legal custody of their biological children.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitzgerald_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzgerald-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Children and young adults with LGBT parents are uniquely defined by the fact that they typically identify as heterosexual, but as a function of their membership in an LGBT-parent family, they are exposed to minority stress and experience the effects of adulthood. Thus, a central question in this study is, How do young adults with LGBT parents explain their sense of connection to or disconnection from the LGBT community, both as children (while growing up with LGBT parents) and as young adults?<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regarding the transmission of gender roles, LGBT parents are caught between two contrasting images: "they are portrayed as either inherently different from, or essentially the same as, heterosexual families". Lesbians are either seen as a threat to heternormativity because they are militant, anti-male feminists, or as especially safe caregivers because they are two loving, nurturing women, who are unlikely to be sexually abusive. Gay men are also caught between these two contrasting images. On one hand they do not have women’s ability to breastfeed children, are perceived as sexually (over)active and potentially predatory and, like lesbians, too political; on the other hand they are more maternal and more feminine than heterosexual men.<sup id="cite_ref-Istar_Lev_268–290_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Istar_Lev_268–290-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The underlying assumption is that gay men and lesbians are different in some essential way from heterosexual people, and this difference implicates their aberrant gender expression. Therefore, they are unable to model appropriate gender behavior to their children, for example, the assumption that gay fathers are unable to bathe their daughters or discuss puberty and menstruation.<sup id="cite_ref-Istar_Lev_268–290_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Istar_Lev_268–290-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methodology">Methodology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies of LGBT parenting have sometimes suffered from small and/or non-random samples and inability to implement all possible controls, due to the small LGBT parenting population and to cultural and social obstacles to identifying as an LGBT parent. </p><p>A 1993 review published in the <i>Journal of Divorce & Remarriage</i> identified fourteen studies addressing the effects of LGBT parenting on children. The review concluded that all of the studies lacked <a href="/wiki/External_validity" title="External validity">external validity</a> and that therefore: "The conclusion that there are no significant differences in children reared by lesbian mothers versus heterosexual mothers is not supported by the published research database."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fitzgerald's 1999 analysis explained some methodological difficulties: </p> <blockquote> <p>Many of these studies suffer from similar limitations and weaknesses, with the main obstacle being the difficulty in acquiring representative, random samples on a virtually invisible population. Many lesbian and gay parents are not open about their sexual orientation due to real fears of discrimination, homophobia, and threats of losing custody of their children. Those who do participate in this type of research are usually relatively open about their homosexuality and, therefore, may bias the research towards a particular group of gay and lesbian parents. </p><p>Because of the inevitable use of convenience samples, sample sizes are usually very small and the majority of the research participants end up looking quite homogeneous—e.g. white, middle-class, urban, and well-educated. Another pattern is the wide discrepancy between the number of studies conducted with children of gay fathers and those with lesbian mothers... </p><p>Another potential factor of importance is the possibility of social desirability bias when research subjects respond in ways that present themselves and their families in the most desirable light possible. Such a phenomenon does seem possible due to the desire of this population to offset and reverse negative images and discrimination. Consequently, the findings of these studies may be patterned by self-presentation bias.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitzgerald_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzgerald-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>According to a 2001 review of 21 studies by Stacey and Biblarz published in <i><a href="/wiki/American_Sociological_Review" title="American Sociological Review">American Sociological Review</a></i>: "[R]esearchers lack reliable data on the number and location of lesbigay parents with children in the general population, there are no studies of child development based on random, representative samples of such families. Most studies rely on small-scale, snowball and convenience samples were drawn primarily from personal and community networks or agencies. Most research to date has been conducted on white lesbian mothers who are comparatively educated, mature, and reside in relatively progressive urban centers, most often in California or the Northeastern states."<sup id="cite_ref-Stacey_Biblarz_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stacey_Biblarz-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In more recent studies,<sup id="cite_ref-mazrekaj_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazrekaj-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> many of these issues have been resolved due to factors such as the changing social climate for LGBT people. </p><p>Herek's 2006 paper in <i>American Psychologist</i> stated: </p> <blockquote><p> The overall methodological sophistication and quality of studies in this domain have increased over the years, as would be expected for any new area of empirical inquiry. More recent research has reported data from probability and community-based convenience samples, has used more rigorous assessment techniques, and has been published in highly respected and widely cited developmental psychology journals, including <i>Child Development and Developmental Psychology</i>. Data are increasingly available from prospective studies. In addition, whereas early study samples consisted mainly of children originally born into heterosexual relationships that subsequently dissolved when one parent came out as gay or lesbian, recent samples are more likely to include children conceived within a same-sex relationship or adopted in infancy by a same-sex couple. Thus, they are less likely to confound the effects of having a sexual minority parent with the consequences of divorce.<sup id="cite_ref-herek2006_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herek2006-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A 2002 review of the literature identified 20 studies examining outcomes among children raised by gay or lesbian parents and found that these children did not systematically differ from those raised by heterosexual parents on any of the studied outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 2009 affidavit filed in the case <i><a href="/wiki/Gill_v._Office_of_Personnel_Management" title="Gill v. Office of Personnel Management">Gill v. Office of Personnel Management</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Lamb_(psychologist)" title="Michael Lamb (psychologist)">Michael Lamb</a>, a professor of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and head of Department of <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental Psychology</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a>, stated: </p> <blockquote><p>The methodologies used in the major studies of same-sex parenting meet the standards for research in the field of developmental psychology and psychology generally. The studies specific to same-sex parenting were published in leading journals in the field of child and adolescent development, such as Child Development, published by the Society for Research in Child Development, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_Psychology_(journal)" title="Developmental Psychology (journal)">Developmental Psychology</a>, published by the American Psychological Association, and The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, the flagship peer-review journals in the field of child development. Most of the studies appeared in these (or similar) rigorously peer-reviewed and highly selective journals, whose standards represent expert consensus on generally accepted social scientific standards for research on child and adolescent development. Prior to publication in these journals, these studies were required to go through a rigorous peer-review process, and as a result, they constitute the type of research that members of the respective professions consider reliable. The body of research on same-sex families is consistent with standards in the relevant fields and produces reliable conclusions."<sup id="cite_ref-lamb_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lamb-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Gartrell and Bos's 25-year longitudinal study, published 2010, was limited to mothers who sought donor insemination and who may have been more motivated than mothers in other circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gartrell and Bos note that the study's limitations included utilizing a non-random sample, and the lesbian group and control group were not matched for race or area of residence.<sup id="cite_ref-Gartrell_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gartrell-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Michael J. Rosenfeld, associate professor of sociology at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>, wrote in a 2010 study published in <i>Demography</i> that "[A] critique of the literature—that the sample sizes of the studies are too small to allow for <a href="/wiki/Statistical_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical power">statistically powerful</a> tests—continues to be relevant." Rosenfeld's study, "the first to use large-sample nationally representative data," found that children of same-sex couples demonstrated normal outcomes in school. "The core finding here," reports the study," offers a measure of validation for the prior, and much-debated, small-sample studies."<sup id="cite_ref-rosen_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rosen-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a 2005 brief by the American Psychological Association: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In summary, research on diversity among families with lesbian and gay parents and on the potential effects of such diversity on children is still sparse (Martin, 1993, 1998; Patterson, 1995b, 2000, 2001, 2004; Perrin, 2002; Stacey & Biblarz, 2001; Tasker, 1999). Data on children of parents who identify as bisexual are still not available, and information about children of non-White lesbian or gay parents is hard to find (but see Wainright et al., 2004, for a racially diverse sample)... However, the existing data are still limited, and any conclusions must be seen as tentative... It should be acknowledged that research on lesbian and gay parents and their children, though no longer new, is still limited in extent. Although studies of gay fathers and their children have been conducted (Patterson, 2004), less is known about children of gay fathers than about children of lesbian mothers. Although studies of adolescent and young adult offspring of lesbian and gay parents are available (e.g., Gershon et al., 1999; Tasker & Golombok, 1997; Wainright et al., 2004), relatively few studies have focused on the offspring of lesbian or gay parents during adolescence or adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-APAreport_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APAreport-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 2010 American Psychological Association, The California Psychological Association, The American Psychiatric Association, and the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy stated: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Relatively few studies have directly examined gay fathers, but those that exist find that gay men are similarly fit and able parents, as compared to heterosexual men. Available empirical data do not provide a basis for assuming gay men are unsuited for parenthood. If gay parents were inherently unfit, even small studies with convenience samples would readily detect it. This has not been the case. Being raised by a single father does not appear to inherently disadvantage children's psychological wellbeing more than being raised by a single mother. Homosexuality does not constitute a pathology or deficit, and there is no theoretical reason to expect gay fathers to cause harm to their children. Thus, although more research is needed, available data place the burden of empirical proof on those who argue that having a gay father is harmful.<sup id="cite_ref-amici2010_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amici2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A significant increase in methodological rigor was achieved in a 2020 study by Deni Mazrekaj at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>, Kristof De Witte and Sofie Cabus at <a href="/wiki/KU_Leuven" title="KU Leuven">KU Leuven</a> published in the <a href="/wiki/American_Sociological_Review" title="American Sociological Review">American Sociological Review</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mazrekaj_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazrekaj-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors used administrative longitudinal data on the entire population of children born between 1998 and 2007 in the Netherlands, which was the first country to legalize same-sex marriage. They followed the educational performance of 2,971 children with same-sex parents and over a million children with different-sex parents from birth. This was the first study to address how children who were actually raised by same-sex parents from birth (instead of happening to live with a same-sex couple at some point in time) perform in school while retaining a large representative sample. The authors found that children raised by same-sex parents from birth perform better than children raised by different-sex parents in both primary and secondary education. According to the authors, a major factor explaining these results was parental socioeconomic status. Same-sex couples often have to use expensive fertility treatments and adoption procedures to have a child, meaning they tend to be wealthier, older and more educated than the typical different-sex couple. However, the study concluded that the positive effects of being raised by same-sex parents still remained after controlling for socioeconomic status, though they did lessen. The authors hypothesize that homophobic discrimination could cause same-sex parents to compensate by investing more time and energy into their children. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consensus">Consensus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Consensus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scientific research that has directly compared outcomes for children with gay and lesbian parents with outcomes for children with heterosexual parents has found that children raised by same-sex couples are as physically or psychologically healthy, capable, and successful as those raised by opposite-sex couples,<sup id="cite_ref-cpa2006_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cpa2006-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-apsp_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apsp-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-amici2010_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amici2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> despite the reality that considerable legal discrimination and inequity remain significant challenges for these families.<sup id="cite_ref-apsp_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apsp-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major associations of mental health professionals in the U.S., Canada, and Australia, have not identified credible empirical research that suggests otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-amici2010_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amici2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pediatrics_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pediatrics-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-herek2006_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herek2006-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-stacey2010_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stacey2010-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cpa2005_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cpa2005-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sociologist Wendy Manning echoes their conclusion that "[The] studies reveal that children raised in same-sex parent families fare just as well as children raised in different-sex parent families across a wide spectrum of child well-being measures: academic performance, cognitive development, social development, psychological health, early sexual activity, and substance abuse."<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The range of these studies allows for conclusions to be drawn beyond any narrow spectrum of a child's well-being, and the literature further indicates that parents' financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally recognized union.<sup id="cite_ref-amici2010_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amici2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pediatrics_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pediatrics-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lamb_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lamb-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cpa_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cpa-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is evidence that nuclear families with homosexual parents are more egalitarian in their distribution of home and childcare activities, and thus less likely to embrace traditional gender roles.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> reports that there are no differences in the interests and hobbies between children with homosexual versus heterosexual parents.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 1970s, it has become increasingly clear that it is family processes (such as the quality of parenting, the psychosocial well-being of parents, the quality of and satisfaction with relationships within the family, and the level of co-operation and harmony between parents) that contribute to determining children's well-being and outcomes rather than family structures, per se, such as the number, gender, sexuality and cohabitation status of parents.<sup id="cite_ref-apsp_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apsp-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lamb_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lamb-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the end of the 1980s, as a result, it has been well established that children and adolescents can be as well-adjusted in nontraditional settings as in traditional settings.<sup id="cite_ref-lamb_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lamb-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, whereas factors such as the number and cohabitation status of parents can and do influence relationship quality in aggregate, the same has not been demonstrated for sexuality. According to sociologist <a href="/wiki/Judith_Stacey" title="Judith Stacey">Judith Stacey</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a>, "Rarely is there as much consensus in any area of social science as in the case of gay parenting, which is why the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> and all of the major professional organizations with expertise in child welfare have issued reports and resolutions in support of gay and lesbian parental rights".<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These organizations include the American Academy of Pediatrics,<sup id="cite_ref-pediatrics_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pediatrics-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Child_and_Adolescent_Psychiatry" title="American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry">American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-aacap_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aacap-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-psych.org_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-psych.org-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_Marriage_and_Family_Therapy" title="American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy">American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychoanalytic_Association" title="American Psychoanalytic Association">American Psychoanalytic Association</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Social_Workers" title="National Association of Social Workers">National Association of Social Workers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-amici_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amici-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Child_Welfare_League_of_America" title="Child Welfare League of America">Child Welfare League of America</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the North American Council on Adoptable Children,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Psychological_Association" title="Canadian Psychological Association">Canadian Psychological Association</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_M._Herek" title="Gregory M. Herek">Gregory M. Herek</a> stated in <i><a href="/wiki/American_Psychologist" title="American Psychologist">American Psychologist</a></i>: "If gay, lesbian, or bisexual parents were inherently less capable than otherwise comparable heterosexual parents, their children would evidence problems regardless of the type of sample. This pattern clearly has not been observed. Given the consistent failures in this research literature to disprove the <a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null hypothesis</a>, the burden of empirical proof is on those who argue that the children of sexual minority parents fare worse than the children of heterosexual parents."<sup id="cite_ref-herek2006_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herek2006-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies and analyses include Bridget Fitzgerald's 1999 analysis of the research on gay and lesbian parenting, published in <i>Marriage & Family Review</i>, which found that the available studies generally concluded that "the sexual orientation of parents is not an effective or important predictor of successful childhood development"<sup id="cite_ref-Fitzgerald_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzgerald-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Gregory_M._Herek" title="Gregory M. Herek">Gregory M. Herek</a>'s 2006 analysis in <i><a href="/wiki/American_Psychologist" title="American Psychologist">American Psychologist</a></i>, which said: "Despite considerable variation in the quality of their samples, research design, measurement methods, and data analysis techniques, the findings to date have been remarkably consistent. Empirical studies comparing children raised by sexual minority parents with those raised by otherwise comparable heterosexual parents have not found reliable disparities in mental health or social adjustment. Differences have not been found in parenting ability between lesbian mothers and heterosexual mothers. Studies examining gay fathers are fewer in number but do not show that gay men are any less fit or able as parents than heterosexual men."<sup id="cite_ref-herek2006_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herek2006-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, some fear that children will inherit their parent's gender dysphoria or alternate mental health issues in the case of trans parent, yet there is research that suggests "an absence of evidence that children raised by transgendered  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] parents have a greater chance of experiencing […] development issues than raised by non-transgender parents" and further clinical research shows that "children of gender-variant parents do not develop gender dysphoria or mental diseases" due to their parents' diagnosis with gender identity disorder <sup id="cite_ref-Faccio,_Elena_2013_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faccio,_Elena_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 1996 meta-analysis found "no differences on any measures between the heterosexual and homosexual parents regarding parenting styles, emotional adjustment, and sexual orientation of the child(ren)";<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a 2008 meta-analysis reached similar conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2010, the results of a 25-year ongoing longitudinal study by <a href="/wiki/Nanette_Gartrell" title="Nanette Gartrell">Nanette Gartrell</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a> and Henny Bos of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Amsterdam" title="University of Amsterdam">University of Amsterdam</a> were released. Gartrell and Bos studied 78 children conceived through donor <a href="/wiki/Insemination" title="Insemination">insemination</a> and raised by lesbian mothers. Mothers were interviewed and given clinical questionnaires during pregnancy and when their children were 2, 5, 10, and 17 years of age. In the abstract of the report, the authors stated: "According to their mothers' reports, the 17-year-old daughters and sons of lesbian mothers were rated significantly higher in social, school/academic, and total competence and significantly lower in social problems, rule-breaking, aggressive, and externalizing problem behavior than their age-matched counterparts in Achenbach's normative sample of American youth."<sup id="cite_ref-Gartrell_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gartrell-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Analysis of extensive <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> literature into the question of children's psychological outcomes of being raised by same-sex parents by the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Family_Studies" title="Australian Institute of Family Studies">Australian Institute of Family Studies</a> in 2013 concluded that "there is now strong evidence that same-sex parented families constitute supportive environments in which to raise children" and that with regard to lesbian parenting "...clear benefits appear to exist with regard to: the quality of parenting children experience in comparison to their peers parented in heterosexual couple families; children's and young adults' greater tolerance of sexual and gender diversity; and gender flexibility displayed by children, particularly sons."<sup id="cite_ref-AIFS_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AIFS-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_orientation_and_gender_role">Sexual orientation and gender role</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sexual orientation and gender role"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reviews of data from studies thus far suggest that children reared by non-heterosexual parents have outcomes similar to those of children reared by heterosexual parents with respect to sexual orientation.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Census">U.S. Census</a>, 80% of the children being raised by same-sex couples in the United States are their biological children.<sup id="cite_ref-ABCNews_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABCNews-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regarding biological children of non-heterosexuals, a 2016 review led by <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bailey" title="J. Michael Bailey">J. Michael Bailey</a> states "We would expect, for example, that homosexual parents should be more likely than heterosexual parents to have homosexual children on the basis of genetics alone", as there is a modest heritability to sexual orientation.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research on twins separated at birth and large adoption studies finds that parents tend to have little to no environmental effects on their children's behavioural traits, which are instead correlated with genes shared between parent and child and the non-shared environment (environment which is unique to the child, such as random developmental noise and events, as opposed to rearing).<sup id="cite_ref-:5_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2016 Bailey et al. review concludes that there "is good evidence for both genetic and nonsocial environmental influences on sexual orientation" including <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">prenatal developmental</a> events, but that there is better evidence for biological mechanisms relating to male sexual orientation, which appears unresponsive to socialization, saying "we would be surprised if differences in social environment contributed to differences in male sexual orientation at all."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_88-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 87">: 87 </span></sup> In contrast, they say that female sexual orientation may be somewhat responsive to social environment, saying "it would also be less surprising to us to discover that social environment affects female sexual orientation and related behavior, that possibility must be scientifically supported rather than assumed."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_88-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 87">: 87 </span></sup> </p><p>A 2013 statement from the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Child_and_Adolescent_Psychiatry" title="American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry">American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry</a> states that children of LGBT parents do not have any differences in their gender role behaviors in comparison to those observed in heterosexual family structures.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2005 review by <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_J._Patterson" class="mw-redirect" title="Charlotte J. Patterson">Charlotte J. Patterson</a> for the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a> found that the available data did not suggest higher rates of homosexuality among the children of lesbian or gay parents.<sup id="cite_ref-APAreport_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APAreport-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herek's 2006 review describes the available data on the point as limited.<sup id="cite_ref-herek2006_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herek2006-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stacey and Biblarz and Herek stress that the sexual orientation and gender identification of children is of limited relevance to discussions of parental fitness or policies based on the same. In a 2010 review comparing single-father families with other family types, Stacey and Biblarz state, "We know very little yet about how parents influence the development of their children's sexual identities or how these intersect with gender."<sup id="cite_ref-stacey20102_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stacey20102-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When it comes to family socialization processes and "contextual effects," Stacey and Biblarz say that children with such parents are more likely to grow up in relatively more tolerant school, neighborhood, and social contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-Stacey_Biblarz_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stacey_Biblarz-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_challenges_and_support_systems">Social challenges and support systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Social challenges and support systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lesbian_couple_with_two_children_at_Marriage_Equality_USA_-_Seattle_Rally_in_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Lesbian_couple_with_two_children_at_Marriage_Equality_USA_-_Seattle_Rally_in_2013.jpg/220px-Lesbian_couple_with_two_children_at_Marriage_Equality_USA_-_Seattle_Rally_in_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Lesbian_couple_with_two_children_at_Marriage_Equality_USA_-_Seattle_Rally_in_2013.jpg/330px-Lesbian_couple_with_two_children_at_Marriage_Equality_USA_-_Seattle_Rally_in_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Lesbian_couple_with_two_children_at_Marriage_Equality_USA_-_Seattle_Rally_in_2013.jpg/440px-Lesbian_couple_with_two_children_at_Marriage_Equality_USA_-_Seattle_Rally_in_2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2729" data-file-height="4524" /></a><figcaption>A lesbian couple with their children.</figcaption></figure> <p>Children may struggle with negative attitudes about their parents from the harassment they may encounter by living in society.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many risks and challenges that can occur for children of LGBT families and their parents in North America, including those in the individual domain, family domain, and community/school domain.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hegemonic social norms can lead some children to struggle in all or several domains.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social interactions at school, extracurricular activities, and religious organizations can promote negative attitudes towards their parents and themselves based on gender and sexuality.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bias, stereotypes, micro-aggressions, harm, and violence that both students and parents can often encounter are a result of identifying outside of social normative, cis-gender, heterosexual society or having their identity used as a weapon against them.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The forms of harm and violence that LGBT young people can experience include physical harm and harassment, cyber harassment, assault, bullying, micro-aggressions and beyond. Due to the increased risk of harm experienced, children of LGBT parents and LGBT students can also experience increased levels of stress, anxiety, and self-esteem issues.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several legal and social protections support children and parents who experience transphobia and homophobia in the community, school, and family.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Practicing and developing supportive networks within schools and working towards resilience skills can assist in creating safe environments for students and parents.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social supports, ally development, and positive school environments are direct ways to challenge homophobia and transphobia directed at these students and their families. Several networks and school clubs can be set up and led by student youth to create positive school environments and community environments for LGBT students and their families.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organizations such as <a href="/wiki/Gay-Straight_Alliance_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Gay-Straight Alliance Network">Gay-Straight Alliance Network</a> (GSA), <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a> (ACLU), and <a href="/wiki/GLSEN" title="GLSEN">Gay, Lesbian & Straight Education Network</a> (GLSEN) can assist in supportive school environments. Community resources for LGBT children and parents such as the <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Campaign" title="Human Rights Campaign">Human Rights Campaign</a> (HRC), <a href="/wiki/The_Trevor_Project" title="The Trevor Project">The Trevor Project</a>, and <a href="/wiki/PFLAG" title="PFLAG">Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays</a> (PFLAG) can assist in building personal support systems.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stephen Hicks, a reader in health and social care at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Salford" title="University of Salford">University of Salford</a><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> questions the value of trying to establish that lesbian or gay parents are defective or suitable. He argues such positions are flawed because they are informed by ideologies that either oppose or support such families.<sup id="cite_ref-Hicks_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hicks-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Hicks' view: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Instead of asking whether gay parenting is bad for kids, I think we should ask how contemporary discourses of sexuality maintain the very idea that lesbian and gay families are essentially different and, indeed, deficient. But, in order to ask this, I think that we need a wider range of research into lesbian and gay parenting... More work of this sort will help us to ask more complex questions about forms of parenting that continue to offer some novel and challenging approaches to family life.<sup id="cite_ref-Hicks_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hicks-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misrepresentation_by_opponents">Misrepresentation by opponents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Misrepresentation by opponents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a 2006 statement, the Canadian Psychological Association released an updated statement on their 2003 and 2005 conclusions, saying, "The CPA recognizes and appreciates that persons and institutions are entitled to their opinions and positions on this issue. However, CPA is concerned that some persons and institutions are misinterpreting the findings of psychological research to support their positions when their positions are more accurately based on other systems of belief or values."<sup id="cite_ref-cpa2006_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cpa2006-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several professional organizations have noted that studies which opponents of LGBT parenting claim as evidence that same-sex couples are unfit parents do not in fact address same-sex parenting, however, and therefore do not permit any conclusions to be drawn about the effects of the sexes or sexual orientations of parents. Rather, these studies, which only sampled heterosexual parents, found that it was better for children to be raised by two parents instead of one, and/or that the divorce or death of a parent had a negative effect on children.<sup id="cite_ref-cpa2006_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cpa2006-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-S14799_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S14799-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Perry_v._Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Perry v. Brown">Perry v. Brown</a>, in which Judge <a href="/wiki/Vaughn_Walker" title="Vaughn Walker">Vaughn Walker</a> found that the available studies on stepchildren, which opponents of same-sex marriage cited to support their position that it is best for a child to be raised by its biological mother and father, do not isolate "the genetic relationship between a parent and a child as a variable to be tested" and only compare "children raised by married, biological parents with children raised by single parents, unmarried mothers, step families and cohabiting parents," and thus "compare various family structures and do not emphasize biology."<sup id="cite_ref-Perry10_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perry10-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Perry</i> also cited studies showing that "adopted children or children conceived using sperm or egg donors are just as likely to be well-adjusted as children raised by their biological parents."<sup id="cite_ref-Perry10_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perry10-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gregory_M._Herek" title="Gregory M. Herek">Gregory M. Herek</a> noted in 2006 that "empirical research can't reconcile disputes about core values, but it is very good at addressing questions of fact. Policy debates will be impoverished if this important source of knowledge is simply dismissed as a 'he said, she said' squabble."<sup id="cite_ref-hereklat_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hereklat-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_aspects">Other aspects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Body-feeding">Body-feeding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Body-feeding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term body-feeding refers to the feeding of one's baby milk to an infant directly from one's body.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Body-feeding is essential for the development of infants.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though there is a large transgender and gender diverse population, the quantitative and qualitative research regarding body-feeding is relatively small.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though widely known as <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a>, new gender-affirming terms have developed: body-feeding and chest-feeding. These terms took note after transgender males (female to male) found discomfort in the terms "breastfeeding" and "<a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a>". </p><p>Studies done on the breastfeeding or chestfeeding practices of transgender or gender diverse parents are extremely limited. A study done focused on the socio-demographic characteristics among parents with different breastfeeding or chestfeeding practices shows that mixed/artificial feeding (the use of formula and breast (or chest) milk) is widely used for families with higher annual incomes (100-200k) with 73.0% utilizing mixed/artificial feeding.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Results from this study show that most transgender or gender diverse populations prefer mixed/artificial feedings instead of exclusive chestfeeding.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_106-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lactation_as_a_trans_woman">Lactation as a trans woman</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Lactation as a trans woman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Male_lactation" title="Male lactation">Male lactation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colostrum" title="Colostrum">Colostrum</a></div> <p>Lactation in trans women is an understudied area.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A survey of trans healthcare providers found 34% met trans women who expressed interest in inducing lactation.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first documented instance of a trans woman attempting to breastfeed was in 2018 using <a href="/wiki/Domperidone" title="Domperidone">domperidone</a> to induce lactation.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2021, lactation was successfully induced in a trans woman.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To induce lactation, domperidone is used at a dosage of 10 to 20 mg 3 or 4 times per day by mouth. Effects may be seen within 24 hours or after 3 or 4 days. The maximum effect occurs after 2 or 3 weeks of treatment, and the treatment period generally lasts for 3 to 8 weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-Henderson2003_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henderson2003-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage">Marriage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Marriage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_and_the_family" title="Same-sex marriage and the family">Same-sex marriage and the family</a></div> <p>Same-sex parenting is often raised as an issue in debates about the recognition of same-sex marriage by law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trans_parenting">Trans parenting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Trans parenting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Transgender_pregnancy" title="Transgender pregnancy">Transgender pregnancy</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Familia_Diversa_Diane_Rodriguez_transexual_y_fernando_machado_transgenero_junto_a_su_hijo_sununu_LGBT.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Familia_Diversa_Diane_Rodriguez_transexual_y_fernando_machado_transgenero_junto_a_su_hijo_sununu_LGBT.jpg/309px-Familia_Diversa_Diane_Rodriguez_transexual_y_fernando_machado_transgenero_junto_a_su_hijo_sununu_LGBT.jpg" decoding="async" width="309" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Familia_Diversa_Diane_Rodriguez_transexual_y_fernando_machado_transgenero_junto_a_su_hijo_sununu_LGBT.jpg/464px-Familia_Diversa_Diane_Rodriguez_transexual_y_fernando_machado_transgenero_junto_a_su_hijo_sununu_LGBT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Familia_Diversa_Diane_Rodriguez_transexual_y_fernando_machado_transgenero_junto_a_su_hijo_sununu_LGBT.jpg/618px-Familia_Diversa_Diane_Rodriguez_transexual_y_fernando_machado_transgenero_junto_a_su_hijo_sununu_LGBT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1432" data-file-height="955" /></a><figcaption>Ecuadorian activist <a href="/wiki/Diane_Rodr%C3%ADguez" title="Diane Rodríguez">Diane Rodriguez</a> and her husband Fernando Machado, both of whom are transgender, pictured with their son in 2017</figcaption></figure> <p>There is little to no visibility or public support through pregnancy and parenting resources directed towards trans parents.<sup id="cite_ref-Faccio,_Elena_2013_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faccio,_Elena_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Transgender parents, like cisgender and/or heterosexual parents, can have children in a number of ways, such as biological gestation, adoption, surrogacy, and with biomedical interventions. Trans parents often face different barriers to parenthood than non-trans parents, much of which has to do with the societal expectations of what parents look like.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While "once gay and lesbian parents attain parenthood status[…] they almost never lose it" this is not the case for trans parents, as seen with the cases of Suzanne Daly (1983) and Martha Boyd (2007), two trans women who both had their parental rights, with regard to biological children, terminated on the basis of their diagnosis of gender identity disorder and their trans status.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were perceived to have abandoned their role as "fathers" through their MTF transition, and were perceived to have acted selfishly in putting their own sexual/identity needs before the wellbeing of their children. These cases are amongst many legal custody battles fought by trans parents whereby U.S. courts have completely overlooked defendants' suitability as "parents" as opposed to "mothers" or "fathers," roles that are heavily gendered and come with strict societal understandings of normative parental behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-Ball,_Carlos_A._2012_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ball,_Carlos_A._2012-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of trans individuals who desire to become parents and to be legally recognized as mothers or fathers of their children, courts often refuse to legally acknowledge such roles because of biological discrimination. An example of this is the X, Y and Z vs. U.K case, whereby X, a trans man who had been in a stable relationship with Y, a biological woman who gave birth to Z through artificial insemination through which X was always present, was denied the right to be listed as Z's father on their birth certificate due to the fact that they did not directly inseminate Y.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recently,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="WP:RELTIME (September 2018)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> Canada has started acknowledging trans parental rights in terms of custody arrangements and of legal recognition of parental status. In 2001, a trans woman was permitted to retain custody of her daughter after her ex-partner filed for sole custody on the basis of her transition. The courts ruled that "the applicant's transsexuality, in itself, without further evidence, would not constitute a material change in circumstances, nor would it be considered a negative factor in a custody determination", marking a landmark case in family law whereby "a person's transsexuality is irrelevant on its own as a factor in his or her ability to be a good parent".<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, a resident trans man from Toronto, Canada "was permitted to identify as [the child's] father on the province of Ontario's Statement of Live Birth Form", marking a decoupling of genetics and bio-sex in relation to parental roles.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stressors_for_trans_parents">Stressors for trans parents</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Stressors for trans parents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Essay-like plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-essay-like" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>is written like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_publisher_of_original_thought" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay</a></b> that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in an <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Information_style_and_tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">encyclopedic style</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Transgender families can experience unique social pressure. Consequently, transgender parents may experience stressors or barriers relating to their gender transition, which can have an impact on their overall family dynamics and can influence outcomes for transgender people. Many trans individuals cite, since their younger years, not wanting to have children or become pregnant due to the body and gender dysphoria that accompanies childbearing. This relates back toward a large problem for trans individuals even in a non-parenting context, because much of how society views gender does not leave a space for trans individuals. Additionally, a sense of support, especially from family, was found to be an important factor for coping with stressors in a study from 2014. It revealed that 43% of participants stated that they mostly depended on their children for support to help their coping with stress related to their gender transition, while 29% named their partner as their most important support.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2016 study examined how potential stressors for families, access to resources, and the trans parent's perceptions impact how the family functions. The functioning of the family refers to their ability to handle stress and in turn, their ability to steer clear of crisis situations.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study's findings indicate that experience of stigma surrounding transgender identities, uncertainty of their role or status of acceptance in their families following gender transition, and sense of coherence had the most profound impact on family functioning.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sense of Coherence refers to viewing one's environment as "comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful."<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experiencing stigma, as well as uncertainty of their acceptance within their families, were found to contribute to lower satisfaction in family functioning.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study also found that negative effects of stigma can be offset by a strong sense of coherence, while satisfaction in the family's functioning can be strengthened by a strong sense of coherence.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_123-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Social</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coparenting" title="Coparenting">Coparenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_reproduction" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT reproduction">LGBT reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_adoption" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT adoption">LGBT adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_adoption_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT adoption in Europe">LGBT adoption in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_youth_vulnerability" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT youth vulnerability">LGBT youth vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_promotion" title="Marriage promotion">Marriage promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_and_the_family" title="Same-sex marriage and the family">Same-sex marriage and the family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrogacy" title="Surrogacy">Surrogacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_reproduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Third party reproduction">Third party reproduction</a></li></ul> <p><b>Medical:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_insemination" title="Artificial insemination">Artificial insemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted reproductive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">In vitro fertilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_parenting" title="Shared parenting">Shared parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_donation" title="Sperm donation">Sperm donation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a></li></ul> <p><b>Publications</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oh_the_Things_Mommies_Do!_What_Could_Be_Better_Than_Having_Two%3F" title="Oh the Things Mommies Do! What Could Be Better Than Having Two?">Oh the Things Mommies Do! What Could Be Better Than Having Two?</a></i>, a 2009 children's book</li></ul> <p><b>Research:</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study" title="New Family Structures Study">New Family Structures Study</a></i>: Published by Mark Regnerus in 2012, this study was widely discredited by researchers, and which claimed to show that children of gay and lesbian parents were adversely affected by their upbringing by parents in same-sex relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexual_parenting_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Homosexual parenting in animals">Homosexual parenting in animals</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHočevar2014" class="citation journal cs1">Hočevar, Andreja (2014-09-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ljsr.pravo.unizg.hr/index.php/ljsr/article/view/8">"Children in rainbow families"</a>. <i>Annual of Social Work</i>. <b>21</b> (1): 83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3935%2Fljsr.v21i1.8">10.3935/ljsr.v21i1.8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1848-7971">1848-7971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+of+Social+Work&rft.atitle=Children+in+rainbow+families&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83&rft.date=2014-09-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3935%2Fljsr.v21i1.8&rft.issn=1848-7971&rft.aulast=Ho%C4%8Devar&rft.aufirst=Andreja&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fljsr.pravo.unizg.hr%2Findex.php%2Fljsr%2Farticle%2Fview%2F8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASame-sex+parenting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cpa2006-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cpa2006_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cpa2006_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cpa2006_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cpa2006_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a 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France</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Florida Department of Children and Families v Circuit Court for Miami-Dade County</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101010214522/http://www.3dca.flcourts.org/opinions/3D08-3044.pdf"> 3D08-3044 Lower Tribunal No. 06-33881</a> (Third District Court of Appeals 2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/20pdf/19-123_g3bi.pdf">"FULTON ET AL. v. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bfcd/28de58f431efa05e0c5b8c0c34923b2f5942.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2020-11-07. <q>If these young adults raised by lesbian mothers were more open to a broad range of sexual possibilities, they were not statistically more likely to self-identify as bisexual, lesbian, or gay.....Children raised by lesbian co-parents should and do seem to grow up more open to homoerotic relationships. This may be partly due to genetic and family socialization processes, but what sociologists refer to as "contextual effects" not yet investigated by psychologists may also be important...even though children of lesbian and gay parents appear to express a significant increase in homoeroticism, the majority of all children nonetheless identify as heterosexual, as most theories across the essentialistt" to "social constructionist" spectrum seem (perhaps too hastily) to expect.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=%28How%29+Does+the+Sexual+Orientation+of+Parents+Matter%3F&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=159&rft.date=2001-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36206795%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2657413%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2657413&rft.aulast=Stacey&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft.au=Biblarz%2C+Timothy+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2Fbfcd%2F28de58f431efa05e0c5b8c0c34923b2f5942.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASame-sex+parenting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mazrekaj-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mazrekaj_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mazrekaj_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazrekajDe_WitteCabus2020" class="citation journal cs1">Mazrekaj, Deni; De Witte, Kristof; Cabus, Sofie (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0003122420957249">"School Outcomes of Children Raised by Same-Sex Parents: Evidence from Administrative Panel Data"</a>. <i>American Sociological Review</i>. <b>85</b> (5): 830–856. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0003122420957249">10.1177/0003122420957249</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222002953">222002953</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=School+Outcomes+of+Children+Raised+by+Same-Sex+Parents%3A+Evidence+from+Administrative+Panel+Data&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=830-856&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0003122420957249&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222002953%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mazrekaj&rft.aufirst=Deni&rft.au=De+Witte%2C+Kristof&rft.au=Cabus%2C+Sofie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F0003122420957249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASame-sex+parenting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderssenAmlieYtterøy2002" class="citation journal cs1">Anderssen, Norman; Amlie, Christine; Ytterøy, Erling André (September 2002). 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(2012). The Right to Be Parents: LGBT families and the transformation of parenthood. New York: New York University Press.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">European Court of Human Rights (1997). Case of X, Y and Z v. The United Kingdom, Judgment, retrieved from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.globalhealthrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/ECtHR-1997-X-Y-and-Z-v-United-Kingdom.pdf">http://www.globalhealthrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/ECtHR-1997-X-Y-and-Z-v-United-Kingdom.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwens2001" class="citation news cs1">Owens, Anne Marie (2 February 2001). "Father's Sex Change Does Not Alter Custody, Court Says: Girl, 6, Calls Mommy and Daddy; Cautious in Public". <i>The National Post</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/329903587">329903587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+National+Post&rft.atitle=Father%27s+Sex+Change+Does+Not+Alter+Custody%2C+Court+Says%3A+Girl%2C+6%2C+Calls+Mommy+and+Daddy%3B+Cautious+in+Public&rft.date=2001-02-02&rft.aulast=Owens&rft.aufirst=Anne+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASame-sex+parenting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaraian2013" class="citation journal cs1">Karaian, Lara (June 2013). "Pregnant Men: Repronormativity, Critical Trans Theory and the Re(conceive)ing of Sex and Pregnancy in Law". <i>Social & Legal Studies</i>. <b>22</b> (2): 211–230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0964663912474862">10.1177/0964663912474862</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145257751">145257751</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+%26+Legal+Studies&rft.atitle=Pregnant+Men%3A+Repronormativity%2C+Critical+Trans+Theory+and+the+Re%28conceive%29ing+of+Sex+and+Pregnancy+in+Law&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=211-230&rft.date=2013-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0964663912474862&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145257751%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Karaian&rft.aufirst=Lara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASame-sex+parenting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:12_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Amanda Veldorale-Griffin (2014) Transgender Parents and Their Adult Children's Experiences of Disclosure and Transition, Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 10:5, 475-501, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1550428X.2013.866063">10.1080/1550428X.2013.866063</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCubbin, M. A., & McCubbin, H. I. (1996). Resiliency in families: A conceptual model of family adjustment and adaption in response to stress and crises. In H. I. McCubbin, A. I. Thompson, & M. A. McCubbin (Eds.), <i>Family assessment: Resiliency, coping and adaptation—Inventories for research and practice</i> (pp. 1–64). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin System.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_123-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Veldorale-Griffin, A., Darling, C.A. Adaptation to Parental Gender Transition: Stress and Resilience Among Transgender Parents. <i>Arch Sex Behav</i> <b>45,</b> 607–617 (2016). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10508-015-0657-3">10.1007/s10508-015-0657-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Antonovsky, Aaron, and Talma Sourani. “Family Sense of Coherence and Family Adaptation.” <i>Journal of Marriage and Family</i>, vol. 50, no. 1, [Wiley, National Council on Family Relations], 1988, pp. 79–92, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F352429">10.2307/352429</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEckholm2014" class="citation news cs1">Eckholm, Erik (2014-03-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/22/us/michigan-ban-on-same-sex-marriage-is-struck-down.html?_r=1">"Federal Judge Strikes Down Michigan's Ban on Same-Sex Marriage"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615055942/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/22/us/michigan-ban-on-same-sex-marriage-is-struck-down.html?_r=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-06-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-08-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Federal+Judge+Strikes+Down+Michigan%27s+Ban+on+Same-Sex+Marriage&rft.date=2014-03-21&rft.aulast=Eckholm&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F03%2F22%2Fus%2Fmichigan-ban-on-same-sex-marriage-is-struck-down.html%3F_r%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASame-sex+parenting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDigoix2020" class="citation book cs1">Digoix, Marie (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/37726"><i>Same-Sex Families and Legal Recognition in Europe</i></a>. Springer Nature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-37054-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-37054-1"><bdi>978-3-030-37054-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Same-Sex+Families+and+Legal+Recognition+in+Europe&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3-030-37054-1&rft.aulast=Digoix&rft.aufirst=Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.oapen.org%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12657%2F37726&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASame-sex+parenting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodfellow2015" class="citation book cs1">Goodfellow, Aaron (2015). <i>Gay Fathers, Their Children, and the Making of Kinship</i>. New York: Fordham University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780823266036" title="Special:BookSources/9780823266036"><bdi>9780823266036</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/892895171">892895171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gay+Fathers%2C+Their+Children%2C+and+the+Making+of+Kinship&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F892895171&rft.isbn=9780823266036&rft.aulast=Goodfellow&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASame-sex+parenting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHérault2014" class="citation book cs1">Hérault, Laurence, ed. (2014). <i>La parenté transgenre</i>. Aix-en-Provence: Presses universitaires de Provence. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782853999328" title="Special:BookSources/9782853999328"><bdi>9782853999328</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/881703694">881703694</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+parent%C3%A9+transgenre&rft.place=Aix-en-Provence&rft.pub=Presses+universitaires+de+Provence&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F881703694&rft.isbn=9782853999328&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASame-sex+parenting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazrekajDe_WitteCabus2020" class="citation journal cs1">Mazrekaj, Deni; De Witte, Kristof; Cabus, Sofie (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0003122420957249">"School Outcomes of Children Raised by Same-Sex Parents: Evidence from Administrative Panel Data"</a>. <i>American Sociological Review</i>. <b>85</b> (5): 830–856. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0003122420957249">10.1177/0003122420957249</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=School+Outcomes+of+Children+Raised+by+Same-Sex+Parents%3A+Evidence+from+Administrative+Panel+Data&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=830-856&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0003122420957249&rft.aulast=Mazrekaj&rft.aufirst=Deni&rft.au=De+Witte%2C+Kristof&rft.au=Cabus%2C+Sofie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F0003122420957249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASame-sex+parenting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPies1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cheri_Pies" title="Cheri Pies">Pies, Cheri</a> (1985-01-01). <i>Considering Parenthood: A Workbook for Lesbians</i> (First ed.). Spinsters Ink.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Considering+Parenthood%3A+A+Workbook+for+Lesbians&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Spinsters+Ink&rft.date=1985-01-01&rft.aulast=Pies&rft.aufirst=Cheri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASame-sex+parenting" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Same-sex_parenting&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:LGBT_parenting" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:LGBT parenting">LGBT parenting</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/LGBT-Families-Lit-Review.pdf">Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110304014530/http://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/LGBT-Families-Lit-Review.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2007)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aclu.org/images/asset_upload_file480_27496.pdf">Too High a Price – The Case Against Restricting Gay Parenting (updated second edition)</a> (2006), a publication by the <a href="/wiki/ACLU" class="mw-redirect" title="ACLU">ACLU</a>, includes a detailed review of studies and research.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/pi/parent.html">American Psychological Association (APA) Public Interest Directorate: Research Summary on Lesbian and Gay Parenting</a> (2005)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121013225547/http://www.cpa.ca/cpasite/userfiles/Documents/advocacy/brief.pdf">Brief presented to the Legislative House of Commons Committee on Bill C38 By the Canadian Psychological Association</a> (2005)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/pubs/books/4318061.aspx">Lesbian and Gay Parents and Their Children: Research on the Family Life Cycle</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="LGBTQ_topics" style="text-align:center;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:lavender; color:black;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:LGBTQ" title="Template:LGBTQ"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:black">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:LGBTQ" title="Template talk:LGBTQ"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:black">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:LGBTQ" title="Special:EditPage/Template:LGBTQ"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:black">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="LGBTQ_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_LGBTQ_topics" title="Outline of LGBTQ topics">LGBTQ topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:lavender; color:black;;background:lavender;"><div id="*_Academic_fields_*_Discourse" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines" title="Outline of academic disciplines">Academic fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">Discourse</a></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_and_the_LGBTQ_community" title="Education and the LGBTQ community">LGBTQ topics in education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_literature" title="LGBTQ literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gay_literature" title="Gay literature">Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_literature" title="Lesbian literature">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_literature" title="Transgender literature">Transgender</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_psychology" title="LGBTQ psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_studies" title="Queer studies">Queer studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_theory" title="Queer theory">Queer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">Transfeminism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:lavender; color:black;;background:lavender;"><div id="*_Community_*_Culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_community" title="LGBTQ community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture" title="LGBTQ culture">Culture</a></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gay_anthem" class="mw-redirect" title="Gay anthem">Anthems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ-related_awards" title="List of LGBTQ-related awards">Awards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_literary_awards" title="List of LGBTQ literary awards">Literary</a></li></ul></li> <li>Bars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bar" title="Gay bar">Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_bar" title="Lesbian bar">Lesbian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisexual_community" title="Bisexual community">Bisexual community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ-owned_business" title="LGBTQ-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coming_out" title="Coming out">Coming out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_community_centre" title="LGBTQ community centre">Community centers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-dressing" title="Cross-dressing">Cross-dressing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drag_king" title="Drag king">Drag king</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drag_queen" title="Drag queen">Drag queen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_events" title="List of LGBTQ events">Events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_awareness_periods" title="List of LGBTQ awareness periods">Awareness periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_film_festivals" title="List of LGBTQ film festivals">Film festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_village" title="Gay village">Gay village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay-friendly" title="Gay-friendly">Gay-friendly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_icon" title="Gay icon">Icons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_literature" title="LGBTQ literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_music" title="LGBTQ music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ%2B_media" title="LGBTQ+ media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_LGBT-related_films" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists of LGBT-related films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_queer_cinema" title="New queer cinema">New queer cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_periodicals" title="List of LGBTQ periodicals">Periodicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_LGBTQ_people" title="Media portrayal of LGBTQ people">Portrayal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ-related_organizations_and_conferences" title="List of LGBTQ-related organizations and conferences">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_LGBTQ_people" title="Lists of LGBTQ people">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pets_and_the_LGBTQ_community" title="Pets and the LGBTQ community">Pets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pride_(LGBTQ_culture)" title="Pride (LGBTQ culture)">Pride</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pride_Month" title="Pride Month">Pride Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pride_parade" title="Pride parade">Pride parade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queerplatonic_relationship" title="Queerplatonic relationship">Queerplatonic relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT-affirming_religious_groups" title="LGBT-affirming religious groups">Religious groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Gay_Rodeo_Association" title="International Gay Rodeo Association">Rodeos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_relationship" title="Same-sex relationship">Same-sex relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_slang" title="LGBTQ slang">Slang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_slogans" title="LGBTQ slogans">Slogans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_modern_sports" title="Homosexuality in modern sports">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takat%C4%81pui" title="Takatāpui">Takatāpui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_theatre" title="LGBTQ theatre">Theatre</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_theatre_companies" title="List of LGBTQ theatre companies">Companies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_tourism" title="LGBTQ tourism">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols" title="LGBTQ symbols">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_triangle_(badge)" title="Black triangle (badge)">Black triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaysper" title="Gaysper">Gaysper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labrys" title="Labrys">Labrys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda" title="Lambda">Lambda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_triangle" title="Pink triangle">Pink triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_plaque" title="Rainbow plaque">Rainbow plaque</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pride_flag" title="Pride flag">Pride flags</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aromantic_flag" title="Aromantic flag">Aromantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asexual_flag" title="Asexual flag">Asexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_flag_(gay_culture)" title="Bear flag (gay culture)">Bear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisexual_flag" title="Bisexual flag">Bisexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_flag_of_South_Africa" title="Gay flag of South Africa">Gay flag of South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_men%27s_flags" title="Gay men's flags">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_flag" title="Intersex flag">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leather_pride_flag" title="Leather pride flag">Leather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_flags" title="Lesbian flags">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-binary_flag" title="Non-binary flag">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pansexual_flag" title="Pansexual flag">Pansexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_flag_(LGBT)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainbow flag (LGBT)">Rainbow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_crossing" title="Rainbow crossing">Rainbow crossing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_flag" title="Transgender flag">Transgender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:lavender; color:black;;background:lavender;"><div id="*_Gender_identities_*_Sexual_identities_*_Sexual_diversities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender identities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">Sexual identities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_diversity" title="Sexual diversity">Sexual diversities</a></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Gender_identity" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender identity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Androgyny" title="Androgyny">Androgyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boi_(slang)" title="Boi (slang)">Boi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisgender" title="Cisgender">Cisgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_bender" title="Gender bender">Gender bender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_nonconformity" title="Gender nonconformity">Gender nonconformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanith" title="Khanith">Khanith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man" title="Man">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-binary_gender" title="Non-binary gender">Non-binary / genderqueer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_heterosexuality" title="Queer heterosexuality">Queer heterosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theyby" title="Theyby">Theyby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akava%27ine" title="Akava'ine">Akava'ine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_man" title="Trans man">Trans man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">Transsexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_woman" title="Trans woman">Trans woman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mak_nyah" title="Mak nyah">Mak nyah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman" title="Woman">Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womxn" title="Womxn">Womxn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womyn" title="Womyn">Womyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenogender" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenogender">Xenogender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Third_gender" title="Third gender">Third sex / Third gender</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bakla" title="Bakla">Bakla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_sworn_virgins" title="Balkan sworn virgins">Balkan sworn virgins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bissu" class="mw-redirect" title="Bissu">Bissu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafafine" title="Faʻafafine">Faʻafafine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakaleit%C4%AB" title="Fakaleitī">Fakaleitī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femminiello" title="Femminiello">Femminiello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijra_(South_Asia)" title="Hijra (South Asia)">Hijra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathoey" title="Kathoey">Kathoey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6%C3%A7ek" title="Köçek">Köçek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81h%C5%AB" title="Māhū">Māhū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukhannath" title="Mukhannath">Mukhannath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muxe" title="Muxe">Muxe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travesti_(gender_identity)" title="Travesti (gender identity)">Travesti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-spirit" title="Two-spirit">Two-spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winkte" title="Winkte">Winkte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">Sexual identities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Sexual_orientations" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asexuality" title="Asexuality">Asexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisexuality" title="Bisexuality">Bisexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">Homosexual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aromanticism" title="Aromanticism">Aromanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asexuality" title="Asexuality">Asexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gray_asexuality" title="Gray asexuality">Gray asexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demisexuality" title="Demisexuality">Demisexuality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attraction_to_transgender_people" title="Attraction to transgender people">Attraction to transgender people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banjee" title="Banjee">Banjee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bi-curious" title="Bi-curious">Bi-curious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_men" title="Gay men">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteroflexibility" title="Heteroflexibility">Heteroflexible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monosexuality" title="Monosexuality">Monosexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-heterosexual" title="Non-heterosexual">Non-heterosexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pansexuality" title="Pansexuality">Pansexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer" title="Queer">Queer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questioning_(sexuality_and_gender)" title="Questioning (sexuality and gender)">Questioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_orientation" title="Romantic orientation">Romantic orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same_gender_loving" title="Same gender loving">Same gender loving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_minority" title="Sexual minority">Sexual minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_(gender_identity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tom (gender identity)">Tom</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dee_(gender_identity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dee (gender identity)">Dee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_acronyms" title="List of LGBTQ acronyms">Acronyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detransition" title="Detransition">Detransition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effeminacy" title="Effeminacy">Effeminacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_target_location_error" title="Erotic target location error">Erotic target location error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-gay_movement" title="Ex-gay movement">Ex-gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-ex-gay" title="Ex-ex-gay">Ex-ex-gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_diversity" title="Sexual diversity">Gender and sexual diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_assignment" title="Sex assignment">Gender assignment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_binary" title="Gender binary">Gender binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_essentialism" title="Gender essentialism">Gender essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_expression" title="Gender expression">Gender expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality" title="Gender neutrality">Gender neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_transition" title="Gender transition">Gender transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_and_the_LGBTQ_community" title="Healthcare and the LGBTQ community">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_medical_organizations" title="List of LGBTQ medical organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">Human female sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">Human male sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Androgynos" title="Androgynos">Androgynos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tumtum_(Judaism)" title="Tumtum (Judaism)">Tumtum</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_transgender_people" title="Legal status of transgender people">Legal status of transgender people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Men who have sex with men">Men who have sex with men</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sexual_practices_between_men" title="Sexual practices between men">Sexual practices between men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex%E2%80%93gender_distinction" title="Sex–gender distinction">Sex–gender distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_gender_identity-based_cultures" title="Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures">Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_ally" title="Straight ally">Straight ally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomboy" title="Tomboy">Tomboy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_health_care" title="Transgender health care">Transgender health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_who_have_sex_with_women" title="Women who have sex with women">Women who have sex with women</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sexual_practices_between_women" title="Sexual practices between women">Sexual practices between women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:lavender; color:black;;background:lavender;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">LGBTQ history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_homosexuality" title="History of homosexuality">History of homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">History of gay men in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism" title="History of lesbianism">History of lesbianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_LGBTQ_history" title="Timeline of LGBTQ history">LGBTQ history timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_migration" title="LGBT migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_movements" title="LGBTQ movements">Social movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_student_movement" title="LGBTQ student movement">Students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_and_homosexuality" title="History of Christianity and homosexuality">History of Christianity and homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_same-sex_unions" title="History of same-sex unions">History of same-sex unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pederasty" title="Pederasty">Pederasty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:LGBTQ_history" title="Category:LGBTQ history">Category:LGBTQ history</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-modern era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adelphopoiesis" title="Adelphopoiesis">Adelphopoiesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Homosexuality in ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece" title="Homosexuality in ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_pre-Columbian_Peru" title="Homosexuality in pre-Columbian Peru">pre-Columbian Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Homosexuality in ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_medieval_Europe" title="Homosexuality in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th to <a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_19th_century" title="LGBT rights in the 19th century">19th century</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molly_house" title="Molly house">Molly house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_377" title="Section 377">Section 377</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_homosexual_movement" title="First homosexual movement">First homosexual movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_LGBT_history,_20th_century" title="Timeline of LGBT history, 20th century">20th century</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dance_of_the_Forty-One" title="Dance of the Forty-One">Dance of the Forty-One</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Institut_f%C3%BCr_Sexualwissenschaft" title="Institut für Sexualwissenschaft">Institut für Sexualwissenschaft</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany">Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadet_scandal" title="Cadet scandal">Cadet scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Legislative_Investigation_Committee" title="Florida Legislative Investigation Committee">Florida Legislative Investigation Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_queen" title="Sea queen">Sea queens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compton%27s_Cafeteria_riot" title="Compton's Cafeteria riot">Compton's Cafeteria riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_Liberation_Front" title="Gay Liberation Front">Gay Liberation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handkerchief_code" title="Handkerchief code">Handkerchief code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_Gay_Liberation_Front_1971_Festival_of_Light_action" title="UK Gay Liberation Front 1971 Festival of Light action">Festival of Light action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Night_riots" title="White Night riots">White Night riots</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Front_homosexuel_d%27action_r%C3%A9volutionnaire" title="Front homosexuel d'action révolutionnaire">Front homosexuel d'action révolutionnaire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1977%E2%80%931980_Florida_orange_juice_boycott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1977–1980 Florida orange juice boycott (page does not exist)">Florida orange juice boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Soap" title="Operation Soap">Operation Soap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACT_UP" title="ACT UP">ACT UP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_28" title="Section 28">Section 28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasty_nightclub_raid" title="Tasty nightclub raid">Tasty nightclub raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Abanicos_police_raid" title="Bar Abanicos police raid">Bar Abanicos police raid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_LGBTQ_history,_21st_century" title="Timeline of LGBTQ history, 21st century">21st century</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_same-sex_marriage" title="Timeline of same-sex marriage">Timeline of same-sex marriage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_anti-LGBT_law" title="Russian anti-LGBT law">Russian anti-LGBT law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Homosexuality_Act,_2014" title="Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2014">Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_wave" title="Rainbow wave">Rainbow wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Night" title="Rainbow Night">Rainbow Night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:lavender; color:black;;background:lavender;"><div id="*_Rights_and_legal_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="LGBTQ rights by country or territory">Rights and legal issues</a></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="LGBTQ rights by country or territory">LGBTQ rights by country or territory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_rights_articles_by_region" title="List of LGBTQ rights articles by region">List of LGBTQ rights articles by region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">LGBTQ rights topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_LGBT_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship of LGBT issues">Censorship of LGBT issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_union" title="Civil union">Civil unions and partnerships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization of homosexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decriminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Decriminalization of homosexuality">decriminalization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_people_and_military_service" title="LGBT people and military service">Military service</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Same-sex parenting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_adoption" title="Same-sex adoption">Adoption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use_of_assisted_reproductive_technology_by_LGBT_people" title="Use of assisted reproductive technology by LGBT people">Assisted reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_same-sex_marriage" title="Timeline of same-sex marriage">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_same-sex_married_couples" title="List of same-sex married couples">List of couples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_and_LGBT_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialism and LGBT rights">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_transgender_people" title="Legal status of transgender people">Legal status of transgender people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights_movement" title="Transgender rights movement">Transgender rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQI%2B_rights_at_the_United_Nations" title="LGBTQI+ rights at the United Nations">United Nations</a>/<a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta_Principles" title="Yogyakarta Principles">Yogyakarta Principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_La_Francophonie" title="LGBT rights in La Francophonie">La Francophonie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_movements" title="LGBTQ movements">LGBTQ rights movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homophile_movement" title="Homophile movement">Homophile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_rights_organizations" title="List of LGBTQ rights organizations">LGBTQ rights groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBTQ_rights_activists" title="List of LGBTQ rights activists">LGBTQ rights activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_capitalism" title="Rainbow capitalism">Rainbow capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_nationalism" title="Queer nationalism">Separatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gay_separatism" title="Gay separatism">Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_separatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbian separatism">Lesbian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:lavender; color:black;;background:lavender;"><div id="Sexual_orientation_—_Medicine,_science_and_sexology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientation</a> — Medicine, science and sexology</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism_and_LGBTQ_identities" title="Autism and LGBTQ identities">Autism and LGBTQ identities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraternal_birth_order_and_male_sexual_orientation" title="Fraternal birth order and male sexual orientation">Birth order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_sexual_orientation" title="Demographics of sexual orientation">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_LGBTQ_identities" title="Disability and LGBTQ identities">Disability and LGBTQ identities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_and_sexual_orientation" title="Environment and sexual orientation">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_psychology" title="Homosexuality and psychology">Homosexuality and psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_the_DSM" title="Homosexuality in the DSM">Homosexuality in the DSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinsey_scale" title="Kinsey scale">Kinsey scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klein_Sexual_Orientation_Grid" title="Klein Sexual Orientation Grid">Klein Grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_sexual_orientation" title="Neuroscience and sexual orientation">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_hormones_and_sexual_orientation" title="Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation">Prenatal hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_inversion_(sexology)" title="Sexual inversion (sexology)">Sexual inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_attraction_model" title="Split attraction model">Split attraction model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">Sexual orientation identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sexual_orientation_and_medicine" title="Timeline of sexual orientation and medicine">Timeline of sexual orientation and medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:lavender; color:black;;background:lavender;"><div id="*_Societal_attitudes_*_Prejudice_*_Violence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Societal_attitudes_toward_homosexuality" title="Societal attitudes toward homosexuality">Societal attitudes</a></li> <li>Prejudice</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence</a></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Societal_attitudes_toward_homosexuality" title="Societal attitudes toward homosexuality">Societal attitudes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteropatriarchy" title="Heteropatriarchy">Heteropatriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homonationalism" title="Homonationalism">Homonationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinkwashing_(LGBTQ)" title="Pinkwashing (LGBTQ)">Pinkwashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_panic_defense" title="Gay panic defense">Gay panic defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_stereotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT stereotypes">LGBT stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suicides_of_LGBTQ_people" title="List of suicides of LGBTQ people">Suicides of LGBTQ people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_among_LGBTQ_youth" title="Suicide among LGBTQ youth">Suicide among LGBTQ youth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:LGBTQ_monuments_and_memorials" title="Category:LGBTQ monuments and memorials">Monuments and memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queerbaiting" title="Queerbaiting">Queerbaiting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_religion" title="Transgender people and religion">Transgender people and religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prejudice and discrimination</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gender_movement" title="Anti-gender movement">Anti-gender movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_grooming_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT grooming conspiracy theory">Grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_homophobia" title="Liberal homophobia">Liberal homophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_lesbians" title="Discrimination against lesbians">Discrimination against lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Discrimination against non-binary people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_LGBT_community" title="Racism in the LGBT community">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riddle_scale" title="Riddle scale">Riddle scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence against LGBTQ people</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_violence_against_LGBT_people_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of violence against LGBT people in the United Kingdom">History of violence in the UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_violence_against_LGBTQ_people_in_the_United_States" title="History of violence against LGBTQ people in the United States">History of violence in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany">Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="List of acts of violence against LGBTQ people">Acts of violence against LGBTQ people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Stop Murder Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Violence against transgender people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">Unlawfully killed transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:lavender; color:black;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Nuvola_LGBT_flag.svg/16px-Nuvola_LGBT_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Nuvola_LGBT_flag.svg/24px-Nuvola_LGBT_flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Nuvola_LGBT_flag.svg/32px-Nuvola_LGBT_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:LGBTQ" title="Portal:LGBTQ">LGBTQ portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:LGBTQ" title="Category:LGBTQ">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Parenting" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Parenting" title="Template:Parenting"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Parenting" title="Template talk:Parenting"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Parenting" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Parenting"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Parenting" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Kinship terminology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">Parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father" title="Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">Adoptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloparenting" title="Alloparenting">Alloparenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coparenting" title="Coparenting">Coparenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">Extended family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">Foster care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noncustodial_parent" title="Noncustodial parent">Noncustodial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">Nuclear family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan" title="Orphan">Orphaned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_parenting" title="Shared parenting">Shared parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_parent" title="Single parent">Single parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepfamily" title="Stepfamily">Blended family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrogacy" title="Surrogacy">Surrogacy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_loco_parentis" title="In loco parentis">In loco parentis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories <b>·</b> Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_development" title="Child development">Child development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_human_body" title="Development of the human body">Human development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Identity formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introjection" title="Introjection">Introjection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">Maternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">Paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_emotional_development" title="Social emotional development">Social emotional development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parenting_styles" title="Parenting styles">Styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achievement_ideology" title="Achievement ideology">Achievement ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_personality" title="Atlas personality">Atlas personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_parenting" title="Attachment parenting">Attachment parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_talk" title="Baby talk">Baby talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-like_mindset" title="Buddha-like mindset">Buddha-like parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concerted_cultivation" title="Concerted cultivation">Concerted cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enmeshment" title="Enmeshment">Enmeshment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-range_parenting" title="Free-range parenting">Free-range parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatekeeper_parent" title="Gatekeeper parent">Gatekeeper parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter_parent" title="Helicopter parent">Helicopter parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurturant_parent_model" title="Nurturant parent model">Nurturant parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_parenting" title="Slow parenting">Slow parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soccer_mom" title="Soccer mom">Soccer mom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_father_model" title="Strict father model">Strict father model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taking_Children_Seriously" title="Taking Children Seriously">Taking children seriously</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theybie" class="mw-redirect" title="Theybie">Theybie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_parenting" title="Tiger parenting">Tiger parenting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_at_home_parent" title="Work at home parent">Work at home parent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/After-school_activity" title="After-school activity">After-school activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allowance_(money)#Allowances_for_children" title="Allowance (money)">Allowance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedtime" title="Bedtime">Bedtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">Child care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-sleeping" title="Co-sleeping">Co-sleeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dishabituation" title="Dishabituation">Dishabituation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">Habituation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identification_(psychology)" title="Identification (psychology)">Identification (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introjection" title="Introjection">Introjection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kommune_1" title="Kommune 1">Kommune 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latchkey_kid" title="Latchkey kid">Latchkey kid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_development" title="Moral development">Moral development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_social_influence" title="Normative social influence">Normative social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent_management_training" title="Parent management training">Parent management training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">Play</a> (<a href="/wiki/Play_date" title="Play date">date</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_model" title="Role model">Role model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk (race)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_birds_and_the_bees" title="The birds and the bees">The talk (sex education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy" title="Toy">Toy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Educational_toy" title="Educational toy">educational</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_P_(parenting_program)" title="Triple P (parenting program)">Positive Parenting Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Child_discipline" title="Child discipline">Child discipline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blanket_training" title="Blanket training">Blanket training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment_in_the_home" title="Corporal punishment in the home">Corporal punishment in the home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curfew" title="Curfew">Curfew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grounding_(discipline_technique)" title="Grounding (discipline technique)">Grounding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_discipline" title="Positive discipline">Positive discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_treatment" title="Silent treatment">Tactical ignoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-out_(parenting)" title="Time-out (parenting)">Time-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Abuse</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences" title="Adverse childhood experiences">Adverse childhood experiences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abandonment" title="Child abandonment">Child abandonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_neglect" title="Child neglect">Child neglect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codependency" title="Codependency">Codependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysfunctional_family" title="Dysfunctional family">Dysfunctional family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_domestic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of domestic violence">Effects of domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissistic_parent" title="Narcissistic parent">Narcissistic parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_abuse_by_children" title="Parental abuse by children">Parental abuse by children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_in_early_childhood" title="Stress in early childhood">Stress in early childhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal and<br />social aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_custody" title="Child custody">Child custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_support" title="Child support">Child support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_raising_a_child" title="Cost of raising a child">Cost of raising a child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deadbeat_parent" title="Deadbeat parent">Deadbeat parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disownment" title="Disownment">Disownment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_disruption" title="Family disruption">Family disruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_family_life" title="Right to family life">Right to family life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_domestic_violence" title="Management of domestic violence">Management of domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_alienation" title="Parental alienation">Parental alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_responsibility_(access_and_custody)" title="Parental responsibility (access and custody)">Parental responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents%27_rights_movement" title="Parents' rights movement">Parents' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternity_law" title="Paternity law">Paternity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_parenting" title="Shared parenting">Shared parenting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth" title="Mary Ainsworth">Mary Ainsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bowlby" title="John Bowlby">John Bowlby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._Berry_Brazelton" title="T. Berry Brazelton">T. Berry Brazelton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Dreikurs" title="Rudolf Dreikurs">Rudolf Dreikurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Elkind" title="David Elkind">David Elkind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Frost" title="Jo Frost">Jo Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haim_Ginott" title="Haim Ginott">Haim Ginott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gordon_(psychologist)" title="Thomas Gordon (psychologist)">Thomas Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_E._Kazdin" title="Alan E. Kazdin">Alan E. Kazdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truby_King" title="Truby King">Truby King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annette_Lareau" title="Annette Lareau">Annette Lareau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penelope_Leach" title="Penelope Leach">Penelope Leach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Sanders_(parenting_researcher)" title="Matthew Sanders (parenting researcher)">Matthew Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sears_(physician)" title="William Sears (physician)">William Sears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Spock" title="Benjamin Spock">Benjamin Spock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Families_Need_Fathers" title="Families Need Fathers">Families Need Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mothers_Apart_from_Their_Children" title="Mothers Apart from Their Children">Mothers Apart from Their Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mothers%27_Union" title="Mothers' Union">Mothers' Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Childbirth_Trust" title="National Childbirth Trust">National Childbirth Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Fatherhood_Initiative" title="National Fatherhood Initiative">National Fatherhood Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Parents_Organization" title="National Parents Organization">National Parents Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93teacher_association" title="Parent–teacher association">Parent–teacher association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents_Against_Child_Exploitation" title="Parents Against Child Exploitation">Parents Against Child Exploitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30715252#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Parents homosexuels"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13323615x">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Parents homosexuels"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13323615x">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="homoparentalita"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph910286&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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