David Cameron - British PM, Referendum, Brexit

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Days of political wrangling followed the election, with negotiators from the Conservative and Labour parties courting Liberal Democratic leader Nick Clegg in an effort to form a government. On May 11, after it appeared that the prospect of a “Lib-Lab” coalition would not bear fruit, Brown resigned as prime minister and was replaced by Cameron. 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border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Cameron">David Cameron</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/biography/David-Cameron">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref321364"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/David-Cameron#ref321364">Early life and start in politics</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref321365"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/David-Cameron#ref321365">Cameron’s revitalization of the Conservatives</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref321366"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/David-Cameron/Prime-ministership">Prime ministership</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref321367"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/David-Cameron/Prime-ministership#ref321367">The Conservative–Liberal Democratic coalition government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref321368"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/David-Cameron/Rift-in-the-coalition">Rift in the coalition</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref321369"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/David-Cameron/Staying-out-of-Syria">Staying out of Syria</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref332803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/David-Cameron/The-Scottish-independence-referendum-2015-general-election-and-Brexit">The Scottish independence referendum, 2015 general election, and “Brexit”</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Cameron/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/David-Cameron">Quick Facts & Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Cameron/images-videos">Images</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/92/99692-050-463DC699/David-Cameron.jpg" data-href="/media/1/1104639/99830" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/92/99692-004-2E6E4F93/David-Cameron.jpg" alt="Cameron, David" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/149187-050-2F4DB131/Nick-Clegg-David-Cameron-May-12-2010.jpg" data-href="/media/1/1104639/156327" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/149187-004-CE9361F3/Nick-Clegg-David-Cameron-May-12-2010.jpg" alt="Nick Clegg and David Cameron" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/32/173132-050-DA3B1441/David-Cameron-British-workers-power-plant-Hinkley-2013.jpg" data-href="/media/1/1104639/186430" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/32/173132-004-B0AE0177/David-Cameron-British-workers-power-plant-Hinkley-2013.jpg" alt="Cameron, David" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/99/163799-050-70906116/David-Cameron-Rupert-Murdoch-British-Justice-Leveson-2012.jpg" data-href="/media/1/1104639/177445" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img 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They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-27T00:00:00CST" >Nov 27, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Cameron/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm 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clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Born: </dt> <dd>October 9, 1966, <a href="/place/London">London</a>, <a href="/place/England">England</a> (age 58)</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Also Known As: </dt> <dd>David William Donald Cameron</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Title / Office: </dt> <dd><a href="/topic/prime-minister">prime minister (2010-2016)</a>, <a href="/place/United-Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Parliament">Parliament (2001-2016)</a>, <a href="/place/United-Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/parliament-government">parliament (2001-2016)</a>, <a href="/place/United-Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Political Affiliation: </dt> <dd><a href="/topic/Conservative-Party-political-party-United-Kingdom">Conservative Party</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Role In: </dt> <dd><a href="/topic/Brexit">Brexit</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/David-Cameron"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> <button class="facts-list-show-more-btn mt-15 p-0 mx-auto btn font-14 d-block font-weight-normal"> <span class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></span> <span class="show-more-label">Show More</span> </button> </div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/1104639/0b4733c43d9628fd925d058799463b15" rel="nofollow">Germany's Merkel recalls Putin's 'power games' and contrasting US presidents in her memoirs</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 27, 2024, 7:38 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><span class="marker h4"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref321366"> <section data-level="2" id="ref321367"> <h2 class="h2">The Conservative–Liberal Democratic coalition government</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="156327" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/149187-050-2F4DB131/Nick-Clegg-David-Cameron-May-12-2010.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/1104639/156327"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/149187-050-2F4DB131/Nick-Clegg-David-Cameron-May-12-2010.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/149187-050-2F4DB131/Nick-Clegg-David-Cameron-May-12-2010.jpg?w=300" alt="Nick Clegg and David Cameron" data-width="1000" data-height="750" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/87/149187-050-2F4DB131/Nick-Clegg-David-Cameron-May-12-2010.jpg" data-href="/media/1/1104639/156327"> Nick Clegg and David Cameron</a><span>Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg (left) with Prime Minister David Cameron, May 12, 2010.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Voters gave the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Conservatives" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Conservatives" data-type="MW">Conservatives</a> their biggest seat gain since 1931, but the total still fell short of an outright majority. Days of political wrangling followed the election, with negotiators from the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Conservative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Conservative" data-type="MW">Conservative</a> and Labour parties courting <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Liberal-Democrats" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Liberal Democratic</a> leader <span id="ref1089032"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nick-Clegg" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nick Clegg</a> in an effort to form a government. On May 11, after it appeared that the prospect of a “Lib-Lab” coalition would not bear fruit, Brown resigned as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/prime-minister" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">prime minister</a> and was replaced by Cameron. He came to power at the head of a Conservative–Liberal Democratic coalition government—Britain’s first <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/coalition-government" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">coalition government</a> since <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">World War II</a>—in which Clegg became deputy prime minister. The two leaders seemed to quickly become comfortable with each other, perhaps because of their shared age (both were 43) and similar backgrounds.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In June Cameron addressed <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parliament" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Parliament</a> in response to the report of Lord Saville’s 12-year official <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="inquiry" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/inquiry" data-type="EB">inquiry</a> into the events of “<span id="ref1112047"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Bloody-Sunday-Northern-Ireland-1972" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bloody Sunday</a>,” which found that British soldiers had been responsible for the deaths of 14 nationalist demonstrators in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Londonderry-city-and-district-Northern-Ireland" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Londonderry, Northern Ireland,</a> in 1972 and that those demonstrators had posed no serious threat to the soldiers. “The government is ultimately responsible for the conduct of the forces,” Cameron said, “and for that, on behalf of the government—indeed, on behalf of our country—I am deeply sorry.”</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">One of the cornerstones of the Conservative-Liberal power-sharing agreement was a pledge to formulate a budget-reduction plan in short order. In October the man whom Cameron had appointed chancellor of the Exchequer, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Osborne" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">George Osborne</a>, announced a five-year <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/austerity" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">austerity</a> plan that included <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Britain’s</a> most extensive spending cuts in decades, notably reductions to welfare <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="entitlements" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/entitlements" data-type="MW">entitlements</a> and layoffs of up to 500,000 public-sector employees.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Early in 2011 the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Middle-East" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Middle East</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Africa" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">North Africa</a> were swept by a series of popular uprisings that became known as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Arab-Spring" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Arab Spring</a>. In February Cameron became the first Western leader to visit <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Egypt</a> after <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hosni-Mubarak" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hosni Mubarak</a> was <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Egypt-Uprising-of-2011" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ousted from power</a>. Another event in the region, the <span id="ref1117239"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Libya-Revolt-of-2011" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">revolt in Libya</a>, particularly captured the attention of Cameron, who became an outspoken critic of ruler <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muammar-al-Qaddafi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Muammar al-Qaddafi</a>’s brutal repression of the rebels in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Libya" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Libya</a>. Cameron’s calls for military intervention in that <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country</a> and especially for the imposition of a no-fly zone to protect Libyan civilians from Qaddafi’s forces were echoed by French Pres. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nicolas-Sarkozy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nicolas Sarkozy</a>. Together they played a pivotal role in winning the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations-Security-Council" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">UN Security Council</a>’s authorization of a no-fly zone on March 17. Shortly thereafter a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="coalition" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/coalition" data-type="EB">coalition</a> of U.S. and European forces with warplanes and cruise missiles began attacking targets in Libya in an effort to disable Libya’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/air-force" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">air force</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The results of the May 2011 local government elections in Britain, especially those for local councils in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/England" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">England</a>, appeared to indicate that Conservative voters were more comfortable than Liberal Democrats with the deficit-reducing austerity measures introduced by the government. The Conservatives made moderate gains to their presence in local government, but their coalition partners experienced their worst performance at the polls since the founding of the Liberal Democrats. In the wake of the election, relations between Cameron and Clegg and their parties were widely described as having become more businesslike in nature. This cooling of coalition <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="camaraderie" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/camaraderie" data-type="MW">camaraderie</a> was largely the result of the Conservatives’ active opposition to a Liberal Democrats-initiated referendum on a change from first-past-the-post elections to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/alternative-vote" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">alternative vote</a>, which was strongly rejected by British voters.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Following the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Scottish-National-Party" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Scottish Nationalist Party</a>’s overwhelming victory in the 2011 elections for the Scottish Parliament, <span id="ref1112048"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alex-Salmond" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Alex Salmond</a>, the first minister of Scotland, announced that he would be forwarding a referendum on independence. Cameron announced that he would respect <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Scotland" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Scotland</a>’s efforts in that direction but would “campaign to keep our United Kingdom together with every single fibre that I have.”</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">When the scandal involving the illegal hacking of telephone voice mails by reporters from the <span id="ref1117241"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/News-of-the-World-British-newspaper" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true"><em>News of the World</em></a> newspaper exploded in July 2011, Cameron was caught in the fallout. <span id="ref1117240"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andy-Coulson" class="md-crosslink ">Andy Coulson</a>, Cameron’s communications chief, had already left that post in January of the same year in the wake of the growing evidence tying him to the scandal. Coulson had served as the editor of <em>News of the World</em> from 2003 to 2007, when he stepped down after early revelations of the phone hacking came to light. Initially, Cameron had been supportive of Coulson after he left his government post, but, as the scandal deepened in July, Cameron said that he regretted having hired Coulson. Cameron announced on July 13 that a senior judge, Lord <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Justice" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Justice" data-type="MW">Justice</a> Sir Brian Leveson, would head a public inquiry into both the hacking scandal and Britain’s system of media regulation.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In early August 2011 Cameron faced a new challenge, as a profusion of neighbourhoods in and around London as well as in a number of other British cities erupted in riots characterized by widespread looting, arson, and destruction of property. The civil disorder was sparked on the night of August 6 when a protest in the North London area of Tottenham over the police shooting of a young man escalated into rioting, which began spreading the next day. “This is criminality pure and simple, and it has to be confronted and defeated,” announced Cameron on August 9 as some 16,000 policemen prepared to take to the streets of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/London" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">London</a> that night. Cameron also called members of Parliament back to London for discussion of the riots. In a speech on August 15, Cameron blamed “a broken society” for a “slow-motion <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="moral" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/moral" data-type="MW">moral</a> collapse.” In a separate statement he promised tougher measures, especially against people living in rented social housing in the event that any member of the family broke the law.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Cameron government’s first major social <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="innovation" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/innovation" data-type="MW">innovation</a> started to bear fruit in September 2011 with the opening of the first 24 “Free Schools,” which were free to students and funded by the government but able to operate independently of local councils. The government enacted another major change in October at a meeting of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Commonwealth-association-of-states" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Commonwealth</a> leaders in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Australia</a>, where it was agreed that the British crown could pass to the firstborn child, regardless of sex, and that the ban, more than 300 years old, on a British monarch’s marrying a Roman Catholic was no longer valid. Also in October, the retirement age was set to rise to 66 by 2020 for public-sector workers, and mandatory retirement was lifted. In December Cameron took the nearly unprecedented step of vetoing a proposal supported by the other 26 EU heads of government to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="amend" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/amend" data-type="MW">amend</a> the EU’s rules to reduce the risks of future financial crisis in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/euro" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">euro</a> zone. It was the first major proposal rejected by Britain since it joined the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-Community-European-economic-association" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">European Community</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":2,"pagesTotal":5,"pageId":1104639,"pageLength":1183,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"BIO_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":2,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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