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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Principle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Usage_in_lexicostatistics_and_glottochronology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Usage_in_lexicostatistics_and_glottochronology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Usage in lexicostatistics and glottochronology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Usage_in_lexicostatistics_and_glottochronology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Swadesh_100_original_final_list" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swadesh_100_original_final_list"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Swadesh 100 original final list</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swadesh_100_original_final_list-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Swadesh_207_list" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swadesh_207_list"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Swadesh 207 list</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swadesh_207_list-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shorter_lists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shorter_lists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Shorter lists</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Shorter_lists-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Shorter lists subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Shorter_lists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sign_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sign_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Sign languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sign_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Swadesh list</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%B7%E1%8B%B4%E1%88%BD_%E1%8B%9D%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%9D%E1%88%AD" title="የሷዴሽ ዝርዝር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የሷዴሽ ዝርዝር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%B4" title="قائمة سواديش – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قائمة سواديش" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE" title="স্বাদেশ তালিকা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="স্বাদেশ তালিকা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llista_Swadesh" title="Llista Swadesh – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llista Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%85%D3%80" title="Сводешил сияхӀ – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Сводешил сияхӀ" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE" title="সোয়াদেশ তালিকা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সোয়াদেশ তালিকা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_hu%CC%8Dt-sim-s%C3%BB_it-l%C3%A1m-pi%C3%B3" title="Swadesh hu̍t-sim-sû it-lám-pió – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Swadesh hu̍t-sim-sû it-lám-pió" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%88_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5" title="Сводеш исемлеге – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сводеш исемлеге" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Спіс Сводэша – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Спіс Сводэша" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8C%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81_%D0%A1%D1%9E%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Сьпіс Сўодэша – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сьпіс Сўодэша" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listenn_Swadesh" title="Listenn Swadesh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Listenn Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llista_Swadesh" title="Llista Swadesh – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llista Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%88%D3%91%D0%BD_%D1%8F%D1%82-%D0%B9%D1%8B%D1%88%C4%95" title="Сводешӑн ят-йышĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Сводешӑн ят-йышĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh-Liste" title="Swadesh-Liste – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Swadesh-Liste" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadeshi_loend" title="Swadeshi loend – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Swadeshi loend" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A3%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Κατάλογος Σουάντες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κατάλογος Σουάντες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_Swadesh" title="Lista Swadesh – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lista Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listo_Swadesh" title="Listo Swadesh – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Listo Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_zerrenda" title="Swadesh zerrenda – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Swadesh zerrenda" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4" title="فهرست سوادش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فهرست سوادش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_Swadesh" title="Liste Swadesh – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Liste Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh-list" title="Swadesh-list – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Swadesh-list" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_Swadesh" title="Lista Swadesh – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lista Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E7%93%A6%E8%BF%AA%E5%A3%AB%E6%A0%B8%E5%BF%83%E8%A9%9E%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="斯瓦迪士核心詞列表 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="斯瓦迪士核心詞列表" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_fu%CC%8Dt-s%C3%AEm-chh%E1%B9%B3%CC%80_lie%CC%8Dt-p%C3%A9u" title="Swadesh fu̍t-sîm-chhṳ̀ lie̍t-péu – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Swadesh fu̍t-sîm-chhṳ̀ lie̍t-péu" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%EC%99%80%EB%8D%B0%EC%8B%9C_%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8" title="스와데시 리스트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="스와데시 리스트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daftar_Swadesh" title="Daftar Swadesh – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Daftar Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_Swadesh" title="Liste Swadesh – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Liste Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_di_Swadesh" title="Lista di Swadesh – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lista di Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%93%D7%A9" title="רשימת סוואדש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רשימת סוואדש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სვოდეშის სია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სვოდეშის სია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%88_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8" title="Сводеш тизмеси – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Сводеш тизмеси" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_de_Swadesh" title="Lista de Swadesh – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lista de Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh-lista" title="Swadesh-lista – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Swadesh-lista" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Сводешов список – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сводешов список" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisitra_Swadesh" title="Lisitra Swadesh – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Lisitra Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senarai_Swadesh" title="Senarai Swadesh – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Senarai Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_h%C5%8Fk-s%C4%ADng-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%80_li%C4%95k-bi%C4%93u" title="Swadesh hŏk-sĭng-sṳ̀ liĕk-biēu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Swadesh hŏk-sĭng-sṳ̀ liĕk-biēu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%83%AF%E3%83%87%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88" title="スワデシュ・リスト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="スワデシュ・リスト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh-list" title="Swadesh-list – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Swadesh-list" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%B6%D0%B5" title="Сводешын возымашыже – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Сводешын возымашыже" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_Swadesha" title="Lista Swadesha – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Lista Swadesha" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_de_Swadesh" title="Lista de Swadesh – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lista de Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_L%C4%97%C3%9F%C3%9F" title="Swadesh Lėßß – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Swadesh Lėßß" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ripoarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%C4%83_Swadesh" title="Listă Swadesh – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Listă Swadesh" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Список Сводеша – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Список Сводеша" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Список Сводеша – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Список Сводеша" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadeshev_seznam" title="Swadeshev seznam – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Swadeshev seznam" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadeshlista" title="Swadeshlista – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Swadeshlista" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="சுவதேசுப் பட்டியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சுவதேசுப் பட்டியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_listesi" title="Swadesh listesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Swadesh listesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Список Сводеша – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Список Сводеша" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_haedsimcih" title="Swadesh haedsimcih – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Swadesh haedsimcih" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svode%C5%A1an_lehtpol%27" title="Svodešan lehtpol' – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Svodešan lehtpol'" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Compilation of concepts primarily for the purposes of lexicostatistics</div> <p>A <b>Swadesh list</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'w' in 'wind'">w</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is a compilation of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">tentatively universal</a> concepts for the purposes of <a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">lexicostatistics</a>. That is, a Swadesh list is a list of forms and concepts which all languages, without exception, have terms for, such as star, hand, water, kill, sleep, and so forth. The number of such terms is small – a few hundred at most, or possibly less than a hundred; the inclusion or exclusion of many terms is subject to debate among linguists, thus there are several different lists, and some authors may refer to "Swadesh lists". The Swadesh list is named after linguist <a href="/wiki/Morris_Swadesh" title="Morris Swadesh">Morris Swadesh</a>. </p><p>Translations of a Swadesh list into a set of languages allow researchers to quantify the interrelatedness of those languages. Swadesh lists are used in <a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">lexicostatistics</a> (the quantitative assessment of the genealogical relatedness of languages) and <a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">glottochronology</a> (the dating of language divergence). For instance, the terms on a Swadesh list can be compared between two languages (since both languages will have them) to see if they are related and how closely, thus giving useful information which can be further applied to comparison of the languages. (Actual lexicostatistics is quite complicated, and usually sets of languages are compared.) </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Versions_and_authors">Versions and authors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Versions and authors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Morris_Swadesh" title="Morris Swadesh">Morris Swadesh</a> created several versions of his list. He started<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a list of 215 meanings (falsely introduced as a list of 225 meanings in the paper due to a spelling error<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), which he reduced to 165 words for the <a href="/wiki/Salish-Spokane-Kalispel_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Salish-Spokane-Kalispel language">Salish-Spokane-Kalispel language</a>. In 1952, he published a list of 215 meanings,<sup id="cite_ref-Swa52_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swa52-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which he suggested the removal of 16 for being unclear or not <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">universal</a>, with one added to arrive at 200 words. In 1955,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he wrote, "The only solution appears to be a drastic weeding out of the list, in the realization that quality is at least as important as quantity. Even the new list has defects, but they are relatively mild and few in number." After minor corrections, the final 100-word list was published posthumously in 1971<sup id="cite_ref-Finallist_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finallist-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1972. </p><p>Other versions of lexicostatistical test lists were published e.g. by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lees_(linguist)" title="Robert Lees (linguist)">Robert Lees</a> (1953), John A. Rea (1958:145f), <a href="/wiki/Dell_Hymes" title="Dell Hymes">Dell Hymes</a> (1960:6), E. Cross (1964 with 241 concepts), W. J. Samarin (1967:220f), D. Wilson (1969 with 57 meanings), <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Bender_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel Bender (linguist)">Lionel Bender</a> (1969), R. L. Oswald (1971), <a href="/wiki/Winfred_P._Lehmann" title="Winfred P. Lehmann">Winfred P. Lehmann</a> (1984:35f), D. Ringe (1992, passim, different versions), <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Starostin" title="Sergei Starostin">Sergei Starostin</a> (1984, passim, different versions), <a href="/wiki/William_S-Y._Wang" class="mw-redirect" title="William S-Y. Wang">William S-Y. Wang</a> (1994), M. Lohr (2000, 128 meanings in 18 languages). B. Kessler (2002), and many others. The <a href="/wiki/Concepticon" title="Concepticon">Concepticon</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a project hosted at the <a href="/wiki/Cross-Linguistic_Linked_Data" title="Cross-Linguistic Linked Data">Cross-Linguistic Linked Data</a> (CLLD) project, collects various concept lists (including classical Swadesh lists) across different linguistic areas and times, currently listing 240 different concept lists.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Frequently used and widely available on the internet, is the version by <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Dyen" title="Isidore Dyen">Isidore Dyen</a> (1992, 200 meanings of 95 language variants). Since 2010, a team around <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Dunn_(linguist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Dunn (linguist) (page does not exist)">Michael Dunn</a> has tried to update and enhance that list.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principle">Principle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In origin, the words in the Swadesh lists were chosen for their universal, culturally independent availability in as many languages as possible, regardless of their stability (how prone the word is to changing, as all words do over time to a greater or lesser extent, which can include <a href="/wiki/Borrowing_(linguistics)" title="Borrowing (linguistics)">borrowing</a> from another language). </p><p>However, stability may be important. The stability of terms on a Swadesh list under language change and the potential use of this fact for purposes of <a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">glottochronology</a> (study of how languages develop and branch apart over time) have been analyzed by numerous authors, including Marisa Lohr 1999, 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Swadesh list was put together by Morris Swadesh on the basis of his intuition. Similar more recent lists, such as the <a href="/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list" title="Dolgopolsky list">Dolgopolsky list</a> (1964) or the <a href="/wiki/Leipzig%E2%80%93Jakarta_list" title="Leipzig–Jakarta list">Leipzig–Jakarta list</a> (2009), are based on systematic data from many different languages, but they are not yet as widely known nor as widely used as the Swadesh list. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage_in_lexicostatistics_and_glottochronology">Usage in lexicostatistics and glottochronology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Usage in lexicostatistics and glottochronology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lexicostatistical test lists are used in <a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">lexicostatistics</a> to define subgroupings of languages, and in <a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">glottochronology</a> to "provide dates for branching points in the tree".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The task of defining (and counting the number) of cognate words in the list is far from trivial, and often is subject to dispute, because cognates do not necessarily look similar, and recognition of cognates presupposes knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Sound_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound law">sound laws</a> of the respective languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Swadesh_100_original_final_list">Swadesh 100 original final list</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Swadesh 100 original final list"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Swadesh's final list, published in 1971,<sup id="cite_ref-Finallist_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finallist-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> contains 100 terms. Explanations of the terms can be found in Swadesh 1952<sup id="cite_ref-Swa52_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swa52-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or, where noted by a dagger (<sup>†</sup>), in Swadesh 1955. Note that only this original sequence clarifies the correct meaning which is lost in an alphabetical order, e.g., in the case "27. bark" (originally without the specification here added). </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">I</a> (first person singular pronoun)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">you</a> (second person singular pronoun; 1952 thou & ye)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">we</a> (1955: <a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">inclusive</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">this</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">that</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">who</a>? (“?” not 1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">what</a>? (“?” not 1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirmation_and_negation" title="Affirmation and negation">not</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">all</a> (of a number)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">many</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One" class="mw-redirect" title="One">one</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two" class="mw-redirect" title="Two">two</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/big" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:big">big</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length" title="Length">long</a> (not wide)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/small" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:small">small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman" title="Woman">woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man" title="Man">man</a> (adult male human)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Person" title="Person">person</a> (individual human)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> (noun)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">bird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louse" title="Louse">louse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">tree</a> (not log)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seed</a> (noun)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> (botanics)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">root</a> (botanics)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bark_(botany)" title="Bark (botany)">bark</a> (of tree)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a> (1952: person’s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flesh" title="Flesh">flesh</a> (1952 meat, flesh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grease_(lubricant)" title="Grease (lubricant)">grease</a> (1952: fat, organic substance)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">egg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_(anatomy)" title="Horn (anatomy)">horn</a> (of bull etc., not 1952)<sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tail" title="Tail">tail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feather</a> (large, not down)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair" title="Hair">hair</a> (on head of humans)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head" title="Head">head</a> (anatomic)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye" title="Eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nose" title="Nose">nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth" title="Mouth">mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tooth" title="Tooth">tooth</a> (front, rather than molar)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a> (anatomical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claw" title="Claw">claw</a> (not in 1952)<sup>†</sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_1"><a href="#endnote_1">1</a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foot" title="Foot">foot</a> (not leg)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knee" title="Knee">knee</a> (not 1952)<sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand" title="Hand">hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">belly</a> (lower part of body, abdomen)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck" title="Neck">neck</a> (not nape)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">breasts</a> (female; 1955 breast)<sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking" title="Drinking">drink</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eating" title="Eating">eat</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biting" title="Biting">bite</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">see</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">hear</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">know</a> (facts)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">sleep</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">die</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kill" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:kill">kill</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming" title="Swimming">swim</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight" title="Flight">fly</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walk" class="mw-redirect" title="Walk">walk</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/come" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:come">come</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lying_(position)" title="Lying (position)">lie</a> (on side, recline)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitting" title="Sitting">sit</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing" title="Standing">stand</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/give" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:give">give</a> (verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">say</a> (verb)<sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">moon</a> (not 1952)<sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> (noun)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a> (noun, 1952 verb)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone">stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">earth</a> (soil)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">cloud</a> (not fog)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</a> (noun, of fire)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ash" title="Ash">ash</a>(es)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">burn</a> (verb intransitive)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail" title="Trail">path</a> (1952 road, trail; not street)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">mountain</a> (not hill)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a> (color)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">green</a> (color)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">yellow</a> (color)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White" title="White">white</a> (color)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black" title="Black">black</a> (color)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night" title="Night">night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">hot</a> (adjective; 1952 warm, of weather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">cold</a> (of weather)</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/full" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:full">full</a><sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/new" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:new">new</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/good" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:good">good</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/round" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:round">round</a> (not 1952)<sup>†</sup></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dryness" class="extiw" title="wikt:dryness">dry</a> (substance)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name" title="Name">name</a></li></ol></div> <p><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_1"><b><a href="#ref_1">^</a></b></span> "Claw" was only added in 1955, but again replaced by many well-known specialists with <a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">(finger)nail</a>, because expressions for "claw" are not available in many old, extinct, or lesser known languages. </p><p>The 110-item <a href="/wiki/Global_Lexicostatistical_Database" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Lexicostatistical Database">Global Lexicostatistical Database</a> list uses the original 100-item Swadesh list, in addition to 10 other words from the Swadesh–Yakhontov list.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Swadesh_207_list">Swadesh 207 list</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Swadesh 207 list"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most used list nowadays is the Swadesh 207-word list, adapted from Swadesh 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-Swa52_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swa52-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Wiktionary ("<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Swadesh_lists_by_language" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Swadesh lists by language">Swadesh lists by language</a>"), Panlex<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in Palisto's "Swadesh Word List of Indo-European languages",<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hundreds of Swadesh lists in this form can be found. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ol><li>I</li> <li>you (singular)</li> <li>he</li> <li>we</li> <li>you (plural)</li> <li>they</li> <li>this</li> <li>that</li> <li>here</li> <li>there</li> <li>who</li> <li>what</li> <li>where</li> <li>when</li> <li>how</li> <li>not</li> <li>all</li> <li>many</li> <li>some</li> <li>few</li> <li>other</li> <li>one</li> <li>two</li> <li>three</li> <li>four</li> <li>five</li> <li>big</li> <li>long</li> <li>wide</li> <li>thick</li> <li>heavy</li> <li>small</li> <li>short</li> <li>narrow</li> <li>thin</li> <li>woman</li> <li>man (adult male)</li> <li>man (human being)</li> <li>child</li> <li>wife</li> <li>husband</li> <li>mother</li> <li>father</li> <li>animal</li> <li>fish</li> <li>bird</li> <li>dog</li> <li>louse</li> <li>snake</li> <li>worm</li> <li>tree</li> <li>forest</li> <li>stick</li> <li>fruit</li> <li>seed</li> <li>leaf</li> <li>root</li> <li>bark (of a tree)</li> <li>flower</li> <li>grass</li> <li>rope</li> <li>skin</li> <li>meat</li> <li>blood</li> <li>bone</li> <li>fat (noun)</li> <li>egg</li> <li>horn</li> <li>tail</li> <li>feather</li> <li>hair</li> <li>head</li> <li>ear</li> <li>eye</li> <li>nose</li> <li>mouth</li> <li>tooth</li> <li>tongue (organ)</li> <li>fingernail</li> <li>foot</li> <li>leg</li> <li>knee</li> <li>hand</li> <li>wing</li> <li>belly</li> <li>guts</li> <li>neck</li> <li>back</li> <li>breast</li> <li>heart</li> <li>liver</li> <li>to drink</li> <li>to eat</li> <li>to bite</li> <li>to suck</li> <li>to spit</li> <li>to vomit</li> <li>to blow</li> <li>to breathe</li> <li>to laugh</li> <li>to see</li> <li>to hear</li> <li>to know</li> <li>to think</li> <li>to smell</li> <li>to fear</li> <li>to sleep</li> <li>to live</li> <li>to die</li> <li>to kill</li> <li>to fight</li> <li>to hunt</li> <li>to hit</li> <li>to cut</li> <li>to split</li> <li>to stab</li> <li>to scratch</li> <li>to dig</li> <li>to swim</li> <li>to fly</li> <li>to walk</li> <li>to come</li> <li>to lie (as in a bed)</li> <li>to sit</li> <li>to stand</li> <li>to turn (intransitive)</li> <li>to fall</li> <li>to give</li> <li>to hold</li> <li>to squeeze</li> <li>to rub</li> <li>to wash</li> <li>to wipe</li> <li>to pull</li> <li>to push</li> <li>to throw</li> <li>to tie</li> <li>to sew</li> <li>to count</li> <li>to say</li> <li>to sing</li> <li>to play</li> <li>to float</li> <li>to flow</li> <li>to freeze</li> <li>to swell</li> <li>sun</li> <li>moon</li> <li>star</li> <li>water</li> <li>rain</li> <li>river</li> <li>lake</li> <li>sea</li> <li>salt</li> <li>stone</li> <li>sand</li> <li>dust</li> <li>earth</li> <li>cloud</li> <li>fog</li> <li>sky</li> <li>wind</li> <li>snow</li> <li>ice</li> <li>smoke</li> <li>fire</li> <li>ash</li> <li>to burn</li> <li>road</li> <li>mountain</li> <li>red</li> <li>green</li> <li>yellow</li> <li>white</li> <li>black</li> <li>night</li> <li>day</li> <li>year</li> <li>warm</li> <li>cold</li> <li>full</li> <li>new</li> <li>old</li> <li>good</li> <li>bad</li> <li>rotten</li> <li>dirty</li> <li>straight</li> <li>round</li> <li>sharp (as a knife)</li> <li>dull (as a knife)</li> <li>smooth</li> <li>wet</li> <li>dry</li> <li>correct</li> <li>near</li> <li>far</li> <li>right</li> <li>left</li> <li>at</li> <li>in</li> <li>with</li> <li>and</li> <li>if</li> <li>because</li> <li>name</li></ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shorter_lists">Shorter lists<span class="anchor" id="Shorter_lists"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Shorter lists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>Swadesh–Yakhontov list</b> is a 35-word subset of the Swadesh list posited as especially stable by Russian linguist <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Yakhontov" title="Sergei Yakhontov">Sergei Yakhontov</a> around the 1960s, although the list was only officially published in 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been used in <a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">lexicostatistics</a> by linguists such as <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Starostin" title="Sergei Starostin">Sergei Starostin</a>. With their Swadesh numbers, they are:<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"><div><ol><li value="1">I</li><li value="2">you (singular)</li><li value="7">this</li><li value="11">who</li><li value="12">what</li><li value="22">one</li><li value="23">two</li><li value="45">fish</li><li value="47">dog</li><li value="48">louse</li><li value="64">blood</li><li value="65">bone</li><li value="67">egg</li><li value="68">horn</li><li value="69">tail</li><li value="73">ear</li><li value="74">eye</li><li value="75">nose</li><li value="77">tooth</li><li value="78">tongue</li><li value="83">hand</li><li value="103">know</li><li value="109">die</li><li value="128">give</li><li value="147">sun</li><li value="148">moon</li><li value="150">water</li><li value="155">salt</li><li value="156">stone</li><li value="163">wind</li><li value="167">fire</li><li value="179">year</li><li value="182">full</li><li value="183">new</li><li value="207">name</li></ol></div></div> <p>Holman <i>et al.</i> (2008) found that in identifying the relationships between <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese dialects">Chinese dialects</a> the Swadesh–Yakhontov list was less accurate than the original Swadesh-100 list. Further they found that a different (40-word) list (also known as the <a href="/wiki/ASJP_list" class="mw-redirect" title="ASJP list">ASJP list</a>) was just as accurate as the Swadesh-100 list. However, they calculated the relative stability of the words by comparing retentions between languages in established language families. They found no statistically significant difference in the correlations in the families of the Old versus the New World. </p><p>The ranked Swadesh-100 list, with Swadesh numbers and relative stability, is as follows (Holman <i>et al.,</i> Appendix. Asterisked words appear on the 40-word list): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ol><li>22 *louse (42.8)</li> <li>12 *two (39.8)</li> <li>75 *water (37.4)</li> <li>39 *ear (37.2)</li> <li>61 *die (36.3)</li> <li>1 *I (35.9)</li> <li>53 *liver (35.7)</li> <li>40 *eye (35.4)</li> <li>48 *hand (34.9)</li> <li>58 *hear (33.8)</li> <li>23 *tree (33.6)</li> <li>19 *fish (33.4)</li> <li>100 *name (32.4)</li> <li>77 *stone (32.1)</li> <li>43 *tooth (30.7)</li> <li>51 *breasts (30.7)</li> <li>2 *you (30.6)</li> <li>85 *path (30.2)</li> <li>31 *bone (30.1)</li> <li>44 *tongue (30.1)</li> <li>28 *skin (29.6)</li> <li>92 *night (29.6)</li> <li>25 *leaf (29.4)</li> <li>76 rain (29.3)</li> <li>62 kill (29.2)</li> <li>30 *blood (29.0)</li> <li>34 *horn (28.8)</li> <li>18 *person (28.7)</li> <li>47 *knee (28.0)</li> <li>11 *one (27.4)</li> <li>41 *nose (27.3)</li> <li>95 *full (26.9)</li> <li>66 *come (26.8)</li> <li>74 *star (26.6)</li> <li>86 *mountain (26.2)</li> <li>82 *fire (25.7)</li> <li>3 *we (25.4)</li> <li>54 *drink (25.0)</li> <li>57 *see (24.7)</li> <li>27 bark (24.5)</li> <li>96 *new (24.3)</li> <li>21 *dog (24.2)</li> <li>72 *sun (24.2)</li> <li>64 fly (24.1)</li> <li>32 grease (23.4)</li> <li>73 moon (23.4)</li> <li>70 give (23.3)</li> <li>52 heart (23.2)</li> <li>36 feather (23.1)</li> <li>90 white (22.7)</li> <li>89 yellow (22.5)</li> <li>20 bird (21.8)</li> <li>38 head (21.7)</li> <li>79 earth (21.7)</li> <li>46 foot (21.6)</li> <li>91 black (21.6)</li> <li>42 mouth (21.5)</li> <li>88 green (21.1)</li> <li>60 sleep (21.0)</li> <li>7 what (20.7)</li> <li>26 root (20.5)</li> <li>45 claw (20.5)</li> <li>56 bite (20.5)</li> <li>83 ash (20.3)</li> <li>87 red (20.2)</li> <li>55 eat (20.0)</li> <li>33 egg (19.8)</li> <li>6 who (19.0)</li> <li>99 dry (18.9)</li> <li>37 hair (18.6)</li> <li>81 smoke (18.5)</li> <li>8 not (18.3)</li> <li>4 this (18.2)</li> <li>24 seed (18.2)</li> <li>16 woman (17.9)</li> <li>98 round (17.9)</li> <li>14 long (17.4)</li> <li>69 stand (17.1)</li> <li>97 good (16.9)</li> <li>17 man (16.7)</li> <li>94 cold (16.6)</li> <li>29 flesh (16.4)</li> <li>50 neck (16.0)</li> <li>71 say (16.0)</li> <li>84 burn (15.5)</li> <li>35 tail (14.9)</li> <li>78 sand (14.9)</li> <li>5 that (14.7)</li> <li>65 walk (14.4)</li> <li>68 sit (14.3)</li> <li>10 many (14.2)</li> <li>9 all (14.1)</li> <li>59 know (14.1)</li> <li>80 cloud (13.9)</li> <li>63 swim (13.6)</li> <li>49 belly (13.5)</li> <li>13 big (13.4)</li> <li>93 hot (11.6)</li> <li>67 lie (11.2)</li> <li>15 small (6.3)</li></ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sign_languages">Sign languages<span class="anchor" id="Sign_languages"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sign languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In studying the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_sign_languages" title="Vietnamese sign languages">sign languages of Vietnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thai_Sign_Language" title="Thai Sign Language">Thailand</a>, linguist James Woodward noted that the traditional Swadesh list applied to spoken languages was unsuited for <a href="/wiki/Sign_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sign languages">sign languages</a>. The Swadesh list results in overestimation of the relationships between sign languages, due to indexical signs such as pronouns and parts of the body. The modified list is as follows, in mostly alphabetical order:<sup id="cite_ref-EmmoreyLane2000_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EmmoreyLane2000-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ol><li>all</li> <li>animal</li> <li>bad</li> <li>because</li> <li>bird</li> <li>black</li> <li>blood</li> <li>child</li> <li>count</li> <li>day</li> <li>die</li> <li>dirty</li> <li>dog</li> <li>dry</li> <li>dull</li> <li>dust</li> <li>earth</li> <li>egg</li> <li>grease</li> <li>father</li> <li>feather</li> <li>fire</li> <li>fish</li> <li>flower</li> <li>good</li> <li>grass</li> <li>green</li> <li>heavy</li> <li>how</li> <li>hunt</li> <li>husband</li> <li>ice</li> <li>if</li> <li>kill</li> <li>laugh</li> <li>leaf</li> <li>lie</li> <li>live</li> <li>long</li> <li>louse</li> <li>man</li> <li>meat</li> <li>mother</li> <li>mountain</li> <li>name</li> <li>narrow</li> <li>new</li> <li>night</li> <li>not</li> <li>old</li> <li>other</li> <li>person</li> <li>play</li> <li>rain</li> <li>red</li> <li>correct</li> <li>river</li> <li>rope</li> <li>salt</li> <li>sea</li> <li>sharp</li> <li>short</li> <li>sing</li> <li>sit</li> <li>smooth</li> <li>snake</li> <li>snow</li> <li>stand</li> <li>star</li> <li>stone</li> <li>sun</li> <li>tail</li> <li>thin</li> <li>tree</li> <li>vomit</li> <li>warm</li> <li>water</li> <li>wet</li> <li>what</li> <li>when</li> <li>where</li> <li>white</li> <li>who</li> <li>wide</li> <li>wife</li> <li>wind</li> <li>with</li> <li>woman</li> <li>wood</li> <li>worm</li> <li>year</li> <li>yellow</li> <li>full</li> <li>moon</li> <li>brother</li> <li>cat</li> <li>dance</li> <li>pig</li> <li>sister</li> <li>work</li></ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks linguistics-body"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(linguistics)" title="Internationalism (linguistics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistics" title="Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistics" title="Template talk:Linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Other lists <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_General_Service_List_of_English_Words" class="mw-redirect" title="A General Service List of English Words">A General Service List of English Words</a> — roughly 2,000 of the most common English words</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list" title="Dolgopolsky list">Dolgopolsky list</a> — the 15 words that change least as languages evolve</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig%E2%80%93Jakarta_list" title="Leipzig–Jakarta list">Leipzig–Jakarta list</a> — 100 words resistant to borrowing, used to estimate chronological separation of languages, intended to improve on the Swadesh list</li> <li>The <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists">Appendix of Swadesh lists</a> in Wiktionary</li></ul></li> <li>Projects and databases <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automated_Similarity_Judgment_Program" title="Automated Similarity Judgment Program">Automated Similarity Judgment Program</a> — a project applying computational approaches to comparative linguistics using a database of word lists</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Human_Languages" title="Evolution of Human Languages">Evolution of Human Languages</a> — a project to provide a genealogical classification of the world's languages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_Dictionary_Series" title="Intercontinental Dictionary Series">Intercontinental Dictionary Series</a> — a database of vocabulary lists in over 200 languages, especially indigenous South American and Northeast Caucasian</li></ul></li> <li>Linguistic concepts and fields <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">Cognate</a> — a word derived from the same word as another</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical linguistics</a> — the study of language change over time</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a> — the study of Indo-European languages and their hypothetical common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-language</a> — a postulated ancestral language from which a family of languages is presumed to have evolved</li></ul></li> <li>Methods of language reconstruction <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">Comparative method</a> — feature-by-feature comparison of related languages to reconstruct their development and common ancestor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_lexical_comparison" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass lexical comparison">Mass lexical comparison</a> — a controversial method, seen as a rival to the comparative method, to determine the relatedness of languages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">Internal reconstruction</a> — reconstruction of an earlier state of a language without comparing it to other languages</li></ul></li> <li>Other <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_English" title="Basic English">Basic English</a> — a simplified form of English for communication and learning</li></ul></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Swadesh_lists_by_language" class="extiw" title="wikt:Category:Swadesh lists by language">Swadesh lists of various languages on wiktionary</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swadesh 1950: 161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">List, J.-M. (2018): Towards a history of concept list compilation in historical linguistics. History and Philosophy of the Language Sciences 5.10. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/sdata2018205">URL</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Swa52-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Swa52_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swa52_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Swa52_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Swadesh 1952: 456–7 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdstar.shh.mpg.de/bitstreams/EAEA0-BF5B-6FD1-C12C-0/Swadesh1952.pdf">PDF</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swadesh 1955: 125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Finallist-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Finallist_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Finallist_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Swadesh 1971: 283</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://concepticon.clld.org/">Concepticon</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.19782">10.5281/zenodo.19782</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">List, J.-M., M. Cysouw, and R. Forkel (2016): Concepticon. A resource for the linking of concept lists. In: <i>Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation</i>. 2393-2400. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2016/pdf/127_Paper.pdf">PDF</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/evotext/ielex-data-and-tree">"IELex :: IELex"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a></i>. March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GitHub&rft.atitle=IELex+%3A%3A+IELex&rft.date=2022-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fevotext%2Fielex-data-and-tree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwadesh+list" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marisa Lohr (2000), "New Approaches to Lexicostatistics and Glottochronology" in C. Renfrew, A. McMahon and L. Trask, ed. <i>Time Depth in Historical Linguistics</i>, Vol. 1, pp. 209–223</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sheila Embleton (1992), in W. Bright, ed., <i>International Encyclopaedia of Linguistics</i>, Oxford University Press, p. 131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Starostin, George (ed.) 2011-2019. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/new100/">The Global Lexicostatistical Database</a></i>. Moscow: <a href="/wiki/Higher_School_of_Economics" title="Higher School of Economics">Higher School of Economics</a>, & Santa Fe: <a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Institute" title="Santa Fe Institute">Santa Fe Institute</a>. Accessed on 2020-12-26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan Pool (2016), <i>Panlex Swadesh Lists</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dev.panlex.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/intro.pdf">PDF</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Kamholz, Jonathan Pool, Susan Colowick (2014), <i>PanLex: Building a Resource for Panlingual Lexical Translation</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2014/pdf/1029_Paper.pdf">PDF</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palisto (2013), <i>Swadesh Word List of Indo-European languages</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kurdishdna.blogspot.com/2013/03/swadesh-list-of-indo-european-languages.html">.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://concepticon.clld.org/contributions/Yakhontov-1991-100">Concept list Yakhontov 1991 100</a>. <i>Concepticon</i>. Accessed 2020-12-30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Starostin 1991</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EmmoreyLane2000-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EmmoreyLane2000_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaren_EmmoreyHarlan_L._Lane2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karen_Emmorey" title="Karen Emmorey">Karen Emmorey</a>; Harlan L. Lane (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zqq2PUsAGuIC&pg=PA20"><i>The Signs of Language Revisited: An Anthology to Honor Ursula Bellugi and Edward Klima</i></a>. Psychology Press. pp. 20–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-3246-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-3246-4"><bdi>978-0-8058-3246-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Signs+of+Language+Revisited%3A+An+Anthology+to+Honor+Ursula+Bellugi+and+Edward+Klima&rft.pages=20-21&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8058-3246-4&rft.au=Karen+Emmorey&rft.au=Harlan+L.+Lane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZqq2PUsAGuIC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASwadesh+list" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Campbell, Lyle. (1998). <i>Historical Linguistics: An Introduction</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-53267-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-53267-0">0-262-53267-0</a>.</li> <li>Embleton, Sheila (1995). Review of <i>An Indo-European Classification: A Lexicostatistical Experiment</i> by Isidore Dyen, J.B. Kruskal and P.Black. TAPS Monograph 82–5, Philadelphia. in <i>Diachronica</i> Vol. 12, no. 2, 263–68.</li> <li>Gudschinsky, Sarah. (1956). "The ABCs of Lexicostatistics (Glottochronology)." <i>Word</i>, Vol. 12, 175–210.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1956). "Lexicostatistics: A Critique." <i>Language</i>, Vol. 32, 49–60.</li> <li>Holm, Hans J. (2007). "The New Arboretum of Indo-European 'Trees': Can New Algorithms Reveal the Phylogeny and Even Prehistory of Indo-European?" <i>Journal of Quantitative Linguistics</i>, Vol. 14, 167–214.</li> <li>Holman, Eric W., Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Viveka Velupillai, André Müller, Dik Bakker (2008). "Explorations in Automated Language Classification". <i>Folia Linguistica</i>, Vol. 42, no. 2, 331–354</li> <li>Sankoff, David (1970). "On the Rate of Replacement of Word-Meaning Relationships." <i>Language</i>, Vol. 46, 564–569.</li> <li>Starostin, Sergei (1991). <i>Altajskaja Problema i Proisxozhdenie Japonskogo Jazyka</i> [The Altaic Problem and the Origin of the Japanese Language]. Moscow: Nauka</li> <li>Swadesh, Morris. (1950). "Salish Internal Relationships." <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, Vol. 16, 157–167.</li> <li>Swadesh, Morris. (1952). "Lexicostatistic Dating of Prehistoric Ethnic Contacts." <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i>, Vol. 96, 452–463.</li> <li>Swadesh, Morris. (1955). "Towards Greater Accuracy in Lexicostatistic Dating." <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_American_Linguistics" title="International Journal of American Linguistics">International Journal of American Linguistics</a></i>, Vol. 21, 121–137.</li> <li>Swadesh, Morris. (1971). <i>The Origin and Diversification of Language</i>. Ed. <i>post mortem</i> by Joel Sherzer. Chicago: Aldine. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-202-01001-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-202-01001-5">0-202-01001-5</a>. Contains final 100-word list on p. 283.</li> <li>Swadesh, Morris, et al. (1972). "What is Glottochronology?" in Morris Swadesh and Joel Sherzer, ed., <i>The Origin and Diversification of Language,</i> pp. 271–284. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-202-30841-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-202-30841-3">0-202-30841-3</a>.</li> <li>Wittmann, Henri (1973). "The Lexicostatistical Classification of the French-Based Creole Languages." <i>Lexicostatistics in Genetic Linguistics: Proceedings of the Yale Conference, April 3–4, 1971</i>, dir. Isidore Dyen, 89–99. La Haye: Mouton.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.nou-la.org/ling/1973f-lexstatFC.pdf">[1]</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Appendix:Swadesh lists">Appendix:Swadesh lists</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/de-gruyter/lexico-semantic-universals-a-critical-overview-YJqNg4PDlr">Lexico-semantic universals: A critical overview</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150623030728/http://rosettaproject.org/">Rosetta project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171111012059/http://www2.unucseh.ueg.br/gicli/ListasEnglish.htm">Swadesh Lists of Brazilian Native Languages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alternativetransport.wordpress.com/category/linguistics/">Illustrated linguistic and etymology blog by Stephan Steinbach</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Long-range_comparative_linguistics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Template:Long-range comparative linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Template talk:Long-range comparative linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Long-range comparative linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Long-range_comparative_linguistics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Long-range <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">Comparative method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_dictionary" title="Etymological dictionary">Etymological dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">Glottochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">Lexicostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">Linguistic reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">Internal reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrofamily" title="Macrofamily">Macrofamily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_comparison" title="Mass comparison">Mass comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolinguistics" title="Paleolinguistics">Paleolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-language</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Swadesh list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list" title="Dolgopolsky list">Dolgopolsky list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig%E2%80%93Jakarta_list" title="Leipzig–Jakarta list">Leipzig–Jakarta list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-human_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-human language">Proto-human</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borean_languages" title="Borean languages">Borean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerind_languages" title="Amerind languages">Amerind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamo-Dravidian_languages" title="Elamo-Dravidian languages">Elamo-Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasiatic_languages" title="Eurasiatic languages">Eurasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural-Altaic_languages" title="Ural-Altaic languages">Ural-Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages" title="Indo-Uralic languages">Indo-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Uralic_languages" title="Sino-Uralic languages">Sino-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Caucasian_languages" title="Dené–Caucasian languages">Dené–Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austric_languages" title="Austric languages">Austric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific_languages" title="Indo-Pacific languages">Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Bengtson" title="John Bengtson">John Bengtson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Bla%C5%BEek" title="Václav Blažek">Václav Blažek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Bomhard" title="Allan R. Bomhard">Allan R. Bomhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Burlak" title="Svetlana Burlak">Svetlana Burlak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aharon_Dolgopolsky" title="Aharon Dolgopolsky">Aharon Dolgopolsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Dybo" title="Vladimir Dybo">Vladimir Dybo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_C._Fleming" title="Harold C. Fleming">Harold C. Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Helimski" title="Eugene Helimski">Eugene Helimski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladislav_Illich-Svitych" title="Vladislav Illich-Svitych">Vladislav Illich-Svitych</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Frederik Kortlandt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Manaster_Ramer" title="Alexis Manaster Ramer">Alexis Manaster Ramer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Nikolaev_(linguist)" title="Sergei Nikolaev (linguist)">Sergei Nikolaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorin_Paliga" title="Sorin Paliga">Sorin Paliga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holger_Pedersen_(linguist)" title="Holger Pedersen (linguist)">Holger Pedersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilia_Peiros" title="Ilia Peiros">Ilia Peiros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martine_Robbeets" title="Martine Robbeets">Martine Robbeets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merritt_Ruhlen" title="Merritt Ruhlen">Merritt Ruhlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Shevoroshkin" title="Vitaly Shevoroshkin">Vitaly Shevoroshkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Starostin" title="Georgiy Starostin">Georgiy Starostin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Starostin" title="Sergei Starostin">Sergei Starostin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Trombetti" title="Alfredo Trombetti">Alfredo Trombetti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Language_Relationship" title="Journal of Language Relationship">Journal of Language Relationship</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mother_Tongue_(journal)" title="Mother Tongue (journal)">Mother Tongue</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Etymological_Dictionary_of_the_Altaic_Languages" title="Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages">Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa" title="The Languages of Africa">The Languages of Africa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions and schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Human_Languages" title="Evolution of Human Languages">Evolution of Human Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Linguistics_of_the_Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences">Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_School_of_Comparative_Linguistics" title="Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics">Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_State_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Russian State University for the Humanities">Russian State University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Institute" title="Santa Fe Institute">Santa Fe Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 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