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<span>Properties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Properties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rigidity_of_cell_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rigidity_of_cell_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Rigidity of cell walls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rigidity_of_cell_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Permeability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Permeability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Permeability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Permeability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_cell_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_cell_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Plant cell walls</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plant_cell_walls-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Plant cell walls subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Plant_cell_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Layers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Layers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Layers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Layers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fungal_cell_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fungal_cell_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Fungal cell walls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fungal_cell_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_eukaryotic_cell_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_eukaryotic_cell_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other eukaryotic cell walls</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_eukaryotic_cell_walls-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other eukaryotic cell walls subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_eukaryotic_cell_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Algae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Algae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_molds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_molds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Water molds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_molds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slime_molds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slime_molds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Slime molds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slime_molds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prokaryotic_cell_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prokaryotic_cell_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Prokaryotic cell walls</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prokaryotic_cell_walls-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prokaryotic cell walls subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prokaryotic_cell_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bacterial_cell_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bacterial_cell_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Bacterial cell walls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bacterial_cell_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeal_cell_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeal_cell_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Archaeal cell walls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeal_cell_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_cell_coverings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_cell_coverings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Other cell coverings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_cell_coverings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cell wall</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 75 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-75" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">75 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A" title="جدار خلوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جدار خلوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B7_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A7%B0" title="কোষ বেৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কোষ বেৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par%C3%A9_celular" title="Paré celular – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Paré celular" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCceyr%C9%99_q%C4%B1laf%C4%B1" title="Hüceyrə qılafı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hüceyrə qılafı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B7_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0" title="কোষ প্রাচীর – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কোষ প্রাচীর" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8-pau-piah" title="Sè-pau-piah – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sè-pau-piah" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Клетачная сценка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Клетачная сценка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Клетъчна стена – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Клетъчна стена" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%86elijski_zid" title="Ćelijski zid – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ćelijski zid" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paret_cel%C2%B7lular" title="Paret cel·lular – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Paret cel·lular" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bun%C4%9B%C4%8Dn%C3%A1_st%C4%9Bna" title="Buněčná stěna – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Buněčná stěna" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellfur" title="Cellfur – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cellfur" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellev%C3%A6g" title="Cellevæg – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Cellevæg" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellwand" title="Zellwand – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zellwand" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakukest" title="Rakukest – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rakukest" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%85%CF%84%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%AF%CF%87%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Κυτταρικό τοίχωμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κυτταρικό τοίχωμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pared_celular" title="Pared celular – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pared celular" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%88elmuro" title="Ĉelmuro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĉelmuro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zelula_horma" title="Zelula horma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zelula horma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84" title="دیواره سلول – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیواره سلول" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paroi_cellulaire" title="Paroi cellulaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Paroi cellulaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boalley_killag" title="Boalley killag – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Boalley killag" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parede_celular" title="Parede celular – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Parede celular" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B8%ED%8F%AC%EB%B2%BD" title="세포벽 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="세포벽" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%BB%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF" title="Բջջապատ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բջջապատ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="कोशिका भित्ति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कोशिका भित्ति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stani%C4%8Dna_stijenka" title="Stanična stijenka – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Stanična stijenka" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinding_sel" title="Dinding sel – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinding sel" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumuveggur" title="Frumuveggur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frumuveggur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parete_cellulare" title="Parete cellulare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Parete cellulare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%90" title="דופן התא – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דופן התא" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinding_s%C3%A8l" title="Dinding sèl – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Dinding sèl" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B6_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ಕೋಶ ಭಿತ್ತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕೋಶ ಭಿತ್ತಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AF%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="უჯრედის კედელი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="უჯრედის კედელი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B0_%D2%9B%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%80%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Жасуша қабырғасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жасуша қабырғасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pawa_selil%C3%A8" title="Pawa selilè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Pawa selilè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%B3%D1%8B" title="Клетка кабыгы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Клетка кабыгы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paries_cellularis" title="Paries cellularis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Paries cellularis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0%C5%ABnapvalks" title="Šūnapvalks – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Šūnapvalks" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C4%85stel%C4%97s_sienel%C4%97" title="Ląstelės sienelė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ląstelės sienelė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejtfal" title="Sejtfal – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Sejtfal" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%95%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Клеточен ѕид – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Клеточен ѕид" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF" title="കോശഭിത്തി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കോശഭിത്തി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinding_sel" title="Dinding sel – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dinding sel" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celwand" title="Celwand – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Celwand" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%A3%81" title="細胞壁 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="細胞壁" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellevegg" title="Cellevegg – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Cellevegg" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellevegg" title="Cellevegg – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Cellevegg" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicha_seelii" title="Cicha seelii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Cicha seelii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hujayra_devori" title="Hujayra devori – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Hujayra devori" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%DA%AF%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AF" title="ولگن کند – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ولگن کند" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%89%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6" title="ជញ្ជាំងកោសិកា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ជញ្ជាំងកោសិកា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellwand" title="Zellwand – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Zellwand" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aciana_kom%C3%B3rkowa" title="Ściana komórkowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ściana komórkowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parede_celular" title="Parede celular – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Parede celular" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perete_celular" title="Perete celular – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Perete celular" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Клеточная стенка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Клеточная стенка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cell wall" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunkov%C3%A1_stena" title="Bunková stena – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Bunková stena" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celi%C4%8Dna_stena" title="Celična stena – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Celična stena" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95" title="دیواری خانە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دیواری خانە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8B%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Ћелијски зид – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ћелијски зид" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%86elijski_zid" title="Ćelijski zid – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ćelijski zid" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinding_s%C3%A9l" title="Pinding sél – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Pinding sél" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solusein%C3%A4" title="Soluseinä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Soluseinä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellv%C3%A4gg" title="Cellvägg – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Cellvägg" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="கலச்சுவர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கலச்சுவர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C" title="ผนังเซลล์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ผนังเซลล์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCcre_duvar%C4%B1" title="Hücre duvarı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hücre duvarı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Клітинна стінка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Клітинна стінка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="خلیائی دیوار – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="خلیائی دیوار" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh_t%E1%BA%BF_b%C3%A0o" title="Thành tế bào – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thành tế bào" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E5%A3%81" title="细胞壁 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="细胞壁" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%A3%81" title="細胞壁 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="細胞壁" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%A3%81" title="細胞壁 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="細胞壁" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q128700#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Outermost layer of some cells</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 300px; padding: 0; border-collapse:collapse; background:transparent;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background: rgba(0,0,0,0.1); padding: 5px; width: 290px;"><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology"><span style="color:#000;">Cell biology</span></a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight:bold; font-size:125%; background-color: #33a02c; color: #FFF;"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell"><span style="color: #FFF;">Plant cell diagram</span></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="padding: 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plant_cell_structure_svg_labels.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Plant_cell_structure_svg_labels.svg/300px-Plant_cell_structure_svg_labels.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Plant_cell_structure_svg_labels.svg/450px-Plant_cell_structure_svg_labels.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Plant_cell_structure_svg_labels.svg/600px-Plant_cell_structure_svg_labels.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="649" data-file-height="475" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="text-align:left; padding: 10px; background: rgba(0,0,0,0.02);">Components of a typical plant cell: <dl><dd>a. <a href="/wiki/Plasmodesmata" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasmodesmata">Plasmodesmata</a></dd> <dd>b. <a href="/wiki/Plasma_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma membrane">Plasma membrane</a></dd> <dd>c. <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cell wall</a></dd> <dd>1. <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">Chloroplast</a> <dl><dd>d. <a href="/wiki/Thylakoid_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Thylakoid membrane">Thylakoid membrane</a></dd> <dd>e. Starch grain</dd></dl></dd> <dd>2. Vacuole <dl><dd>f. <a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></dd> <dd>g. <a href="/wiki/Tonoplast" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonoplast">Tonoplast</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd>h. <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">Mitochondrion</a></dd> <dd>i. <a href="/wiki/Peroxisome" title="Peroxisome">Peroxisome</a></dd> <dd>j. <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">Cytoplasm</a></dd> <dd>k. Small membranous vesicles</dd> <dd>l. <a href="/wiki/Rough_endoplasmic_reticulum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rough endoplasmic reticulum">Rough endoplasmic reticulum</a></dd> <dd>3. <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">Nucleus</a> <dl><dd>m. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_pore" title="Nuclear pore">Nuclear pore</a></dd> <dd>n. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_envelope" title="Nuclear envelope">Nuclear envelope</a></dd> <dd>o. <a href="/wiki/Nucleolus" title="Nucleolus">Nucleolus</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd>p. <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">Ribosome</a></dd> <dd>q. <a href="/wiki/Smooth_endoplasmic_reticulum" class="mw-redirect" title="Smooth endoplasmic reticulum">Smooth endoplasmic reticulum</a></dd> <dd>r. <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus#Vesicular_transport" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi vesicles</a></dd> <dd>s. <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a> (Golgi body)</dd> <dd>t. <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">Cytoskeleton</a></dd></dl></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>cell wall</b> is a structural layer that surrounds some <a href="/wiki/Cell_type" title="Cell type">cell types</a>, found immediately outside the <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a>. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. Primarily, it provides the cell with structural support, shape, protection, and functions as a selective barrier.<sup id="cite_ref-Romaniuk_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romaniuk-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another vital role of the cell wall is to help the cell withstand <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic pressure</a> and mechanical stress. While absent in many <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotes">eukaryotes</a>, including animals, cell walls are prevalent in other organisms such as <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a>, and are commonly found in most <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Mollicutes" title="Mollicutes">mollicute</a> bacteria. </p><p>The composition of cell walls varies across <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomic groups">taxonomic groups</a>, <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, cell type, and the <a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">cell cycle</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">land plants</a>, the primary cell wall comprises <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> like <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">hemicelluloses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pectin" title="Pectin">pectin</a>. Often, other <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suberin" title="Suberin">suberin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cutin" title="Cutin">cutin</a> are anchored to or embedded in plant cell walls. <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a> exhibit cell walls composed of <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoproteins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Carrageenan" title="Carrageenan">carrageenan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agar" title="Agar">agar</a>, distinct from those in land plants. Bacterial cell walls contain <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Archaeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeal">archaeal</a> cell walls vary in composition, potentially consisting of glycoprotein <a href="/wiki/S-layer" title="S-layer">S-layers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudopeptidoglycan" title="Pseudopeptidoglycan">pseudopeptidoglycan</a>, or polysaccharides. Fungi possess cell walls constructed from the polymer <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/N-acetylglucosamine" class="mw-redirect" title="N-acetylglucosamine">N-acetylglucosamine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a> have a unique cell wall composed of <a href="/wiki/Biogenic_silica" title="Biogenic silica">biogenic silica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <p>A plant cell wall was first observed and named (simply as a "wall") by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> in 1665.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, "the dead excrusion product of the living protoplast" was forgotten, for almost three centuries, being the subject of scientific interest mainly as a resource for industrial processing or in relation to animal or human health.<sup id="cite_ref-Sattelmacher_2000_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sattelmacher_2000-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1804, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Rudolphi" title="Karl Rudolphi">Karl Rudolphi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Friedrich_Link" title="Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link">J.H.F. Link</a> proved that cells had independent cell walls.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and that fluid passed between them this way. </p><p>The mode of formation of the cell wall was controversial in the 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Hugo_von_Mohl" title="Hugo von Mohl">Hugo von Mohl</a> (1853, 1858) advocated the idea that the cell wall grows by apposition. <a href="/wiki/Carl_N%C3%A4geli" title="Carl Nägeli">Carl Nägeli</a> (1858, 1862, 1863) believed that the growth of the wall in thickness and in area was due to a process termed intussusception. Each theory was improved in the following decades: the apposition (or lamination) theory by <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Strasburger" title="Eduard Strasburger">Eduard Strasburger</a> (1882, 1889), and the intussusception theory by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wiesner" title="Julius Wiesner">Julius Wiesner</a> (1886).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1930, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_M%C3%BCnch" title="Ernst Münch">Ernst Münch</a> coined the term <i><a href="/wiki/Apoplast" title="Apoplast">apoplast</a></i> in order to separate the "living" <a href="/wiki/Symplast" title="Symplast">symplast</a> from the "dead" plant region, the latter of which included the cell wall.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1980s, some authors suggested replacing the term "cell wall", particularly as it was used for plants, with the more precise term "<a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a>", as used for animal cells,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sattelmacher_2000_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sattelmacher_2000-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 168">: 168 </span></sup> but others preferred the older term.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cell_wall" title="Special:EditPage/Cell wall">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eukaryota_cell_strucutre.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Eukaryota_cell_strucutre.PNG/220px-Eukaryota_cell_strucutre.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Eukaryota_cell_strucutre.PNG/330px-Eukaryota_cell_strucutre.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Eukaryota_cell_strucutre.PNG/440px-Eukaryota_cell_strucutre.PNG 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of the plant cell, with the cell wall in green.</figcaption></figure> <p>Cell walls serve similar purposes in those organisms that possess them. They may give cells rigidity and strength, offering protection against mechanical stress. The chemical composition and mechanical properties of the cell wall are linked with plant cell growth and <a href="/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">morphogenesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bid_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bid-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In multicellular organisms, they permit the organism to build and hold a definite shape. Cell walls also limit the entry of large molecules that may be toxic to the cell. They further permit the creation of stable <a href="/wiki/Osmotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmotic">osmotic</a> environments by preventing <a href="/wiki/Cytolysis" title="Cytolysis">osmotic lysis</a> and helping to retain water. Their composition, properties, and form may change during the <a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">cell cycle</a> and depend on growth conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-bid_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bid-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rigidity_of_cell_walls">Rigidity of cell walls</h3></div> <p>In most cells, the cell wall is flexible, meaning that it will bend rather than holding a fixed shape, but has considerable <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>. The apparent rigidity of primary plant tissues is enabled by cell walls, but is not due to the walls' stiffness. Hydraulic <a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">turgor pressure</a> creates this rigidity, along with the wall structure. The flexibility of the cell walls is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop, or in <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweeds</a> that bend in <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">water currents</a>. As John Howland explains </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Think of the cell wall as a wicker basket in which a balloon has been inflated so that it exerts pressure from the inside. Such a basket is very rigid and resistant to mechanical damage. Thus does the prokaryote cell (and eukaryotic cell that possesses a cell wall) gain strength from a flexible plasma membrane pressing against a rigid cell wall.<sup id="cite_ref-Howland_2000_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howland_2000-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The apparent rigidity of the cell wall thus results from inflation of the cell contained within. This <a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">inflation</a> is a result of the <a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">passive uptake of water</a>. </p><p>In plants, a <b>secondary cell wall</b> is a thicker additional layer of cellulose which increases wall rigidity. Additional layers may be formed by <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> cell walls, or <a href="/wiki/Suberin" title="Suberin">suberin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">cork</a> cell walls. These compounds are <a href="/wiki/Structural_rigidity" title="Structural rigidity">rigid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waterproof" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterproof">waterproof</a>, making the secondary wall stiff. Both <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bark_(botany)" title="Bark (botany)">bark</a> cells of <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a> have secondary walls. Other parts of plants such as the <a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">leaf stalk</a> may acquire similar reinforcement to resist the strain of physical forces. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Permeability">Permeability</h3></div> <p>The primary cell wall of most <a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">plant cells</a> is freely permeable to small molecules including small <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, with size exclusion estimated to be 30-60 <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic mass unit">kDa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pH is an important factor governing the transport of molecules through cell walls.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <span class="anonymous-show"><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3ACell_wall&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+22+November+2024&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=Cell+wall">making an edit request</a></span></span><span class="user-show"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cell_wall&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> </span>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2013</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Cell walls evolved independently in many groups. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> (so-called plant and algae) is one group with cellulose cell walls, where the cell wall is closely related to the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Multicellularity" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellularity">multicellularity</a>, terrestrialization and vascularization. The <a href="/wiki/Cellulose_synthase_(UDP-forming)" title="Cellulose synthase (UDP-forming)">CesA cellulose synthase</a> evolved in <i><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a></i> and was part of <a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a> since <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">endosymbiosis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Secondary_endosymbiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary endosymbiosis">secondary endosymbiosis</a> events transferred it (with the <a href="/wiki/Arabinogalactan" title="Arabinogalactan">arabinogalactan</a> proteins) further into <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Oomycetes">oomycetes</a>. Plants later evolved various genes from CesA, including the Csl (cellulose synthase-like) family of proteins and additional Ces proteins. Combined with the various glycosyltransferases (GT), they enable more complex chemical structures to be built.<sup id="cite_ref-popper_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-popper-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fungi use a <a href="/wiki/Chitin-glucan_complex" title="Chitin-glucan complex">chitin-glucan-protein</a> cell wall.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_2007_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They share the 1,3-β-glucan synthesis pathway with plants, using homologous GT48 family <a href="/wiki/1,3-Beta-glucan_synthase" title="1,3-Beta-glucan synthase">1,3-Beta-glucan synthases</a> to perform the task, suggesting that such an enzyme is very ancient within the eukaryotes. Their glycoproteins are rich in <a href="/wiki/Mannose" title="Mannose">mannose</a>. The cell wall might have evolved to deter viral infections. Proteins embedded in cell walls are variable, contained in <a href="/wiki/Tandem_repeat" title="Tandem repeat">tandem repeats</a> subject to <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An alternative scenario is that fungi started with a <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>-based cell wall and later acquired the GT-48 enzymes for the 1,3-β-glucans via <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>. The pathway leading to 1,6-β-glucan synthesis is not sufficiently known in either case.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plant_cell_walls">Plant cell walls</h2></div> <p>The walls of plant cells must have sufficient tensile strength to withstand internal <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic pressures</a> of several times <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a> that result from the difference in solute concentration between the cell interior and external solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-Romaniuk_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Romaniuk-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plant cell walls vary from 0.1 to several μm in thickness.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Layers">Layers</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plant_Cell_Wall.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Plant_Cell_Wall.png/220px-Plant_Cell_Wall.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Plant_Cell_Wall.png/330px-Plant_Cell_Wall.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Plant_Cell_Wall.png/440px-Plant_Cell_Wall.png 2x" data-file-width="1612" data-file-height="906" /></a><figcaption>Cell wall in multicellular plants – its different layers and their placement with respect to protoplasm (highly diagrammatic)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plant_cell_wall_diagram-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Plant_cell_wall_diagram-en.svg/220px-Plant_cell_wall_diagram-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Plant_cell_wall_diagram-en.svg/330px-Plant_cell_wall_diagram-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Plant_cell_wall_diagram-en.svg/440px-Plant_cell_wall_diagram-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="497" data-file-height="288" /></a><figcaption>Molecular structure of the primary cell wall in plants</figcaption></figure> <p>Up to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell walls:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <b>primary cell wall</b>, generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is growing.</li> <li>The <b><a href="/wiki/Secondary_cell_wall" title="Secondary cell wall">secondary cell wall</a></b>, a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is fully grown. It is not found in all cell types. Some cells, such as the conducting cells in <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a>, possess a secondary wall containing <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>, which strengthens and waterproofs the wall.</li> <li>The <b><a href="/wiki/Middle_lamella" title="Middle lamella">middle lamella</a></b>, a layer rich in <a href="/wiki/Pectin" title="Pectin">pectins</a>. This outermost layer forms the interface between adjacent plant cells and glues them together.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composition">Composition</h3></div> <p>In the primary (growing) plant cell wall, the major <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> are <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">hemicellulose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pectin" title="Pectin">pectin</a>. The cellulose <a href="/wiki/Microfibril" title="Microfibril">microfibrils</a> are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is <a href="/wiki/Xyloglucan" title="Xyloglucan">xyloglucan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fry1989_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fry1989-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In grass cell walls, xyloglucan and pectin are reduced in abundance and partially replaced by glucuronoarabinoxylan, another type of hemicellulose. Primary cell walls characteristically extend (grow) by a mechanism called <a href="/wiki/Acid_growth" title="Acid growth">acid growth</a>, mediated by <a href="/wiki/Expansin" title="Expansin">expansins</a>, extracellular proteins activated by acidic conditions that modify the hydrogen bonds between <a href="/wiki/Pectin" title="Pectin">pectin</a> and cellulose.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This functions to increase cell wall extensibility. The outer part of the primary cell wall of the plant epidermis is usually impregnated with <a href="/wiki/Cutin" title="Cutin">cutin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wax" title="Wax">wax</a>, forming a permeability barrier known as the <a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">plant cuticle</a>. </p><p>Secondary cell walls contain a wide range of additional compounds that modify their mechanical properties and permeability. The major <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> that make up <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a> (largely secondary cell walls) include: </p> <ul><li>cellulose, 35-50%</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylan" title="Xylan">xylan</a>, 20-35%, a type of hemicellulose</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>, 10-25%, a complex phenolic polymer that penetrates the spaces in the cell wall between cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin components, driving out water and strengthening the wall.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Allium-Mitose10-DM100x_BL28.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Allium-Mitose10-DM100x_BL28.jpg/220px-Allium-Mitose10-DM100x_BL28.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Allium-Mitose10-DM100x_BL28.jpg/330px-Allium-Mitose10-DM100x_BL28.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Allium-Mitose10-DM100x_BL28.jpg/440px-Allium-Mitose10-DM100x_BL28.jpg 2x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="911" /></a><figcaption>Photomicrograph of onion root cells, showing the centrifugal development of new cell walls (phragmoplast)</figcaption></figure> <p>Additionally, structural <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> (1-5%) are found in most plant cell walls; they are classified as hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP), <a href="/wiki/Arabinogalactan" title="Arabinogalactan">arabinogalactan</a> proteins (AGP), glycine-rich proteins (GRPs), and proline-rich proteins (PRPs). Each class of glycoprotein is defined by a characteristic, highly repetitive protein sequence. Most are <a href="/wiki/Glycosylation" title="Glycosylation">glycosylated</a>, contain <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyproline" title="Hydroxyproline">hydroxyproline</a> (Hyp) and become cross-linked in the cell wall. These proteins are often concentrated in specialized cells and in cell corners. Cell walls of the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">epidermis</a> may contain <a href="/wiki/Cutin" title="Cutin">cutin</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Casparian_strip" title="Casparian strip">Casparian strip</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Endodermis" title="Endodermis">endodermis</a> roots and <a href="/wiki/Cork_(material)" title="Cork (material)">cork</a> cells of plant bark contain <a href="/wiki/Suberin" title="Suberin">suberin</a>. Both cutin and suberin are polyesters that function as permeability barriers to the movement of water.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relative composition of carbohydrates, secondary compounds and proteins varies between plants and between the cell type and age. Plant cells walls also contain numerous enzymes, such as hydrolases, esterases, peroxidases, and transglycosylases, that cut, trim and <a href="/wiki/Cross-link" title="Cross-link">cross-link</a> wall polymers. </p><p>Secondary walls - especially in grasses - may also contain microscopic <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> crystals, which may strengthen the wall and protect it from herbivores. </p><p>Cell walls in some plant tissues also function as storage deposits for carbohydrates that can be broken down and resorbed to supply the metabolic and growth needs of the plant. For example, endosperm cell walls in the seeds of cereal grasses, <a href="/wiki/Tropaeolum_majus" title="Tropaeolum majus">nasturtium</a><sup id="cite_ref-reid_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reid-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 228">: 228 </span></sup> and other species, are rich in glucans and other polysaccharides that are readily digested by enzymes during seed germination to form simple sugars that nourish the growing embryo. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Middle_lamella" title="Middle lamella">middle lamella</a> is laid down first, formed from the <a href="/wiki/Cell_plate" title="Cell plate">cell plate</a> during <a href="/wiki/Cytokinesis" title="Cytokinesis">cytokinesis</a>, and the primary cell wall is then deposited inside the middle lamella.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="how can this be, since the middle lamella is defined as the pectic material between the primary cell walls? (September 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The actual structure of the cell wall is not clearly defined and several models exist - the covalently linked cross model, the tether model, the diffuse layer model and the stratified layer model. However, the primary cell wall, can be defined as composed of <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> <a href="/wiki/Microfibrils" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfibrils">microfibrils</a> aligned at all angles. Cellulose microfibrils are produced at the plasma membrane by the <a href="/wiki/Cellulose_synthase_(UDP-forming)" title="Cellulose synthase (UDP-forming)">cellulose synthase complex</a>, which is proposed to be made of a hexameric rosette that contains three cellulose synthase catalytic subunits for each of the six units.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microfibrils are held together by hydrogen bonds to provide a high tensile strength. The cells are held together and share the gelatinous membrane (the middle lamella), which contains <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> <a href="/wiki/Pectate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectate">pectates</a> (salts of <a href="/wiki/Pectic_acid" title="Pectic acid">pectic acid</a>). Cells interact though <a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">plasmodesmata</a>, which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of adjacent cells across the cell wall. </p><p>In some plants and cell types, after a maximum size or point in development has been reached, a <i>secondary wall</i> is constructed between the plasma membrane and primary wall.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the primary wall, the cellulose microfibrils are aligned parallel in layers, the orientation changing slightly with each additional layer so that the structure becomes helicoidal.<sup id="cite_ref-Abeysekera_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abeysekera-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cells with secondary cell walls can be rigid, as in the gritty <a href="/wiki/Sclereid" title="Sclereid">sclereid</a> cells in <a href="/wiki/Pear" title="Pear">pear</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quince" title="Quince">quince</a> fruit. Cell to cell communication is possible through <a href="/wiki/Pit_(botany)" title="Pit (botany)">pits</a> in the secondary cell wall that allow plasmodesmata to connect cells through the secondary cell walls. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fungal_cell_walls">Fungal cell walls</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chitin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Chitin.svg/220px-Chitin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Chitin.svg/330px-Chitin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Chitin.svg/440px-Chitin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="302" /></a><figcaption>Chemical structure of a unit from a <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> polymer chain</figcaption></figure> <p>There are several groups of organisms that have been called "fungi". Some of these groups (<a href="/wiki/Oomycete" title="Oomycete">Oomycete</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myxogastria" title="Myxogastria">Myxogastria</a>) have been transferred out of the Kingdom Fungi, in part because of fundamental biochemical differences in the composition of the cell wall. Most true fungi have a cell wall consisting largely of <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> True fungi do not have <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> in their cell walls.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_2007_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In fungi, the cell wall is the outer-most layer, external to the <a href="/wiki/Plasma_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma membrane">plasma membrane</a>. The fungal cell wall is a matrix of three main components:<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_2007_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>: <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> consisting mainly of unbranched chains of β-(1,4)-linked-<a href="/wiki/N-Acetylglucosamine" title="N-Acetylglucosamine">N-Acetylglucosamine</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a>, or poly-β-(1,4)-linked-<a href="/wiki/N-Acetylglucosamine" title="N-Acetylglucosamine">N-Acetylglucosamine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chitosan" title="Chitosan">chitosan</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a>. Both <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chitosan" title="Chitosan">chitosan</a> are synthesized and extruded at the <a href="/wiki/Plasma_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma membrane">plasma membrane</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_2007_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glucan" title="Glucan">glucans</a>: glucose <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> that function to cross-link <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chitosan" title="Chitosan">chitosan</a> polymers. β-glucans are glucose molecules linked via β-(1,3)- or β-(1,6)- bonds and provide rigidity to the cell wall while α-glucans are defined by α-(1,3)- and/or α-(1,4) bonds and function as part of the matrix.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_2007_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>: enzymes necessary for cell wall synthesis and lysis in addition to structural proteins are all present in the cell wall. Most of the structural proteins found in the cell wall are <a href="/wiki/Glycosylation" title="Glycosylation">glycosylated</a> and contain <a href="/wiki/Mannose" title="Mannose">mannose</a>, thus these proteins are called mannoproteins or <a href="/wiki/Mannan_(polysaccharide)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannan (polysaccharide)">mannans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_2007_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_eukaryotic_cell_walls">Other eukaryotic cell walls</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algae">Algae</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diatoms.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Diatoms.png/220px-Diatoms.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Diatoms.png/330px-Diatoms.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Diatoms.png/440px-Diatoms.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1144" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">Scanning electron</a> <a href="/wiki/Micrograph" title="Micrograph">micrographs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a> showing the external appearance of the cell wall</figcaption></figure> <p>Like plants, algae have cell walls.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algal cell walls contain either <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> (such as cellulose (a <a href="/wiki/Glucan" title="Glucan">glucan</a>)) or a variety of <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoproteins</a> (<a href="/wiki/Volvocales" class="mw-redirect" title="Volvocales">Volvocales</a>) or both. The inclusion of additional <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a> in algal cells walls is used as a feature for algal <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mannan_(polysaccharide)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannan (polysaccharide)">Mannans</a>: They form microfibrils in the cell walls of a number of <a href="/wiki/Marine_(ocean)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine (ocean)">marine</a> <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> including those from the <a href="/wiki/Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Codium" title="Codium">Codium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Dasycladus" title="Dasycladus">Dasycladus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Acetabularia" title="Acetabularia">Acetabularia</a></i> as well as in the walls of some <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a>, like <i><a href="/wiki/Porphyra" title="Porphyra">Porphyra</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Bangia" title="Bangia">Bangia</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylan" title="Xylan">Xylans</a>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alginic_acid" title="Alginic acid">Alginic acid</a>: It is a common polysaccharide in the cell walls of <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfonated" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfonated">Sulfonated</a> polysaccharides: They occur in the cell walls of most algae; those common in red algae include <a href="/wiki/Agar" title="Agar">agarose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carrageenan" title="Carrageenan">carrageenan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Porphyra" title="Porphyra">porphyran</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Furcelleran&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Furcelleran (page does not exist)">furcelleran</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Funoran&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Funoran (page does not exist)">funoran</a>.</li></ul> <p>Other compounds that may accumulate in algal cell walls include <a href="/wiki/Sporopollenin" title="Sporopollenin">sporopollenin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium ions</a>. </p><p>The group of <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a> <a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">synthesize</a> their cell walls (also known as <a href="/wiki/Frustules" class="mw-redirect" title="Frustules">frustules</a> or valves) from <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicic acid</a>. Significantly, relative to the organic cell walls produced by other groups, silica frustules require less energy to synthesize (approximately 8%), potentially a major saving on the overall cell energy budget<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and possibly an explanation for higher growth rates in diatoms.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Brown_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown alga">brown algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phlorotannin" title="Phlorotannin">phlorotannins</a> may be a constituent of the cell walls.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_molds">Water molds</h3></div> <p>The group <a href="/wiki/Oomycete" title="Oomycete">Oomycetes</a>, also known as water molds, are <a href="/wiki/Saprotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprotroph">saprotrophic</a> <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">plant pathogens</a> like fungi. Until recently they were widely believed to be fungi, but <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">structural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular</a> evidence<sup id="cite_ref-Sengbusch_2003_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sengbusch_2003-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has led to their reclassification as <a href="/wiki/Heterokont" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterokont">heterokonts</a>, related to <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophic</a> <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a>. Unlike fungi, oomycetes typically possess cell walls of cellulose and <a href="/wiki/Glucan" title="Glucan">glucans</a> rather than chitin, although some genera (such as <i><a href="/wiki/Achlya" title="Achlya">Achlya</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Saprolegnia" title="Saprolegnia">Saprolegnia</a></i>) do have chitin in their walls.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexopoulos_1996_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexopoulos_1996-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fraction of cellulose in the walls is no more than 4 to 20%, far less than the fraction of glucans.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexopoulos_1996_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexopoulos_1996-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oomycete cell walls also contain the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyproline" title="Hydroxyproline">hydroxyproline</a>, which is not found in fungal cell walls. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slime_molds">Slime molds</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Dictyostelid" title="Dictyostelid">dictyostelids</a> are another group formerly classified among the fungi. They are <a href="/wiki/Slime_mold" title="Slime mold">slime molds</a> that feed as unicellular <a href="/wiki/Amoeba" title="Amoeba">amoebae</a>, but aggregate into a reproductive stalk and <a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">sporangium</a> under certain conditions. Cells of the reproductive stalk, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> formed at the apex, possess a <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> wall.<sup id="cite_ref-Raper_1984_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raper_1984-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spore wall has three layers, the middle one composed primarily of cellulose, while the innermost is sensitive to <a href="/wiki/Cellulase" title="Cellulase">cellulase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pronase" title="Pronase">pronase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Raper_1984_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raper_1984-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prokaryotic_cell_walls">Prokaryotic cell walls</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacterial_cell_walls">Bacterial cell walls</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prokaryote_cell.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prokaryote_cell.svg/220px-Prokaryote_cell.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prokaryote_cell.svg/330px-Prokaryote_cell.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prokaryote_cell.svg/440px-Prokaryote_cell.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of a typical <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">gram-positive bacterium</a>. The cell envelope comprises a <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">plasma membrane</a>, seen here in light brown, and a thick <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a>-containing cell wall (the purple layer). No <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_outer_membrane" title="Bacterial outer membrane">outer lipid membrane</a> is present, as would be the case in <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">gram-negative bacteria</a>. The red layer, known as the <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_capsule" title="Bacterial capsule">capsule</a>, is distinct from the cell envelope.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cell_envelope" title="Cell envelope">Cell envelope</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">Bacterial cell structure</a></div> <p>Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are made of <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a> (also called murein), which is made from <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharide</a> chains cross-linked by unusual <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a> containing D-<a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> which are made of <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria, although <a href="/wiki/L-form_bacteria" title="L-form bacteria">L-form bacteria</a> can be produced in the laboratory that lack a cell wall.<sup id="cite_ref-Joseleau_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joseleau-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The antibiotic <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a> is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a> enzyme can also damage bacterial cell walls. </p><p>There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria, called <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-positive">gram-positive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-negative">gram-negative</a>. The names originate from the reaction of cells to the <a href="/wiki/Gram_stain" title="Gram stain">Gram stain</a>, a test long-employed for the classification of bacterial species.<sup id="cite_ref-Gram_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gram-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gram-positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and <a href="/wiki/Teichoic_acid" title="Teichoic acid">teichoic acids</a>. </p><p>Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing <a href="/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide" title="Lipopolysaccharide">lipopolysaccharides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lipoprotein" title="Lipoprotein">lipoproteins</a>. Most bacteria have the gram-negative cell wall and only the <a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a> (previously known as the low G+C and high G+C gram-positive bacteria, respectively) have the alternative gram-positive arrangement.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These differences in structure produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility. The <a href="/wiki/Beta-lactam_antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-lactam antibiotics">beta-lactam antibiotics</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin" title="Cephalosporin">cephalosporin</a>) only work against gram-negative pathogens, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_aeruginosa" title="Pseudomonas aeruginosa">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a></i>. The <a href="/wiki/Glycopeptide_antibiotic" title="Glycopeptide antibiotic">glycopeptide antibiotics</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Vancomycin" title="Vancomycin">vancomycin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teicoplanin" title="Teicoplanin">teicoplanin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telavancin" title="Telavancin">telavancin</a>) only work against gram-positive pathogens such as <i><a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Staphylococcus aureus">Staphylococcus aureus</a></i> <sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeal_cell_walls">Archaeal cell walls</h3></div> <p>Although not truly unique, the cell walls of <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> are unusual. Whereas <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a> is a standard component of all bacterial cell walls, all archaeal cell walls lack <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-White_1995_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White_1995-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though some <a href="/wiki/Methanogen" title="Methanogen">methanogens</a> have a cell wall made of a similar polymer called <a href="/wiki/Pseudopeptidoglycan" title="Pseudopeptidoglycan">pseudopeptidoglycan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Howland_2000_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howland_2000-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are four types of cell wall currently known among the Archaea. </p><p>One type of archaeal cell wall is that composed of <a href="/wiki/Pseudopeptidoglycan" title="Pseudopeptidoglycan">pseudopeptidoglycan</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Pseudomurein" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudomurein">pseudomurein</a>). This type of wall is found in some <a href="/wiki/Methanogen" title="Methanogen">methanogens</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Methanobacterium" title="Methanobacterium">Methanobacterium</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Methanothermus" title="Methanothermus">Methanothermus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock_1994_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock_1994-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the overall structure of archaeal <i>pseudo</i>peptidoglycan superficially resembles that of bacterial peptidoglycan, there are a number of significant chemical differences. Like the peptidoglycan found in bacterial cell walls, pseudopeptidoglycan consists of <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> chains of <a href="/wiki/Glycan" title="Glycan">glycan</a> cross-linked by short <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptide</a> connections. However, unlike peptidoglycan, the sugar <a href="/wiki/N-Acetylmuramic_acid" title="N-Acetylmuramic acid">N-acetylmuramic acid</a> is replaced by <a href="/wiki/N-Acetyltalosaminuronic_acid" title="N-Acetyltalosaminuronic acid">N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-White_1995_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White_1995-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the two sugars are bonded with a <i>β</i>,1-3 glycosidic linkage instead of <i>β</i>,1-4. Additionally, the cross-linking peptides are <a href="/wiki/L-amino_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="L-amino acid">L-amino acids</a> rather than D-amino acids as they are in bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock_1994_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock_1994-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second type of archaeal cell wall is found in <i><a href="/wiki/Methanosarcina" title="Methanosarcina">Methanosarcina</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Halococcus" title="Halococcus">Halococcus</a></i>. This type of cell wall is composed entirely of a thick layer of <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>, which may be <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfated</a> in the case of <i>Halococcus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock_1994_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock_1994-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Structure in this type of wall is complex and not fully investigated. </p><p>A third type of wall among the <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> consists of <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoprotein</a>, and occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Hyperthermophile" title="Hyperthermophile">hyperthermophiles</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Halobacterium" title="Halobacterium">Halobacterium</a></i>, and some <a href="/wiki/Methanogen" title="Methanogen">methanogens</a>. In <i>Halobacterium</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> in the wall have a high content of <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acidic</a> <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>, giving the wall an overall negative charge. The result is an unstable structure that is stabilized by the presence of large quantities of positive <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> that <a href="/wiki/Neutralization_(chemistry)" title="Neutralization (chemistry)">neutralize</a> the charge.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock_1994_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock_1994-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, <i>Halobacterium</i> thrives only under conditions with high <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a>. </p><p>In other Archaea, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Methanomicrobium" title="Methanomicrobium">Methanomicrobium</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Desulfurococcus" title="Desulfurococcus">Desulfurococcus</a></i>, the wall may be composed only of surface-layer <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Howland_2000_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howland_2000-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> known as an <i><a href="/wiki/S-layer" title="S-layer">S-layer</a></i>. S-layers are common in bacteria, where they serve as either the sole cell-wall component or an outer layer in conjunction with <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharides" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysaccharides">polysaccharides</a>. Most Archaea are Gram-negative, though at least one Gram-positive member is known.<sup id="cite_ref-Howland_2000_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howland_2000-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_cell_coverings">Other cell coverings</h2></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> produce other cell surface structures apart from cell walls, external (<a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a>) or internal.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> have a sheath or envelope of <a href="/wiki/Mucilage" title="Mucilage">mucilage</a> outside the cell made of <a href="/wiki/Exopolysaccharides" class="mw-redirect" title="Exopolysaccharides">exopolysaccharides</a>. <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatoms</a> build a <a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">frustule</a> from <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> extracted from the surrounding water; <a href="/wiki/Radiolarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiolarian">radiolarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foraminiferan" class="mw-redirect" title="Foraminiferan">foraminiferans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Testate_amoebae" title="Testate amoebae">testate amoebae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicoflagellate" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicoflagellate">silicoflagellates</a> also produce a skeleton from <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Test_(biology)" title="Test (biology)">test</a> in some groups. Many <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Halimeda" title="Halimeda">Halimeda</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Dasycladales" title="Dasycladales">Dasycladales</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Corallinales" class="mw-redirect" title="Corallinales">Corallinales</a>, encase their cells in a <a href="/wiki/Secreted" class="mw-redirect" title="Secreted">secreted</a> skeleton of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>. In each case, the wall is rigid and essentially <a href="/wiki/Inorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic">inorganic</a>. It is the non-living component of cell. Some <a href="/wiki/Golden_algae" title="Golden algae">golden algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">choanoflagellates</a> produces a shell-like protective outer covering called <a href="/wiki/Lorica_(biology)" title="Lorica (biology)">lorica</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a> have a <a href="/wiki/Theca" title="Theca">theca</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> plates, and <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophorid" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccolithophorid">coccolithophorids</a> have <a href="/wiki/Coccolith" title="Coccolith">coccoliths</a>. </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a> (ECM) is also present in <a href="/wiki/Metazoans" class="mw-redirect" title="Metazoans">metazoans</a>. Its <a href="/wiki/Chemical_composition" title="Chemical composition">composition</a> varies between cells, but <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagens</a> are the most <a href="/wiki/Abundance_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abundance (chemistry)">abundant</a> protein in the ECM.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">Extracellular matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">Bacterial cell structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cell</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Romaniuk-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Romaniuk_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Romaniuk_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRomaniukCegelski2015" class="citation journal cs1">Romaniuk JA, Cegelski L (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4632600">"Bacterial cell wall composition and the influence of antibiotics by cell-wall and whole-cell NMR"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>370</b> (1679): 20150024. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2015.0024">10.1098/rstb.2015.0024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4632600">4632600</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26370936">26370936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Bacterial+cell+wall+composition+and+the+influence+of+antibiotics+by+cell-wall+and+whole-cell+NMR&rft.volume=370&rft.issue=1679&rft.pages=20150024&rft.date=2015-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4632600%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26370936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2015.0024&rft.aulast=Romaniuk&rft.aufirst=JA&rft.au=Cegelski%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4632600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACell+wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutledgeWright2013" class="citation book cs1">Rutledge RD, Wright DW (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8y-CKE8_Bi0C&pg=RA2-PT52">"Biomineralization: Peptide-Mediated Synthesis of Materials"</a>. 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New York: Garland. p. 1065. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-4072-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-4072-0"><bdi>978-0-8153-4072-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+biology+of+the+cell&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1065&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Garland&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-4072-0&rft.aulast=Alberts&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Julian&rft.au=Raff%2C+Martin&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Keith&rft.au=Walter%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACell+wall" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">Cell membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">Endoplasmic reticulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenthesome" title="Parenthesome">Parenthesome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autophagosome" title="Autophagosome">Autophagosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology_and_chemistry)" title="Vesicle (biology and chemistry)">Vesicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exosome_(vesicle)" title="Exosome (vesicle)">Exosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysosome" title="Lysosome">Lysosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosome" title="Endosome">Endosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phagosome" title="Phagosome">Phagosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrosome" title="Acrosome">Acrosome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_(cell_biology)" title="Granule (cell biology)">Cytoplasmic granule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melanosome" title="Melanosome">Melanosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbody" title="Microbody">Microbody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glyoxysome" title="Glyoxysome">Glyoxysome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peroxisome" title="Peroxisome">Peroxisome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weibel%E2%80%93Palade_body" title="Weibel–Palade body">Weibel–Palade body</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">Cytoskeleton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microfilament" title="Microfilament">Microfilament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_filament" title="Intermediate filament">Intermediate filament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microtubule" title="Microtubule">Microtubule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryotic_cytoskeleton" title="Prokaryotic cytoskeleton">Prokaryotic cytoskeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microtubule_organizing_center" title="Microtubule organizing center">Microtubule organizing center</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrosome" title="Centrosome">Centrosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centriole" title="Centriole">Centriole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basal_body" title="Basal body">Basal body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spindle_pole_body" title="Spindle pole body">Spindle pole body</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myofibril" title="Myofibril">Myofibril</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undulipodium" title="Undulipodium">Undulipodium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagellum#Eukaryotic" title="Flagellum">Flagellum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axoneme" title="Axoneme">Axoneme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radial_spoke" title="Radial spoke">Radial spoke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudopodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudopodium">Pseudopodium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamellipodium" title="Lamellipodium">Lamellipodium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filopodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Filopodium">Filopodium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">Endosymbionts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">Mitochondrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">Chloroplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromoplast" title="Chromoplast">Chromoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontoplast" title="Gerontoplast">Gerontoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucoplast" title="Leucoplast">Leucoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyloplast" title="Amyloplast">Amyloplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaioplast" title="Elaioplast">Elaioplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteinoplast" title="Proteinoplast">Proteinoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tannosome" title="Tannosome">Tannosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apicoplast" title="Apicoplast">Apicoplast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitroplast" title="Nitroplast">Nitroplast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other internal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleolus" title="Nucleolus">Nucleolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">Ribosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spliceosome" title="Spliceosome">Spliceosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vault_(organelle)" title="Vault (organelle)">Vault</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">Cytoplasm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cytosol" title="Cytosol">Cytosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytoplasmic_inclusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoplasmic inclusion">Inclusions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteasome" title="Proteasome">Proteasome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosome" title="Magnetosome">Magnetosome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">External</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">Extracellular matrix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Microbiology:_Bacteria" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria" title="Template:Bacteria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bacteria" title="Template talk:Bacteria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bacteria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bacteria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Microbiology:_Bacteria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical<br />microbiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">Exotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysogenic_cycle" title="Lysogenic cycle">Lysogenic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Pathogenic bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Resistance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Oxygen<br />preference</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerobic_organism" title="Aerobic organism">Aerobic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obligate_aerobe" title="Obligate aerobe">Obligate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_aerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Facultative aerobe">Facultative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">Anaerobic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_anaerobic_organism" title="Facultative anaerobic organism">Facultative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obligate_anaerobe" title="Obligate anaerobe">Obligate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microaerophile" title="Microaerophile">Microaerophile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanaerobe" title="Nanaerobe">Nanaerobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerotolerant_anaerobe" title="Aerotolerant anaerobe">Aerotolerant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">Extremophile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome" title="Human microbiome">Human microbiome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gut_microbiota" title="Gut microbiota">Gut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung_microbiota" title="Lung microbiota">Lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_microbiology" title="Oral microbiology">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_flora" title="Skin flora">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora" title="Vaginal flora">Vaginal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vaginal_microbiota_in_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaginal microbiota in pregnancy">in pregnancy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placental_microbiome" title="Placental microbiome">Placental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_microbiome" title="Uterine microbiome">Uterine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salivary_microbiome" title="Salivary microbiome">Salivary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">Nitrogen fixation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li>Substrate preference <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lipophilic_bacteria" title="Lipophilic bacteria">Lipophilic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmophile" title="Osmophile">Saccharophilic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Shape</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cellular_morphologies" title="Bacterial cellular morphologies">Bacterial cellular morphologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">cell structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_morphological_plasticity" title="Bacterial morphological plasticity">plasticity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccus" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccus">Cocci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillus_(shape)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus (shape)">Bacilli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccobacillus" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccobacillus">Coccobacilli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiral bacteria">Spiral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">Structure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Cell_envelope" title="Cell envelope">Cell<br />envelope</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">Cell membrane</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cell wall</a>: <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">Peptidoglycan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylmuramic_acid" title="N-Acetylmuramic acid">NAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylglucosamine" title="N-Acetylglucosamine">NAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaminopimelic_acid" title="Diaminopimelic acid">DAP</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">Gram-positive bacteria</a> only:</i> <a href="/wiki/Teichoic_acid" title="Teichoic acid">Teichoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipoteichoic_acid" title="Lipoteichoic acid">Lipoteichoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endospore" title="Endospore">Endospore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">Gram-negative bacteria</a> only:</i> <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_outer_membrane" title="Bacterial outer membrane">Bacterial outer membrane</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_bacterial_porin_family" title="General bacterial porin family">Porin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide" title="Lipopolysaccharide">Lipopolysaccharide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplasmic_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Periplasmic space">Periplasmic space</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium" title="Mycobacterium">Mycobacteria</a> only:</i> <a href="/wiki/Arabinogalactan" title="Arabinogalactan">Arabinogalactan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycolic_acid" title="Mycolic acid">Mycolic acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Outside<br />envelope</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_capsule" title="Bacterial capsule">Bacterial capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slime_layer" title="Slime layer">Slime layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-layer" title="S-layer">S-layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycocalyx" title="Glycocalyx">Glycocalyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilus" title="Pilus">Pilus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbria_(bacteriology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria (bacteriology)">Fimbria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-motile_bacteria" title="Non-motile bacteria">Non-motile bacteria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Composite</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_taxonomy" title="Bacterial taxonomy">Taxonomy</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bacteria_(classifications)" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Bacteria (classifications)">Bacteria (classifications)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_phyla" title="Bacterial phyla">Bacterial phyla</a></li> <li><i>Former groupings</i>: <a href="/wiki/Schizomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Schizomycetes">Schizomycetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monera" title="Monera">Monera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryota" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryota">Prokaryota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gracilicutes" title="Gracilicutes">Gracilicutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Firmicutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollicutes" title="Mollicutes">Mollicutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendosicutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendosicutes">Mendosicutes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Bacteria" title="Category:Bacteria">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bacteria" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bacteria">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Microbiology:_Fungus" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungus" title="Template:Fungus"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fungus" title="Template talk:Fungus"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fungus" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fungus"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Microbiology:_Fungus" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_fungi" title="Outline of fungi">Outline of fungi</a> · <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_lichens" title="Outline of lichens">Outline of lichens</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branch</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomycology" title="Ethnomycology">Ethnomycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichenology" title="Lichenology">Lichenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_uses_of_fungi" title="Medicinal uses of fungi">Medicinal fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycosis">Mycosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotoxicology" title="Mycotoxicology">Mycotoxicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reproduction/<a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spore</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Teleomorph,_anamorph_and_holomorph" title="Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph">teleomorph/sexual</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Zygospore" title="Zygospore">Zygospore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascospore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascospore">Ascospore</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">Ascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiospore" title="Basidiospore">Basidiospore</a>/<a href="/wiki/Basidium" title="Basidium">Basidium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Teliospore" title="Teliospore">Teliospore</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Teleomorph,_anamorph_and_holomorph" title="Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph">anamorph/asexual</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conidium" title="Conidium">Conidium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydospore" title="Chlamydospore">Chlamydospore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oidium_(spore)" title="Oidium (spore)">Oidium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pycniospore" title="Pycniospore">Pycniospore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">Hypha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haustorium" title="Haustorium">Haustorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycelium" title="Mycelium">Mycelium</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporocarp (fungi)">Sporocarp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Growth patterns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dimorphic_fungus" title="Dimorphic fungus">Dimorphic fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mold" title="Mold">Mold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">Yeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">Mushroom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mycology" title="Glossary of mycology">Glossary of mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fungal_orders" title="List of fungal orders">List of fungal orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mycologists" title="List of mycologists">List of mycologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mycology_journals" title="List of mycology journals">List of mycology journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Fungi" title="Category:Fungi">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Fungi" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Fungi">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fungi" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fungi">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Microbiology:_Protistology:_Protists" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Protist_structures" title="Template:Protist structures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Protist_structures" title="Template talk:Protist structures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Protist_structures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Protist structures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Microbiology:_Protistology:_Protists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protists</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former<br />classifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">Mastigophora/Flagellates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoeba" title="Amoeba">Sarcodina/Amoeboids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testate_amoebae" title="Testate amoebae">Testate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliozoa" title="Heliozoa">Heliozoa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infusoria" title="Infusoria">Infusoria</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa#Taxonomy" title="Apicomplexa">Sporozoa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptogam" title="Cryptogam">Cryptogams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thallophyte" title="Thallophyte">Thallophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus#Fungus-like_organisms" title="Fungus">Fungus-like organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slime_mold" title="Slime mold">Slime molds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomenclature_codes#Ambiregnal_protists" title="Nomenclature codes">Ambiregnal protists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Morphology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Chloroplastida</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>": <a href="/wiki/Phycoplast" title="Phycoplast">Phycoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagellum#Types" title="Flagellum">Flagellar apparatus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">Glaucophytes</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanelle">Cyanelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycobilisome" title="Phycobilisome">Phycobilisomes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">Red algae</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pit_connection" title="Pit connection">Pit connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycobilisome" title="Phycobilisome">Phycobilisomes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><a href="/wiki/Hacrobia" title="Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Cryptomonad" title="Cryptomonad">Cryptophyta</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mastigoneme" title="Mastigoneme">Mastigoneme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplast" title="Periplast">Periplast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Haptophyte" title="Haptophyte">Haptophyte</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coccolith" title="Coccolith">Coccolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptophyte#Characteristics" title="Haptophyte">Haptonema</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><a href="/wiki/Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold">General:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mastigoneme" title="Mastigoneme">Mastigoneme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatoms</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">Frustule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">Brown algae</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamina_(algae)" title="Lamina (algae)">Lamina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatocyst" title="Pneumatocyst">Pneumatocyst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><a href="/wiki/Alveolate" title="Alveolate">Alveolata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold">General:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolate#Characteristics" title="Alveolate"> Alveoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichocyst" title="Trichocyst">Trichocyst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellates</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dinokaryon" title="Dinokaryon">Dinokaryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinocyst" title="Dinocyst">Dinocyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theca" title="Theca">Theca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliates</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirrus_(biology)" title="Cirrus (biology)">Cirrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macronucleus" title="Macronucleus">Macronucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronucleus" title="Micronucleus">Micronucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexans</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhoptry" title="Rhoptry">Rhoptry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apicoplast" title="Apicoplast">Apicoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microneme" title="Microneme">Microneme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(225,204,252);"><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Phytomyxea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(225,204,252);"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Phytomyxea" title="Phytomyxea">Phytomyxea</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_division" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear division">Cruciform division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F0E68C;"><a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F0E68C;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Kinetoplastida" title="Kinetoplastida">Kinetoplastids</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetoplast" title="Kinetoplast">Kinetoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycosome" title="Glycosome">Glycosome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F0E68C;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Euglenid" title="Euglenid">Euglenoidea</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periplast" title="Periplast">Periplast/pellicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC8A0;"><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dictyostelids:" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC8A0;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Dictyostelid" title="Dictyostelid">Dictyostelids</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macrocyst" title="Macrocyst">Macrocyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorocarp" title="Sorocarp">Sorocarp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">Opisthokonta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Choanoflagellates:" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D3D3A4;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellates</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microvillus" title="Microvillus">Collar of microvilli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisationsstufe" class="extiw" title="de:Organisationsstufe">Levels of<br />organization</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicellular">Unicellular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">Monadoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoeboid" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoeboid">Amoeboid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccoid_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Coccoid (disambiguation)">Coccoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoeboflagellate" title="Amoeboflagellate">Amoeboflagellate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">Colonial</a> <a href="/wiki/Sensu_stricto" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensu stricto">s.s.</a> <ul><li>Colonial flagellated</li> <li>Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid</li> <li>Sarcinoid</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coenobium_(morphology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coenobium (morphology)">Coenobial</a></li></ul></li> <li>Filamentous/trichal/<a href="/wiki/Hyphal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyphal">hyphal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenchymatous" class="mw-redirect" title="Parenchymatous">Parenchymatous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoparenchyma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoparenchyma">Pseudoparenchymatous</a>/plektenchymatic</li> <li>Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinucleated" class="mw-redirect" title="Multinucleated">Multinucleated</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syncytial" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncytial">Syncytial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coenocytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Coenocytic">Coenocytic</a> <ul><li>Siphonous</li> <li>Siphonocladous</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">Multicellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Sensu_stricto" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensu stricto">s.s.</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissular</a>/histonal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Other_cell_coverings">Cell surface<br />structures</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">Simple cell membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucilage" title="Mucilage">Mucilage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scale_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scale (anatomy)">Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">Frustule</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorica_(biology)" title="Lorica (biology)">Lorica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">Skeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Test_(biology)" title="Test (biology)">Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theca" title="Theca">Theca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplast" title="Periplast">Periplast/pellicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Locomotion</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">Flagellum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudopodia" title="Pseudopodia">Pseudopodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gliding_motility" title="Gliding motility">Gliding motility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Mitochondria</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogenosome" title="Hydrogenosome">Hydrogenosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosome" title="Mitosome">Mitosome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Nucleus</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleomorph" title="Nucleomorph">Nucleomorph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinucleate" title="Multinucleate">Multinucleate cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_(life_cycle)" title="Plasmodium (life cycle)">Plasmodium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dikaryon" title="Dikaryon">Dikaryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterokaryon" title="Heterokaryon">Heterokaryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis in protists</a> <ul><li>Open</li> <li>Closed</li> <li>Orthomitosis</li> <li>Pleuromitosis</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis#Occurrence_in_eukaryotic_life_cycles" title="Meiosis">Meiosis in protists</a> <ul><li>Gametic</li> <li>Zygotic</li> <li>Sporic</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Other</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cyst" title="Microbial cyst">Cyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytostome" title="Cytostome">Cytostome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbria_(bacteriology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria (bacteriology)">Fimbriae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrusome" title="Extrusome">Extrusome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractile_vacuole" title="Contractile vacuole">Contractile vacuole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyespot_apparatus" title="Eyespot apparatus">Eyespot apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrenoid" title="Pyrenoid">Pyrenoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axostyle" title="Axostyle">Axostyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastigont_system" title="Mastigont system">Mastigont system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecology and<br />physiology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biogeography" title="Microbial biogeography">Microbial biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lourens_Baas_Becking#Baas_Becking_hypothesis" title="Lourens Baas Becking">Baas-Becking hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Development</a>/<a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilization#Fertilization_in_protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">Fertilization</a></li></ul></li> <li>Nutrition: <a href="/wiki/Autotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Autotrophy">Autotrophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phototrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phototrophy">Phototrophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophy">Heterotrophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phagotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phagotrophy">Phagotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotrophy" title="Osmotrophy">Osmotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saprotrophic_nutrition" title="Saprotrophic nutrition">Saprotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotrophy">Biotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necrotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Necrotrophy">Necrotrophy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixotrophy">Mixotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxotrophy" title="Auxotrophy">Auxotrophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span 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