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href="#Khazar_state:_culture_and_institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Khazar state: culture and institutions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khazar_state:_culture_and_institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Royal_Diarchy_with_sacral_Qağanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_Diarchy_with_sacral_Qağanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Royal Diarchy with sacral Qağanate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_Diarchy_with_sacral_Qağanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ruling_elite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ruling_elite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Ruling elite </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ruling_elite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.4 Economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Khazars_and_Byzantium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khazars_and_Byzantium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Khazars and Byzantium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khazars_and_Byzantium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab–Khazar_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab–Khazar_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Arab–Khazar wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab–Khazar_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Khazars_and_Hungarians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khazars_and_Hungarians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Khazars and Hungarians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khazars_and_Hungarians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_the_Rus'_and_the_collapse_of_the_Khazarian_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_Rus'_and_the_collapse_of_the_Khazarian_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Rise of the Rus' and the collapse of the Khazarian state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_Rus'_and_the_collapse_of_the_Khazarian_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath:_impact,_decline_and_dispersion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath:_impact,_decline_and_dispersion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Aftermath: impact, decline and dispersion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath:_impact,_decline_and_dispersion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Religion </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Religion subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tengrism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tengrism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Tengrism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tengrism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_discussions_about_Khazar_Jewishness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_discussions_about_Khazar_Jewishness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 History of discussions about Khazar Jewishness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_discussions_about_Khazar_Jewishness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claims_of_Khazar_ancestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claims_of_Khazar_ancestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Claims of Khazar ancestry </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Claims_of_Khazar_ancestry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Claims of Khazar ancestry subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Claims_of_Khazar_ancestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Crimean_Karaites_and_Krymchaks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimean_Karaites_and_Krymchaks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Crimean Karaites and Krymchaks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crimean_Karaites_and_Krymchaks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ashkenazi-Khazar_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ashkenazi-Khazar_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Ashkenazi-Khazar theories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ashkenazi-Khazar_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Use_in_antisemitic_polemic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_antisemitic_polemic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Use in antisemitic polemic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_antisemitic_polemic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Genetic studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 In literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cities_associated_with_the_Khazars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cities_associated_with_the_Khazars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Cities associated with the Khazars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cities_associated_with_the_Khazars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Notes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resource_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resource_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Resource notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resource_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Khazars</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 86 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-86" aria-hidden="true" > 86 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasare" title="Chasare – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Chasare" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasaren" title="Chasaren – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Chasaren" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8A%BB%E1%8B%9B%E1%88%AD_%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%A5%E1%89%B5" title="የኻዛር መንግሥት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የኻዛር መንግሥት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B2%D8%B1" title="خزر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خزر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazaros" title="Gazaros – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Gazaros" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1zaros" title="Jázaros – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Jázaros" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Хазарал – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Хазарал" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%C9%99z%C9%99rl%C9%99r" title="Xəzərlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Xəzərlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B2%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%B1" title="خزرلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="خزرلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D2%99%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хазарҙар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Хазарҙар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Хазары – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Хазары" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Хазары – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Хазары" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Хазари – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хазари" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%A0zars" title="Khàzars – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Khàzars" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Хасарсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Хасарсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazariaid" title="Khazariaid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Khazariaid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazarere" title="Khazarere – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Khazarere" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasaren" title="Chasaren – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chasaren" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaarid" title="Kasaarid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kasaarid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%AC%CE%B6%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Χάζαροι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χάζαροι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1zaros" title="Jázaros – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Jázaros" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A4azaroj" title="Ĥazaroj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĥazaroj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazariar" title="Khazariar – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Khazariar" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B2%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A7" title="خزرها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خزرها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Khazars" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%C3%A1zaro" title="Xázaro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xázaro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%98%EC%9E%90%EB%A5%B4" title="하자르 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="하자르" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Խազարներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Խազարներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="ख़ज़र लोग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ख़ज़र लोग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazari" title="Hazari – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Hazari" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazari" title="Hazari – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Hazari" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Khazar" title="Orang Khazar – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orang Khazar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasarar" title="Kasarar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kasarar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cazari" title="Cazari – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cazari" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="ממלכת הכוזרים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ממלכת הכוזרים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%96%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BC%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D" title="ಖಾಜ಼ಾರ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಖಾಜ಼ಾರ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ხაზარები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ხაზარები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хазарлар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Хазарлар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakhazari" title="Wakhazari – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Wakhazari" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emperatoriya_Xezer" title="Împeratoriya Xezer – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Împeratoriya Xezer" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хазарлар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Хазарлар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хазар – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Хазар" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chazari" title="Chazari – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Chazari" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haz%C4%81ri" title="Hazāri – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Hazāri" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хазарар – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Хазарар" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chazarai" title="Chazarai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Chazarai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazares" title="Hazares – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Hazares" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaz%C3%A1rok" title="Kazárok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kazárok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Хазари – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хазари" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazara_(vahoaka)" title="Kazara (vahoaka) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Kazara (vahoaka)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ხაზარეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ხაზარეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B2%D8%B1" title="خزر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="خزر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B2%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86" title="خزرون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="خزرون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar" title="Khazar – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Khazar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangso_Khazar" title="Bangso Khazar – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Bangso Khazar" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chazaren" title="Chazaren – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chazaren" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%82%B6%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB" title="ハザール – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハザール" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="ГӀазарой – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="ГӀазарой" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazarer" title="Khazarer – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Khazarer" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazarar" title="Khazarar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Khazarar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cazars" title="Cazars – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cazars" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xazarlar" title="Xazarlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xazarlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0" title="ਖ਼ਜ਼ਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਖ਼ਜ਼ਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B2%D8%B1_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="خزر سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="خزر سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chazarowie" title="Chazarowie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chazarowie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cazares" title="Cazares – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cazares" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazari" title="Khazari – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Khazari" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Хазары – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Хазары" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хазардар – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Хазардар" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Khazars" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chazari" title="Chazari – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Chazari" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazari" title="Hazari – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Hazari" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%95%D8%B2%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="خەزەرەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خەزەرەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Хазари – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хазари" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazari" title="Hazari – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hazari" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaarit" title="Kasaarit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kasaarit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazarer" title="Khazarer – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Khazarer" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%C3%A4z%C3%A4rl%C3%A4r" title="Xäzärlär – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Xäzärlär" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazarlar" title="Hazarlar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hazarlar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Хозари – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хозари" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B2%D8%B1" title="خزر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="خزر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar" title="Khazar – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Khazar" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%90%A8%E4%BA%BA" title="可萨人 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="可萨人" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="כוזרים – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="כוזרים" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%96%A9%E6%B1%97%E5%9C%8B" title="可薩汗國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="可薩汗國" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Historical semi-nomadic Turkic ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Khazar" and "Kazar" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Khazar_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Khazar (disambiguation)">Khazar (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Khazar Khaganate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 650–969</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Chasaren.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Khazar Khaganate, 650–850"><img alt="Khazar Khaganate, 650–850" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Chasaren.jpg/250px-Chasaren.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Chasaren.jpg/375px-Chasaren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Chasaren.jpg/500px-Chasaren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1394" data-file-height="1133" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Khazar Khaganate, 650–850</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Khaganate">Khaganate</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanjar" title="Balanjar">Balanjar</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 650 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samandar_(city)" title="Samandar (city)">Samandar</a> (720–750)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atil" title="Atil">Atil</a> (750 – c. 965–969)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oghuric_languages" title="Oghuric languages">Oghuric</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200691-1">[1]</a> (lingua franca)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic" title="Old Turkic">Old Turkic</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200691-1">[1]</a> (dynastic, spoken)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_languages#Classification" title="Scythian languages">Alanian</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200691-1">[1]</a> (spoken)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWexler199650-2">[2]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Religious syncretism</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2010107-3">[3]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Khazar_rulers" title="List of Khazar rulers">Qaghan</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 650 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Irbis_(Khazar)" title="Irbis (Khazar)">Irbis</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 8th century </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bulan_(Khazar)" title="Bulan (Khazar)">Bulan</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 9th century </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Obadiah_(Khazar)" title="Obadiah (Khazar)">Obadiah</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 9th century </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zachariah_(Khazar)" title="Zachariah (Khazar)">Zachariah</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 9th century </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Manasseh_I" title="Manasseh I">Manasseh</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 9th century </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_(Khazar)" title="Benjamin (Khazar)">Benjamin</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 10th century </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Aaron_II_(Khazar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aaron II (Khazar)">Aaron</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 10th century </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_(Khazar)" title="Joseph (Khazar)">Joseph</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 10th century </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/David_of_Taman" title="David of Taman">David</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 11th century </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Georgius_Tzul" title="Georgius Tzul">Georgios</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 650</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav_I_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sviatoslav I of Kiev">Sviatoslav</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Caspian_expeditions_of_the_Rus%27#Destruction_of_Khazaria" title="Caspian expeditions of the Rus'">sacking and razing of Atil</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">969</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">850 est.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurchinAdamsHall2006222-4">[4]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">3,000,000 km2 (1,200,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">900 est.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaagepera1997496-5">[5]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yarmaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Yarmaq">Yarmaq</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria" title="Old Great Bulgaria">Old Great Bulgaria</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Cumania" title="Cumania">Cumania</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Durdzuks" title="Durdzuks">Durdzuks</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria" title="Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</a> </td> <td style="border:0; 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_history" title="Turkic history">History of the Turkic peoples</a> pre–14th century</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Court_of_Seljuk_ruler_Tughril_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Court of Seljuk ruler Tughril III, circa 1200 CE."><img alt="Court of Seljuk ruler Tughril III, circa 1200 CE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Court_of_Seljuk_ruler_Tughril_III.jpg/250px-Court_of_Seljuk_ruler_Tughril_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Court_of_Seljuk_ruler_Tughril_III.jpg/375px-Court_of_Seljuk_ruler_Tughril_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Court_of_Seljuk_ruler_Tughril_III.jpg/500px-Court_of_Seljuk_ruler_Tughril_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2375" data-file-height="1022" /></a><figcaption>Court of Seljuk ruler Tughril III, circa 1200 CE.</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#000000; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Onogurs" title="Onogurs">Onogurs</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Saragurs" title="Saragurs">Saragurs</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Utigurs" title="Utigurs">Utigurs</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgars</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sabir_people" title="Sabir people">Sabir</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kutrigurs" title="Kutrigurs">Kutrigurs</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Karluks" title="Karluks">Karluks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yemek" title="Yemek">Kimek</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Black_Klobuks" title="Black Klobuks">Cherniye Klobuki</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kumyks" title="Kumyks">Kumyks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yakuts" title="Yakuts">Yakuts</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dolgans" title="Dolgans">Dolgans</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#000000; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bashkir_language" title="Bashkir language">Bashkir</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chuvash_language" title="Chuvash language">Chuvash</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Qashqai_language" title="Qashqai language">Qasgqai</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Karakalpak_language" title="Karakalpak language">Karakalpak</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yakut_language" title="Yakut language">Sakha</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kumyk_language" title="Kumyk language">Kumyk</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Karachay-Balkar" title="Karachay-Balkar">Karachay-Balkar</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tuvan_language" title="Tuvan language">Tuvan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gagauz_language" title="Gagauz language">Gagauz</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#000000; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turkic Mythology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Belief system: <a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Chief gods and goddesses: <a href="/wiki/Kayra" title="Kayra">Kayra</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Clgen" title="Ülgen">Ülgen</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Epics and heroes: <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Ergenekon" title="Epic of Ergenekon">Ergenekon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asena" title="Asena">Asena</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Major concepts: <a href="/wiki/Sheka_(mythology)" title="Sheka (mythology)">Sheka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grey_wolf_(mythology)" title="Grey wolf (mythology)">Grey wolf</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color:#000000; background: #eeeeee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_history" title="Turkic history">Pre-14th century</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Yenisei_Kyrgyz" title="Yenisei Kyrgyz">Yenisei Kyrgyz People</a> 202 BCE–13th CE</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Dingling" title="Dingling">Dingling</a> 71 BC–?? AD</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Tiele (Gaoche) </a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a> 552–581</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a> 581–657</li></ul> (<a href="/wiki/Tokhara_Yabghus" title="Tokhara Yabghus">Tokhara Yabghus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern Turkic Khaganate</a> 581–650</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganate</a> 682–744</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Sabir_people" title="Sabir people">Sabiri People</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khazar Khaganate</a> 618–1048</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Xueyantuo" title="Xueyantuo">Xueyantuo</a> 628–646</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Kangar_union" title="Kangar union">Kangar Union</a> 659–750</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Turk Shahi">Turk Shahi</a> 665-850</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh Khaganate</a> 699–766</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Kimek%E2%80%93Kipchak_confederation" title="Kimek–Kipchak confederation">Kimek–Kipchak Confederation</a> 743–1035</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a> 744–840</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Yabgu_State" title="Oghuz Yabgu State">Oghuz Yabgu State</a> 750–1055</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Karluk_Yabgu_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Karluk Yabgu State">Karluk Yabgu State</a> 756–940</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a> 840–1212</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate#Kara-Khanid_dynasty" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Western Kara-Khanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate#Kara-Khanid_dynasty" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Eastern Kara-Khanid</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Ganzhou_Uyghur_Kingdom" title="Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom">Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom</a> 848–1036</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Qocho" title="Qocho">Qocho</a> 856–1335</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pecheneg Khanates</a> 860–1091</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid Empire</a> 963–1186</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a> 1037–1194</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Sultanate of Rum</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Cumania" title="Cumania">Cuman–Kipchak Confederation</a> 1067–1239</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a> 1077–1231</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Keraites" title="Keraites">Kerait Khanate</a> 11th century–13th century</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Atabegs of Azerbaijan</a> 1136–1225</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> 1206–1526</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Delhi)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)">Mamluk dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalji_dynasty" title="Khalji dynasty">Khalji dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tughlaq dynasty</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Qarlughids" title="Qarlughids">Qarlughid Kingdom</a> 1224–1266</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> 1242–1502</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)</a> 1250–1517</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Bahri dynasty</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman State">Ottoman State</a> 1299–1922</th></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Turkic_peoples_pre-14th_century" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Turkic peoples pre-14th century"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Tatarstan" title="Category:History of Tatarstan">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tatarstan" title="History of Tatarstan">History of Tatarstan</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Tatarstan.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of Arms of Tatarstan"><img alt="Coat of Arms of Tatarstan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Coat_of_arms_of_Tatarstan.svg/75px-Coat_of_arms_of_Tatarstan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Coat_of_arms_of_Tatarstan.svg/113px-Coat_of_arms_of_Tatarstan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Coat_of_arms_of_Tatarstan.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_Tatarstan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2126" data-file-height="2126" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria" title="Old Great Bulgaria">Great Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongols" class="mw-redirect" title="Turco-Mongols">Turco-Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tartary" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Tartary">Great Tartary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria" title="Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Volga_Bulgaria" title="Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Khanate of Kazan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazan_Governorate" title="Kazan Governorate">Kazan Governorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic">Tatar ASSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarstan" title="Tatarstan">Republic of Tatarstan</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Tatarstan" title="Template:History of Tatarstan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Tatarstan" title="Template talk:History of Tatarstan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Tatarstan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Tatarstan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Khazars<a href="#cite_note-12">[a]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈxɑːzɑːrz/</a>) were a <a href="/wiki/Nomadic_empire" title="Nomadic empire">nomadic</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkic people">Turkic people</a> that, in the late 6th century CE, established a major commercial empire covering the southeastern section of modern <a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ukraine" title="Southern Ukraine">southern Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEncyclopedia_Britannica:_Khazar2020-13">[10]</a> They created what, for its duration, was the most powerful <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polity</a> to emerge from the break-up of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESneath200725-14">[11]</a> Astride a major artery of commerce between <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Southwestern Asia</a>, Khazaria became one of the foremost trading empires of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early medieval</a> world, commanding the western <a href="/wiki/March_(territory)" title="March (territory)">marches</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> and playing a key commercial role as a crossroad between <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan1999493-15">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2011a65-16">[13]</a> For some three centuries (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 650–965), the Khazars dominated the vast area extending from the Volga-Don steppes to the eastern <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> and the northern <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan1999498-17">[14]</a> Khazaria long served as a <a href="/wiki/Buffer_state" title="Buffer state">buffer state</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, the nomads of the northern steppes, and the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> Caliphates, having previously served as the Byzantine Empire's proxy against the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>. The alliance was dissolved around the year 900 when Byzantium began encouraging the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> to attack Khazaria. This move aimed to weaken Khazaria's control over Crimea and the Caucasus, for the Empire sought an <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/entente" class="extiw" title="wikt:entente">entente</a> with the rising power of the <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%E2%80%99" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievan Rus’">Kievan Rus’</a> in the north—a region they hoped to convert to <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan1999499,_502–503-18">[15]</a> Between 965 and 969, <a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav_I" title="Sviatoslav I">Sviatoslav I</a> of Kiev, the ruler of Kievan Rus', along with his allies, conquered the capital, <a href="/wiki/Atil" title="Atil">Atil</a>, thus ending Khazaria's independence. Determining the origins and nature of the Khazars is closely bound with theories of <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">their languages</a>. Still, it is a matter of intricate difficulty since no indigenous records in the Khazar language survived, and the state was <a href="/wiki/Polyglot" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyglot">polyglot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyethnicity" title="Polyethnicity">polyethnic</a>. The native religion of the Khazars is thought to have been <a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a> like that of the <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_Huns" title="North Caucasian Huns">North Caucasian Huns</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a131-19">[16]</a> The polyethnic populace of the Khazar Khaganate appears to have been a multiconfessional mosaic of <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a>, Tengrist, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish</a>, Christian, and <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim</a> worshippers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a28-20">[17]</a> Some of the Khazars (namely, the <a href="/wiki/Kabar" title="Kabar">Kabars</a>) joined the ancient Hungarians in the 9th century. The ruling elite of the Khazars was said by <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a> to have converted to <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a> in the 8th century,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a149-21">[18]</a> but the scope of the <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">conversion to Judaism</a> within the Khazar Khanate remains uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeharMetspaluBaranKopelman2013859–900-22">[19]</a> Where the Khazars dispersed after the fall of the Khanate is subject to many conjectures. Proposals have been made regarding the possibility of a Khazar factor in the <a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">ethnogenesis</a> of numerous peoples, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hazaras" title="Hazaras">Hazaras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Hungarians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakhs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Don_Cossacks" title="Don Cossacks">Cossacks of the Don</a> region and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Kumyks" title="Kumyks">Kumyks</a>, the Turkic-speaking <a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a> and their Crimean neighbours the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Csangos" class="mw-redirect" title="Csangos">Moldavian Csángós</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a>, and even some <a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a> (based on their Ukrainian and Cossack origin).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKizilov2009335-23">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPataiPatai198973-24">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWexler198770-25">[22]</a> The late 19th century saw the <a href="/wiki/Khazar_theory_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar theory of Ashkenazi ancestry">emergence of a theory</a> that the core of today's <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> are descended from a hypothetical Khazarian Jewish diaspora that migrated westward from modern-day Russia and Ukraine into modern-day France and Germany. Linguistic and genetic studies have not supported the theory of a Khazar connection to <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jewry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi Jewry">Ashkenazi Jewry</a>. The theory still finds occasional support, but most scholars view it with considerable scepticism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWexler2002536-26">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeharMetspaluBaranKopelman2013859–900-22">[19]</a> The theory is sometimes associated with <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1992242-27">[24]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">anti-Zionism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogt1975-28">[25]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_languages" title="Oghuz languages">Oghuz</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> is still named the "<a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea#Etymology" title="Caspian Sea">Khazar Sea</a>", an enduring legacy of the medieval Khazar state. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <a href="/wiki/Gyula_N%C3%A9meth_(linguist)" title="Gyula Németh (linguist)">Gyula Németh</a>, following <a href="/wiki/Zolt%C3%A1n_Gombocz" title="Zoltán Gombocz">Zoltán Gombocz</a>, derived Khazar from a hypothetical *Qasar reflecting a Turkic <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a> qaz- ("to ramble, to roam") being an hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Relative_articulation#Advanced_and_retracted" title="Relative articulation">retracted variant</a> of <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Common Turkic</a> kez-;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a15-29">[26]</a> however, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A1s_R%C3%B3na-Tas" title="András Róna-Tas">András Róna-Tas</a> objected that *qaz- is a <a href="/wiki/Ghost_word" title="Ghost word">ghost word</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimonyi199058-30">[27]</a> In the fragmentary <a href="/wiki/Tariat_inscriptions" title="Tariat inscriptions">Tes and Terkhin inscriptions</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyğur empire (744–840)</a> the form Qasar is attested, although uncertainty remains whether this represents a personal or tribal name, gradually other hypotheses emerged. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Bazin" title="Louis Bazin">Louis Bazin</a> derived it from Turkic qas- ("tyrannize, oppress, terrorize") on the basis of its phonetic similarity to the Uyğur tribal name, Qasar.<a href="#cite_note-31">[note 3]</a> Róna-Tas connects qasar with Kesar, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Pahlavi</a> transcription of the <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Roman title Caesar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[note 4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Morton_Dunlop" title="Douglas Morton Dunlop">D. M. Dunlop</a> tried to link the Chinese term for "Khazars" to one of the tribal names of the Uyğur, or <a href="/wiki/Toquz_Oghuz" title="Toquz Oghuz">Toquz Oğuz</a>, namely the Qasar (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Ch.</a> 葛薩 Gésà).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunlop195434–40-33">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a16-34">[29]</a> The objections are that Uyğur 葛薩 Gésà/Qasar was not a tribal name but rather the surname of the chief of the 思结 Sijie tribe (<a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a>: Sikari) of the Toquz Oğuz (Ch. 九姓 jĭu xìng),<a href="#cite_note-45">[note 5]</a> and that in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> the ethnonym "Khazars" was always prefaced with Tūjué, then still reserved for <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a> and their splinter groups,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2016103–105-46">[40]</a> (Tūjué Kěsà bù:突厥可薩部; Tūjué Hésà:突厥曷薩) and "Khazar's" first syllable is transcribed with different characters (可 and 曷) than 葛, which is used to render the syllable Qa- in the Uyğur word Qasar.<a href="#cite_note-48">[note 6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShirota2005235,_248-49">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook20105-50">[43]</a> While it is far from given that the Khazars are not signifying a multi-ethnic and multi-lingual cluster of peoples and clans, some more nomadic, some less, it doesn't exclude that some clans, or splintergroups, or even rulers has identified with the name(s) of the Khazars, in the variety of ways it has been expressed. After their conversion it is reported that they adopted the Hebrew script,<a href="#cite_note-51">[note 7]</a> and it is likely that, although speaking a Turkic language, the Khazar <a href="/wiki/Chancery_(medieval_office)" title="Chancery (medieval office)">chancellery</a> under Judaism probably corresponded in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[note 8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linguistics">Linguistics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Khazar_language" title="Khazar language">Khazar language</a></div> Determining the origins and nature of the Khazars is closely bound with theories of <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">their languages</a>, but analysis of their languages' origins is difficult, since no indigenous records in the Khazar language survive, and the state was <a href="/wiki/Polyglot" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyglot">polyglot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polyethnicity" title="Polyethnicity">polyethnic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[note 9]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[note 10]</a> Whereas the royal or ruling elite probably spoke an eastern variety of <a href="/wiki/Common_Turkic_languages" title="Common Turkic languages">Shaz Turkic</a>, the subject tribes appear to have spoken varieties of <a href="/wiki/Lir-Turkic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lir-Turkic">Lir Turkic</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Oghur_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oghur (tribe)">Oğuric</a>, a language variously identified with <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulğaric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chuvash_language" title="Chuvash language">Chuvash</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hunnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunnish language">Hunnish</a>. The latter based upon the assertion of the Persian historian <a href="/wiki/Estakhri" class="mw-redirect" title="Estakhri">Istakhri</a> the Khazar language was different from any other known tongue. Alano-As was also widely spoken. Eastern Common Turkic, the language of the royal house and its core tribes, in all likelihood remained the language of the ruling elite in the same way that Mongol continued to be used by the rulers of the Golden Horde, alongside of the <a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Qipčaq Turkic</a> speech spoken by the bulk of the Turkic tribesmen that constituted the military force of this part of the <a href="/wiki/Borjigin#Post-Mongol_Empire" title="Borjigin">Činggisid</a> empire. Similarity, Oğuric, like Qipčaq Turkic in the Jočid realm, functioned as one of the languages of government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200691-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[note 11]</a> One method for tracing their origins consists in the analysis of the possible etymologies behind the <a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">ethnonym</a> "Khazar". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tribal_origins_and_early_history">Tribal origins and early history</h3></div> The tribes<a href="#cite_note-56">[note 12]</a> that were to comprise the Khazar empire were not an ethnic union, but a congeries of steppe nomads and peoples who came to be subordinated, and subscribed to a core Turkic leadership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow1996220–223-57">[44]</a> Many Turkic groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Oghur_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Oghur languages">Oğuric peoples</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Saragurs" title="Saragurs">Šarağurs</a>, Oğurs, <a href="/wiki/Onogurs" title="Onogurs">Onoğurs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulğars</a> who earlier formed part of the <a href="/wiki/Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Tiele (Tiělè) confederation</a>, are attested quite early, having been driven West by the <a href="/wiki/Sabir_people" title="Sabir people">Sabirs</a>, who in turn fled the <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Asian Avars</a>, and began to flow into the <a href="/wiki/Volga_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga Region">Volga</a>–<a href="/wiki/Caspian_Depression" title="Caspian Depression">Caspian</a>–<a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontic</a> zone from as early as the 4th century CE and are recorded by <a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a> to reside in the Western Eurasian steppe lands as early as 463.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a14-58">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzádeczky-Kardoss1994206-59">[46]</a> They appear to stem from Mongolia and South Siberia in the aftermath of the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hunnic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiōngnú</a> nomadic polities. A variegated tribal federation led by these Turks, probably comprising a complex assortment of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Iranian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-60">[note 13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">proto-Mongolic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paleosiberian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleosiberian languages">Palaeo-Siberian</a> clans, vanquished the <a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran Khaganate</a> of the hegemonic central Asian Avars in 552 and swept westwards, taking in their train other steppe nomads and peoples from <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200686-61">[47]</a> The ruling family of this confederation may have hailed from the <a href="/wiki/Ashina_tribe" title="Ashina tribe">Āshǐnà (阿史那) clan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPritsak1978261-62">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a53-63">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007c165-64">[50]</a> although <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Zuckerman" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine Zuckerman">Constantine Zuckerman</a> regards Ashina and their pivotal role in the formation of the Khazars with scepticism.<a href="#cite_note-65">[note 14]</a> Golden notes that Chinese and Arabic reports are almost identical, making the connection a strong one, and conjectures that their leader may have been <a href="/wiki/Irbis_Seguy" title="Irbis Seguy">Yǐpíshèkuì</a> (乙毗射匱), who lost power or was killed around 651.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200689-66">[51]</a> Moving west, the confederation reached the land of the <a href="/wiki/Akatziroi" class="mw-redirect" title="Akatziroi">Akatziroi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-67">[note 15]</a> who had been important allies of Byzantium in fighting off <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a>'s army. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_the_Khazar_state">Rise of the Khazar state</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;border-color:lightgrey"><div style="position:relative;width:300px;border:1px solid lightgray"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Khazars is located in Continental Asia"><img alt="Khazars is located in Continental Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/300px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/450px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/600px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a><div id="annotation_117x106" style="position:absolute; 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font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Kimek" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimek">Kimeks</a></div><div id="annotation_223x84" style="position:absolute; left:223px; top:84px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tangut_people" title="Tangut people">Tanguts</a></div><div id="annotation_192x78" style="position:absolute; left:192px; top:78px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Shatuo" title="Shatuo">Shatuos</a></div><div id="annotation_40x90" style="position:absolute; left:40px; top:90px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">ABBASID CALIPHATE</a></div><div id="annotation_25x35" style="position:absolute; left:25px; top:35px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">KHAZAR KHAGANATE</a></div><div id="annotation_3x70" style="position:absolute; left:3px; top:70px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">BYZANTINE EMPIRE</a></div><div id="annotation_73x50" style="position:absolute; left:73px; top:50px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Yabgu_State" title="Oghuz Yabgu State">OGHUZ- YABGUS</a></div><div id="annotation_155x80" style="position:absolute; left:155px; top:80px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">TIBETAN EMPIRE</a></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" title="File:Map Asia physical (continental).png">class=notpageimage| </a></div>The Khazar Khaganate and contemporary polities circa 800.</div></div></div> An embryonic state of Khazaria began to form sometime after 630,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi2003143,_n.115-68">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden1992127–136,_234–237-69">[53]</a> when it emerged from the breakdown of the larger <a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">Göktürk Khaganate</a>. Göktürk armies had penetrated the Volga by 549, ejecting the Avars, who were then forced to flee to the sanctuary of the <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Basin" title="Pannonian Basin">Hungarian plain</a>. The Ashina clan appeared on the scene by 552, when they overthrew the Rourans and established the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk" class="mw-redirect" title="Göktürk">Göktürk</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">Qağanate</a>, whose self designation was Tür(ü)k.<a href="#cite_note-70">[note 16]</a> By 568, these Göktürks were probing for an alliance with Byzantium to attack <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>. An <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">internecine war</a> broke out between the senior eastern Göktürks and the junior West Turkic Khaganate some decades later, when on the death of <a href="/wiki/Taspar_Qaghan" title="Taspar Qaghan">Taspar Qağan</a>, a <a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">succession dispute led to a dynastic crisis</a> between Taspar's chosen heir, the <a href="/wiki/Apa_Qaghan" title="Apa Qaghan">Apa Qağan</a>, and the ruler appointed by the tribal high council, Āshǐnà Shètú (阿史那摄图), the <a href="/wiki/Ishbara_Qaghan" title="Ishbara Qaghan">Ishbara Qağan</a>. By the first decades of the 7th century, the Ashina <a href="/wiki/Yabgu" class="mw-redirect" title="Yabgu">yabgu</a> <a href="/wiki/Tong_Yabghu_Qaghan" title="Tong Yabghu Qaghan">Tong</a> managed to stabilise the Western division, but upon his death, after providing crucial military assistance to Byzantium in routing the Sasanian army in the Persian heartland,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi2003154–186-71">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow1996222-72">[55]</a> the Western Turkic Qağanate dissolved under pressure from the <a href="/wiki/Tang_Dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tang Dynasty in Inner Asia">encroaching Tang dynasty armies</a> and split into two competing federations, each consisting of five tribes, collectively known as the "Ten Arrows" (On Oq). Both briefly challenged Tang hegemony in eastern Turkestan. To the West, two new nomadic states arose in the meantime, <a href="/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria" title="Old Great Bulgaria">Old Great Bulgaria</a> under <a href="/wiki/Kubrat" title="Kubrat">Kubrat</a>, the Duōlù clan leader, and the Nǔshībì subconfederation, also consisting of five tribes.<a href="#cite_note-73">[note 17]</a> The Duōlù challenged the Avars in the <a href="/wiki/Kuban_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuban River">Kuban River</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Azov" title="Sea of Azov">Sea of Azov</a> area while the Khazar Qağanate consolidated further westwards, led apparently by an Ashina dynasty. With a resounding victory over the tribes in 657, engineered by <a href="/wiki/Su_Dingfang" title="Su Dingfang">General Sū Dìngfāng (蘇定方)</a>, Chinese overlordship was imposed to their East after a final mop-up operation in 659, but the two confederations of Bulğars and Khazars fought for supremacy on the western steppeland, and with the ascendency of the latter, the former either succumbed to Khazar rule or, as under <a href="/wiki/Asparukh_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Asparukh of Bulgaria">Asparukh</a>, Kubrat's son, shifted even further west across the Danube to lay the foundations of the <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a> in the Balkans (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 679).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2001b94–95-74">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESomogyi2008128-75">[57]</a> The Qağanate of the Khazars thus took shape out of the ruins of this nomadic empire as it broke up under pressure from the Tang dynasty armies to the east sometime between 630 and 650.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200689-66">[51]</a> After their conquest of the lower Volga region to the East and an area westwards between the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dniepr" class="mw-redirect" title="Dniepr">Dniepr</a>, and their subjugation of the <a href="/wiki/Onogurs" title="Onogurs">Onoğur</a>-<a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulğar</a> union, sometime around 670, a properly constituted Khazar Qağanate emerges,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuckerman2007417-76">[58]</a> becoming the westernmost <a href="/wiki/Succession_of_states" title="Succession of states">successor state</a> of the formidable Göktürk Qağanate after its disintegration. According to <a href="/wiki/Omeljan_Pritsak" title="Omeljan Pritsak">Omeljan Pritsak</a>, the language of the Onoğur-Bulğar federation was to become the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of Khazaria<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200690-77">[59]</a> as it developed into what <a href="/wiki/Lev_Gumilev" title="Lev Gumilev">Lev Gumilev</a> called a "steppe Atlantis" (stepnaja Atlantida/ Степная Атлантида).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a11–13-78">[60]</a> Historians have often referred to this period of Khazar domination as the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Khazarica" title="Pax Khazarica">Pax Khazarica</a> since the state became an international trading hub permitting Western Eurasian merchants safe transit across it to pursue their business without interference.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan200191-79">[61]</a> The high status soon to be accorded this empire to the north is attested by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Balkhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Balkhi">Ibn al-Balḫî</a>'s Fârsnâma (c. 1100), which relates that the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> Shah, <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau I">Ḫusraw 1, Anûsîrvân</a>, placed three thrones by his own, one for the King of China, a second for the King of Byzantium, and a third for the king of the Khazars. Although anachronistic in retrodating the Khazars to this period, the legend, in placing the Khazar qağan on a throne with equal status to kings of the other two superpowers, bears witness to the reputation won by the Khazars from early times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a7–8-80">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2001b73-81">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khazar_state:_culture_and_institutions">Khazar state: culture and institutions</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Royal_Diarchy_with_sacral_Qağanate">Royal Diarchy with sacral Qağanate</h4></div> Khazaria developed a <a href="/wiki/Diarchy" title="Diarchy">dual kingship</a> governance structure,<a href="#cite_note-82">[note 18]</a> typical among Turkic nomads, consisting of a shad/bäk and a qağan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan1999500-83">[64]</a> The emergence of this system may be deeply entwined with the conversion to Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsson2013496-84">[65]</a> According to Arabic sources, the lesser king was called <a href="/wiki/Khagan_Bek" title="Khagan Bek">îšâ</a> and the greater king Khazar <a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">xâqân</a>; the former managed and commanded the military, while the greater king's role was primarily sacral, less concerned with daily affairs. The greater king was recruited from the Khazar house of notables (ahl bait ma'rûfīn) and, in an initiation ritual, was nearly strangled until he declared the number of years he wished to reign, on the expiration of which he would be <a href="/wiki/Ritual_killing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ritual killing">killed by the nobles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[note 19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan200177-86">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200681–82-87">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[note 20]</a> The deputy ruler would enter the presence of the reclusive greater king only with great ceremony, approaching him barefoot to prostrate himself in the dust and then light a piece of wood as a purifying fire, while waiting humbly and calmly to be summoned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b133–134-89">[68]</a> Particularly elaborate rituals accompanied a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Royal_burial&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Royal burial (page does not exist)">royal burial</a>. At one period, travellers had to dismount, bow before the ruler's tomb, and then walk away on foot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShingiray2012212-90">[69]</a> Subsequently, the charismatic sovereign's burial place was hidden from view, with a palatial structure ("Paradise") constructed and then <a href="/wiki/Buried_treasure" title="Buried treasure">hidden</a> under rerouted river water to avoid disturbance by evil spirits and later generations. Such a royal burial ground (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Qoruq_(burial)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qoruq (burial) (page does not exist)">qoruq</a>) is typical of inner Asian peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeWeese1994181-91">[70]</a> Both the îšâ and the xâqân converted to Judaism sometime in the 8th century, while the rest, according to the Persian traveller <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Rustah" title="Ahmad ibn Rustah">Ahmad ibn Rustah</a>, probably followed the old Tūrkic religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200679–81-92">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[note 21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ruling_elite">Ruling elite</h4></div> The ruling stratum, like that of the later <a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Činggisids</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>, was a relatively small group that differed ethnically and linguistically from its subject peoples, meaning the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alano-As</a> and Oğuric Turkic tribes, who were numerically superior within Khazaria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200688-94">[72]</a> The Khazar Qağans, while taking wives and concubines from the subject populations, were protected by a <a href="/wiki/Khwarezm" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarezm">Khwârazmian</a> guard corps, or <a href="/wiki/Comitatus_(classical_meaning)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitatus (classical meaning)">comitatus</a>, called the <a href="/wiki/Arsiyah" title="Arsiyah">Ursiyya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[note 22]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[note 23]</a> But unlike many other local polities, they hired soldiers (mercenaries) (the junûd murtazîqa in <a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">al-Mas'ûdî</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden200679–80,_88-97">[73]</a> At the peak of their empire, the Khazars ran a centralised fiscal administration, with a standing army of some 7–12,000 men, which could, at need, be multiplied two or three times that number by inducting reserves from their nobles' retinues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsson2013495-98">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[note 24]</a> Other figures for the permanent standing army indicate that it numbered as many as one hundred thousand. They controlled and exacted tribute from 25 to 30 different nations and tribes inhabiting the vast territories between the Caucasus, the Aral Sea, the Ural Mountains, and the Ukrainian steppes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoestler197718-100">[75]</a> Khazar armies were led by the Qağan Bek (pronounced as Kagan Bek) and commanded by subordinate <a href="/wiki/Officer_(armed_forces)" title="Officer (armed forces)">officers</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Tarkhan" title="Tarkhan">tarkhans</a>. When the bek sent out a body of troops, they would not retreat under any circumstances. If they were defeated, every one who returned was killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunlop1954113-101">[76]</a> Settlements were governed by administrative officials known as <a href="/wiki/Tudun" title="Tudun">tuduns</a>. In some cases, such as the Byzantine settlements in southern <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, a tudun would be appointed for a town nominally within another polity's <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a>. Other officials in the Khazar government included dignitaries referred to by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Fadlan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Fadlan">ibn Fadlan</a> as <a href="/wiki/Jawyshyghr" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawyshyghr">Jawyshyghr</a> and <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCnd%C3%BCr" title="Kündür">Kündür</a>, but their responsibilities are unknown. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demographics">Demographics</h4></div> It has been estimated that 25 to 28 distinct ethnic groups made up the population of the Khazar Qağanate, aside from the ethnic elite. The ruling elite seems to have been constituted out of nine tribes/clans, themselves ethnically heterogeneous, spread over perhaps nine provinces or principalities, each of which would have been allocated to a clan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan200177-86">[66]</a> In terms of caste or class, some evidence suggests that there was a distinction, whether racial or social is unclear, between "White Khazars" (ak-Khazars) and "Black Khazars" (qara-Khazars).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan200177-86">[66]</a> The 10th-century Muslim geographer <a href="/wiki/Istakhri" title="Istakhri">al-Iṣṭakhrī</a> claimed that the White Khazars were strikingly handsome with reddish hair, white skin, and blue eyes, while the Black Khazars were swarthy, verging on deep black as if they were "some kind of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunlop195496-102">[77]</a> Many Turkic nations had a similar (political, not racial) division between a "white" ruling warrior caste and a "black" class of commoners; the consensus among mainstream scholars is that Istakhri was confused by the names given to the two groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook20103–4-103">[78]</a> However, Khazars are generally described by early Arab sources as having a white complexion, blue eyes, and reddish hair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPataiPatai198970-104">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook20103-105">[80]</a> The ethnonym in the Tang Chinese annals, Ashina, often accorded a key role in the Khazar leadership, may reflect an Eastern Iranian or <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tokharian</a> word (<a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Khotanese Saka</a> âşşeina-āššsena "blue"): <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> axšaêna ("dark-coloured"): <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages#Tocharian_A_and_B" title="Tocharian languages">Tokharian A</a> âśna ("blue", "dark").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuttwak2009152-6">[6]</a> The distinction appears to have survived the collapse of the Khazarian empire. Later Russian chronicles, commenting on the role of the Khazars in the magyarisation of Hungary, refer to them as "White <a href="/wiki/Oghur_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oghur (tribe)">Oghurs</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Magyars" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyars">Magyars</a> as "<a href="/wiki/Black_Hungarians" title="Black Hungarians">Black Oghurs</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOppenheim1994312-106">[81]</a> Studies of the physical remains, such as skulls at <a href="/wiki/Sarkel" title="Sarkel">Sarkel</a>, have revealed individuals belonging to the Slavic, other European, and a few Mongolian types.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook20103–4-103">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economy">Economy</h4></div> The import and export of foreign wares, and the revenues derived from taxing their transit, was a hallmark of the Khazar economy, although it is said also to have produced <a href="/wiki/Isinglass" title="Isinglass">isinglass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarthold1993936-107">[82]</a> Distinctively among the nomadic steppe polities, the Khazar Qağanate developed a self-sufficient domestic <a href="/wiki/Saltovo-Mayaki" title="Saltovo-Mayaki">Saltovo</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhivkov2015173-108">[83]</a> economy, a combination of traditional pastoralism – allowing sheep and cattle to be exported – extensive agriculture, abundant use of the Volga's rich fishing stocks, together with craft manufacture, with diversification in lucrative returns from taxing international trade given its pivotal control of major trade routes. The <a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a> constituted one of the two great furnishers of slaves to <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">the Muslim market</a> to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a> (the other being the <a href="/wiki/Samanid_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanid slave trade">Iranian Sâmânid amîrs</a>), supplying it with captured Slavs and tribesmen from the Eurasian northlands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2011a64-109">[84]</a> It profited from the latter which enabled it to maintain a standing army of Khwarezm Muslim troops. The capital Atil reflected the division: Kharazān on the western bank where the king and his Khazar elite, with a retinue of some 4,000 attendants, dwelt, and Itil proper to the East, inhabited by Jews, Christians, Muslims and slaves and by craftsmen and foreign merchants.<a href="#cite_note-110">[note 25]</a> The Khazar Khaghanate played a key role in the trade between Europe and the Muslim world in the early middle ages. People taken captive during the viking raids in Europe, such as Ireland, could be transported to <a href="/wiki/Hedeby" title="Hedeby">Hedeby</a> or <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%A4nn%C3%B6" title="Brännö">Brännö</a> in Scandinavia and from there via the <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a> to Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver <a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">dirham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>, which have been found in <a href="/wiki/Birka" title="Birka">Birka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolin" title="Wolin">Wollin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReuter199991-111">[85]</a> during the 8th- and 9th-century this trade route between Europe and the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> passed via the Khazar Kaghanate,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan2007232-112">[86]</a> until it was supplanted in the 10th-century by the route of <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khwarazm" title="Khwarazm">Khwarazm</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Samanid_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanid slave trade">Samanid slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReuter1999504-113">[87]</a> The ruling elite wintered in the city and spent from spring to late autumn in their fields. A large irrigated greenbelt, drawing on channels from the Volga river, lay outside the capital, where meadows and vineyards extended for some 20 farsakhs (c. 60 miles).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan2007214-114">[88]</a> While customs duties were imposed on traders, and tribute and tithes were exacted from 25 to 30 tribes, with a levy of one sable skin, squirrel pelt, sword, dirham per hearth or ploughshare, or hides, wax, honey and livestock, depending on the zone. Trade disputes were handled by a commercial tribunal in Atil consisting of seven judges, two for each of the monotheistic inhabitants (Jews, Muslims, Christians) and one for the pagans.<a href="#cite_note-115">[note 26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khazars_and_Byzantium">Khazars and Byzantium</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a> and <a href="/wiki/Third_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Perso-Turkic War">Third Perso-Turkic War</a></div> Byzantine diplomatic policy towards the steppe peoples generally consisted of encouraging them to fight among themselves. The <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a> provided great assistance to the Byzantines in the 9th century in exchange for regular payments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuttwak200952-116">[89]</a> Byzantium also sought alliances with the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a> against common enemies: in the early 7th century, one such alliance was brokered with the Western Tűrks against the Persian <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanians</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a>. The Byzantines called Khazaria Tourkía, and by the 9th century referred to the Khazars as "Turks".<a href="#cite_note-117">[note 27]</a> During the period leading up to and after the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">siege of Constantinople</a> in 626, <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> sought help via emissaries, and eventually personally, from a Göktürk chieftain<a href="#cite_note-120">[note 28]</a> of the Western Turkic Khaganate, <a href="/wiki/Tong_Yabghu_Qaghan" title="Tong Yabghu Qaghan">Tong Yabghu Qağan</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Tiflis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiflis">Tiflis</a>, plying him with gifts and the promise of marriage to his daughter, <a href="/wiki/Eudoxia_Epiphania" title="Eudoxia Epiphania">Epiphania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi2003143–145-121">[92]</a> Tong Yabghu responded by sending a large force to ravage the Persian empire, marking the start of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Perso-Turkic War">Third Perso-Turkic War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERóna-Tas1999230-122">[93]</a> A joint Byzantine-Tűrk operation breached the <a href="/wiki/Gates_of_Alexander" title="Gates of Alexander">Caspian gates</a> and sacked <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a> in 627. Together they then besieged <a href="/wiki/Tiflis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiflis">Tiflis</a>, where the Byzantines may have deployed an early variety of <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet#Traction_trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">traction trebuchets</a> (<a href="/wiki/Helepolis" title="Helepolis">ἑλέπόλεις</a>) to breach the walls. After the campaign, Tong Yabghu is reported, perhaps with some exaggeration, to have left some 40,000 troops behind with Heraclius.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi2003145-123">[94]</a> Although occasionally identified with Khazars, the Göktürk identification is more probable since the Khazars only emerged from that group after the fragmentation of the former sometime after 630.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaegi2003143,_n.115-68">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden1992127–136,_234–237-69">[53]</a> Some scholars argued that Sasanian Persia never recovered from the devastating defeat wrought by this invasion.<a href="#cite_note-124">[note 29]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khazar_map1.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Khazar_map1.PNG/220px-Khazar_map1.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Khazar_map1.PNG/330px-Khazar_map1.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Khazar_map1.PNG/440px-Khazar_map1.PNG 2x" data-file-width="939" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption>Khazar Khaganate and surrounding states, c. 820 (area of direct Khazar control in dark blue, sphere of influence in purple).</figcaption></figure> Once the Khazars emerged as a power, the Byzantines also began to form alliances with them, dynastic and military. In 695, the last <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Heraclian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty">Heraclian emperor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a>, nicknamed "the slit-nosed" (ὁ ῥινότμητος) after he was mutilated and deposed, was exiled to <a href="/wiki/Chersonesus_(Crimea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chersonesus (Crimea)">Cherson</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>, where a Khazar governor (tudun) presided. He escaped into Khazar territory in 704 or 705 and was given asylum by qağan <a href="/wiki/Busir" title="Busir">Busir Glavan</a> (Ἰβουζῆρος Γλιαβάνος), who gave him his sister in marriage, perhaps in response to an offer by Justinian, who may have thought a dynastic marriage would seal by kinship a powerful tribal support for his attempts to regain the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer2010341-125">[95]</a> The Khazarian spouse thereupon changed her name to <a href="/wiki/Theodora_of_Khazaria" title="Theodora of Khazaria">Theodora</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOstrogorski1969124–126-126">[96]</a> Busir was offered a bribe by the Byzantine usurper, <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_III" title="Tiberius III">Tiberius III</a>, to kill Justinian. Warned by Theodora, Justinian escaped, murdering two Khazar officials in the process. He fled to Bulgaria, whose Khan <a href="/wiki/Tervel" class="mw-redirect" title="Tervel">Tervel</a> helped him regain the throne. Upon his reinstalment, and despite Busir's treachery during his exile, he sent for Theodora; Busir complied, and she was crowned as Augusta, suggesting that both prized the alliance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronHerrin1984212-127">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer2010341–342-128">[98]</a> Decades later, <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III</a> (ruled 717–741) made a similar alliance to co-ordinate strategy against a common enemy, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Arabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Arabs">Muslim Arabs</a>. He sent an embassy to the Khazar qağan <a href="/wiki/Bihar_(Khazar)" title="Bihar (Khazar)">Bihar</a> and married his son, the future <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a> (ruled 741–775), to Bihar's daughter, a princess referred to as <a href="/wiki/Tzitzak" title="Tzitzak">Tzitzak</a>, in 732. On converting to Christianity, she took the name Irene. Constantine and Irene had a son, the future <a href="/wiki/Leo_IV_the_Khazar" title="Leo IV the Khazar">Leo IV (775–780)</a>, who thereafter bore the sobriquet, "the Khazar".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuttwak2009137–138-129">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPiltz200442-130">[100]</a> Leo died in mysterious circumstances after his Athenian wife bore him a son, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VI" title="Constantine VI">Constantine VI</a>, who on his majority co-ruled with his mother, the dowager. He proved unpopular, and his death ended the dynastic link of the Khazars to the Byzantine throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartzwald201526-131">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuttwak2009137–138-129">[99]</a> By the 8th century, Khazars <a href="/wiki/Pax_Khazarica" title="Pax Khazarica">dominated the Crimea</a> (650–c. 950), and even extended their influence into the Byzantine peninsula of Cherson until it was wrested back in the 10th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan2007220-132">[102]</a> Khazar and <a href="/wiki/Fergana" title="Fergana">Farghânian (Φάργανοι)</a> mercenaries constituted part of the imperial Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Hetaireia" title="Hetaireia">Hetaireia</a> bodyguard after its formation in 840, a position that could openly be purchased by a payment of seven pounds of gold.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2011392,_n.22-133">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeath197914-134">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab–Khazar_wars">Arab–Khazar wars</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Khazar_wars" title="Arab–Khazar wars">Arab–Khazar wars</a></div> During the 7th and 8th centuries, the Khazars fought a series of wars against the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> successor. The First Arab-Khazar War began during the first phase of <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim expansion</a>. By 640, Muslim forces had reached Armenia; in 642 they launched their first raid across the Caucasus under <a href="/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_ibn_Rabiah" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah">Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah</a>. In 652 Arab forces advanced on the Khazar capital, <a href="/wiki/Balanjar" title="Balanjar">Balanjar</a>, but were <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Balanjar_(650s)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Balanjar (650s)">defeated</a>, suffering heavy losses; according to Persian historians such as <a href="/wiki/Abu_Jafar_Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabari" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a>, both sides in the battle used <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapults</a> against the opposing troops. A number of Russian sources give the name of a Khazar khagan from this period as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Khazar_rulers" title="List of Khazar rulers">Irbis</a> and describe him as a scion of the Göktürk royal house, the Ashina. Whether Irbis ever existed is open to debate, as is whether he can be identified with one of the many Göktürk rulers of the same name. Due to the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Muslim Civil War</a> and other priorities, the Arabs refrained from repeating an attack on the Khazars until the early 8th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMako201045-135">[105]</a> The Khazars launched a few raids into Transcaucasian principalities under Muslim dominion, including a large-scale raid in 683–685 during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">Second Muslim Civil War</a> that rendered much booty and many prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2010126–127-136">[106]</a> There is evidence from the account of al-Tabari that the Khazars formed a united front with the remnants of the Göktürks in Transoxiana. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Caucasus,_740_CE.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Map_of_the_Caucasus%2C_740_CE.svg/300px-Map_of_the_Caucasus%2C_740_CE.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Map_of_the_Caucasus%2C_740_CE.svg/450px-Map_of_the_Caucasus%2C_740_CE.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Map_of_the_Caucasus%2C_740_CE.svg/600px-Map_of_the_Caucasus%2C_740_CE.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="898" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Caucasus region, c. 740</div></figcaption></figure> The Second Arab-Khazar War began with a series of raids across the Caucasus in the early 8th century. The Umayyads tightened their grip on Armenia in 705 after suppressing a large-scale rebellion. In 713 or 714, the Umayyad general <a href="/wiki/Maslamah_ibn_Abd_al-Malik" class="mw-redirect" title="Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik">Maslamah</a> conquered Derbent and drove deeper into Khazar territory. The Khazars launched raids in response into <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Albania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Azerbaijan">Iranian Azerbaijan</a> but were driven back by the Arabs under <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_al-Nu%27man" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan ibn al-Nu'man">Hasan ibn al-Nu'man</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2010127-137">[107]</a> The conflict escalated in 722 with an invasion by 30,000 Khazars into Armenia inflicting a crushing defeat. Caliph <a href="/wiki/Yazid_II" title="Yazid II">Yazid II</a> responded, sending 25,000 Arab troops north, swiftly driving the Khazars back across the Caucasus, recovering Derbent, and advancing on Balanjar. The Arabs <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Balanjar_(723)" title="Battle of Balanjar (723)">broke through the Khazar defence</a> and stormed the city; most of its inhabitants were killed or enslaved, but a few of them managed to flee north.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2010126–127-136">[106]</a> Despite their success, the Arabs had not yet defeated the Khazar army, and they retreated south of the Caucasus. In 724, the Arab general <a href="/wiki/Al-Jarrah_ibn_Abdallah_al-Hakami" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami">al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami</a> inflicted a crushing defeat on the Khazars in a long battle between the rivers <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_(river)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrus (river)">Cyrus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Araxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Araxes">Araxes</a>, then moved on to capture <a href="/wiki/Tiflis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiflis">Tiflis</a>, bringing <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Iberia" title="Principality of Iberia">Caucasian Iberia</a> under Muslim suzerainty. The Khazars struck back in 726, led by a prince named <a href="/wiki/Barjik" title="Barjik">Barjik</a>, launching a major invasion of Albania and Azerbaijan; by 729, the Arabs had lost control of northeastern Transcaucasia and were thrust again into the defensive. In 730, Barjik invaded Iranian Azerbaijan and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ardabil" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ardabil">defeated</a> Arab forces at <a href="/wiki/Ardabil" title="Ardabil">Ardabil</a>, killing the general <a href="/wiki/Al-Djarrah_al-Hakami" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Djarrah al-Hakami">al-Djarrah al-Hakami</a> and briefly occupying the town. Barjik was defeated and killed the next year at <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>, where he directed Khazar forces from a throne mounted with al-Djarrah's severed head [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. In 737, Marwan Ibn Muhammad entered Khazar territory under the guise of seeking a truce. He then launched a surprise attack in which The Qaghan fled north and the Khazars surrendered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden198064-138">[108]</a> The Arabs did not have enough resources to influence the affairs of Transcaucasia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden198064-138">[108]</a> The Qağan was forced to accept terms involving his conversion to Islam, and subject himself to the rule of the Caliphate, but the accommodation was short-lived because a combination of internal instability among the Umayyads and Byzantine support undid the agreement within three years, and the Khazars re-asserted their independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWasserstein2007375–376-139">[109]</a> The suggestion that the Khazars adopted <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> as early as 740 is based on the idea that, in part, it was, a re-assertion of their independence from the rule of both regional powers, Byzantium and the Caliphate, while it also conformed to a general Eurasian trend to embrace a <a href="/wiki/World_religions" title="World religions">world religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[note 30]</a> Whatever the impact of Marwan's campaigns was, warfare between the Khazars and the Arabs ceased for more than two decades after 737. Arab raids continued to occur until 741, but their control of the region was limited because maintaining a large garrison at Derbent further depleted their already overstretched army. A <a href="/wiki/Third_Fitna" title="Third Fitna">third Muslim civil war</a> soon broke out, leading to the Abbasid Revolution and the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in 750. In 758, the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> attempted to strengthen diplomatic ties with the Khazars, ordering <a href="/wiki/Yazid_ibn_Usayd_al-Sulami" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazid ibn Usayd al-Sulami">Yazid ibn Usayd al-Sulami</a>, one of his nobles and the <a href="/wiki/Ostikanate_of_Arminiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostikanate of Arminiya">military governor of Armenia</a>, to take a royal Khazar bride.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunlop1954179-141">[110]</a> Yazid married a daughter of Khazar Khagan <a href="/wiki/Baghatur" title="Baghatur">Baghatur</a>, but she died inexplicably, possibly during childbirth. Her attendants returned home, convinced that some members of another Arab faction had poisoned her, and her father was enraged. The Khazar general <a href="/wiki/Ras_Tarkhan" title="Ras Tarkhan">Ras Tarkhan</a> invaded regions which were located south of the Caucasus in 762–764, devastating Albania, Armenia, and Iberia, and capturing Tiflis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2018115-142">[111]</a> Thereafter, relations between the Khazars and the Abbasids became increasingly cordial, because the foreign policies of the Abbasids were generally less expansionist than the foreign policies of the Umayyads, relations between the Khazars and the Abbasids were ultimately broken by a series of raids which occurred in 799, the raids occurred after another marriage alliance failed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2018115-142">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khazars_and_Hungarians">Khazars and Hungarians</h3></div> Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate. As a result, three <a href="/wiki/Kabar" title="Kabar">Kabar</a> tribes<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakkai199411-143">[112]</a> of the Khazars (probably the majority of ethnic Khazars) joined the Hungarians and moved through <a href="/wiki/Levedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Levedia">Levedia</a> to what the Hungarians call the <a href="/wiki/Etelk%C3%B6z" class="mw-redirect" title="Etelköz">Etelköz</a>, the territory between the <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains" title="Carpathian Mountains">Carpathians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Dnieper River">Dnieper River</a>. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a> around 854,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECountry_Study:_Hungary1989-144">[113]</a> though other sources state that an attack by Pechenegs was the reason for their departure to Etelköz. The new neighbours of the Hungarians were the <a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangians</a> and the eastern <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>. From 862 onwards, the Hungarians (already referred to as the Ungri) along with their allies, the Kabars, started a series of raids from the Etelköz into the Carpathian Basin, mostly against the <a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">Eastern Frankish Empire</a> (Germany) and <a href="/wiki/Great_Moravia" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</a>, but also against the <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Slavs#Principality" class="mw-redirect" title="Pannonian Slavs">Lower Pannonian principality</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a>. Then they together ended up at the outer slopes of Carpathians, and settled there. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_the_Rus'_and_the_collapse_of_the_Khazarian_state">Rise of the Rus' and the collapse of the Khazarian state</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Varangian_routes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Varangian_routes.png/300px-Varangian_routes.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Varangian_routes.png/450px-Varangian_routes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Varangian_routes.png/600px-Varangian_routes.png 2x" data-file-width="872" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Trade routes of the Black Sea region, 8th–11th centuries</figcaption></figure> By the 9th century, groups of <a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangian Rus'</a>, developing a powerful warrior-merchant system, began probing south down the waterways controlled by the Khazars and their protectorate, the <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria" title="Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgarians</a>, partially in pursuit of the Arab silver that flowed north for hoarding through the Khazarian-Volga Bulgarian trading zones,<a href="#cite_note-145">[note 31]</a> partially to trade in furs and ironwork.<a href="#cite_note-146">[note 32]</a> Northern mercantile fleets passing Atil were tithed, as they were at Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Cherson_(theme)" title="Cherson (theme)">Cherson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard200619-147">[114]</a> Their presence may have prompted the formation of a Rus' state by convincing the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volga_Finns" title="Volga Finns">Merja</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chud" title="Chud">Chud</a>' to unite to protect common interests against Khazarian exactions of tribute. It is often argued that a <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a> modelled on the Khazarian state had formed to the east and that the Varangian chieftain of the coalition appropriated the title of qağan (khagan) as early as the 830s: the title survived to denote the princes of <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>, whose capital, <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>, is often associated with a Khazarian foundation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetrukhin2007245-148">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan200181-149">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[note 33]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[note 34]</a> The construction of the <a href="/wiki/Sarkel" title="Sarkel">Sarkel fortress</a>, with technical assistance from Khazaria's Byzantine ally at the time, together with the minting of an autonomous Khazar coinage around the 830s, may have been a defensive measure against emerging threats from Varangians to the north and from the <a href="/wiki/Magyars" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyars">Magyars</a> on the eastern steppe.<a href="#cite_note-155">[note 35]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[note 36]</a> By 860, the Rus' had penetrated as far as Kiev and, via the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper" title="Dnieper">Dnieper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetrukhin2007257-157">[120]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarkel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Sarkel.jpg/200px-Sarkel.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Sarkel.jpg/300px-Sarkel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Sarkel.jpg/400px-Sarkel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2079" data-file-height="1581" /></a><figcaption>Site of the Khazar fortress at Sarkel (aerial photo from excavations conducted by <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Illarionovich_Artamonov" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikhail Illarionovich Artamonov">Mikhail Artamonov</a> in the 1950s).</figcaption></figure> Alliances often shifted. Byzantium, threatened by Varangian Rus' raiders, would assist Khazaria, and Khazaria at times allowed the northerners to pass through their territory in exchange for a portion of the booty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohen2007107-158">[121]</a> From the beginning of the 10th century, the Khazars found themselves fighting on multiple fronts as nomadic incursions were exacerbated by uprisings by former clients and invasions from former allies. The <a href="/wiki/Pax_Khazarica" title="Pax Khazarica">pax Khazarica</a> was caught in a pincer movement between steppe Pechenegs and the strengthening of an emergent Rus' power to the north, both undermining Khazaria's tributary empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan1999502–503-159">[122]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Schechter_Text" class="mw-redirect" title="Schechter Text">Schechter Text</a>, the Khazar ruler <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_(Khazar)" title="Benjamin (Khazar)">King Benjamin</a> (ca.880–890) fought a battle against the allied forces of five lands whose moves were perhaps encouraged by Byzantium.<a href="#cite_note-160">[note 37]</a> Although Benjamin was victorious, his son <a href="/wiki/Aaron_II_(Khazar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aaron II (Khazar)">Aaron II</a> faced another invasion, this time led by the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>, whose leader had converted to Christianity and entered into an alliance with Byzantium, which, under <a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI the Wise</a>, encouraged them to fight against the Khazars. By the 880s, Khazar control of the Middle <a href="/wiki/Dnieper" title="Dnieper">Dnieper</a> from Kiev, where they collected tribute from Eastern Slavic tribes, began to wane as <a href="/wiki/Oleg_of_Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Oleg of Novgorod">Oleg of Novgorod</a> wrested control of the city from the Varangian warlords <a href="/wiki/Askold_and_Dir" title="Askold and Dir">Askold and Dir</a>, and embarked on what was to prove to be the foundation of a Rus' empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan1999508-161">[123]</a> The Khazars had initially allowed the Rus' to use the <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">trade route</a> along the Volga River, and raid southwards. See <a href="/wiki/Caspian_expeditions_of_the_Rus%27" title="Caspian expeditions of the Rus'">Caspian expeditions of the Rus'</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Al_Masudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Masudi">Al-Mas'udi</a>, the qağan is said to have given his assent on the condition that the Rus' give him half of the booty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohen2007107-158">[121]</a> In 913, however, two years after Byzantium concluded a peace treaty with the Rus' in 911, a <a href="/wiki/Varangians" title="Varangians">Varangian</a> foray, with Khazar connivance, through Arab lands led to a request to the Khazar throne by the Khwârazmian Islamic guard for permission to retaliate against the large Rus' contingent on its return. The purpose was to revenge the violence the Rus' <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">razzias</a> had inflicted on their fellow Muslim believers.<a href="#cite_note-162">[note 38]</a> The Rus' force was thoroughly routed and massacred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohen2007107-158">[121]</a> The Khazar rulers closed the passage down the Volga to the Rus', sparking a war. In the early 960s, Khazar ruler <a href="/wiki/Joseph_(Khazar)" title="Joseph (Khazar)">Joseph</a> wrote to <a href="/wiki/Hasdai_ibn_Shaprut" title="Hasdai ibn Shaprut">Hasdai ibn Shaprut</a> about the deterioration of Khazar relations with the Rus': "I protect the mouth of the river (Itil-Volga) and prevent the Rus arriving in their ships from setting off by sea against the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Ishmaelites</a> and (equally) all (their) enemies from setting off by land to <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Bab</a>."<a href="#cite_note-163">[note 39]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lebedev_Svyatoslavs_meeting_with_Emperor_John.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Lebedev_Svyatoslavs_meeting_with_Emperor_John.jpg/220px-Lebedev_Svyatoslavs_meeting_with_Emperor_John.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Lebedev_Svyatoslavs_meeting_with_Emperor_John.jpg/330px-Lebedev_Svyatoslavs_meeting_with_Emperor_John.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Lebedev_Svyatoslavs_meeting_with_Emperor_John.jpg/440px-Lebedev_Svyatoslavs_meeting_with_Emperor_John.jpg 2x" data-file-width="851" data-file-height="921" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav_I_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sviatoslav I of Kiev">Sviatoslav I of Kiev</a> (in boat), destroyer of the Khazar Khaganate.<a href="#cite_note-164">[note 40]</a></figcaption></figure> The Rus' warlords launched several wars against the Khazar Qağanate, and raided down to <a href="/wiki/Caspian_expeditions_of_the_Rus%27" title="Caspian expeditions of the Rus'">the Caspian sea</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Schechter_Letter" title="Schechter Letter">Schechter Letter</a> relates the story of a campaign against Khazaria by HLGW (recently identified as Oleg of Chernigov) around 941 in which Oleg was defeated by the Khazar general <a href="/wiki/Pesakh_(Khazar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesakh (Khazar)">Pesakh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetrukhin2007259-165">[124]</a> The Khazar alliance with the Byzantine empire began to collapse in the early 10th century. Byzantine and Khazar forces may have clashed in the Crimea, and by the 940s emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII_Porphyrogenitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus">Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus</a> was speculating in <a href="/wiki/De_Administrando_Imperio" title="De Administrando Imperio">De Administrando Imperio</a> about ways in which the Khazars could be isolated and attacked. The Byzantines during the same period began to attempt alliances with the Pechenegs and the Rus', with varying degrees of success. A further factor undermining the Khazar Qağanate was a shift in Islamic routes at this time, as Muslims in Khwarazmia forged trade links with the recently converted Volga Bulgarian Muslims, a move which may have caused a drastic drop, perhaps up to 80%, in the revenue base of Khazaria, and consequently, a crisis in its ability to pay for its defence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeldman2022a75–84-166">[125]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav_I_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sviatoslav I of Kiev">Sviatoslav I</a> finally succeeded in destroying Khazar imperial power in the 960s, in a circular sweep that overwhelmed Khazar fortresses like <a href="/wiki/Sarkel" title="Sarkel">Sarkel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tmutarakan" title="Tmutarakan">Tamatarkha</a>, and reached as far as the Caucasian Kassogians/<a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[note 41]</a> and then back to Kiev.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetrukhin2007262-168">[126]</a> Sarkel fell in 965, with the capital city of <a href="/wiki/Atil" title="Atil">Atil</a> following, c. 968 or 969. In the Russian chronicle, the vanquishing of the Khazar traditions is associated with Vladimir's conversion in 986.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetrukhin2007262–263-169">[127]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Primary_Chronicle" title="Primary Chronicle">Primary Chronicle</a>, in 986 Khazar Jews were present at <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_I_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladimir I of Kiev">Vladimir</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Disputation" title="Disputation">disputation</a> to decide on the prospective religion of the Kievan Rus'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Russian_Primary_Chronicle''-170">[128]</a> Whether these were Jews who had settled in Kiev or emissaries from some Jewish Khazar remnant state is unclear. Conversion to one of the faiths of the people of Scripture was a precondition to any peace treaty with the Arabs, whose Bulgar envoys had arrived in Kiev after 985.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetrukhin2007263-171">[129]</a> A visitor to Atil wrote soon after the sacking of the city that its vineyards and garden had been razed, that not a grape or raisin remained in the land, and not even alms for the poor were available.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunlop1954242-172">[130]</a> An attempt to rebuild may have been undertaken, since <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal" title="Ibn Hawqal">Ibn Hawqal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqaddasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muqaddasi">al-Muqaddasi</a> refer to it after that date, but by <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a>'s time (1048) it was in ruins.<a href="#cite_note-173">[note 42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath:_impact,_decline_and_dispersion">Aftermath: impact, decline and dispersion</h3></div> Although Poliak argued that the Khazar kingdom did not wholly succumb to Sviatoslav's campaign, but lingered on until 1224, when the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Rus'">Mongols invaded Rus'</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGow199531,_n.28-174">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESand2010229-175">[132]</a> by most accounts, the Rus'-Oghuz campaigns left Khazaria devastated, with perhaps many Khazarian Jews in flight,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b148-176">[133]</a> and leaving behind at best a minor <a href="/wiki/Rump_state" title="Rump state">rump state</a>. It left little trace, except for some placenames,<a href="#cite_note-177">[note 43]</a> and much of its population was undoubtedly absorbed in successor hordes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan1999503-178">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqaddasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muqaddasi">Al-Muqaddasi</a>, writing ca.985, mentions Khazar beyond the Caspian sea as a district of "woe and squalor", with honey, many sheep and Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b147–148-179">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kedrenos" class="mw-redirect" title="Kedrenos">Kedrenos</a> mentions a joint Rus'-Byzantine attack on Khazaria in 1016, which defeated its ruler <a href="/wiki/Georgius_Tzul" title="Georgius Tzul">Georgius Tzul</a>. The name suggests Christian affiliations. The account concludes by saying, that after Tzul's defeat, the Khazar ruler of "upper Media", Senaccherib, had to sue for peace and submission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohen2007109-180">[136]</a> In 1024 <a href="/wiki/Mstislav_of_Chernigov" title="Mstislav of Chernigov">Mstislav of Chernigov</a> (one of Vladimir's sons) marched against his brother Yaroslav with an army that included "Khazars and Kassogians" in a repulsed attempt to restore a kind of "Khazarian"-type dominion over Kiev.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetrukhin2007262-168">[126]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Athir" title="Ibn al-Athir">Ibn al-Athir</a>'s mention of a "raid of Faḍlūn the Kurd against the Khazars" in 1030 CE, in which 10,000 of his men were vanquished by the latter, has been taken as a reference to such a Khazar remnant, but <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Bartold" title="Vasily Bartold">Barthold</a> identified this Faḍlūn as <a href="/wiki/Al-Fadhl_ibn_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Fadhl ibn Muhammad">Faḍl ibn Muḥammad</a> and the "Khazars" as either <a href="/wiki/Georgian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian people">Georgians</a> or <a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz people">Abkhazians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapira2007a305-181">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunlop1954253-182">[138]</a> A Kievian prince named <a href="/wiki/Oleg_of_Chernigov" class="mw-redirect" title="Oleg of Chernigov">Oleg, grandson of Jaroslav</a> was reportedly kidnapped by "Khazars" in 1079 and shipped off to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, although most scholars believe that this is a reference to the <a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a>-<a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a> or other steppe peoples then dominant in the Pontic region. Upon his conquest of <a href="/wiki/Tmutarakan" title="Tmutarakan">Tmutarakan</a> in the 1080s Oleg Sviatoslavich, son of a prince of Chernigov, gave himself the title "<a href="/wiki/Archon" title="Archon">Archon</a> of Khazaria".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetrukhin2007262-168">[126]</a> In 1083 Oleg is said to have exacted revenge on the Khazars after his brother Roman was killed by their allies, the <a href="/wiki/Cuman_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuman people">Polovtsi</a>/Cumans. After one more conflict with these Polovtsi in 1106, the Khazars fade from history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohen2007109-180">[136]</a> By the 13th century they survived in Russian folklore only as "Jewish heroes" in the "land of the Jews". (zemlya Jidovskaya).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFalk2017102-183">[139]</a> By the end of the 12th century, <a href="/wiki/Petachiah_of_Ratisbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Petachiah of Ratisbon">Petachiah of Ratisbon</a> reported travelling through what he called "Khazaria", and had little to remark on other than describing its minim (sectaries) living amidst desolation in perpetual mourning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESand2010227-184">[140]</a> The reference seems to be to Karaites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubnov1980792-185">[141]</a> The Franciscan missionary <a href="/wiki/William_of_Rubruck" title="William of Rubruck">William of Rubruck</a> likewise found only impoverished pastures in the lower Volga area where Ital once lay.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan2007214-114">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_da_Pian_del_Carpine" title="Giovanni da Pian del Carpine">Giovanni da Pian del Carpine</a>, the papal legate to the court of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongol</a> Khan <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Khan" title="Güyük Khan">Guyuk</a> at that time, mentioned an otherwise unattested Jewish tribe, the <a href="/wiki/Brutakhi" title="Brutakhi">Brutakhi</a>, perhaps in the Volga region. Although connections are made to the Khazars, the link is based merely on a common attribution of Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a45,_n.157-186">[142]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khazarfall1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Khazarfall1.png/220px-Khazarfall1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Khazarfall1.png/330px-Khazarfall1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Khazarfall1.png/440px-Khazarfall1.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pontic_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic steppe">Pontic steppes</a>, c. 1015 (areas in blue possibly still under Khazar control).</figcaption></figure> The 10th century <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Denkard" title="Denkard">Dênkart</a> registered the collapse of Khazar power in attributing its eclipse to the enfeebling effects of "false" religion.<a href="#cite_note-187">[note 44]</a> The decline was contemporary to that suffered by the <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a> <a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Sāmānid</a> empire to the east, both events paving the way for the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq Empire">Great Seljuq Empire</a>, whose founding traditions mention Khazar connections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b159-188">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[note 45]</a> Whatever successor entity survived, it could no longer function as a bulwark against the pressure east and south of nomad expansions. By 1043, <a href="/wiki/Kimek_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimek tribe">Kimeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Qipchaqs</a>, thrusting westwards, pressured the <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oğuz</a>, who in turn pushed the <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a> west towards Byzantium's Balkan provinces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeacock201035-190">[144]</a> Khazaria nonetheless left its mark on the rising states and some of their traditions and institutions. Much earlier, <a href="/wiki/Tzitzak" title="Tzitzak">Tzitzak</a>, the Khazar wife of <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III</a>, introduced into the Byzantine court the distinctive kaftan or riding habit of the nomadic Khazars, the tzitzakion (τζιτζάκιον), and this was adopted as a solemn element of imperial dress.<a href="#cite_note-191">[note 46]</a> The orderly hierarchical system of succession by "scales" (lestvichnaia sistema:лествичная система) to the <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Grand Principate of Kiev</a> was arguably modelled on Khazar institutions, via the example of the <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2001a28–29,_37-192">[145]</a> The proto-Hungarian Pontic tribe, while perhaps threatening Khazaria as early as 839 (Sarkel), practiced their institutional model, such as the dual rule of a ceremonial kende-kündü and a gyula administering practical and military administration, as tributaries of the Khazars. A dissident group of Khazars, the <a href="/wiki/Kabar" title="Kabar">Qabars</a>, joined the Hungarians in their migration westwards as they moved into <a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a>. Elements within the Hungarian population can be viewed as perpetuating Khazar traditions as a successor state. Byzantine sources refer to Hungary as <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Hungary" title="Principality of Hungary">Western Tourkia</a> in contrast to Khazaria, Eastern Tourkia. The gyula line produced the kings of medieval Hungary through descent from <a href="/wiki/%C3%81rp%C3%A1d" title="Árpád">Árpád</a>, while the Qabars retained their traditions longer, and were known as "black Hungarians" (fekete magyarság). Some archaeological evidence from <a href="/wiki/%C4%8Celarevo" title="Čelarevo">Čelarevo</a> suggests the Qabars practised Judaism<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden1994b247–248-193">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERóna-Tas199956-194">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a33-195">[148]</a> since warrior graves with Jewish symbols were found there, including <a href="/wiki/Menorah_(Temple)" class="mw-redirect" title="Menorah (Temple)">menorahs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shofar" title="Shofar">shofars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etrog" title="Etrog">etrogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lulav" title="Lulav">lulavs</a>, candlesnuffers, ash collectors, inscriptions in Hebrew, and a six-pointed star identical to the <a href="/wiki/Star_of_David" title="Star of David">Star of David</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b150-196">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2010167-197">[150]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Davestar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Davestar.jpg/220px-Davestar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Davestar.jpg/330px-Davestar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Davestar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="391" /></a><figcaption>Seal discovered in excavations at Khazar sites. However, rather than having been made by Jews, these appear to be shamanistic sun discs.<a href="#cite_note-198">[note 47]</a></figcaption></figure> The Khazar state was not the only Jewish state to rise between the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">fall of the Second Temple</a> (67–70 CE) and the <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Israeli Declaration of Independence">establishment of Israel</a> (1948). A <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom#Jewish_monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">state in Yemen</a> also adopted Judaism in the 4th century, lasting until the rise of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowersock201385ff.-199">[151]</a> The Khazar kingdom is said to have stimulated messianic aspirations for a return to Israel as early as <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweid2007286-200">[152]</a> In the time of the Egyptian vizier <a href="/wiki/Al-Afdal_Shahanshah" title="Al-Afdal Shahanshah">Al-Afdal Shahanshah</a> (d. 1121), one Solomon ben Duji, often identified as a Khazarian Jew,<a href="#cite_note-201">[note 48]</a> attempted to advocate for a messianic effort for the liberation of, and return of all Jews to, Palestine. He wrote to many Jewish communities to enlist support. He eventually moved to <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a> where his son <a href="/wiki/David_Alroy" title="David Alroy">Menachem</a> some decades later assumed the title of <a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a> and, raising an army for this purpose, took the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Amadiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Amadiya">Amadiya</a> north of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>. His project was opposed by the rabbinical authorities and he was poisoned in his sleep. One theory maintains that the Star of David, until then a decorative motif or magical emblem, began to assume its national value in late Jewish tradition from its earlier symbolic use by Menachem.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaron1957202–204_[204]-202">[153]</a> The word Khazar, as an ethnonym, was last used in the 13th century by people in the North Caucasus believed to practice Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWexler2002514-203">[154]</a> The nature of a hypothetical Khazar <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">diaspora</a>, Jewish or otherwise, is disputed. <a href="/wiki/Avraham_ibn_Daud" class="mw-redirect" title="Avraham ibn Daud">Avraham ibn Daud</a> mentions encountering rabbinical students descended from Khazars as far away as <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo, Spain</a> in the 1160s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b149-204">[155]</a> Khazar communities persisted here and there. Many Khazar mercenaries served in the armies of the Islamic Caliphates and other states. Documents from medieval Constantinople attest to a Khazar community mingled with the Jews of the suburb of <a href="/wiki/Galata" title="Galata">Pera</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2010177–178-205">[156]</a> Khazar merchants were active in both Constantinople and Alexandria in the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan2007229-206">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tengrism">Tengrism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></div> Direct sources for the Khazar religion are not many, but in all likelihood they originally engaged in a traditional Turkic form of religious practices known as <a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a>, which focused on the <a href="/wiki/Sky_god" class="mw-redirect" title="Sky god">sky god</a> <a href="/wiki/Tengri" title="Tengri">Tengri</a>. Something of its nature may be deduced from what we know of the rites and beliefs of contiguous tribes, such as the North Caucasian Huns. <a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">Horse sacrifices</a> were made to this supreme deity. Rites involved offerings to fire, water, and the moon, to remarkable creatures, and to "gods of the road" (cf. Old Türk yol tengri, perhaps a god of fortune). Sun amulets were widespread as cultic ornaments. A tree cult was also maintained. Whatever was struck by lightning, man or object, was considered a sacrifice to the high god of heaven. The afterlife, to judge from excavations of aristocratic tumuli, was much a continuation of life on earth, warriors being interred with their weapons, horses, and sometimes with human sacrifices: the funeral of one tudrun in 711-12 saw 300 soldiers killed to accompany him to the otherworld. <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestor worship">Ancestor worship</a> was observed. The key religious figure appears to have been a <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shaman</a>-like qam,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b131–133-207">[158]</a> and it was these (qozmím) that were, according to the Khazar Hebrew conversion stories, driven out. Many sources suggest, and a notable number of scholars have argued, that the charismatic Ashina clan played a germinal role in the early Khazar state, although Zuckerman dismisses the widespread notion of their pivotal role as a "phantom". The Ashina were closely associated with the Tengri cult, whose practices involved rites performed to assure a tribe of heaven's protective providence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow1996220-208">[159]</a> The qağan was deemed to rule by virtue of <a href="/wiki/Kut_(mythology)" title="Kut (mythology)">qut</a>, "the heavenly mandate/good fortune to rule."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b133-209">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[note 49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3></div> Khazaria long served as a <a href="/wiki/Buffer_state" title="Buffer state">buffer state</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine empire</a> and both the nomads of the northern steppes and the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad empire</a>, after serving as Byzantium's proxy against the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Persian empire</a>. The alliance was dropped around 900. Byzantium began to encourage the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> to attack Khazaria and weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus, while seeking to obtain an entente with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to convert to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan1999499,_502–503-18">[15]</a> On Khazaria's southern flank, both Islam and Byzantine Christianity were proselytising great powers. Byzantine success in the north was sporadic, although Armenian and Albanian missions from <a href="/wiki/Derbend" class="mw-redirect" title="Derbend">Derbend</a> built churches extensively in maritime <a href="/wiki/Daghestan" class="mw-redirect" title="Daghestan">Daghestan</a>, then a Khazar district.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b124,_135-211">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> also had exercised an attraction on leaders of both the Eastern (552–742) and Western Qağanates (552–659), the latter being the progenitor of the Khazar state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b125-212">[162]</a> In 682, according to the Armenian chronicle of <a href="/wiki/Movses_Kaghankatvatsi" title="Movses Kaghankatvatsi">Movsês Dasxuranc'i</a>, the king of <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varaz_Trdat" class="mw-redirect" title="Varaz Trdat">Varaz Trdat</a>, dispatched a bishop, Israyêl, to convert Caucasian "Huns" who were subject to the Khazars, and managed to convince Alp Ilut'uêr, a son-in-law of the Khazar qağan, and his army, to abandon their shamanising cults and join the Christian fold.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeWeese1994292–293-213">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[note 50]</a> The Arab Georgian martyr <a href="/wiki/Abo_of_Tiflis" title="Abo of Tiflis">St Abo</a>, who converted to Christianity within the Khazar kingdom around 779–80, describes local Khazars as irreligious.<a href="#cite_note-215">[note 51]</a> Some reports register a Christian majority at <a href="/wiki/Samandar_(city)" title="Samandar (city)">Samandar</a>,<a href="#cite_note-216">[note 52]</a> or Muslim majorities.<a href="#cite_note-217">[note 53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judaism">Judaism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khazar_coin_Spillings_Hoard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Khazar_coin_Spillings_Hoard.jpg/220px-Khazar_coin_Spillings_Hoard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Khazar_coin_Spillings_Hoard.jpg/330px-Khazar_coin_Spillings_Hoard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Khazar_coin_Spillings_Hoard.jpg/440px-Khazar_coin_Spillings_Hoard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1018" data-file-height="1003" /></a><figcaption>The Khazar "Moses coin" found in the <a href="/wiki/Spillings_Hoard" title="Spillings Hoard">Spillings Hoard</a> and dated c. 837/8 CE (223 <a href="/wiki/Hijri_year" title="Hijri year">AH</a>). It is inscribed with "Moses is the messenger of God" instead of the usual Muslim text "Muhammad is the messenger of God".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovalev2005226–228,_252-218">[164]</a></figcaption></figure> Conversion to Judaism is mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Correspondence" title="Khazar Correspondence">Khazar Correspondence</a> and medieval external sources. The authenticity of the former was long doubted and challenged,<a href="#cite_note-219">[note 54]</a> but the documents are now widely accepted by specialists as either authentic or as reflecting internal Khazar traditions.<a href="#cite_note-220">[note 55]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[note 56]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[note 57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzpiech2012102-225">[167]</a> Archaeological evidence for conversion, on the other hand, remains elusive,<a href="#cite_note-226">[note 58]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[note 59]</a> and may reflect either the incompleteness of excavations, or that the stratum of actual adherents was thin.<a href="#cite_note-228">[note 60]</a> Conversion of steppe or peripheral tribes to a <a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">universal religion</a> is a fairly well attested phenomenon,<a href="#cite_note-229">[note 61]</a> and the Khazar conversion to Judaism, although unusual, would not have been without precedent.<a href="#cite_note-233">[note 62]</a> Jews from both the Islamic world and Byzantium are known to have migrated to Khazaria during periods of persecution under <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Romanos_I_Lekapenos" title="Romanos I Lekapenos">Romanus Lakapēnos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b141–145,_161-234">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoonan200177–78-235">[172]</a> For <a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama" title="Simon Schama">Simon Schama</a>, Jewish communities from the Balkans and the Bosphoran Crimea, especially from <a href="/wiki/Panticapaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Panticapaeum">Panticapaeum</a>, began migrating to the more hospitable climate of pagan Khazaria in the wake of these persecutions, and were joined there by Jews from Armenia. The <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Geniza fragments</a>, he argues, make it clear the Judaising reforms sent roots down into the whole of the population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama2013266-236">[173]</a> The pattern is one of an elite conversion preceding large-scale adoption of the new religion by the general population, which often resisted the imposition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b125-212">[162]</a> One important condition for mass conversion was a settled urban state, where churches, synagogues or mosques provided a focus for religion, as opposed to the free nomadic lifestyle of life on the open steppes.<a href="#cite_note-237">[note 63]</a> A tradition of the Iranian <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Judeo-Tats</a> claims that their ancestors were responsible for the Khazar conversion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWexler198761-238">[174]</a> A legend traceable to the 16th-century Italian rabbi <a href="/wiki/Judah_Moscato" title="Judah Moscato">Judah Moscato</a> attributed it to <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_ha-Sangari" title="Yitzhak ha-Sangari">Yitzhak ha-Sangari</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzyszman198071,_73-239">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunlop1954122–124-240">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook201095,_117_n.51,_52-241">[177]</a> Both the date of the conversion, and the extent of its influence beyond the elite,<a href="#cite_note-242">[note 64]</a> often minimised in some scholarship,<a href="#cite_note-243">[note 65]</a> are a matter of dispute,<a href="#cite_note-244">[note 66]</a> but at some point between 740 and 920 CE, the Khazar <a href="/wiki/Royal_family" title="Royal family">royalty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a> appear to have converted to <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, in part, it is argued, perhaps to deflect competing pressures from Arabs and Byzantines to accept either Islam or Orthodoxy.<a href="#cite_note-245">[note 67]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[note 68]</a> The conversion of the Khazars to Judaism is an emotionally charged topic in Israel,<a href="#cite_note-247">[note 69]</a> and two scholars, <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Gil" title="Moshe Gil">Moshe Gil</a> (2011) and <a href="/wiki/Shaul_Stampfer" title="Shaul Stampfer">Shaul Stampfer</a>, (2013) have challenged the authenticity of the medieval Hebrew documents and argue that the conversion of the Khazar elite to Judaism never happened.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStampfer20131–72-248">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGil2011429–441-249">[179]</a> Alex M. Feldman is critical of Stampfer and Gil's dismissal of "overwhelming textual and archaeological evidence" of Khazarian Judaism, though agrees it is unlikely that Ashkenazim are descended from Khazarian Jews, he posits "a middle ground which can simultaneously accept Khazarian Judaism and doubt the Khazar-Ashkenazi descent theory advanced in dubious genetic studies."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeldman2022b193–205-250">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History_of_discussions_about_Khazar_Jewishness">History of discussions about Khazar Jewishness</h4></div> The earliest surviving Arabic text that refers to Khazar Jewishness appears to be that which was written by <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Rustah" title="Ahmad ibn Rustah">ibn Rustah</a>, a Persian scholar who wrote an encyclopedic work on geography in the early tenth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStampfer201317-251">[181]</a> It is believed that ibn Rustah derived much of his information from the works of his contemporary <a href="/wiki/Abu_Abdallah_Muhammad_ibn_Ahmad_al-Jayhani" title="Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Jayhani">Abu al Jayhani</a> based in Central Asia. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signature_Kiev_letter.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Signature_Kiev_letter.gif/250px-Signature_Kiev_letter.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Signature_Kiev_letter.gif/375px-Signature_Kiev_letter.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Signature_Kiev_letter.gif 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="95" /></a><figcaption>The 10th century <a href="/wiki/Kievian_Letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievian Letter">Kievian Letter</a> has <a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Turkic alphabet">Old Turkic</a> (Orkhon) inscription word-phrase OKHQURÜM, "I read (this or it)".</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Christian_of_Stavelot" title="Christian of Stavelot">Christian of Stavelot</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Expositio_in_Matthaeum_Evangelistam" title="Expositio in Matthaeum Evangelistam">Expositio in Matthaeum Evangelistam</a> (c. 860–870s) refers to Gazari, presumably Khazars, as living in the lands of <a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a>, who were circumcised and omnem Judaismum observat—observing all the laws of Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-252">[note 70]</a> New numismatic evidence of coins dated 837/8 bearing the inscriptions arḍ al-ḫazar (Land of the Khazars), or Mûsâ rasûl Allâh (<a href="/wiki/Moses_in_Islam" title="Moses in Islam">Moses is the messenger of God</a>, in imitation of the Islamic coin phrase: Muḥammad rasûl Allâh) suggest to many the conversion took place in that decade.<a href="#cite_note-253">[note 71]</a> Olsson argues that the 837/8 evidence marks only the beginning of a long and difficult official <a href="/wiki/Judaization" title="Judaization">Judaization</a> that concluded some decades later.<a href="#cite_note-254">[note 72]</a> A 9th-century Jewish traveller, <a href="/wiki/Eldad_ha-Dani" title="Eldad ha-Dani">Eldad ha-Dani</a>, is said to have informed Spanish Jews in 883 that there was a Jewish polity in the East, and that fragments of the legendary <a href="/wiki/Ten_Lost_Tribes" title="Ten Lost Tribes">Ten Lost Tribes</a>, part of the line of <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Simeon" title="Tribe of Simeon">Simeon</a> and half-line of <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Manasseh" title="Tribe of Manasseh">Manasseh</a>, dwelt in "the land of the Khazars", receiving tribute from some 25 to 28 kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook20186-255">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunlop1954140–142-256">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhivkov201542-257">[184]</a> Another view holds that by the 10th century, while the royal clan officially claimed Judaism, a non-normative variety of Islamisation took place among the majority of Khazars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShingiray2012212–214-258">[185]</a> By the 10th century, the <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Correspondence" title="Khazar Correspondence">letter of King Joseph</a> asserts that, after the royal conversion, "Israel returned (yashuvu yisra'el) with the people of Qazaria (to Judaism) in complete repentance (bi-teshuvah shelemah)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzpiech201292–117_[104]-259">[186]</a> <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persian historian</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Faqih" title="Ibn al-Faqih">Ibn al-Faqîh</a> wrote that "all the Khazars are Jews, but they have been Judaized recently". <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Fadlan" title="Ahmad ibn Fadlan">Ibn Fadlân</a>, based on his Caliphal mission (921–922) to the Volga Bulğars, also reported that "the core element of the state, the Khazars, were Judaized",<a href="#cite_note-260">[note 73]</a> something underwritten by the <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Qaraite</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Qirqisani" title="Jacob Qirqisani">Ya'kub Qirqisânî</a> around 937.<a href="#cite_note-261">[note 74]</a> The conversion appears to have occurred against a background of frictions arising from both an intensification of Byzantine missionary activity from the Crimea to the Caucasus, and Arab attempts to wrest control over the latter in the 8th century CE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b137–138-262">[187]</a> and a revolt, put down, by the <a href="/wiki/Kabar" title="Kabar">Khavars</a> around the mid-9th century is often invoked as in part influenced by their refusal to accept Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinei200950-263">[188]</a> Modern scholars generally<a href="#cite_note-264">[note 75]</a> see the conversion as a slow process through three stages, which accords with Richard Eaton's model of syncretic inclusion, gradual identification and, finally, displacement of the older tradition.<a href="#cite_note-265">[note 76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeWeese1994300–308-266">[189]</a> Sometime between 954 and 961, <a href="/wiki/Hasdai_ibn_Shaprut" title="Hasdai ibn Shaprut">Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> (Muslim Spain), wrote a letter of inquiry addressed to the ruler of Khazaria, and received a reply from <a href="/wiki/Joseph_(Khazar)" title="Joseph (Khazar)">Joseph of Khazaria</a>. The exchanges of this <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Correspondence" title="Khazar Correspondence">Khazar Correspondence</a>, together with the <a href="/wiki/Schechter_Letter" title="Schechter Letter">Schechter Letter</a> discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a> and the famous <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">plato</a> nizing dialogue<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelamed200324–26-267">[190]</a> by <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuzari" title="Kuzari">Sefer ha-Kuzari</a> ("Book (of) The Khazari"), which plausibly drew on such sources,<a href="#cite_note-268">[note 77]</a> provide us with the only direct evidence of the indigenous traditions<a href="#cite_note-269">[note 78]</a> concerning the conversion. <a href="/wiki/Bulan_(Khazar)" title="Bulan (Khazar)">King Bulan</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[note 79]</a> is said to have driven out the sorcerers,<a href="#cite_note-271">[note 80]</a> and to have received angelic visitations exhorting him to find the true religion, upon which, accompanied by his vizier, he travelled to desert mountains of Warsān on a seashore, where he came across a cave rising from the plain of Tiyul in which Jews used to celebrate the Sabbath. Here he was circumcised.<a href="#cite_note-275">[note 81]</a> Bulan is then said to have convened a royal debate between exponents of the three <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a>. He decided to convert when he was convinced of Judaism's superiority. Many scholars situate this c. 740, a date supported by Halevi's own account.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorobkin1998352,_n.8-276">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunlop1954170-277">[195]</a> The details are both Judaic<a href="#cite_note-278">[note 82]</a> and Türkic: a Türkic ethnogonic myth speaks of an ancestral cave in which the Ashina were conceived from the mating of their human ancestor and a wolf ancestress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b157-279">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-280">[note 83]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunlop1954117–118-281">[197]</a> These accounts suggest that there was a rationalising syncretism of native pagan traditions with Jewish law, by melding through the motif of the cave, a site of ancestral ritual and repository of forgotten sacred texts, Türkic myths of origin and Jewish notions of redemption of Israel's fallen people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeWeese1994304–305-274">[193]</a> It is generally agreed they adopted Rabbinical rather than <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Qaraite Judaism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERóna-Tas1999232-282">[198]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Fadlan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Fadlan">Ibn Fadlan</a> reports that the settlement of disputes in Khazaria was adjudicated by judges hailing each from his community, be it Christian, Jewish, Muslim, or Pagan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaroney201072-283">[199]</a> Some evidence suggests that the Khazar king saw himself as a defender of Jews even beyond the kingdom's frontiers, retaliating against Muslim or Christian interests in Khazaria in the wake of Islamic and Byzantine persecutions of Jews abroad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a34-284">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[note 84]</a> Ibn Fadlan recounts specifically an incident in which the king of Khazaria destroyed the minaret of a mosque in Atil as revenge for the destruction of a synagogue in Dâr al-Bâbûnaj, and allegedly said he would have done worse were it not for a fear that the Muslims might retaliate in turn against Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERóna-Tas1999232-282">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b161-286">[201]</a> Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ sought information on Khazaria in the hope he might discover "a place on this earth where harassed Israel can rule itself" and wrote that, were it to prove true that Khazaria had such a king, he would not hesitate to forsake his high office and his family in order to emigrate there.<a href="#cite_note-287">[note 85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Harkavy" title="Abraham Harkavy">Albert Harkavy</a> noted in 1877 that an <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> commentary on <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Isaiah 48:14</a> ascribed to <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a> or to the Karaite scholar <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Nahawandi" title="Benjamin Nahawandi">Benjamin Nahâwandî</a>, interpreted "The Lord hath loved him" as a reference "to the Khazars, who will go and destroy <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babel</a>" (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylonia</a>), a name used to designate the country of the Arabs. This has been taken as an indication of hopes by Jews that the Khazars might succeed in destroying the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzyszman198071,_73-239">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3></div> In 965, as the Qağanate was struggling against the victorious campaign of the Rus' prince Sviatoslav, the Islamic historian <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Athir" title="Ibn al-Athir">Ibn al-Athîr</a> mentions that Khazaria, attacked by <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">the Oğuz</a>, sought help from <a href="/wiki/Khwarazm" title="Khwarazm">Khwarezm</a>, but their appeal was rejected because they were regarded as "infidels" (al-kuffâr; pagans). Save for the king, the Khazarians are said to have converted to Islam in order to secure an alliance, and the Turks were, with Khwarezm's military assistance, repelled. It was this that, according to Ibn al-Athîr, led the Jewish king of Khazar to convert to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetrukhin2007263-171">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2></div> Nine skeletons dating to the 7th–9th centuries excavated from elite military burial mounds of the Khazar Khaganate (in the modern <a href="/wiki/Rostov_Oblast" title="Rostov Oblast">Rostov</a> region) were analyzed in two genetic studies (from 2019 and 2021). According to the 2019 study, the results "confirm the Turkic roots of the Khazars, but also highlight their ethnic diversity and some integration of conquered populations". The samples did not show a genetic connection to Ashkenazi Jews, and the results do not support the hypothesis of Ashkenazi Jews being descendants of the Khazars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikheyevQiuZarubinMoshkov2019-288">[202]</a> In the 2021 study the results showed both European and East Asian paternal haplogroups in the samples: three individuals carried <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a" title="Haplogroup R1a">R1a</a> Y-haplogroup, two had <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_C-M217" title="Haplogroup C-M217">C2b</a>, and the rest carried haplogroups <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_G2a" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup G2a">G2a</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_N-M231" title="Haplogroup N-M231">N1a</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_Q-M242" title="Haplogroup Q-M242">Q</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b" title="Haplogroup R1b">R1b</a>, respectively. According to the authors, "The Y-chromosome data are consistent with the results of the craniological study and genome-wide analysis of the same individuals in the sense that they show mixed genetic origins for the early medieval Khazar nobility".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornienkoFaleevaSchurrAramova2021477–488-289">[203]</a> Their facial features were of mix of East Asian and European, with East Asian type dominating (70%) in the early Khazars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornienkoFaleevaSchurrAramova2021478-290">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Claims_of_Khazar_ancestry">Claims of Khazar ancestry</h2></div> Claims of Khazar origins of peoples, or suggestions that the Khazars were absorbed by them, have been made with regard to the <a href="/wiki/Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakhs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Hungarians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizing</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> <a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a>, the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Karachays" title="Karachays">Karachays</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kumyks" title="Kumyks">Kumyks</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Avars_(Caucasus)" title="Avars (Caucasus)">Avars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Don_Cossacks" title="Don Cossacks">Cossacks of the Don</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Cossacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian Cossacks">Ukrainian Cossacks</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Cossack_ancestry" title="Khazar hypothesis of Cossack ancestry">Khazar hypothesis of Cossack ancestry</a>), the Turkic-speaking <a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a> and their Crimean neighbours the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Karaites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mishar_Tatars" title="Mishar Tatars">Mishar Tatars</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWho_are_the_Mishars?2016-291">[205]</a> the Moldavian <a href="/wiki/Cs%C3%A1ng%C3%B3s" title="Csángós">Csángós</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKizilov2009335-23">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2018145,_149–151,_162–163,_164-292">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPataiPatai198973-24">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWexler198770-25">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a> (known in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_language" title="Crimean Tatar language">Crimean Tatar language</a> as Qaraylar), some of whom migrated in the 19th century from the <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> to Poland and Lithuania have claimed Khazar origins. Specialists in Khazar history question the connection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2018210–216-293">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a9-294">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rabinnic-295">[note 86]</a> Scholarship is likewise sceptical of claims that the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_language" title="Crimean Tatar language">Tatar-speaking Krymchak Jews</a> of the Crimea descend from Khazars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2018208–209-296">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crimean_Karaites_and_Krymchaks">Crimean Karaites and Krymchaks</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></div> In 1839, the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Karaim</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Firkovich" title="Abraham Firkovich">Abraham Firkovich</a> was appointed by the Russian government as a researcher into the origins of the Jewish sect known as the <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein20119-297">[210]</a> In 1846, one of his acquaintances, the Russian orientalist Vasilii Vasil'evich Grigor'ev (1816–1881), theorised that the Crimean Karaites were of Khazar stock. Firkovich vehemently rejected the idea,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapira2006166-298">[211]</a> a position seconded by Firkovich,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] who hoped that by "proving" his people were of Turkic origin, he would secure them exception from Russian anti-Jewish laws, since they bore no responsibility for Christ's crucifixion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlady2000125-299">[212]</a> This idea has a notable impact in Crimean Karaite circles.<a href="#cite_note-301">[note 87]</a> It is now believed that he forged much of this material on Khazars and Karaites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinryb1973a21–22-302">[214]</a> Specialists in Khazar history also question the connection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a9-294">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rabinnic-295">[note 86]</a> A genetic study of European Karaites by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kevin_Alan_Brook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kevin Alan Brook (page does not exist)">Kevin Alan Brook</a> found no evidence of a Khazar or Turkic origin for any uniparental lineage but did reveal the European Karaites' links to Egyptian Karaites and to Rabbinical Jewish communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2018213–215-303">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook201469–84-304">[216]</a> Another Turkic Crimean group, the <a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a> had retained very simple Jewish traditions, mostly devoid of <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakhic content</a>, and very much taken with magical superstitions which, in the wake of the enduring educational efforts of the great Sephardi scholar <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Hezekiah_Medini" title="Chaim Hezekiah Medini">Chaim Hezekiah Medini</a>, came to conform with traditional Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlady2000122-305">[217]</a> Though the assertion they were not of Jewish stock enabled many Crimean Karaites to survive the Holocaust, which led to the murder of 6,000 Krymchaks, after the war, many of the latter, somewhat indifferent to their Jewish heritage, took a cue from the Crimean Karaites, and denied this connection in order to avoid the antisemitic effects of the stigma attached to Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlady2000126-306">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ashkenazi-Khazar_theories">Ashkenazi-Khazar theories</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry" title="Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry">Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry</a></div> Several scholars have suggested that instead of disappearing after the dissolution of their Empire, the Khazars migrated westward and eventually, they formed part of the core of the later <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jewish</a> population of Europe. This hypothesis is greeted with scepticism or caution by most scholars.<a href="#cite_note-307">[note 88]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[note 89]</a><a href="#cite_note-309">[note 90]</a> The German Orientalist <a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Neumann" title="Karl Friedrich Neumann">Karl Neumann</a>, in the context of an earlier controversy about possible connections between the Khazars and the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic peoples</a>, suggested as early as 1847 that emigrant Khazars might have influenced the core population of Eastern European Jews.<a href="#cite_note-310">[note 91]</a> The theory was then taken up by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Harkavy" title="Abraham Harkavy">Albert Harkavi</a> in 1869, when he also claimed that a possible link existed between the Khazars and the Ashkenazim,<a href="#cite_note-311">[note 92]</a> but the theory that Khazar converts formed a major proportion of the Ashkenazim was first proposed to the Western public in a lecture which was delivered by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Ernest Renan</a> in 1883.<a href="#cite_note-312">[note 93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossman200298-313">[219]</a> Occasional suggestions that there was a small Khazar component in East European Jews emerged in works by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Jacobs" title="Joseph Jacobs">Joseph Jacobs</a> (1886), <a href="/wiki/Henri_Jean_Baptiste_Anatole_Leroy-Beaulieu" title="Henri Jean Baptiste Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu">Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu</a>, a critic of antisemitism (1893),<a href="#cite_note-314">[220]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maksymilian_Ernest_Gumplowicz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maksymilian Ernest Gumplowicz (page does not exist)">Maksymilian Ernest Gumplowicz</a>,<a href="#cite_note-315">[note 94]</a> and by the Russian-Jewish anthropologist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Samuel_Weissenberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samuel Weissenberg (page does not exist)">Samuel Weissenberg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-317">[note 95]</a> In 1909, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugo_von_Kutschera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugo von Kutschera (page does not exist)">Hugo von Kutschera</a> developed the notion into a book-length study,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoestler1977134,_150-318">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Kutschera1909-319">[223]</a> arguing that the Khazars formed the foundational core of the modern Ashkenazim.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoestler1977134,_150-318">[222]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Fishberg" title="Maurice Fishberg">Maurice Fishberg</a> introduced the notion to American audiences in 1911.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein2006131-316">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFishberg1911-320">[224]</a> The idea was also taken up by the Polish-Jewish economic historian and <a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General Zionist</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yitzhak_Schipper&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yitzhak Schipper (page does not exist)">Yitzhak Schipper</a> in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-321">[note 96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2010210-322">[225]</a> <a href="/wiki/Israel_Bartal" title="Israel Bartal">Israel Bartal</a> has suggested that from the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> onwards, polemical pamphlets against the Khazars were inspired by <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi</a> organizations which opposed the Khazaro-Ashkenazim.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFalk2017101,_n.9-323">[226]</a> Scholarly anthropologists, such as <a href="/wiki/Roland_Burrage_Dixon" title="Roland Burrage Dixon">Roland B. Dixon</a> (1923), and writers such as <a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a> (1920) used it to argue that "The main part of Jewry never was in <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>",<a href="#cite_note-324">[note 97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingerman20044-325">[227]</a> a thesis that was to have a political echo in later opinion.<a href="#cite_note-326">[note 98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrage_Dixon1923-327">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1920?-328">[229]</a> In 1932, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Krauss" title="Samuel Krauss">Samuel Krauss</a> ventured the theory that the biblical Ashkenaz referred to northern <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, and he identified it as the ancestral homeland of the Khazars, a position which was immediately disputed by Jacob Mann.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalkiel2008263,_n.1-329">[230]</a> Ten years later, in 1942, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Polak" title="Abraham Polak">Abraham N. Polak</a> (sometimes referred to as Poliak), later professor for the history of the Middle Ages at <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University" title="Tel Aviv University">Tel Aviv University</a>, published a Hebrew monograph in which he concluded that the East European Jews came from Khazaria.<a href="#cite_note-330">[note 99]</a><a href="#cite_note-331">[note 100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESand2010234-332">[231]</a> <a href="/wiki/D.M._Dunlop" class="mw-redirect" title="D.M. Dunlop">D.M. Dunlop</a>, writing in 1954, thought that very little evidence supported what he considered a mere assumption, and he also argued that the Ashkenazi-Khazar descent theory went far beyond what "our imperfect records" permit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunlop1954261,_263-333">[232]</a> In 1955, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Poliakov" title="Léon Poliakov">Léon Poliakov</a>, who assumed that the Jews of Western Europe resulted from a "panmixia" in the first millennium, asserted that it was widely assumed that Europe's Eastern Jews were descended from a mixture of Khazarian and German Jews.<a href="#cite_note-334">[note 101]</a> Poliak's work found some support in <a href="/wiki/Salo_Wittmayer_Baron" title="Salo Wittmayer Baron">Salo Wittmayer Baron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ben-Zion_Dinur" title="Ben-Zion Dinur">Ben-Zion Dinur</a>,<a href="#cite_note-338">[note 102]</a><a href="#cite_note-339">[note 103]</a> but was dismissed by Bernard Weinryb as a fiction (1962).<a href="#cite_note-340">[note 104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a> was of the opinion that the word in <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a> interpreted as Khazaria is actually <a href="/wiki/Hakkari_(historical_region)" title="Hakkari (historical region)">Hakkari</a> and therefore it relates to the <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a> of the Hakkari mountains in southeast <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrook2006192-341">[236]</a> The Khazar-Ashkenazi hypothesis came to the attention of a much wider public with the publication of <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Arthur Koestler</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Thirteenth_Tribe" title="The Thirteenth Tribe">The Thirteenth Tribe</a> in 1976,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESand2010240-342">[237]</a> which was both positively reviewed and dismissed as a fantasy, and a somewhat dangerous one. Israeli historian Zvi Ankori argued that Koestler had allowed his literary imagination to espouse Poliak's thesis, which most historians dismissed as speculative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFalk2017102-183">[139]</a> Israel's ambassador to Britain branded it "an anti-Semitic action financed by the <a href="/wiki/Palestinians" title="Palestinians">Palestinians</a>", while <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a> claimed that the idea was not supported by any evidence whatsoever, and it had been abandoned by all serious scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESand2010240-342">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-346">[note 105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Patai" title="Raphael Patai">Raphael Patai</a>, however, registered some support for the idea that Khazar remnants had played a role in the growth of Eastern European Jewish communities,<a href="#cite_note-347">[note 106]</a> and several amateur researchers, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Boris_Altsch%C3%BCler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boris Altschüler (page does not exist)">Boris Altschüler</a> (1994),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a9-294">[208]</a> kept the thesis in the public eye. The theory has been occasionally manipulated to deny Jewish nationhood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESand2010240-342">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToch2012155,_n.4-348">[241]</a> Recently, a variety of approaches, from linguistics (<a href="/wiki/Paul_Wexler_(linguist)" title="Paul Wexler (linguist)">Paul Wexler</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWexler2007387–398-349">[242]</a> to historiography (<a href="/wiki/Shlomo_Sand" title="Shlomo Sand">Shlomo Sand</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESand2010190–249-350">[243]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eran_Elhaik" title="Eran Elhaik">Eran Elhaik</a>, a geneticist from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sheffield" title="University of Sheffield">University of Sheffield</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElhaik201261–74-351">[244]</a> have emerged to keep the theory alive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpolsky2014174–177-352">[245]</a> In a broad academic perspective, both the idea that the Khazars converted en masse to Judaism and the suggestion they emigrated to form the core population of Ashkenazi Jewry, remain highly polemical issues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a9–10-353">[246]</a> One thesis held that the Khazar Jewish population went into a northern diaspora and had a significant impact on the rise of <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a>. Connected to this thesis is the theory, expounded by Paul Wexler, dissenting from the majority of Yiddish linguists, that the grammar of <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> contains a Khazar substrate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWexler2002513–541-354">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Use_in_antisemitic_polemic">Use in antisemitic polemic</h4></div> According to <a href="/wiki/Michael_Barkun" title="Michael Barkun">Michael Barkun</a>, while the Khazar hypothesis generally never played any major role in the development of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">anti-Semitism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun1997136–137-355">[248]</a> it has exercised a noticeable influence on American antisemites since the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">restrictions on immigration were imposed in the 1920s</a>.<a href="#cite_note-356">[note 107]</a><a href="#cite_note-357">[note 108]</a> Maurice Fishberg and Roland B. Dixon's works were later exploited in <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racist</a> and religious polemical literature, particularly in literature which advocated <a href="/wiki/British_Israelism" title="British Israelism">British Israelism</a>, both in Britain and the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein2006131-316">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-358">[note 109]</a> Particularly after the publication of <a href="/wiki/Burton_J._Hendrick" title="Burton J. Hendrick">Burton J. Hendrick</a>'s The Jews in America, (1923)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingerman20044–5-359">[249]</a> it began to enjoy a vogue among advocates of immigration restriction in the 1920s; racial theorists<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodrick-Clarke2003237-360">[250]</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lothrop_Stoddard" title="Lothrop Stoddard">Lothrop Stoddard</a>; antisemitic conspiracy-theorists such as the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Wesley_Evans" title="Hiram Wesley Evans">Hiram Wesley Evans</a>; and some anti-communist polemicists such as <a href="/wiki/John_O._Beaty" title="John O. Beaty">John O. Beaty</a><a href="#cite_note-361">[note 110]</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilmot_Robertson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilmot Robertson (page does not exist)">Wilmot Robertson</a>, whose views influenced <a href="/wiki/David_Duke" title="David Duke">David Duke</a>.<a href="#cite_note-362">[251]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Yehoshafat_Harkabi" title="Yehoshafat Harkabi">Yehoshafat Harkabi</a> (1968) and others,<a href="#cite_note-363">[note 111]</a> it played a role in Arab <a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">anti-Zionist</a> polemics, and took on an antisemitic edge. <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a>, noting in 1987 that Arab scholars had dropped it, remarked that it only occasionally emerged in Arab political discourse.<a href="#cite_note-365">[note 112]</a> It has also played some role in Soviet antisemitic <a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">chauvinism</a><a href="#cite_note-366">[note 113]</a> and Slavic Eurasian historiography; particularly, in the works of scholars like <a href="/wiki/Lev_Gumilev" title="Lev Gumilev">Lev Gumilev</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossman2007121–188-367">[253]</a> it came to be exploited by the <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacist</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_Identity" title="Christian Identity">Christian Identity movement</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarkun1997142–144-368">[254]</a> and even by terrorist esoteric cults like <a href="/wiki/Aum_Shinrikyo" title="Aum Shinrikyo">Aum Shinrikyō</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodmanMiyazawa2000263–264-369">[255]</a> The Kazar hypothesis was further exploited by esoteric fascists such as <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Serrano" title="Miguel Serrano">Miguel Serrano</a>, referring to a lost <a href="/wiki/Palestinabuch" title="Palestinabuch">Palestinabuch</a> by the German Nazi-scholar <a href="/wiki/Herman_Wirth" title="Herman Wirth">Herman Wirth</a>, who claimed to have proven that the Jews descended from a prehistoric migrant group parasiting on the Great Civilizations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerrano201179,_295-370">[256]</a> The phrase "Khazar kaghanate" gained new traction in 2000s among antisemitic nationalists in Russia, such as <a href="/wiki/Yan_Petrovsky" title="Yan Petrovsky">Yan Petrovsky</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeduza2022-371">[257]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genetic_studies">Genetic studies</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews#Genetic_origins" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews § Genetic origins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetic studies on Jews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry#Genetics_and_the_Khazar_theory" title="Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry">Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry § Genetics and the Khazar theory</a></div> The hypothesis of Khazarian ancestry in Ashkenazi has also been a subject of vehement disagreements in the field of <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-372">[note 114]</a> wherein claims have been made concerning evidence both for and against it. Eran Elhaik argued in 2012 for a significant Khazar component in the admixture of Ashkenazi Jews using Caucasian populations—Georgians, Armenians and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Azerbaijani Jews">Azerbaijani Jews</a>—as proxies.<a href="#cite_note-373">[note 115]</a> The evidence from historians he used has been criticised by <a href="/wiki/Shaul_Stampfer" title="Shaul Stampfer">Shaul Stampfer</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStampfer2013-374">[258]</a> and the technical response to such a position from geneticists is mostly dismissive, arguing that, if traces of descent from Khazars exist in the Ashkenazi gene pool, the contribution would be quite minor,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOstrer201224–27,_93–95,_124–125-375">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENebelFilonBrinkmann20011095–1112-376">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeharThomasSkoreckiHammer2003769–779-377">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENebelFilonFaerman2005388–391-378">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-379">[note 116]</a> or insignificant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostaPereiraRichards20131–10-380">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeharMetspaluBaranKopelman2013-381">[264]</a> One geneticist, <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Falk_(geneticist)" title="Raphael Falk (geneticist)">Raphael Falk</a>, has argued that "national and ethnic prejudices play a central role in the controversy."<a href="#cite_note-382">[note 117]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Nadia_Abu_El-Haj" class="mw-redirect" title="Nadia Abu El-Haj">Nadia Abu El-Haj</a>, the issues of origins are generally complicated by the difficulties of writing history via genome studies and the biases of emotional investments in different narratives, depending on whether the emphasis lies on direct descent or on conversion within Jewish history. At the time of her writing, the lack of Khazar DNA samples that might allow verification also presented difficulties.<a href="#cite_note-385">[note 118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_literature">In literature</h2></div> The <a href="/wiki/Kuzari" title="Kuzari">Kuzari</a> is an influential work written by the medieval <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spanish</a> <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jewish</a> philosopher and poet Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Halevi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehuda Halevi">Yehuda Halevi</a> (c. 1075–1141). Divided into five essays (ma'amarim), it takes the form of a fictional dialogue between the pagan king of the Khazars and a <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jew</a> who was invited to instruct him in the tenets of the <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish religion</a>. The intent of the work, although based on Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ's correspondence with the Khazar king, was not historical, but rather to defend Judaism as a revealed religion, written in the context, firstly of Karaite challenges to the Spanish rabbinical intelligentsia, and then against temptations to adapt <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> and Islamic philosophy to the Jewish faith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELobel20002–4-386">[267]</a> Originally written in <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, it was translated into Hebrew by <a href="/wiki/Judah_ibn_Tibbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah ibn Tibbon">Judah ibn Tibbon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelamed200324–26-267">[190]</a> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a>'s early novel Alroy (1833) draws on Menachem ben Solomon's story.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaron1957204-387">[268]</a> The question of mass religious conversion and the indeterminability of the truth of stories about identity and conversion are central themes of <a href="/wiki/Milorad_Pavi%C4%87_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Milorad Pavić (writer)">Milorad Pavić</a>'s best-selling mystery story <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_the_Khazars" title="Dictionary of the Khazars">Dictionary of the Khazars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWachtel1998210–215-388">[269]</a> <a href="/wiki/H.N._Turteltaub" class="mw-redirect" title="H.N. Turteltaub">H.N. Turteltaub</a>'s Justinian, <a href="/wiki/Marek_Halter" title="Marek Halter">Marek Halter</a>'s Book of Abraham and Wind of the Khazars, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Chabon" title="Michael Chabon">Michael Chabon</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen_of_the_Road" title="Gentlemen of the Road">Gentlemen of the Road</a> allude to or feature elements of Khazar history or create fictional Khazar characters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokal2007-389">[270]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cities_associated_with_the_Khazars">Cities associated with the Khazars</h2></div> Cities associated with the Khazars include <a href="/wiki/Atil" title="Atil">Atil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khazaran" title="Khazaran">Khazaran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samandar_(city)" title="Samandar (city)">Samandar</a>; in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_(geographic_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus (geographic region)">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balanjar" title="Balanjar">Balanjar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazarki" title="Kazarki">Kazarki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sambalut" title="Sambalut">Sambalut</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samiran" title="Samiran">Samiran</a>; in <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Taman_Peninsula" title="Taman Peninsula">Taman</a> region, <a href="/wiki/Kerch" title="Kerch">Kerch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feodosiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Feodosiya">Theodosia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevpatoria" title="Yevpatoria">Yevpatoria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yevpatoria" title="Yevpatoria">Güzliev</a>), <a href="/wiki/Samkarsh" class="mw-redirect" title="Samkarsh">Samkarsh</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Tmutarakan" title="Tmutarakan">Tmutarakan</a>, Tamatarkha), and <a href="/wiki/Sudak" title="Sudak">Sudak</a>; and in the <a href="/wiki/Don_River,_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Don River, Russia">Don</a> valley, <a href="/wiki/Sarkel" title="Sarkel">Sarkel</a>. A number of Khazar settlements have been discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Mayaki-Saltovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayaki-Saltovo">Mayaki-Saltovo</a> region. Some scholars suppose that the Khazar settlement of Sambat on the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper" title="Dnieper">Dnieper</a> refers to the later <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>.<a href="#cite_note-390">[note 119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Khazar_rulers" title="List of Khazar rulers">List of Khazar rulers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> his mother was a Khazar princess.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_IV_the_Khazar" title="Leo IV the Khazar">Leo IV the Khazar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine emperor">emperor</a>, r. 775–780, born in 750 to Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a> and Empress <a href="/wiki/Tzitzak" title="Tzitzak">Tzitzak</a>, a Khazar Turkic princess, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Bihar_(Khazar)" title="Bihar (Khazar)">Bihar</a> <a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_II_of_Abkhazia" title="Leon II of Abkhazia">Leon II of Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate#Turkic_khanates" title="Khanate">List of Turkic Khaganates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_states_and_dynasties" title="List of Jewish states and dynasties">List of Jewish states and dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Central_Asia" title="History of the Jews in Central Asia">History of the Jews in Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish Jews">Turkish Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Jews" title="Red Jews">Red Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyiv" title="History of Kyiv">History of Kyiv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(860)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (860)">Rus'–Byzantine War (860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(907)" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (907)">Rus'–Byzantine War (907)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(941)" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (941)">Rus'–Byzantine War (941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(968-971)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (968-971)">Rus'–Byzantine War (968-971)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: Χάζαροι Kházaroi; <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: כּוּזָרִים, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: Kūzārīm;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuttwak2009152-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_East_Slavic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old East Slavic language">Old East Slavic</a>: коꙁаре, romanized: kozare; <a href="/wiki/Church_Slavonic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Slavonic language">Church Slavonic</a>: коꙁари, romanized: kozari<a href="#cite_note-Gazari-7">[note 1]</a>; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Gazari,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeserve2009294,_n._164-8">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gazari-7">[note 1]</a> or Gasani;<a href="#cite_note-9">[note 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetrukhin2007255-10">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 突厥曷薩 Tūjué Hésà; 突厥可薩 Tūjué Kěsà, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Türk Khazar'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2018294-11">[9]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resource_notes">Resource notes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gazari-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gazari_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gazari_7-1">b</a> "The Gazari are, presumably, the Khazars, although this term or the Kozary of the perhaps near contemporary Vita Constantini ... could have reflected any of a number of peoples within Khazaria." (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, p. 139) </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> "Somewhat later, however, in a letter to the Byzantine Emperor Basil I, dated to 871, Louis the German, clearly taking exception to what had apparently become Byzantine usage, declares that 'we have not found that the leader of the Avars, or Khazars (Gasanorum)'..." (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2001a">Golden 2001a</a>, p. 33) </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGolden2007a">Golden 2007a</a>, p. 16 and n.38 citing L. Bazin, "Pour une nouvelle hypothèse sur l'origine des Khazar", in Materialia Turcica, 7/8 (1981–1982): 51–71. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Compare <a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetan</a> dru-gu Ge-sar (the Turk Gesar)(<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007a">Golden 2007a</a>, p. 16) or Phrom Ge-sar, who was possibly inspired by <a href="/wiki/Fromo_Kesaro" title="Fromo Kesaro">Fromo Kesaro</a> (拂菻罽娑 <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">standard Chinese</a>: Fúlǐn Jìsuō < <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>: *pʰɨut̚ -liɪmX kˠiᴇiH-sɑ), a king of the <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a> of mixed <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite">Hephthalite</a>-<a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic</a> origins (<a href="#CITEREFRezakhani2017">Rezakhani 2017</a>, <a href="#CITEREFKim2016">Kim 2016</a>, pp. 58–59, <a href="#CITEREFInabaBalogh2020">Inaba & Balogh 2020</a>, p. 106, <a href="#CITEREFKordosis2017">Kordosis 2017</a>, pp. 183–192). </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Sijie 思結 (also 斯結<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWei_Zheng,_vol._84-35">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden1992-36">[31]</a>) was mentioned as a 鐵勒 <a href="/wiki/Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Tiele</a>, later Toquz Oghuz tribe, and distinguished from 突厥 Tujue in Chinese sources such as <a href="/wiki/Old_Book_of_Tang" title="Old Book of Tang">Old Book of Tang</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJiu_Tangshu,_Vol._199b_Tiele-37">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Book_of_Tang" title="New Book of Tang">New Book of Tang</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXin_Tangshu,_vol_217a_Huihe-38">[33]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tang_Huiyao" title="Tang Huiyao">Tang Huiyao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang_Pu,_vol_98-39">[34]</a> However, in other sources Sijie were also associated with Tujue (<a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Saka</a> Ttrūka): <a href="/wiki/Zizhi_Tongjian" title="Zizhi Tongjian">Zizhi Tongjian</a> mentioned the Tujue Sijie 突厥思結<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESima_Guang,_vol._196-40">[35]</a> and Tang Huiyao also counted 思結 Sijie (rendered as 恩結 Enjie) among the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern Turkic tribes</a> living south of the <a href="/wiki/Gobi_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Gobi desert">Gobi desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang_Pu,_vol._72-41">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobrovits2004259-42">[37]</a> A saikairä ttūrkä chārä (< *sïqïr türk čor) was also mentioned in a Khotanese Saka text about Turks in <a href="/wiki/Zhangye" title="Zhangye">Ganzhou</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey194950-43">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey195119-44">[39]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Kěsà (可薩) would have been pronounced something like kha'sat in both <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Early Middle Chinese/EMC</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Late Middle Chinese/LMC</a>, while Hésà 葛 (曷薩) would yield ɣat-sat in (<a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">EMC</a>) and xɦat sat (<a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">LMC</a>) respectively, where final "t" often transcribes –r- in foreign words. Thus, while these Chinese forms could transcribe a foreign word of the type *Kasar/*Kazar, *Ġatsar, *Ġazar, *Ġasar, there is a problem phonetically with assimilating these to the Uyğur word Qasar 葛薩 (<a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> Gesa < EMC/LMC *Kat-sat= *Kar sar= *Kasar).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007a17-47">[41]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nadim" title="Ibn al-Nadim">Ibn al-Nadīm</a> commenting on script systems in 987–88 recorded that the Khazars wrote in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_letters" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew letters">Hebrew</a> (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, p. 148). </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> "The chancellery of the Jewish state of the Khazars is therefore also likely to have used Hebrew writing even if the official language was a Turkic one." (<a href="#CITEREFErdal2007">Erdal 2007</a>, pp. 98–99) </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> "there must have been many different ethnic groups within the Khazar realm ... These groups spoke different languages, some of them no doubt belonging to the Indo-European or different Caucasian language families." (<a href="#CITEREFErdal2007">Erdal 2007</a>, p. 75, n.2) </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> The high chancery official of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> under <a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">Al-Wathiq</a>, Sallām the interpreter (Sallam al-tardjuman), famous for his reputed mastery of thirty languages, might have been both Jewish and a Khazar <a href="#CITEREFWasserstein2007">Wasserstein 2007</a>, pp. 376, and n.2, referring to <a href="#CITEREFDunlop1954">Dunlop 1954</a>, pp. 190–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> al-Iṣṭakhrī's account however then contradicts itself by likening the language to <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulğaric</a> (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007a">Golden 2007a</a>, pp. 13–14, 14 n.28). </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> "The word tribe is as troublesome as the term clan. It is commonly held to denote a group, like the clan, claiming descent from a common (in some culture zones eponymous) ancestor, possessing a common territory, economy, language, culture, religion, and sense of identity. In reality, tribes were often highly fluid sociopolitical structures, arising as 'ad hoc responses to ephemeral situations of competition,' as Morton H. Fried has noted." (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2001b">Golden 2001b</a>, p. 78) </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Dieter Ludwig, in his doctoral thesis Struktur und Gesellschaft des Chazaren-Reiches im Licht der schriftlichen Quellen, (Münster, 1982) suggested that the Khazars were Turkic members of the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite Empire">Hephthalite Empire</a>, where the lingua franca was a variety of Iranian (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007a">Golden 2007a</a>, pp. 40–41; <a href="#CITEREFBrook2010">Brook 2010</a>, p. 4). </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> "The reader should be warned that the A-shih-na link of the Khazar dynasty, an old phantom of ... Khazarology, will ... lose its last claim to reality" (<a href="#CITEREFZuckerman2007">Zuckerman 2007</a>, p. 404). </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> In this view, the name Khazar would derive from a hypothetical *Aq Qasar (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2006">Golden 2006</a>, pp. 89–90): e.g. Pritsak (1978) links Ak-Katzirs (< Άκατζίροι) to the name <a href="/wiki/Khazar" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar">Khazar</a>, though he explains that the polity was named Khazar because the Ashina-ruled <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turks</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Western_Turks" title="Conquest of the Western Turks">losing their territories to Tang Chinese</a>, took over the territory formerly occupied by the Akatziri (<a href="#CITEREFPritsak1978">Pritsak 1978</a>, p. 261). However, the hypothesized link between the Akatizoi and the Khazars was not solid, being based on mere phonetic resemblance (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2011b">Golden 2011b</a>, p. 136, <a href="#CITEREFBrook2006">Brook 2006</a>, p. 10). </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Whittow states that the word Türk had no strict ethnic meaning at the time: "Throughout the early middle ages on the Eurasian steppes, the term 'Turk' may or may not imply membership of the ethnic group of Turkic peoples, but it does always mean at least some awareness and acceptance of the traditions and ideology of the Gök Türk empire, and a share, however distant, in the political and cultural inheritance of that state." (<a href="#CITEREFWhittow1996">Whittow 1996</a>, p. 221) </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dulo_clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulo clan">Duōlù (咄陆)</a> were the left wing of the On Oq, the <a href="/wiki/Nushibi" title="Nushibi">Nǔshībì (弩失畢: *Nu Šad(a)pit)</a>, and together they were registered in Chinese sources as the "ten names" (shí míng:十名) (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2010">Golden 2010</a>, pp. 54–55). </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Several scholars connect it to Judaization, with <a href="/wiki/Artamonov" title="Artamonov">Artamonov</a> linking its introduction to Obadiyah's reforms and the imposition of full Rabbinical Judaism and <a href="/wiki/Pritsak" class="mw-redirect" title="Pritsak">Pritsak</a> to the same period (799–833), arguing that the <a href="/wiki/Bey" title="Bey">Beg</a>, a majordomo from the Iranian *Barč/Warâ Bolčan clan, identified with Obadiyah, compelled the Qağanal clan to convert, an event which putatively caused the Qabar revolt. Golden comments: "There is nothing but conjecture to connect it with the reforms of Obadiyah, the further evolution of Khazar Judaism or the <a href="/wiki/Kabar" title="Kabar">Qabars</a> ... The fact is we do not know when, precisely, the Khazar system of dual kingship emerged. It could not have come ex nihilo. It was not present in the early stages of Khazar history. Given the Old Türk traditions of the Khazar state ... and the overall institutional conservation of steppe society, one must exercise great caution here. Clear evidence for it is relatively late (the latter part of the ninth century perhaps and more probably the tenth century)- although it was probably present by the first third of the ninth century. Iranian influences via the <a href="/wiki/Ors" title="Ors">Ors</a> guard of the Qağans may have also been a factor" (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, pp. 155–156) </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> There was a maximum limit on the number of years of a king's reign, according to <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Fadlan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Fadlan">Ibn Fadlan</a>; if a Qağan had reigned for at least forty years, his courtiers and subjects felt his ability to reason would become impaired by old age. They would then kill the Qağan (<a href="#CITEREFDunlop1954">Dunlop 1954</a>, pp. 97, 112). </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Petrukhin notes that Ibn Fadlan's description of a Rus' prince (malik) and his lieutenant (<a href="/wiki/Khalifa" title="Khalifa">khalifa</a>) mirrored the Khazarian diarchy, but the comparison was flawed, as there was no sacral kingship among the Rus' (<a href="#CITEREFPetrukhin2007">Petrukhin 2007</a>, pp. 256–257). </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> "the rest of the Khazars profess a religion similar to that of the Turks." (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, pp. 130–131) </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> This regiment was exempt from campaigning against fellow Muslims, evidence that non-Judaic beliefs were no obstacle to access to the highest levels of government. They had abandoned their homeland and sought service with the Khazars in exchange for the right to exercise their religious freedom, according to al-Masudi (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, p. 138). </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Olsson writes that there is no evidence for this Islamic guard for the 9th century, but that its existence is attested for 913 (<a href="#CITEREFOlsson2013">Olsson 2013</a>, p. 507). </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Noonan gives the lower figure for the Muslim contingents, but adds that the army could draw on other mercenaries stationed in the capital, Rūs, <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Ṣaqāliba</a> and pagans. Olsson's 10,000 refers to the spring-summer horsemen in the nomadic king's retinue (<a href="#CITEREFNoonan2007">Noonan 2007</a>, pp. 211, 217). </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> A third division may have contained the dwellings of the tsarina. The dimensions of the western part were 3x3, as opposed to the eastern part's 8 x 8 farsakhs (<a href="#CITEREFNoonan2007">Noonan 2007</a>, pp. 208–209, 216–219). </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Outside Muslim traders were under the jurisdiction of a special royal official (ghulām) (<a href="#CITEREFNoonan2007">Noonan 2007</a>, pp. 211–214). </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Theophanes_the_Confessor" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes the Confessor</a> around 813 defined them as Eastern Turks. The designation is complex and Róna-Tas writes: "The Georgian Chronicle refers to the Khazars in 626–628 as the 'West Turks' who were then opposed to the East Turks of Central Asia. Shortly after 679 the Armenian Geography mentions the Turks together with the Khazars; this may be the first record of the Magyars. Around 813, Theophanes uses – alongside the generic name Turk – 'East Turk' for the designation of the Khazars, and in context, the 'West Turks' may actually have meant the Magyars. We know that Nicholas Misticus referred to the Magyars as 'West Turks' in 924/925. In the 9th century the name Turk was mainly used to designate the Khazars." (<a href="#CITEREFRóna-Tas1999">Róna-Tas 1999</a>, p. 282) </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Many sources identify the Göktürks in this alliance as Khazars--for example, Beckwith writes recently: "The alliance sealed by Heraclius with the Khazars in 627 was of seminal importance to the Byzantine Empire through the Early Middle Ages, and helped assure its long-term survival."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2011120,_122-118">[90]</a> Early sources such as the almost contemporary <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> history, Patmutʿiwn Ałuanicʿ Ašxarhi, attributed to Movsēs Dasxurancʿ, and the Chronicle attributed to Theophanes identify these Turks as Khazars (Theophanes has: "Turks, who are called Khazars"). Both Zuckerman and Golden reject the identification.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuckerman2007403–404-119">[91]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Scholars dismiss Chinese annals which, reporting the events from Turkic sources, attribute the destruction of Persia and its leader <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Shah Khusrau II</a> personally to Tong Yabghu. Zuckerman argues instead that the account is correct in its essentials (<a href="#CITEREFZuckerman2007">Zuckerman 2007</a>, p. 417). </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> "The Khazars, the close allies of the Byzantines, adopted Judaism, as their official religion, apparently by 740, three years after an invasion by the Arabs under Marwan ibn Muhammad. Marwan had used treachery against a Khazar envoy in order to gain peaceful entrance into Khazar territory. He then declared his dishonourable intentions and pressed deep into Khazar territory, subsequently, he released the envoy. The Arabs devastated the horse herds, seized many Khazars and others as captives, and forced much of the population to flee into the Ural Mountains. Marwan's terms dictated that the kaghan and his Khazars should convert to Islam. Having no choice, the kaghan accepted Marwan's terms, and the Arabs returned home in triumph. As soon as the Arabs were gone, the kaghan renounced Islam – with, one may assume, great vehemence. The Khazar Dynasty's conversion to Judaism is best explained by this specific historical background, together with the fact that the mid-eighth century was an age in which the major Eurasian states proclaimed their adherence to distinctive world religions. Adopting Judaism also was politically astute: it meant that the Khazars did not have to accept the overlordship (however theoretical) of the Arab caliph or the Byzantine emperor." (<a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2011">Beckwith 2011</a>, p. 149) </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Over 520 separate hoards of such silver have been uncovered in Sweden and <a href="/wiki/Gotland" title="Gotland">Gotland</a> (<a href="#CITEREFMoss2002">Moss 2002</a>, p. 16). </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> The Volga Bulgarian state was converted to Islam in the 10th century, and wrested liberty from its Khazarian suzerains when <a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav_I_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sviatoslav I of Kiev">Svyatislav</a> razed Atil (<a href="#CITEREFAbulafia1987">Abulafia 1987</a>, pp. 419, 480–483). </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Whittow argues however that: "The title of qaghan, with its claims to lordship over the steppe world, is likely to be no more than ideological booty from the 965 victory." (<a href="#CITEREFWhittow1996">Whittow 1996</a>, pp. 243–252) </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Korobkin citing Golb & Pritsak notes that Khazars have often been connected with Kiev's foundations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorobkin1998xxvii-151">[117]</a> Pritsak and Golb state that children in <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a> were being given a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a> names by c. 930.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolbPritsak198215-152">[118]</a> Toch on the other hand is sceptical, and argues that "a significant Jewish presence in early medieval Kiev or indeed in Russia at large remains much in doubt".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToch2012166-153">[119]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yarmaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Yarmaq">yarmaq</a> based on the Arab <a href="/wiki/Dirhem" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirhem">dirhem</a> was perhaps issued in reaction to fall-off in Muslim minting in the 820s, and to a felt need in the turbulent upheavals of the 830s to assert a new religious profile, with the Jewish legends stamped on them (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, p. 156). </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Scholars are divided as to whether the fortification of Sarkel represents a defensive bulwark against a growing Magyar or Varangian threat (<a href="#CITEREFPetrukhin2007">Petrukhin 2007</a>, pp. 247, and n.1). </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> MQDWN or the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_dynasty" title="Macedonian dynasty">Macedon dynasty of Byzantium</a>; SY, perhaps a central Volga statelet, <a href="/wiki/Burtas" title="Burtas">Burtas</a>, Asya; PYYNYL denoting the <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Danube-Don Pechnegs</a>; BM, perhaps indicating the <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgars" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga Bulgars">Volga Bulgars</a>, and TWRQY or <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a>. The provisory identifications are those of Pritsak (<a href="#CITEREFKohen2007">Kohen 2007</a>, p. 106). </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Al-Mas'udi says the king secretly tipped off the Rus' of the attack but was unable to oppose the request of his guards (<a href="#CITEREFOlsson2013">Olsson 2013</a>, p. 507). </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> The letter continues: "I wage war with them. If I left them (in peace) for a single hour they would crush the whole land of the Ishmaelites up to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>." (<a href="#CITEREFPetrukhin2007">Petrukhin 2007</a>, p. 257) </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> From Klavdiy Lebedev (1852–1916), Svyatoslav's meeting with <a href="/wiki/John_I_Tzimisces" class="mw-redirect" title="John I Tzimisces">Emperor John</a>, as described by Leo the Deacon. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hoyle_Howorth" title="Henry Hoyle Howorth">H. H. Howorth</a> argued that the Khazars were the ancestors of contemporary Circassians (<a href="#CITEREFHoworth1870">Howorth 1870</a>, pp. 182–192). </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Dunlop thought the later city of <a href="/wiki/Saqsin" title="Saqsin">Saqsin</a> lay on or near Atil (<a href="#CITEREFDunlop1954">Dunlop 1954</a>, p. 248). </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> is still known to Arabs, and many peoples of the region, as the "Khazar Sea" (Arabic Bahr ul-Khazar) (<a href="#CITEREFBrook2010">Brook 2010</a>, p. 156) </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> "thus it is clear that the false doctrine of Yišô in Rome (Hrôm) and that of Môsê among the Khazars and that of Mânî in Turkistan took away their might and the valor that they once possessed and made them feeble and decadent among their rivals" (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, p. 130). </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Some sources claim that the father of <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_(warlord)" title="Seljuk (warlord)">Seljuk</a>, the eponymous progenitor of the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Turks" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuk Turks">Seljuk Turks</a>, namely Toqaq Temür Yalığ, began his career as an Oghuz soldier in Khazar service in the early and mid-10th century, and rose to high rank before he fell out with the Khazar rulers and departed for <a href="/wiki/Khwarazm" title="Khwarazm">Khwarazm</a>. Seljuk's sons, significantly, all bear names from the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Jewish scriptures</a>: Mîkâ"il, Isrâ"îl, Mûsâ, Yûnus. Peacock argues that early traditions attesting a Seljuk origin within the Khazar empire when it was powerful, were later rewritten, after Khazaria fell from power in the 11th century, to blank out the connection (<a href="#CITEREFPeacock2010">Peacock 2010</a>, pp. 27–35). </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Tzitzak is often treated as her original <a href="/wiki/Proper_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper name">proper name</a>, with a Turkic etymology čiček ("flower"). Erdal, however, citing the Byzantine work on court ceremony <a href="/wiki/De_Ceremoniis" title="De Ceremoniis">De Ceremoniis</a>, authored by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine Porphyrogennetos</a>, argues that the word referred only to the dress Irene wore at court, perhaps denoting its colourfulness, and compares it to the Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Tzitzit" title="Tzitzit">ciciot</a>, the knotted fringes of a ceremonial shawl, or <a href="/wiki/Tallit" title="Tallit">tallit</a> (<a href="#CITEREFErdal2007">Erdal 2007</a>, p. 80, n.22; <a href="#CITEREFWexler1987">Wexler 1987</a>, p. 72). </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> "Engravings that resemble the six-pointed Star of David were found on circular Khazar relics and bronze mirrors from Sarkel and Khazarian grave fields in Upper Saltov. However, rather than having been made by Jews, these appear to be shamanistic sun discs." (<a href="#CITEREFBrook2010">Brook 2010</a>, pp. 113, 122–123 n.148) </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Brook says this thesis was developed by Jacob Mann, based on a reading of the word "Khazaria" in the Cairo Geniza fragment. Bernard Lewis, he adds, challenged the assumption by noting that the original text reads Hakkâri and refers to the Kurds of the <a href="/wiki/Hakk%C3%A2ri_Province" title="Hakkâri Province">Hakkâri mountains</a> in south-east Turkey (<a href="#CITEREFBrook2010">Brook 2010</a>, pp. 191–192, n.72). </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> Whittow notes that this native institution, given the constant, lengthy, military and acculturating pressures on the tribes from China to the East, was influenced also by the <a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">sinocentric</a> doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven (Tiānmìng:天命)</a>, which signaled legitimacy of rule (<a href="#CITEREFWhittow1996">Whittow 1996</a>, p. 220). </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Alp Ilut'uêr is a Turkish subordinate title (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, p. 124). </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> Golden and Shapira thinks the evidence from such Georgian sources renders suspect a conversion prior to this date (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, pp. 135–136; <a href="#CITEREFShapira2007b">Shapira 2007b</a>, pp. 347–348). </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, pp. 135–136, reporting on <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqaddasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muqaddasi">al-Muqaddasi</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> During Islamic invasions, some groups of Khazars who suffered defeat, including a qağan, were converted to Islam (<a href="#CITEREFDeWeese1994">DeWeese 1994</a>, p. 73). </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Buxtorf" title="Johannes Buxtorf">Johannes Buxtorf</a> first published the letters around 1660. Controversy arose over their authenticity; it was even argued that the letters represented "no more than Jewish self-consolation and fantasmagory over the lost dreams of statehood" (<a href="#CITEREFKohen2007">Kohen 2007</a>, p. 112). </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> "If anyone thinks that the Khazar correspondence was first composed in 1577 and published in Qol Mebasser, the onus of proof is certainly on him. He must show that a number of ancient manuscripts, which appear to contain references to the correspondence, have all been interpolated since the end of the sixteenth century. This will prove a very difficult or rather an impossible task." (<a href="#CITEREFDunlop1954">Dunlop 1954</a>, p. 130) </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> "The issue of the authenticity of the Correspondence has a long and mottled history which need not detain us here. Dunlop and most recently Golb have demonstrated that Hasdai's letter, Joseph's response (dating perhaps from the 950s) and the 'Cambridge Document' are, indeed, authentic." (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, pp. 145–146) </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> "(a court debate on conversion) appears in accounts of Khazar Judaism in two Hebrew accounts, as well as in one eleventh-century Arabic account. These widespread and evidently independent attestations would seem to support the historicity of some kind of court debate, but, more important, clearly suggest the currency of tales recounting the conversion and originating among the Khazar Jewish community itself" ... "the 'authenticity' of the Khazar correspondence is hardly relevant"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeWeese1994171-222">[165]</a> "The wider issue of the 'authenticity' of the 'Khazar correspondence', and of the significance of this tale's parallels with the equally controversial Cambridge document /Schechter text, has been discussed extensively in the literature on Khazar Judaism; much of the debate loses significance if, as Pritsak has recently suggested, the accounts are approached as 'epic' narratives rather than evaluated from the standpoint of their 'historicity'."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeWeese1994305-223">[166]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> "Of the intensive archaeological study of Khazar sites (over a thousand burial sites have been investigated!), not one has yet yielded finds that yet fit in some way the material legacy of antique European or Middle Eastern Jewry." (<a href="#CITEREFToch2012">Toch 2012</a>, pp. 162–163) </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Shingiray noting the widespread lack of artifacts of wealth in Khazar burials, arguing that nomads used few materials to express their personal attributes: "The SMC assemblages-even if they were not entirely missing from the Khazar imperial center - presented an outstanding instance of archaeological material minimalism in this region." (<a href="#CITEREFShingiray2012">Shingiray 2012</a>, pp. 209–211) </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> "But, one must ask, are we to expect much religious paraphernalia in a recently converted steppe society? Do the Oğuz, in the century or so after their Islamization, present much physical evidence in the steppe for their new faith? These conclusions must be considered preliminary." (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, pp. 150–151, and note 137) </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, pp. 128–129 compares <a href="/wiki/Ulfilas" title="Ulfilas">Ulfilas</a>'s conversions of the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> to <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a>; Al-Masudi records a conversion of the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> to Christianity during the Abbasid period; the Volga Bulğars adopted Islam after their leader converted in the 10th century; the Uyğur Qağan accepted Manichaeism in 762. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Golden takes exception to <a href="/wiki/J._B._Bury" title="J. B. Bury">J. B. Bury</a>'s claim (1912) that it was "unique in history".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b123-230">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoestler197752-231">[169]</a> Golden also cites from Jewish history the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Edom" title="Edom">Idumeans</a> under <a href="/wiki/John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">John Hyrcanus</a>; of the <a href="/wiki/Iturea" title="Iturea">Itureans</a> under <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_I" title="Aristobulus I">Aristobulus I</a>; of the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> under <a href="/wiki/Helena_of_Adiabene" title="Helena of Adiabene">Queen Helena</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Ḥimyârî kings in Yemen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berber</a> assimilations into North African Jewry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolden2007b153-232">[170]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> "The <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Șûfî</a> wandering out into the steppe was far more effective in bringing Islam to the Turkic nomads than the learned <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">'ulamâ</a> of the cities." (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, p. 126) </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> "the Khazars (most of whom did not convert to Judaism, but remained animists, or adopted Islam and Christianity)" (<a href="#CITEREFWexler2002">Wexler 2002</a>, p. 514) </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> "In much of the literature on conversions of Inner Asian peoples, attempts are made, 'to minimize the impact' ... This has certainly been true of some of the scholarship regarding the Khazars." (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, p. 127) </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> "scholars who have contributed to the subject of the Khazars' conversion, have based their arguments on a limited corpus of textual, and more recently, numismatic evidence ... Taken together these sources offer a cacophony of distortions, contradictions, vested interests, and anomalies in some areas, and nothing but silence in others." (<a href="#CITEREFOlsson2013">Olsson 2013</a>, p. 496) </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> "Judaism was apparently chosen because it was a religion of the book without being the faith of a neighbouring state which had designs on Khazar lands." (<a href="#CITEREFNoonan1999">Noonan 1999</a>, p. 502) </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> "Their conversion to Judaism was the equivalent of a declaration of neutrality between the two rival powers." (<a href="#CITEREFBaron1957">Baron 1957</a>, p. 198) </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> "in Israel, emotions are still high when it comes to the history of the Khazars, as I witnessed in a symposium on the issue at the Israeli Academy of Sciences in Jerusalem (May 24, 2011). Whereas Prof. Shaul Stampfer believed the story of the Khazars' conversion to Judaism was a collection of stories or legends that have no historical foundation, (and insisted that the Ashkenazi of Eastern Europe of today stem from Jews in Central Europe who emigrated eastwards), Prof. Dan Shapiro believed that the conversion of the Khazars to Judaism was part of the history of Russia at the time it established itself as a kingdom." (<a href="#CITEREFFalk2017">Falk 2017</a>, p. 101, n. 9) </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> "We are not aware of any nation under the sky that would not have Christians among them. For even in Gog and Magog, the Hunnic people who call themselves Gazari, those whom Alexander confined, there was a tribe more brave than the others. This tribe had already been circumcised and they profess all dogmata of Judaism (omnem Judaismum observat)." (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, p. 139) </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> The idea of a forced general conversion imposed on the Qağanal dynasty in the 830s was advanced by Omeljian Pritsak, and is now supported by Roman Kovalev and Peter Golden (<a href="#CITEREFOlsson2013">Olsson 2013</a>, p. 497). </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> Olsson identifies this with the onset of Magyar invasions of the Pontic steppe in the 830s, the construction of Sarkel, and the Schechter letter's reference to Bulan, converted to his Jewish wife Serakh's faith, wresting power, in a period of famine, elements which undermined the qağan, and allowed the creation of the royal diarchy (<a href="#CITEREFOlsson2013">Olsson 2013</a>, pp. 507, 513ff). </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> wa al-ḥazarwa malikuhum kulluhum yahûd ("The Khazars and their king are all Jews") (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, pp. 143, 159) </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> Golden, citing his comment on <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a> 9:27: "some other commentators are of the opinion that this verse alludes to the Khazars who accepted Judaism", with Golden's comment: "Certainly, by this time, the association of Khazaria and Judaism in the Jewish world was an established fact" (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, p. 143). </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> Shapira and Zuckerman disagree, positing only one stage and placing it later. Shapira takes stage 1 as a Jewish-Khazar reinterpretation of the Tengri-cult in terms of a monotheism similar to Judaism's; Zuckerman thinks Judaisation took place, just once, after 861 (<a href="#CITEREFShapira2007b">Shapira 2007b</a>, pp. 349, and n.178; <a href="#CITEREFZuckerman1995">Zuckerman 1995</a>, p. 250). </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> Dunlop thought the first stage occurred with the king's conversion c. 740; the second with the installation of Rabbinical Judaism c. 800 (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007b">Golden 2007b</a>, pp. 127–128, 151–153; <a href="#CITEREFDunlop1954">Dunlop 1954</a>, p. 170). </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> Arabic original: Kitâb al-ḥuyya wa'l-dalîl fi naṣr al-din al-dhalîl (Book of the Argument and Demonstration in Aid of the Despised Faith) (<a href="#CITEREFSchweid2007">Schweid 2007</a>, p. 279). </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> Brook mentions also a letter in Hebrew, the <a href="/wiki/Mandgelis_Document" title="Mandgelis Document">Mejelis document</a>, dated 985–986, which refers to "our lord David, the Khazar prince" who lived in <a href="/wiki/Taman_Peninsula" title="Taman Peninsula">Taman</a>. As Brook notes, both <a href="/wiki/D._M._Dunlop" class="mw-redirect" title="D. M. Dunlop">D. M. Dunlop</a> and Dan Shapira dismiss it as a forgery (<a href="#CITEREFBrook2010">Brook 2010</a>, pp. 30, 41, n.75). </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> The name is commonly etymologized as meaning "elk" in Türkic. Shapira identifies him with the Sabriel of the Schechter letter, and suggests, since Sabriel is unattested as a Jewish name, although the root is "hope, believe, find out, understand" that it is a calque on the Oğuz Türkic bulan (one who finds out) or bilen (one who knows) (<a href="#CITEREFShapira2009">Shapira 2009</a>, p. 1102). </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> Szpiech, citing the <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Correspondence" title="Khazar Correspondence">Letter of King Joseph</a>: et ha-qosmim ve-et'ovdei avodah zarah ("expelled the wizards and idolators") (<a href="#CITEREFSzpiech2012">Szpiech 2012</a>, pp. 93–117 [102]). </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> This detail is in Halevi's Sefer Ha-Kusari.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeWeese1994302-272">[191]</a> Golden has identified Warsān as Transcaucasian Varaˇc'an.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsson2013512-273">[192]</a> Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ's letter also mentions a legend that the Chaldaeans, under persecution, hid the Scriptures in a cave, and taught their sons to pray there, which they did until their descendants forgot the custom. Much later, a tradition has it, a man of Israel entered the cave and, retrieving the books, taught the descendants how to learn the Law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeWeese1994304–305-274">[193]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> The Schechter document has officers during the religious debate speak of a cave in a certain plain (TYZWL) where books are to be retrieved. They turn out to be the books of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> (<a href="#CITEREFDeWeese1994">DeWeese 1994</a>, p. 303; <a href="#CITEREFGolbPritsak1982">Golb & Pritsak 1982</a>, p. 111). </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> The original ancestral cavern of the Türks, according to Chinese sources, was called Ötüken, and the tribal leaders would travel there annually to conduct sacrificial rites (<a href="#CITEREFDeWeese1994">DeWeese 1994</a>, pp. 276, 300–304). </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> Kohen refers to Khazar killings of Christians or the uncircumcized in retaliation for persecutions of Jews in Byzantium, and Khazar reprisals against Muslims for persecutions of Jews in <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a>, perhaps under Emir Nasr (<a href="#CITEREFKohen2007">Kohen 2007</a>, pp. 107–108). </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> "If indeed I could learn that this was the case, then, despising all my glory, abandoning my high estate, leaving my family, I would go over mountains and hills, through seas and lands, till I should arrive at the place where my Lord the King resides, that I might see not only his glory and magnificence, and that of his servants and ministers, but also the tranquillity of the Israelites. On beholding this my eyes would brighten, my reins would exult, my lips would pour forth praises to God, who has not withdrawn his favour from his afflicted ones." (<a href="#CITEREFKoestler1977">Koestler 1977</a>, p. 63; <a href="#CITEREFLeviant2008">Leviant 2008</a>, pp. 159–162) </li> <li id="cite_note-Rabinnic-295">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rabinnic_295-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rabinnic_295-1">b</a> Rabbinic Judaism rather than Qaraism was the form adopted. Small <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaim</a> communities may have existed, but the linguistic and historical evidence suggests that the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Turkic-speaking Karaim Jews</a> in Poland and Lithuania, of which one branch also existed in the Crimea, descend from the Khazars. "At most, it is conceivable that the smaller Karaite community which lived in Khazaria gained the Kipchak type Turkic language, that they speak today, through an exchange of language." Khazars probably converted to <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>, whereas in <a href="/wiki/Karaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaism">Karaism</a> only the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> is accepted, the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> being ignored (<a href="#CITEREFRóna-Tas1999">Róna-Tas 1999</a>, p. 232). </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> "At a time when Russia masked imperialist goals by pretending to be the protector of Slavic peoples and the Orthodox faith, Crimean Karism was exercising its own version of cultural imperialism. It is clear that the Crimean Karaites intended to expand their dominion to include Cairo, Jerusalem, and Damascus, basing their pre-eminence on the claim that Karaism, an ancient, pre-Talmudic form of Judaism, had been brought to the Middle East by the Khazars. Such an allegation would, however, have been much more difficult, if not impossible, to maintain.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>To summarize the Khazar-Karaite nexus commonly accepted in the Russian Empire during the last century: the Khazars, who were of pagan Turkic origin, were supposedly brought to Judaism by Karaites, descendants of Jews who had lived in the Black Sea areas since biblical times and whose Judaism was, therefore, pre-Talmudic and nonrabbinic. As a result, the Khazars' Judaism was Karaite, and later Karaites, who spoken a Turkic language, must have descended from the Khazars, with whom the ancient Jews had assimilated. The circularity of the argument aside, modern historians have concluded that the Khazars were converted by Rabbanite Jews and that they and their descendants observed rabbinic law and traditions. Indeed, recent scholarship has demonstrated that Khazaria was altogether unrepresented in the Karaite literature of the ninth and early tenth centuries, as well as that written during its Golden Age – when Karaism had a militant and missionary influence."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19937–9-300">[213]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a> "Most scholars are skeptical of the hypothesis".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWexler2002536-26">[23]</a> Wexler, who proposes a variation of the idea, argues that a combination of three reasons accounts for scholarly aversion to the concept: a desire not to get mixed up in controversy, ideological insecurities, and the incompetence of much earlier work in favor of that hypothesis. </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> "Methodologically, Wexler has opened up some new areas, taking elements of folk culture into account. I think that his conclusions have gone well beyond the evidence. Nonetheless, these are themes that should be pursued further." (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007a">Golden 2007a</a>, p. 56) </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> "<a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Arthur Koestler</a>'s book <a href="/wiki/The_Thirteenth_Tribe" title="The Thirteenth Tribe">The Thirteenth Tribe</a> which claimed that the converted Khazars were the progenitors of today's <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a>, has largely been rejected by serious scholars. However, the disputed theory that the stereotypical European Jew is descended from an <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern European</a> nation of Jewish converts, has been sufficiently unwelcome as to render study of the Khazars an area of research largely off limits for Jewish as well as Russian archaeologists, the Russians being unhappy with the prospect that their empire was initially ruled by Jewish kings, and the Jews being unhappy with the prospect that the Ashkenazim might not have a genetic connection to the freed slaves who met with God at Sinai." (<a href="#CITEREFMariner1999">Mariner 1999</a>, pp. 95–96) </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKizilov2014">Kizilov 2014</a>, p. 389 citing <a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Neumann" title="Karl Friedrich Neumann">Karl Neumann</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dievlkerdessdli00neumgoog">Die Völker des südlichen Russlands in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung,</a> (1847) 2nd ed. Teubner 1855 pp. 125–126. </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRossman2002">Rossman 2002</a>, p. 98: Abraham Harkavy, O yazykye evreyev, zhivshikh v drevneye vremya na Rusi i o slavianskikh slovakh, vstrechaiuschikhsia u evreiskikh pisatelei, St. Petersburg. </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarkun1997">Barkun 1997</a>, p. 137: Ernest Renan, "Judaism as a Race and as Religion." Delivered on 27 January 1883. </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> The source is Maksymilian Ernest Gumplowicz, Początki religii żydowskiej w Polsce, Warsaw: E. Wende i S-ka, 1903 (<a href="#CITEREFPolonskyBasistaLink-Lenczowski1993">Polonsky, Basista & Link-Lenczowski 1993</a>, p. 120) </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> Goldstein writes "The theory that Eastern European Jews are descended from the Khazars was originally proposed by Samuel Weissenberg in an attempt to show that Jews were deeply rooted on Russian soil and the cradle of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish civilization</a> was the Caucasus".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein2006131-316">[221]</a> Weissenberg's book Die Südrussischen Juden, was published in 1895. </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> Schipper's first monograph on this was published in the Almanach Žydowski (Vienna) in 1918. While in the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_ghetto" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw ghetto">Warsaw ghetto</a> before falling victim to the Holocaust at <a href="/wiki/Majdanek" class="mw-redirect" title="Majdanek">Majdanek</a>, Schipper (1884–1943) was working on the Khazar hypothesis (<a href="#CITEREFLitman1984">Litman 1984</a>, pp. 85–110 [109]). </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> "There were Arab tribes who were Jews in the time of Muhammad, and a Turkic people who were mainly Jews in South Russia in the ninth century. Judaism is indeed the reconstructed political ideal of many shattered peoples-mainly semitic. As a result of these coalescences and assimilations, almost everywhere in the towns throughout the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, and far beyond it in the east, Jewish communities traded and flourished, and they were kept in touch through the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, and through a religious and educational organization. The main part of Jewry never was in Judea and it had never come out of Judea." (<a href="#CITEREFWells1920">Wells 1920</a>, p. 570) </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Bagot_Glubb" title="John Bagot Glubb">John Bagot Glubb</a> held that Russian Jews "have considerably less Middle Eastern blood, consisting largely of pagan Slav proselytes or of Khazar Turks." For Glubb, they were not "descendants of the Judeans ...The Arabs of Palestine are probably more closely related to the Judeans (genetically) than are modern Russian or German Jews.... Of course, an anti-Zionist (as well as an anti-Semitic) point is being made here: The Palestinians have a greater political right to Palestine than the Jews do, as they, not the modern-day Jews, are the true descendants of the land's Jewish inhabitants/owners" (<a href="#CITEREFMorris2003">Morris 2003</a>, p. 22). </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> First written as an article in 1941 – "The Khazars' Conversion to Judaism", then written as a monograph (1943), it was revised twice, first, it was revised in 1944, and in 1951, it was revised again and it was also retitled Kazariyah: Toldot mamlacha yehudit be'Eropa (Khazaria: History of a Jewish Kingdom in Europe) Mosad Bialik, Tel Aviv, 1951. </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> "Poliak sought the origins of Eastern European Jewry in Khazaria" (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007a">Golden 2007a</a>, p. 29). </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> "As for the Jews of Eastern Europe (Poles, Russians, etc.), it has always been assumed that they descended from an amalgamation of Jews of Khazar stock from southern Russia and German Jews (the latter having imposed their superior culture)." (<a href="#CITEREFPoliakov2005">Poliakov 2005</a>, p. 285) </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> Sand<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESand2010241–242-335">[233]</a> cites <a href="/wiki/Salo_Wittmayer_Baron" title="Salo Wittmayer Baron">Salo Wittmayer Baron</a>, "before and after the Mongol upheaval the Khazars sent many offshoots into the unsubdued Slavonic lands, helping ultimately to build up the great Jewish center of Eastern Europe";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaron1957196–206_[206]-336">[234]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Ben-Zion_Dinur" title="Ben-Zion Dinur">Ben-Zion Dinur</a>: "The Russian conquests did not destroy the Khazar kingdom entirely, but they broke it up and diminished it. And this kingdom, which had absorbed Jewish immigration and refugees from many exiles, must itself have become a diaspora mother, the mother of one of the greatest of the diasporas (Em-galuyot, em akhat hagaluyot hagdolot)-of Israel in Russia, Lithuania and Poland."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDinur19612,_5-337">[235]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> "Salo Baron, who incorrectly viewed them as Finno-Ugrians, believed that the Khazars 'sent many offshoots into the unsubdued Slavonic lands, helping ultimately to build up the great Jewish centers of eastern Europe'" (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007a">Golden 2007a</a>, p. 55) </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> "dismissed ... rather airily" (<a href="#CITEREFGolden2007a">Golden 2007a</a>, p. 55). </li> <li id="cite_note-346"><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a> "Some limit this denial to European Jews and make use of the theory that the Jews of Europe are not of Israelite descent at all but are the offspring of a tribe of Central Asian Turks converted to Judaism, called the Khazars. This theory, first put forward by an Austrian anthropologist in the early years of this century, is supported by no evidence whatsoever. It has long since been abandoned by all serious scholars in the field, including those in Arab countries, where Khazar theory is little used except in occasional political polemics."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis198748-343">[238]</a> Assertions of this kind have been challenged by Paul Wexler<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWexler2002538-344">[239]</a> who also notes that the arguments on this issue are riven by contrasting ideological investments: "Most writers who have supported the Ashkenazi-Khazar hypothesis have not argued their claims in a convincing manner ... The opponents of the Khazar-Ashkenazi nexus are no less guilty of empty polemics and unconvincing arguments."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWexler2002537-345">[240]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> "it is assumed by all historians that those Jewish Khazars who survived the last fateful decades sought and found refuge in the bosom of Jewish communities in the Christian countries to the west, and especially in Russia and Poland, on the one hand, and in the Muslim countries to the east and the south, on the other. Some historians and anthropologists go so far as to consider the modern Jews of East Europe, and more particularly of Poland, the descendants of the medieval Khazars." (<a href="#CITEREFPataiPatai1989">Patai & Patai 1989</a>, p. 71) </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> "The Khazar theory never figured as a major component of antisemitism. The connection receives only scant attention in <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Poliakov" title="Léon Poliakov">Léon Poliakov</a>'s monumental history of the subject. It did however come to exercise a particular attraction for advocates of immigration restriction in America." (<a href="#CITEREFBarkun1997">Barkun 1997</a>, pp. 136–137) </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> "Although the Khazar theory gets surprisingly little attention in scholarly histories of anti-Semitism, it has been an influential theme among American anti-Semites since the immigration restrictionists of the 1920s" (<a href="#CITEREFBarkun2012">Barkun 2012</a>, p. 165). </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> "By the 1960s, when <a href="/wiki/Christian_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian identity">Christian identity</a> was established as a force on the <a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">extreme right</a>, the Khazar ancestry of the Jews was a firm article of faith. Two books, written in this milieu and widely read, came to exercise a strong influence in this regard. John Beaty's Iron Curtain over America (1951) and Wilmot Robertson's Dispossessed Majority (1972) repeated the Khazar thesis of Stoddard. Christian identity teachings readily seized on this negative reference to Russian Jewry, however, it backdated the history of intermarriage between Jews and Khazars to biblical times. In A Short History of Esau-Edom in Jewry (1948), the Vancouver-based writer C.F. Parker claimed that a tiny remnant of 'true Judah' was pitted against a large group of Idumean-Hittites who masqueraded as the true seed of Abraham and sought to expel the descendants of Jacob. These Esau-Hittites are the Ashkenazim, concentrated in Eastern and Central Europe and America." (<a href="#CITEREFGoodrick-Clarke2003">Goodrick-Clarke 2003</a>, p. 237) </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> Beaty was an antisemitic, <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyite</a> professor of Old English at <a href="/wiki/Southern_Methodist_University" title="Southern Methodist University">SMU</a>, author of The Iron Curtain over America (Dallas 1952). According to him, "the Khazar Jews ... were responsible for all of America's – and the world's ills, beginning with World War 1." The book "had little impact" until the former Wall Street broker and oil tycoon J. Russell Maguire promoted it (<a href="#CITEREFBoller1992">Boller 1992</a>, pp. 2, 6–7; <a href="#CITEREFBarkun1997">Barkun 1997</a>, pp. 141–142). </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWexler2002">Wexler 2002</a>, p. 514 has a more detailed bibliography. </li> <li id="cite_note-365"><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a> "Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarkabi1987424-364">[252]</a> This essay was translated from Harkabi Hebrew text "Arab Antisemitism" in Shmuel Ettinger, Continuity and Discontinuity in Antisemitism, (Hebrew) 1968 (p.50). </li> <li id="cite_note-366"><a href="#cite_ref-366">^</a> "in the very late 1980s Russian nationalists were fixated on the 'Khazar episode.' For them the Khazar issue seemed to be a crucial one. They treated it as the first historically documented case of the imposition of a foreign yoke on the Slavs, ... In this context the term 'Khazars' became popular as a euphemism for the so-called 'Jewish occupation regime'." (<a href="#CITEREFShnirelman2007">Shnirelman 2007</a>, pp. 353–372) </li> <li id="cite_note-372"><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a> "The Khazar king and part of his court allegedly adopted the Jewish religion ... The truth of such a conversion and its extent has been the topic of many discussions, and the topic of vehement disagreements in our age of genomic DNA analyses." (<a href="#CITEREFFalk2017">Falk 2017</a>, p. 100) </li> <li id="cite_note-373"><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a> "Strong evidence for the Khazarian hypothesis is the clustering of European Jews with the populations that reside on opposite ends of ancient Khazaria: Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbaijani Jews" (<a href="#CITEREFElhaik2012">Elhaik 2012</a>, pp. 61–74). </li> <li id="cite_note-379"><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a> "During Greco-Roman times, recorded mass conversions led to 6 million people practicing Judaism in Roman times or up to 10% of the population of the Roman Empire. Thus, the genetic proximity of these European/Syrian Jewish populations, including Ashkenazi Jews, to each other and to French, Northern Italian, and Sardinian populations favors the idea of non-Semitic Mediterranean ancestry in the formation of the European/Syrian Jewish groups and is incompatible with theories that Ashkenazi Jews are for the most part the direct lineal descendants of converted Khazars or Slavs. The genetic proximity of Ashkenazi Jews to southern European populations has been observed in several other recent studies.. Admixture with local populations, including Khazars and Slavs, may have occurred subsequently during the 1000 year (2nd millennium) history of the European Jews. Based on analysis of Y chromosomal polymorphisms, Hammer estimated that the rate might have been as high as 0.5% per generation or 12.5% cumulatively (a figure derived from Motulsky), although this calculation might have underestimated the influx of European Y chromosomes during the initial formation of European Jewry.15 Notably, up to 50% of Ashkenazi Jewish Y chromosomal haplogroups (E3b, G, J1, and Q) are of Middle Eastern origin, 15 whereas the other prevalent haplogroups (J2, R1a1, R1b) may be representative of the early European admixture.20 The 7.5% prevalence of the R1a1 haplogroup among Ashkenazi Jews has been interpreted as a possible marker for Slavic or Khazar admixture because this haplogroup is very common among Ukrainians (where it was thought to have originated), Russians, and Sorbs, as well as among Central Asian populations, although the admixture may have occurred with Ukrainians, Poles, or Russians, rather than Khazars." (<a href="#CITEREFAtzmonOstrer2010">Atzmon & Ostrer 2010</a>, pp. 850–859) </li> <li id="cite_note-382"><a href="#cite_ref-382">^</a> "The extent to which the Khazars contributed to the Jewish gene-pool, and more specifically to the Ashkenazi ethnic-group(s), has become a charged issue among expert scientists as well as nonprofessionals. National and ethnic prejudices play a central role in the controversy." (<a href="#CITEREFFalk2017">Falk 2017</a>, p. 100) </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a> "if the genome does not prove Sand wrong, neither can it prove him right. It is the wrong kind of evidence and the wrong style of reasoning for the task at hand."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu_El-Haj201228-383">[265]</a> "They (researchers) will never be able to prove descent from Khazars: there are no 'verification' samples."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbu_El-Haj2012133-384">[266]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-390"><a href="#cite_ref-390">^</a> "Kiev in Khazar is Sambat, the same as the Hungarian word szombat, 'Saturday', which is likely to have been derived from the Khazar Jews living in Kyiv." 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Vol. 4. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 935–937. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09790-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09790-2"><bdi>978-90-04-09790-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Khazar&rft.btitle=First+Encyclopedia+of+Islam%2C+1913%E2%80%931936&rft.pages=935-937&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09790-2&rft.aulast=Barthold&rft.aufirst=Vasili&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7CP7fYghBFQC%26pg%3DPA936&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauer2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Wise_Bauer" title="Susan Wise Bauer">Bauer, Susan Wise</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1u2oP2RihIgC&pg=PA341">The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade</a>. 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(2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol85/iss6/9/">"No Evidence of a Khazar origin for the Ashkenazi Jews"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Human_Biology_(journal)" title="Human Biology (journal)">Human Biology</a>. 85 (6): 859–900. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3378%2F027.085.0604">10.3378/027.085.0604</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25079123">25079123</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2173604">2173604</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141014231218/http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol85/iss6/9/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Biology&rft.atitle=No+Evidence+of+a+Khazar+origin+for+the+Ashkenazi+Jews&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=859-900&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2173604%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25079123&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3378%2F027.085.0604&rft.aulast=Behar&rft.aufirst=D.+M.&rft.au=Metspalu%2C+M.&rft.au=Baran%2C+Y.&rft.au=Kopelman%2C+N.+M.&rft.au=Yunusbayev%2C+B.&rft.au=Gladstein%2C+A.&rft.au=Tzur%2C+S.&rft.au=Sahakyan%2C+H.&rft.au=Bahmanimehr%2C+A.&rft.au=Yepiskoposyan%2C+L.&rft.au=Tambets%2C+K.&rft.au=Khusnutdinova%2C+E.+K.&rft.au=Kushniarevich%2C+A.&rft.au=Balanovsky%2C+O.&rft.au=Balanovsky%2C+E.&rft.au=Kovacevic%2C+L.&rft.au=Marjanovic%2C+D.&rft.au=Mihailov%2C+E.&rft.au=Kouvatsi%2C+A.&rft.au=Triantaphyllidis%2C+C.&rft.au=King%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Semino%2C+O.&rft.au=Torroni%2C+A.&rft.au=Hammer%2C+M.+F.&rft.au=Metspalu%2C+E.&rft.au=Skorecki%2C+K.&rft.au=Rosset%2C+S.&rft.au=Halperin%2C+E.&rft.au=Villems%2C+R.&rft.au=Rosenberg%2C+N.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.wayne.edu%2Fhumbiol%2Fvol85%2Fiss6%2F9%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeharThomasSkoreckiHammer2003" class="citation journal cs1">Behar, Doron M; Thomas, Mark G; Skorecki, Karl; Hammer, Michael F; et al. (October 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180600">"Multiple Origins of Ashkenazi Levites: Y Chromosome Evidence for Both Near Eastern and European Ancestries"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Human_Genetics" title="American Journal of Human Genetics">American Journal of Human Genetics</a>. 73 (4): 768–779. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F378506">10.1086/378506</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180600">1180600</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13680527">13680527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Multiple+Origins+of+Ashkenazi+Levites%3A+Y+Chromosome+Evidence+for+Both+Near+Eastern+and+European+Ancestries&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=768-779&rft.date=2003-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1180600%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13680527&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F378506&rft.aulast=Behar&rft.aufirst=Doron+M&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Mark+G&rft.au=Skorecki%2C+Karl&rft.au=Hammer%2C+Michael+F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1180600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlady2000" class="citation book cs1">Blady, Ken (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yY0KQUVXw2MC&pg=PA124">Jewish Communities in Exotic Places</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-765-76112-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-765-76112-5"><bdi>978-0-765-76112-5</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Communities+in+Exotic+Places&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-765-76112-5&rft.aulast=Blady&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyY0KQUVXw2MC%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoller1992" class="citation book cs1">Boller, Paul F. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ycS5O-p4EzAC&pg=PA6">Memoirs of an Obscure Professor: And Other Essays</a>. <a href="/wiki/TCU_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="TCU Press">TCU Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87565-097-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87565-097-5"><bdi>978-0-87565-097-5</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+an+Obscure+Professor%3A+And+Other+Essays&rft.pub=TCU+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-87565-097-5&rft.aulast=Boller&rft.aufirst=Paul+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DycS5O-p4EzAC%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowersock2013" class="citation book cs1">Bowersock, G.W. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X4BoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85">The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-33384-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-33384-4"><bdi>978-0-199-33384-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Throne+of+Adulis%3A+Red+Sea+Wars+on+the+Eve+of+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-199-33384-4&rft.aulast=Bowersock&rft.aufirst=G.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX4BoAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowmanAnkori2001" class="citation book cs1">Bowman, Stephen B.; Ankori, Zvi (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UnRGPQAACAAJ">The Jews of Byzantium 1204–1453</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bloch_Publishing_Company" title="Bloch Publishing Company">Bloch Publishing Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8197-0703-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8197-0703-1"><bdi>978-0-8197-0703-1</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Byzantium+1204%E2%80%931453&rft.pub=Bloch+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8197-0703-1&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Stephen+B.&rft.au=Ankori%2C+Zvi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUnRGPQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrook2006" class="citation book cs1">Brook, Kevin Alan (2006). 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The Maternal Genetic Lineages of Ashkenazic Jews. <a href="/wiki/Academic_Studies_Press" title="Academic Studies Press">Academic Studies Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-64469-984-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-64469-984-3"><bdi>978-1-64469-984-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Maternal+Genetic+Lineages+of+Ashkenazic+Jews&rft.pub=Academic+Studies+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-64469-984-3&rft.aulast=Brook&rft.aufirst=Kevin+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Browning_(Byzantinist)" title="Robert Browning (Byzantinist)">Browning, Robert</a> (1992) [First published 1980]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/byzantineempire0000brow">The Byzantine Empire</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Catholic_University_of_America" title="Catholic University of America">Catholic University of America Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/byzantineempire0000brow/page/53">53</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-0754-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-0754-4"><bdi>978-0-8132-0754-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Byzantine+Empire&rft.pages=53&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Catholic+University+of+America+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8132-0754-4&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbyzantineempire0000brow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurrage_Dixon1923" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roland_Burrage_Dixon" title="Roland Burrage Dixon">Burrage Dixon, Roland</a> (1923). 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Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 227–248. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-889-20216-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-889-20216-0"><bdi>978-0-889-20216-0</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Keegstra+Affair&rft.btitle=Antisemitism+in+Canada%3A+History+and+Interpretation&rft.pages=227-248&rft.pub=Wilfrid+Laurier+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-889-20216-0&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3kLgn7dIEwIC%26pg%3DPA242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeWeese1994" class="citation book cs1">DeWeese, Devin A. 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New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Schocken_Books" title="Schocken Books">Schocken Books</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Jewish+Khazars&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Schocken+Books&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Dunlop&rft.aufirst=Douglas+Morton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_YdAAAAAIAAJ%26q%3DDunlop%252BHistory%2Bof%2Bthe%2BJewish%2BKhazars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCountry_Study:_Hungary1989" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041029114728/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+hu0013%29">"Early History"</a>. A Country Study: Hungary. 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Genome Biology and Human Evolution. 5 (1): 61–74. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1208.1092">1208.1092</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012arXiv1208.1092E">2012arXiv1208.1092E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgbe%2Fevs119">10.1093/gbe/evs119</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3595026">3595026</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23241444">23241444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genome+Biology+and+Human+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+Missing+Link+of+Jewish+European+Ancestry%3A+Contrasting+the+Rhineland+and+the+Khazarian+Hypotheses&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=61-74&rft.date=2012-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3595026%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012arXiv1208.1092E&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1208.1092&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23241444&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgbe%2Fevs119&rft.aulast=Elhaik&rft.aufirst=Eran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3595026&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErdal2007" class="citation book cs1">Erdal, Marcel (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZzXjdyK-CEC&pg=PA75">"The Khazar Language"</a>. 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BRILL. pp. 75–108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2"><bdi>978-90-04-16042-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Khazar+Language&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+Khazars%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.series=Handbuch+der+Orientalistik%3A+Handbook+of+Uralic+studies&rft.pages=75-108&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16042-2&rft.aulast=Erdal&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3ZzXjdyK-CEC%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalk2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Falk_(geneticist)" title="Raphael Falk (geneticist)">Falk, Raphael</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s4otDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA102">Zionism and the Biology of Jews</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-57345-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-57345-8"><bdi>978-3-319-57345-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zionism+and+the+Biology+of+Jews&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-319-57345-8&rft.aulast=Falk&rft.aufirst=Raphael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds4otDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman1996" class="citation book cs1">Feldman, Louis H. 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Budapest: Akademia Kiado. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-28461-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-28461-3"><bdi>978-0-226-28461-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Khazar+Studies%3A+An+Historio-Philological+Inquiry+into+the+Origins+of+the+Khazars&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Akademia+Kiado&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-226-28461-3&rft.aulast=Golden&rft.aufirst=Peter+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbAfFzCT36ekC%26q%3DGeanakoplos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolden1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Benjamin_Golden" title="Peter Benjamin Golden">Golden, Peter Benjamin</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/An_Introduction_to_the_History_of_the_Tu.html%3Fid%3D5B6xMQEACAAJ&sa">An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis And State Formation in the Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East</a>. 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Harrassowitz. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-03274-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-03274-2"><bdi>978-3-447-03274-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+History+of+the+Turkic+Peoples%3A+Ethnogenesis+And+State+Formation+in+the+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Eurasia+and+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.series=Turcologica&rft.pub=O.+Harrassowitz&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-447-03274-2&rft.aulast=Golden&rft.aufirst=Peter+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FAn_Introduction_to_the_History_of_the_Tu.html%253Fid%253D5B6xMQEACAAJ%26sa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolden1994a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Benjamin_Golden" title="Peter Benjamin Golden">Golden, Peter Benjamin</a> (1994a) [First published 1990]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=PA264">"The peoples of the South Russian steppes"</a>. 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Noonan. <a href="/wiki/Otto_Harrassowitz" title="Otto Harrassowitz">Otto Harrassowitz Verlag</a>. pp. 79–102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05425-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05425-6"><bdi>978-3-447-05425-6</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Khazar+Sacral+Kingship&rft.btitle=Pre-modern+Russia+and+its+world%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+Thomas+S.+Noonan&rft.pages=79-102&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-447-05425-6&rft.aulast=Golden&rft.aufirst=Peter+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLMwmcqwZUGcC%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolden2007a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Benjamin_Golden" title="Peter Benjamin Golden">Golden, Peter Benjamin</a> (2007a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZzXjdyK-CEC&pg=PR2">"Khazar Studies: Achievements and Perspectives"</a>. 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Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 60 (2): 161–194. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1556%2FAOrient.60.2007.2.2">10.1556/AOrient.60.2007.2.2</a> – via <a href="/wiki/ResearchGate" title="ResearchGate">ResearchGate</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Orientalia+Academiae+Scientiarum+Hungaricae&rft.atitle=Irano-Turcica%3A+The+Khazar+Sacral+Kingship+Revisited&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-194&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1556%2FAOrient.60.2007.2.2&rft.aulast=Golden&rft.aufirst=Peter+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F250979819&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolden2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_B._Golden" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter B. 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New Oxford World History. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979317-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979317-4"><bdi>978-0-19-979317-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Asia+in+World+History&rft.series=New+Oxford+World+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-979317-4&rft.aulast=Golden&rft.aufirst=Peter+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPtT5p-6V5FcC%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolden2011b" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_B._Golden" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter B. 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Editura Academiei Române. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-973-27-2152-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-973-27-2152-0"><bdi>978-973-27-2152-0</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/ResearchGate" title="ResearchGate">ResearchGate</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+the+Peoples+and+Cultures+of+the+Eurasian+Steppes&rft.pub=Editura+Academiei+Rom%C3%A2ne&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-973-27-2152-0&rft.aulast=Golden&rft.aufirst=Peter+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F227466942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein2006" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Eric L. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qsvlFZ6rgpkC&pg=PA131">The Price of Whiteness: Jews, Race, and American Identity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12105-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12105-5"><bdi>978-0-691-12105-5</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Price+of+Whiteness%3A+Jews%2C+Race%2C+and+American+Identity&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-691-12105-5&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Eric+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqsvlFZ6rgpkC%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein2011" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Miriam (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F9pu1RJKbdkC&q=Abraham+Firkovich+1839&pg=PA9">Karaite Exegesis in Medieval Jerusalem</a>. Mohr Siebeck. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150972-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150972-8"><bdi>978-3-16-150972-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Karaite+Exegesis+in+Medieval+Jerusalem&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-16-150972-8&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF9pu1RJKbdkC%26q%3DAbraham%2BFirkovich%2B1839%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodmanMiyazawa2000" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, David G.; Miyazawa, Masanori (2000) [First published 1995]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R_PQLj2D1DQC&pg=PA263">Jews in the Japanese Mind: The History and Uses of a Cultural Stereotype</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lexington_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexington Books">Lexington Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0167-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0167-4"><bdi>978-0-7391-0167-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+in+the+Japanese+Mind%3A+The+History+and+Uses+of+a+Cultural+Stereotype&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-0167-4&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft.au=Miyazawa%2C+Masanori&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR_PQLj2D1DQC%26pg%3DPA263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodrick-Clarke2003" class="citation book cs1">Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2003) [First published 2001]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xaiaM77s6N4C&pg=PA237">Black Sun: Aryan cults, esoteric nazism, and the politics of identity</a>. <a href="/wiki/NYU_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="NYU Press">NYU Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3155-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3155-0"><bdi>978-0-8147-3155-0</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Sun%3A+Aryan+cults%2C+esoteric+nazism%2C+and+the+politics+of+identity&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-3155-0&rft.aulast=Goodrick-Clarke&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxaiaM77s6N4C%26pg%3DPA237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGow1995" class="citation book cs1">Gow, Andrew Colin (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yp5O_rPI7nsC&pg=PA31">The " Red Jews": Antisemitism in the Apocalyptic Age 1200–1600</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10255-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10255-2"><bdi>978-90-04-10255-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+%22+Red+Jews%22%3A+Antisemitism+in+the+Apocalyptic+Age+1200%E2%80%931600&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10255-2&rft.aulast=Gow&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYp5O_rPI7nsC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKorobkin1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">HaLevi, Yehuda</a> (1998). Korobkin, Nissan Daniel (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QKzXAAAAMAAJ">The Kuzari: In Defense of the Despised Faith</a>. Northvale, New Jersey-Jerusalem: <a href="/wiki/Jason_Aronson" title="Jason Aronson">Jason Aronson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7657-9970-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7657-9970-8"><bdi>978-0-7657-9970-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kuzari%3A+In+Defense+of+the+Despised+Faith&rft.place=Northvale%2C+New+Jersey-Jerusalem&rft.pub=Jason+Aronson&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7657-9970-8&rft.aulast=HaLevi&rft.aufirst=Yehuda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQKzXAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKorobkin2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">HaLevi, Yehudah</a> (2013). Korobkin, N. Daniel (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z7vDoAEACAAJ">The Kuzari. In Defense of the Despised Faith</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Feldheim_Publishers" title="Feldheim Publishers">Feldheim Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59826-961-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59826-961-1"><bdi>978-1-59826-961-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230603045239/https://books.google.com/books?id=z7vDoAEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2023. Retrieved 3 June 2023 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kuzari.+In+Defense+of+the+Despised+Faith&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Feldheim+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-59826-961-1&rft.aulast=HaLevi&rft.aufirst=Yehudah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz7vDoAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarkabi1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yehoshafat_Harkabi" title="Yehoshafat Harkabi">Harkabi, Yehoshafat</a> (1987) [First published 1968]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uHWG1pDCtNgC&pg=PA424">"Contemporary Arab Anti-Semitism: its Causes and Roots"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Helen_Fein" title="Helen Fein">Fein, Helen</a> (ed.). The Persisting Question: Sociological Perspectives and Social Contexts of Modern Antisemitism. <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>. pp. 412–427. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-010170-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-010170-6"><bdi>978-3-11-010170-6</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Contemporary+Arab+Anti-Semitism%3A+its+Causes+and+Roots&rft.btitle=The+Persisting+Question%3A+Sociological+Perspectives+and+Social+Contexts+of+Modern+Antisemitism&rft.pages=412-427&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-3-11-010170-6&rft.aulast=Harkabi&rft.aufirst=Yehoshafat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuHWG1pDCtNgC%26pg%3DPA424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeath1979" class="citation book cs1">Heath, Ian (1979). Byzantine Armies 886-1118. <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85045306-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85045306-5"><bdi>978-0-85045306-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Armies+886-1118&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-85045306-5&rft.aulast=Heath&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy1984" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Herlihy" title="David Herlihy">Herlihy, David</a> (1984). "Demography". In <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Strayer" title="Joseph Strayer">Strayer, Joseph R.</a> (ed.). Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Vol. 4. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Charles Scribner's Sons</a>. pp. 136–148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-17024-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-17024-4"><bdi>978-0-684-17024-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Demography&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=136-148&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-684-17024-4&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoworth1870" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hoyle_Howorth" title="Henry Hoyle Howorth">Howorth, H. H.</a> (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/2114761">"On the Westerly Drifting of Nomades, from the Fifth to the Nineteenth Century. Part IV. The Circassians and White Khazars"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Anthropological_Institute_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland">The Journal of the Ethnological Society of London</a>. 2 (2): 182–192. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3014425">10.2307/3014425</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3014425">3014425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Ethnological+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=On+the+Westerly+Drifting+of+Nomades%2C+from+the+Fifth+to+the+Nineteenth+Century.+Part+IV.+The+Circassians+and+White+Khazars&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=182-192&rft.date=1870&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3014425&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3014425%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Howorth&rft.aufirst=H.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F2114761&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInabaBalogh2020" class="citation book cs1">Inaba, Minoru; Balogh, Dániel (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=frnVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA106">"The legend of Xinnie in the seventh and eighth centuries"</a>. In Balogh, Dániel (ed.). Hunnic Peoples in Central and South Asia: Sources for their Origin and History. Barkhuis. pp. 103–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-493-19401-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-493-19401-4"><bdi>978-9-493-19401-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+legend+of+Xinnie+in+the+seventh+and+eighth+centuries&rft.btitle=Hunnic+Peoples+in+Central+and+South+Asia%3A+Sources+for+their+Origin+and+History&rft.pages=103-107&rft.pub=Barkhuis&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-9-493-19401-4&rft.aulast=Inaba&rft.aufirst=Minoru&rft.au=Balogh%2C+D%C3%A1niel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfrnVDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaegi2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaegi" title="Walter Kaegi">Kaegi, Walter Emil</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA142">Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81459-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81459-1"><bdi>978-0-521-81459-1</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heraclius%2C+Emperor+of+Byzantium&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81459-1&rft.aulast=Kaegi&rft.aufirst=Walter+Emil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtlNlFZ_7UhoC%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopedia_Britannica:_Khazar2020" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Khazar">"Khazar"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. 29 March 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220302083101/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Khazar">Archived</a> from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Khazar&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2020-03-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FKhazar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2016" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Hyun Jin (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mcf4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT61">The Huns</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34090-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34090-4"><bdi>978-1-317-34090-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Huns&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-34090-4&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Hyun+Jin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmcf4CgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKizilov2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kizilov" title="Mikhail Kizilov">Kizilov, Mikhail</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hGILHIgEl7cC&pg=PA335">The Karaites of Galicia: An Ethnoreligious Minority Among the Ashkenazim, the Turks, and the Slavs, 1772–1945</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16602-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16602-8"><bdi>978-90-04-16602-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Karaites+of+Galicia%3A+An+Ethnoreligious+Minority+Among+the+Ashkenazim%2C+the+Turks%2C+and+the+Slavs%2C+1772%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16602-8&rft.aulast=Kizilov&rft.aufirst=Mikhail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhGILHIgEl7cC%26pg%3DPA335&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKizilov2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kizilov" title="Mikhail Kizilov">Kizilov, Mikhail</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=36t_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA388">"National Inventions: The Imperial Emancipation of the Karaites from Jewishness"</a>. In Cvetkovski, Roland; Hofmeister, Alexis (eds.). An Empire of Others: Creating Ethnographic Knowledge in Imperial Russia and the USSR. <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>. pp. 369–393. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-6-155-22576-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-6-155-22576-5"><bdi>978-6-155-22576-5</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=National+Inventions%3A+The+Imperial+Emancipation+of+the+Karaites+from+Jewishness&rft.btitle=An+Empire+of+Others%3A+Creating+Ethnographic+Knowledge+in+Imperial+Russia+and+the+USSR&rft.pages=369-393&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-6-155-22576-5&rft.aulast=Kizilov&rft.aufirst=Mikhail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D36t_CwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA388&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoestler1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Koestler, Arthur</a> (1977) [First published 1976]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IsbslAEACAAJ&q=The+Thirteenth+Tribe%2BKoestler">The Thirteenth Tribe: The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Pan_Books" title="Pan Books">Pan Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-125550-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-125550-3"><bdi>978-0-09-125550-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirteenth+Tribe%3A+The+Khazar+Empire+and+Its+Heritage&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pan+Books&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-09-125550-3&rft.aulast=Koestler&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIsbslAEACAAJ%26q%3DThe%2BThirteenth%2BTribe%252BKoestler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohen2007" class="citation book cs1">Kohen, Elli (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r-9qJRP20MIC&pg=PA103">History of the Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_America" title="University Press of America">University Press of America</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-3623-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-3623-0"><bdi>978-0-7618-3623-0</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Byzantine+Jews%3A+A+Microcosmos+in+the+Thousand+Year+Empire&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-3623-0&rft.aulast=Kohen&rft.aufirst=Elli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr-9qJRP20MIC%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolditz2017" class="citation book cs1">Kolditz, Sebastian (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.peterlang.com/view/9783631706244/chapter-003.xhtml">"Barbarian Emperors? Aspects of the Byzantine Perception of the qaghan (chaganos) in the Earlier Middle Ages"</a>. In Scholl, Christian; Gebhardt, Torben R.; Clauß, Jan (eds.). Transcultural Approaches to the Concept of Imperial Rule in the Middle Ages. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_(publisher)" title="Peter Lang (publisher)">Peter Lang</a>. pp. 41–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-631-70624-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-631-70624-4"><bdi>978-3-631-70624-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421140030/https://www.peterlang.com/view/9783631706244/chapter-003.xhtml">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Barbarian+Emperors%3F+Aspects+of+the+Byzantine+Perception+of+the+qaghan+%28chaganos%29+in+the+Earlier+Middle+Ages&rft.btitle=Transcultural+Approaches+to+the+Concept+of+Imperial+Rule+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=41-76&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-631-70624-4&rft.aulast=Kolditz&rft.aufirst=Sebastian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.peterlang.com%2Fview%2F9783631706244%2Fchapter-003.xhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKordosis2017" class="citation journal cs1">Kordosis, Stefanos (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/39530827">"The Tibetan Title Dru gu Gesar (Turk Caesar / Caesar of the Turks) in the Northern Branch of the Silk Route and the Role of the Khazars"</a>. ΘΗΣΑΥΡΙΣΜΑΤΑ (47): 183–192. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211223203830/https://www.academia.edu/39530827">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%CE%98%CE%97%CE%A3%CE%91%CE%A5%CE%A1%CE%99%CE%A3%CE%9C%CE%91%CE%A4%CE%91&rft.atitle=The+Tibetan+Title+Dru+gu+Gesar+%28Turk+Caesar+%2F+Caesar+of+the+Turks%29+in+the+Northern+Branch+of+the+Silk+Route+and+the+Role+of+the+Khazars&rft.issue=47&rft.pages=183-192&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Kordosis&rft.aufirst=Stefanos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F39530827&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKornienkoFaleevaSchurrAramova2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kornienko, I. V.; Faleeva, T. G.; Schurr, T. G.; Aramova, O. Yu; Ochir-Goryaeva, M. A.; Batieva, E. F.; Vdovchenkov, E. V.; Moshkov, N. E.; Kukanova, V. V.; Ivanov, I. N.; Sidorenko, Yu S. (1 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351294127">"Y-Chromosome Haplogroup Diversity in Khazar Burials from Southern Russia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Russian_Journal_of_Genetics" title="Russian Journal of Genetics">Russian Journal of Genetics</a>. 57 (4): 477–488. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS1022795421040049">10.1134/S1022795421040049</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1608-3369">1608-3369</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233479468">233479468</a> – via <a href="/wiki/ResearchGate" title="ResearchGate">ResearchGate</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Journal+of+Genetics&rft.atitle=Y-Chromosome+Haplogroup+Diversity+in+Khazar+Burials+from+Southern+Russia&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=477-488&rft.date=2021-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A233479468%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1608-3369&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS1022795421040049&rft.aulast=Kornienko&rft.aufirst=I.+V.&rft.au=Faleeva%2C+T.+G.&rft.au=Schurr%2C+T.+G.&rft.au=Aramova%2C+O.+Yu&rft.au=Ochir-Goryaeva%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Batieva%2C+E.+F.&rft.au=Vdovchenkov%2C+E.+V.&rft.au=Moshkov%2C+N.+E.&rft.au=Kukanova%2C+V.+V.&rft.au=Ivanov%2C+I.+N.&rft.au=Sidorenko%2C+Yu+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F351294127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKovalev2005" class="citation book cs1">Kovalev, R.K. (2005). "Creating Khazar Identity through Coins: the Special Issue Dirhams of 837/838". In Curta, Florin (ed.). East Central and Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. pp. 220–251. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11498-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11498-6"><bdi>978-0-472-11498-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Creating+Khazar+Identity+through+Coins%3A+the+Special+Issue+Dirhams+of+837%2F838&rft.btitle=East+Central+and+Eastern+Europe+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pages=220-251&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-472-11498-6&rft.aulast=Kovalev&rft.aufirst=R.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Kutschera1909" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">von Kutschera, Hugo (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G_zEugEACAAJ">Die Chasaren; historische Studie</a> [Those Khazars; historical Study] (in German). A. Holzhauen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-274-47307-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-274-47307-6"><bdi>978-0-274-47307-6</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Chasaren%3B+historische+Studie&rft.pub=A.+Holzhauen&rft.date=1909&rft.isbn=978-0-274-47307-6&rft.aulast=von+Kutschera&rft.aufirst=Hugo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG_zEugEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2016" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Joo-Yup (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/35007944">"The Historical Meaning of the Term Turk and the Nature of the Turkic Identity of the Chinggisid and Timurid Elites in Post-Mongol Central Asia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Central_Asiatic_Journal" title="Central Asiatic Journal">Central Asiatic Journal</a>. 59 (1–2): 101–132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.13173%2Fcentasiaj.59.1-2.0101">10.13173/centasiaj.59.1-2.0101</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211223203830/https://www.academia.edu/35007944">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Central+Asiatic+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Historical+Meaning+of+the+Term+Turk+and+the+Nature+of+the+Turkic+Identity+of+the+Chinggisid+and+Timurid+Elites+in+Post-Mongol+Central+Asia&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=101-132&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13173%2Fcentasiaj.59.1-2.0101&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Joo-Yup&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F35007944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeviant2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Curt_Leviant" title="Curt Leviant">Leviant, Curt</a> (2008) [First published 1969]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1jT7jD1t8jAC&pg=PA159">Masterpieces of Hebrew Literature: Selections from 2000 Years of Jewish Creativity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Publication_Society" title="Jewish Publication Society">Jewish Publication Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0954-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0954-9"><bdi>978-0-8276-0954-9</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masterpieces+of+Hebrew+Literature%3A+Selections+from+2000+Years+of+Jewish+Creativity&rft.pub=Jewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8276-0954-9&rft.aulast=Leviant&rft.aufirst=Curt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1jT7jD1t8jAC%26pg%3DPA159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (1987) [First published 1986]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/semitesantisemit00bern">Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30420-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30420-6"><bdi>978-0-393-30420-6</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semites+and+Anti-Semites%3A+An+Inquiry+Into+Conflict+and+Prejudice&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-393-30420-6&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsemitesantisemit00bern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nmBUKnFfgvcC&pg=PP61">The Jews of Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-03021-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-03021-6"><bdi>978-1-135-03021-6</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Islam&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-135-03021-6&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnmBUKnFfgvcC%26pg%3DPP61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLitman1984" class="citation book cs1">Litman, Jacob (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/The_economic_role_of_Jews_in_Medieval_Po.html%3Fid%3DIJ9tAAAAMAAJ">The Economic Role of Jews in Medieval Poland: The Contribution of Yitzhak Schipper</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_America" title="University Press of America">University Press of America</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-4244-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-4244-3"><bdi>978-0-8191-4244-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+Role+of+Jews+in+Medieval+Poland%3A+The+Contribution+of+Yitzhak+Schipper&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8191-4244-3&rft.aulast=Litman&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FThe_economic_role_of_Jews_in_Medieval_Po.html%253Fid%253DIJ9tAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLobel2000" class="citation book cs1">Lobel, Diana (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V8DbnUcf6QUC&pg=PA3">Between Mysticism and Philosophy: Sufi Language of Religious Experience in Experience in Judah Ha-Levi's Kuzari</a>. <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4451-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4451-1"><bdi>978-0-7914-4451-1</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Mysticism+and+Philosophy%3A+Sufi+Language+of+Religious+Experience+in+Experience+in+Judah+Ha-Levi%27s+Kuzari&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-4451-1&rft.aulast=Lobel&rft.aufirst=Diana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV8DbnUcf6QUC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLogan1992" class="citation book cs1">Logan, F. Donald (1992) [First published 1983]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jsp-whocldIC&pg=PA201">The Vikings in History</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08396-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08396-6"><bdi>978-0-415-08396-6</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vikings+in+History&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-415-08396-6&rft.aulast=Logan&rft.aufirst=F.+Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Djsp-whocldIC%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuttwak2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Luttwak" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward N. 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A History of Hungary. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-35578-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-35578-8"><bdi>0-253-35578-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Hungarians%27+Prehistory%2C+Their+Conquest+of+Hungary+and+their+raids+to+the+West&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Hungary&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-253-35578-8&rft.aulast=Makkai&rft.aufirst=L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSKwmGQCT0MAC%26q%3DHungarian%2Bconquest%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMako2010" class="citation journal cs1">Mako, Gerald (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/638371">"The Possible Reasons for the Arab-Khazar Wars"</a>. Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi. 17: 45–57. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210823211652/https://www.academia.edu/638371">Archived</a> from the original on 23 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archivum+Eurasiae+Medii+Aevi&rft.atitle=The+Possible+Reasons+for+the+Arab-Khazar+Wars&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=45-57&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Mako&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F638371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalkiel2008" class="citation book cs1">Malkiel, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XNJRKSk6gS4C&pg=PA263">Reconstructing Ashkenaz: The Human Face of Franco-German Jewry, 1000–1250</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8684-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8684-3"><bdi>978-0-8047-8684-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstructing+Ashkenaz%3A+The+Human+Face+of+Franco-German+Jewry%2C+1000%E2%80%931250&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-8684-3&rft.aulast=Malkiel&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXNJRKSk6gS4C%26pg%3DPA263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMango2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Mango" title="Cyril Mango">Mango, Cyril</a>, ed. (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814098-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814098-6"><bdi>978-0-19-814098-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814098-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMariner1999" class="citation book cs1">Mariner, Rodney (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=shdQ-QSZMdIC&pg=PA95">"Conversion to Judaism: a tale of the good, the bad and the ungrateful"</a>. In Lamb, Christopher; Bryant, M. Darroll (eds.). Religious Conversion: Contemporary Practices and Controversies. 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Meduza (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220708054523/https://meduza.io/feature/2022/07/08/my-hotim-ubivat">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Meduza&rft.atitle=%D0%9C%D1%8B+%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BC+%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C+%22%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B0%22+%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B5%D1%82%2C+%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BA+%28%D0%B8+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BC%29+%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B+%D0%B8%D0%B7+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C+%22%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%22+%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83&rft.date=2022-07-08&rft.au=Meduza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmeduza.io%2Ffeature%2F2022%2F07%2F08%2Fmy-hotim-ubivat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelamed2003" class="citation book cs1">Melamed, Avraham (2003). Goodman, Lenn Evan (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CarNyTThFqYC&pg=PA24">The Philosopher-King in Medieval and Renaissance Jewish Political Thought</a>. <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8770-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8770-9"><bdi>978-0-7914-8770-9</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosopher-King+in+Medieval+and+Renaissance+Jewish+Political+Thought&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-8770-9&rft.aulast=Melamed&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCarNyTThFqYC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeserve2009" class="citation book cs1">Meserve, Margaret (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XDmZXIDiZG8C&pg=PA295">Empires of Islam in Renaissance Historical Thought</a>. 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Vol. 158. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02656-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02656-8"><bdi>978-0-674-02656-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+Islam+in+Renaissance+Historical+Thought&rft.series=Harvard+Historical+Series&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02656-8&rft.aulast=Meserve&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXDmZXIDiZG8C%26pg%3DPA295&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikheyevQiuZarubinMoshkov2019" class="citation biorxiv cs1">Mikheyev, Alexander S.; Qiu, Lijun; Zarubin, Alexei; Moshkov, Nikita; Orlov, Yuri; Chartier, Duane R.; Kornienko, Igor V.; Faleeva, Tatyana G.; Klyuchnikov, Vladimir; Batieva, Elena F.; Tatarinova, Tatiana V. 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Noonan">Noonan, Thomas S.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZzXjdyK-CEC&dq=Noonan%2BThe+Economy+of+the+Khazar+Khaganate&pg=PA207">"The Economy of the Khazar Khaganate"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Peter_Benjamin_Golden" title="Peter Benjamin Golden">Golden, Peter B.</a>; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A1s_R%C3%B3na-Tas" title="András Róna-Tas">Róna-Tas, András</a> (eds.). The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Handbuch der Orientalistik: Handbook of Uralic studies. Vol. 17. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 207–244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2"><bdi>978-90-04-16042-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230415164821/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZzXjdyK-CEC&dq=Noonan+The+Economy+of+the+Khazar+Khaganate&pg=PA207">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Economy+of+the+Khazar+Khaganate&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+Khazars%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.series=Handbuch+der+Orientalistik%3A+Handbook+of+Uralic+studies&rft.pages=207-244&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16042-2&rft.aulast=Noonan&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3ZzXjdyK-CEC%26dq%3DNoonan%252BThe%2BEconomy%2Bof%2Bthe%2BKhazar%2BKhaganate%26pg%3DPA207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsson2013" class="citation journal cs1">Olsson, Joshua T. (2013). 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An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. pp. 305–328. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-27497-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-27497-8"><bdi>978-0-313-27497-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jews&rft.btitle=An+Ethnohistorical+Dictionary+of+the+Russian+and+Soviet+Empires&rft.pages=305-328&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-313-27497-8&rft.aulast=Oppenheim&rft.aufirst=Samuel+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCquTz6ps5YgC%26pg%3DPA310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrer2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Ostrer" title="Harry Ostrer">Ostrer, Harry</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RayZR3V1SFwC&pg=PA26">Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997638-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997638-6"><bdi>978-0-19-997638-6</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacy%3A+A+Genetic+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-997638-6&rft.aulast=Ostrer&rft.aufirst=Harry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRayZR3V1SFwC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrogorski1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Ostrogorski" class="mw-redirect" title="George Ostrogorski">Ostrogorski, George</a> (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofbyzanti00ostr">History of the Byzantine State</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-0599-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-0599-2"><bdi>978-0-8135-0599-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Byzantine+State&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-0599-2&rft.aulast=Ostrogorski&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofbyzanti00ostr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPataiPatai1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Patai" title="Raphael Patai">Patai, Raphael</a>; Patai, Jennifer (1989) [First published 1975]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xt7f6WBEP0EC&pg=PA71">The Myth of the Jewish Race</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wayne_State_University" title="Wayne State University">Wayne State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-1948-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-1948-2"><bdi>978-0-8143-1948-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Jewish+Race&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-1948-2&rft.aulast=Patai&rft.aufirst=Raphael&rft.au=Patai%2C+Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXt7f6WBEP0EC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeacock2010" class="citation book cs1">Peacock, Andrew C.S. 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BRILL. pp. 245–268. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2"><bdi>978-90-04-16042-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Khazaria+and+Rus%27%3A+An+Examination+of+their+Historical+Relations&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+Khazars%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.series=Handbuch+der+Orientalistik%3A+Handbook+of+Uralic+studies&rft.pages=245-268&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16042-2&rft.aulast=Petrukhin&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FThe_World_of_the_Khazars.html%253Fid%253D3ZzXjdyK-CEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetrukhinFlyorov2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Petrukhin" title="Vladimir Petrukhin">Petrukhin, Vladimir</a>; Flyorov, Valeriy (2010). "Iudaizm v Khazarii po dannym arkheologii" <bdi lang="ru">Иудаизм в Хазарии по данным археологии</bdi> [Judaism in Khazaria according to Archaeological Data]. In Bartal, Israel; Kulik, Alexander (eds.). Istoriya yevreyskogo naroda v Rossii. Ot drevnosti do rannego Novogo vremeni <bdi lang="ru">История еврейского народа в России. От древности до раннего Нового времени</bdi> [History of Jewish People in Russia. From Antiquity to the Early Modern Period] (in Russian). Vol. 1. Moscow; Jerusalem: Bridges of Culture; Gerashim. pp. 149–161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-457-51756-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-457-51756-1"><bdi>978-5-457-51756-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iudaizm+v+Khazarii+po+dannym+arkheologii+%D0%98%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC+%D0%B2+%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%BF%D0%BE+%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC+%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8&rft.btitle=Istoriya+yevreyskogo+naroda+v+Rossii.+Ot+drevnosti+do+rannego+Novogo+vremeni+%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0+%D0%B2+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8.+%D0%9E%D1%82+%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%B4%D0%BE+%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8&rft.place=Moscow%3B+Jerusalem&rft.pages=149-161&rft.pub=Bridges+of+Culture%3B+Gerashim&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-5-457-51756-1&rft.aulast=Petrukhin&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft.au=Flyorov%2C+Valeriy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiltz2004" class="citation book cs1">Piltz, Elisabeth (2004) [First published 1997]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qjy2d8ExpTAC&pg=PA42">"Middle Byzantine Court Costume"</a>. 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(2007a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZzXjdyK-CEC&pg=PR2">"Iranian Sources on the Khazars"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Peter_Benjamin_Golden" title="Peter Benjamin Golden">Golden, Peter B.</a>; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A1s_R%C3%B3na-Tas" title="András Róna-Tas">Róna-Tas, András</a> (eds.). The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Vol. 17. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 291–305. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2"><bdi>978-90-04-16042-2</bdi></a>. 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The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 188–216. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01652-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01652-1"><bdi>978-1-107-01652-1</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethos%2C+Materiality+and+Paradigms+of+Political+Action+in+Early+Medieval+Communities+of+the+Northwestern+Caspian+Region&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Power+and+Politics+in+Eurasia%3A+Regimes+and+Revolutions&rft.pages=188-216&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-107-01652-1&rft.aulast=Shingiray&rft.aufirst=Irina+Lita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUstGrkGNNQcC%26pg%3DPA208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShirota2005" class="citation journal cs1">Shirota, Shun (城田俊) (2005). 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Retrieved 1 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Racist+and+Judeophobic+Ideology+Discovers+the+Khazars%2C+or%2C+Who+Really+Are+the+Jews%3F&rft.series=Rosaline+and+Myer+Feinstein+Lecture+Series&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Singerman&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishlibraries.org%2Fmain%2FPortals%2F0%2FAJL_Assets%2Fdocuments%2FFeinstein%2FRobert%2520Singerman.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSneath2007" class="citation book cs1">Sneath, David (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OR14qaApQbgC&pg=PA25">The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, and Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-51167-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-51167-4"><bdi>978-0-231-51167-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Headless+State%3A+Aristocratic+Orders%2C+Kinship+Society%2C+and+Misrepresentations+of+Nomadic+Inner+Asia&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-231-51167-4&rft.aulast=Sneath&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOR14qaApQbgC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSomogyi2008" class="citation book cs1">Somogyi, Péter (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_-G1L-9Zec0C&pg=PA125">"New remarks on the flow of Byzantine coins in Avaria and Walachia during the second half of the seventh century"</a>. In Curta, Florin; Kovalev, Roman (eds.). The "Other" Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and Cumans. East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450–1450. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 83–149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16389-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16389-8"><bdi>978-90-04-16389-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=New+remarks+on+the+flow+of+Byzantine+coins+in+Avaria+and+Walachia+during+the+second+half+of+the+seventh+century&rft.btitle=The+%22Other%22+Europe+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Avars%2C+Bulgars%2C+Khazars+and+Cumans&rft.series=East+Central+and+Eastern+Europe+in+the+Middle+Ages%2C+450%E2%80%931450&rft.pages=83-149&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16389-8&rft.aulast=Somogyi&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A9ter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_-G1L-9Zec0C%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpinei2009" class="citation book cs1">Spinei, Victor (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9KwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50">The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">BRILL</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-004-17536-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-004-17536-5"><bdi>978-9-004-17536-5</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romanians+and+the+Turkic+Nomads+North+of+the+Danube+Delta+from+the+Tenth+to+the+Mid-Thirteenth+Century&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9-004-17536-5&rft.aulast=Spinei&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ9KwCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpolsky2014" class="citation book cs1">Spolsky, Bernard (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nl72AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA177">The Languages of the Jews: A Sociolinguistic History</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-05544-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-05544-5"><bdi>978-1-107-05544-5</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+the+Jews%3A+A+Sociolinguistic+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-05544-5&rft.aulast=Spolsky&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnl72AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStampfer2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shaul_Stampfer" title="Shaul Stampfer">Stampfer, Shaul</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jewish_social_studies/v019/19.3.stampfer.pdf">"Did the Khazars Convert to Judaism?"</a> (PDF). Jewish Social Studies. 19 (3): 1–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2Fjewisocistud.19.3.1">10.2979/jewisocistud.19.3.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161320785">161320785</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Project_MUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MUSE">Project MUSE</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Social+Studies&rft.atitle=Did+the+Khazars+Convert+to+Judaism%3F&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-72&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2979%2Fjewisocistud.19.3.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161320785%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stampfer&rft.aufirst=Shaul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fjournals%2Fjewish_social_studies%2Fv019%2F19.3.stampfer.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStampfer2014" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shaul_Stampfer" title="Shaul Stampfer">Stampfer, Shaul</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishreviewofbooks.com/articles/802/are-we-all-khazars-now/">"Are We All Khazars Now?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Review_of_Books" title="Jewish Review of Books">Jewish Review of Books</a>. pp. 1–72. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160501183726/http://jewishreviewofbooks.com/articles/802/are-we-all-khazars-now/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=Are+We+All+Khazars+Now%3F&rft.pages=1-72&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Stampfer&rft.aufirst=Shaul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishreviewofbooks.com%2Farticles%2F802%2Fare-we-all-khazars-now%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzádeczky-Kardoss1994" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Szádeczky-Kardoss, Samuel (1994) [First published 1990]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=PR5">"The Avars"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Denis_Sinor" title="Denis Sinor">Sinor, Denis</a> (ed.). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 206–228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24304-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24304-9"><bdi>978-0-521-24304-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 February 2013 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Avars&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Early+Inner+Asia&rft.series=Handbook+of+Oriental+Studies&rft.pages=206-228&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24304-9&rft.aulast=Sz%C3%A1deczky-Kardoss&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DST6TRNuWmHsC%26pg%3DPR5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzpiech2012" class="citation book cs1">Szpiech, Ryan (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JDWq_qDnAqAC&pg=PA102">Conversion and Narrative: Reading and Religious Authority in Medieval Polemic</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0761-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0761-3"><bdi>978-0-8122-0761-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conversion+and+Narrative%3A+Reading+and+Religious+Authority+in+Medieval+Polemic&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0761-3&rft.aulast=Szpiech&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJDWq_qDnAqAC%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzyszman1980" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Szyszman" class="extiw" title="fr:Simon Szyszman">Szyszman, Simon</a> [in French] (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1UEavztCkKIC&pg=PA71">Le karaïsme: ses doctrines et son histoire</a> [Karaism: its doctrines and its history] (in French). Éditions L'Âge d'Homme. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-8251-3088-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-8251-3088-9"><bdi>978-2-8251-3088-9</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+kara%C3%AFsme%3A+ses+doctrines+et+son+histoire&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+L%27%C3%82ge+d%27Homme&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-2-8251-3088-9&rft.aulast=Szyszman&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1UEavztCkKIC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaagepera1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Taagepera, Rein</a> (September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807">"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Studies_Quarterly" title="International Studies Quarterly">International Studies Quarterly</a>. 41 (3): 496. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053">10.1111/0020-8833.00053</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2600793">2600793</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Expansion+and+Contraction+Patterns+of+Large+Polities%3A+Context+for+Russia&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=496&rft.date=1997-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F0020-8833.00053&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2600793%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Taagepera&rft.aufirst=Rein&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.escholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F3cn68807&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiu_Tangshu,_Vol._199b_Tiele" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Jiu_Tangshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiu Tangshu">Tangshu, Jiu</a>; Jiu Tangshu. <a class="external text" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%88%8A%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7199%E4%B8%8B#%E9%90%B5%E5%8B%92">Vol. 199b Tiele</a> (in Chinese). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110516124654/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%88%8A%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7199%E4%B8%8B#%E9%90%B5%E5%8B%92">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vol.+199b+Tiele&rft.aulast=Tangshu&rft.aufirst=Jiu&rft.au=Jiu+Tangshu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E8%2588%258A%25E5%2594%2590%25E6%259B%25B8%2F%25E5%258D%25B7199%25E4%25B8%258B%23%25E9%2590%25B5%25E5%258B%2592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToch2012" class="citation book cs1">Toch, Michael (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M5oNKrvYWZAC&pg=PA155">The Economic History of European Jews: Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages</a>. Études sur le Judaïsme Médiéval. Vol. 56. Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23534-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23534-2"><bdi>978-90-04-23534-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+History+of+European+Jews%3A+Late+Antiquity+and+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=%C3%89tudes+sur+le+Juda%C3%AFsme+M%C3%A9di%C3%A9val&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-90-04-23534-2&rft.aulast=Toch&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM5oNKrvYWZAC%26pg%3DPA155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToynbee1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. 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Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X">1076-156X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190520161830/http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381">Archived</a> from the original on 20 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=East-West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=222&rft.date=2006-12&rft.issn=1076-156X&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjwsr.pitt.edu%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fjwsr%2Farticle%2Fview%2F369%2F381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogt1975" class="citation journal cs1">Vogt, Judith (1975). "Left-wing 'anti-Zionism' in Norway". <a href="/wiki/Patterns_of_Prejudice" title="Patterns of Prejudice">Patterns of Prejudice</a>. 9 (6): 15–q8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0031322X.1975.9969275">10.1080/0031322X.1975.9969275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Patterns+of+Prejudice&rft.atitle=Left-wing+%27anti-Zionism%27+in+Norway&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=15-q8&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0031322X.1975.9969275&rft.aulast=Vogt&rft.aufirst=Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWachtel1998" class="citation book cs1">Wachtel, Andrew (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cnISZNM6X6EC&pg=PA210">Making a Nation, Breaking a Nation: Literature and Cultural Politics in Yugoslavia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. pp. 210–215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3181-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3181-2"><bdi>978-0-8047-3181-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+a+Nation%2C+Breaking+a+Nation%3A+Literature+and+Cultural+Politics+in+Yugoslavia&rft.pages=210-215&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-3181-2&rft.aulast=Wachtel&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcnISZNM6X6EC%26pg%3DPA210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang_Pu,_vol_98" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wang, Pu; et al. <a class="external text" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%94%90%E6%9C%83%E8%A6%81/%E5%8D%B7098">Tang Huiyao</a> (in Chinese). Vol. 98. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210119092204/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%94%90%E6%9C%83%E8%A6%81/%E5%8D%B7098">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tang+Huiyao&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Pu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E5%2594%2590%25E6%259C%2583%25E8%25A6%2581%2F%25E5%258D%25B7098&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang_Pu,_vol._72" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wang, Pu; et al. <a class="external text" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%94%90%E6%9C%83%E8%A6%81/%E5%8D%B7072">Tang Huiyao</a> (in Chinese). Vol. 72. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201104005510/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%94%90%E6%9C%83%E8%A6%81/%E5%8D%B7072">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tang+Huiyao&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Pu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E5%2594%2590%25E6%259C%2583%25E8%25A6%2581%2F%25E5%258D%25B7072&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWasserstein2007" class="citation book cs1">Wasserstein, David (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/The_World_of_the_Khazars.html%3Fid%3D3ZzXjdyK-CEC">"The Khazars and the World of Islam"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Peter_Benjamin_Golden" title="Peter Benjamin Golden">Golden, Peter B.</a>; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A1s_R%C3%B3na-Tas" title="András Róna-Tas">Róna-Tas, András</a> (eds.). The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Handbuch der Orientalistik: Handbook of Uralic studies. Vol. 17. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 373–386. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2"><bdi>978-90-04-16042-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Khazars+and+the+World+of+Islam&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+Khazars%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.series=Handbuch+der+Orientalistik%3A+Handbook+of+Uralic+studies&rft.pages=373-386&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16042-2&rft.aulast=Wasserstein&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FThe_World_of_the_Khazars.html%253Fid%253D3ZzXjdyK-CEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWei_Zheng,_vol._84" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wei, Zheng; et al. <a class="external text" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%9A%8B%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B784#%E9%90%B5%E5%8B%92">"vol. 84"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Sui" title="Book of Sui">Book of Sui</a> (in Chinese). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221211133548/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%9A%8B%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B784#%E9%90%B5%E5%8B%92">Archived</a> from the original on 11 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=vol.+84&rft.btitle=Book+of+Sui&rft.aulast=Wei&rft.aufirst=Zheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E9%259A%258B%25E6%259B%25B8%2F%25E5%258D%25B784%23%25E9%2590%25B5%25E5%258B%2592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinryb1973a" class="citation book cs1">Weinryb, Bernard Dov (1973a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K2DgBdSCQnsC&q=Abraham+Firkovich+khazars&pg=PA21">The Jews of Poland: A Social and Economic History of the Jewish Community in Poland from 1100 to 1800</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Publication_Society" title="Jewish Publication Society">Jewish Publication Society</a>. pp. 21–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0016-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0016-4"><bdi>978-0-8276-0016-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Poland%3A+A+Social+and+Economic+History+of+the+Jewish+Community+in+Poland+from+1100+to+1800&rft.pages=21-22&rft.pub=Jewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-8276-0016-4&rft.aulast=Weinryb&rft.aufirst=Bernard+Dov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK2DgBdSCQnsC%26q%3DAbraham%2BFirkovich%2Bkhazars%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinryb1973b" class="citation book cs1">Weinryb, Bernard Dov (1973b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K2DgBdSCQnsC&pg=PA20">The Jews of Poland: A Social and Economic History of the Jewish Community in Poland from 1100 to 1800 he non-Jewish origins of the Sephardic Jews</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Publication_Society" title="Jewish Publication Society">Jewish Publication Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0016-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0016-4"><bdi>978-0-8276-0016-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Poland%3A+A+Social+and+Economic+History+of+the+Jewish+Community+in+Poland+from+1100+to+1800+he+non-Jewish+origins+of+the+Sephardic+Jews&rft.pub=Jewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-8276-0016-4&rft.aulast=Weinryb&rft.aufirst=Bernard+Dov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK2DgBdSCQnsC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1920" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_George_Wells" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert George Wells">Wells, H. G.</a> (1920). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/594">The Outline of History: Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind</a>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200713075456/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/594">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Outline+of+History%3A+Being+a+Plain+History+of+Life+and+Mankind&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=H.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FPage%3AThe_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu%2F594&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWexler1987" class="citation book cs1">Wexler, Paul (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FfYUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA72">Explorations in Judeo-Slavic Linguistics</a>. Contributions to the sociology of Jewish languages. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Archive</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07656-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07656-3"><bdi>978-90-04-07656-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Explorations+in+Judeo-Slavic+Linguistics&rft.series=Contributions+to+the+sociology+of+Jewish+languages&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07656-3&rft.aulast=Wexler&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFfYUAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWexler1996" class="citation book cs1">Wexler, Paul (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XZwO2TX8EOcC&pg=PA25">The non-Jewish origins of the Sephardic Jews</a>. <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York" title="State University of New York">SUNY</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-2393-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-2393-7"><bdi>978-1-4384-2393-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231117073550/https://books.google.com/books?id=XZwO2TX8EOcC&pg=PA25">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2015 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+non-Jewish+origins+of+the+Sephardic+Jews&rft.pub=SUNY&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-2393-7&rft.aulast=Wexler&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXZwO2TX8EOcC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWexler2002" class="citation book cs1">Wexler, Paul (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JL7CY2MW63gC&pg=PA537">Two-Tiered Relexification in Yiddish: Jews, Sorbs, Khazars and the Kiev-Polessian Dialect</a>. Trends in linguistics / Studies and monographs: Studies and monographs. Vol. 136. <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017258-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017258-4"><bdi>978-3-11-017258-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231117073549/https://books.google.com/books?id=JL7CY2MW63gC&pg=PA537">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2015 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two-Tiered+Relexification+in+Yiddish%3A+Jews%2C+Sorbs%2C+Khazars+and+the+Kiev-Polessian+Dialect&rft.series=Trends+in+linguistics+%2F+Studies+and+monographs%3A+Studies+and+monographs&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017258-4&rft.aulast=Wexler&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJL7CY2MW63gC%26pg%3DPA537&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWexler2007" class="citation book cs1">Wexler, Paul (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZzXjdyK-CEC&pg=PA387">"Yiddish Evidence for the Khazar Component in the Ashkenazic ethnogenesis"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Peter_Benjamin_Golden" title="Peter Benjamin Golden">Golden, Peter B.</a>; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A1s_R%C3%B3na-Tas" title="András Róna-Tas">Róna-Tas, András</a> (eds.). The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Handbuch der Orientalistik: Handbook of Uralic studies. Vol. 17. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 387–398. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2"><bdi>978-90-04-16042-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231117073542/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZzXjdyK-CEC&pg=PA387">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2015 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yiddish+Evidence+for+the+Khazar+Component+in+the+Ashkenazic+ethnogenesis&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+Khazars%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.series=Handbuch+der+Orientalistik%3A+Handbook+of+Uralic+studies&rft.pages=387-398&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16042-2&rft.aulast=Wexler&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3ZzXjdyK-CEC%26pg%3DPA387&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittow1996" class="citation book cs1">Whittow, David (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=22NNIjrpd20C&pg=PA226">The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20496-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20496-6"><bdi>978-0-520-20496-6</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Byzantium%2C+600%E2%80%931025&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20496-6&rft.aulast=Whittow&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D22NNIjrpd20C%26pg%3DPA226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXin_Tangshu,_vol_217a_Huihe" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Xin, Tangshu. <a class="external text" href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7217%E4%B8%8A">New Book of Tang</a> (in Chinese). Vol. 217a Huihe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190504083529/https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7217%E4%B8%8A">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Book+of+Tang&rft.aulast=Xin&rft.aufirst=Tangshu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E6%2596%25B0%25E5%2594%2590%25E6%259B%25B8%2F%25E5%258D%25B7217%25E4%25B8%258A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhivkov2015" class="citation book cs1">Zhivkov, Boris (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Du2CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA173">Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">BRILL</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-004-29448-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-004-29448-6"><bdi>978-9-004-29448-6</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Khazaria+in+the+Ninth+and+Tenth+Centuries&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-9-004-29448-6&rft.aulast=Zhivkov&rft.aufirst=Boris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7Du2CAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimonyi1990" class="citation book cs1">Zimonyi, István (1990). Szõnyi-Sándor, Klára (ed.). The Origins of the Volga Bulghars. Studia Uralo-Altaica, 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-481-839-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-481-839-7"><bdi>978-963-481-839-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Volga+Bulghars&rft.series=Studia+Uralo-Altaica%2C+32&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-963-481-839-7&rft.aulast=Zimonyi&rft.aufirst=Istv%C3%A1n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuckerman1995" class="citation journal cs1">Zuckerman, Constantine (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/rebyz_0766-5598_1995_num_53_1_1906">"On the date of the Khazars' Conversion to Judaism and the Chronology of the Kings of the Rus' Oleg and Igor"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Revue_des_%C3%A9tudes_byzantines" title="Revue des études byzantines">Revue des études byzantines</a>. 53: 237–270. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Frebyz.1995.1906">10.3406/rebyz.1995.1906</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129134425/https://www.persee.fr/doc/rebyz_0766-5598_1995_num_53_1_1906">Archived</a> from the original on 29 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+des+%C3%A9tudes+byzantines&rft.atitle=On+the+date+of+the+Khazars%27+Conversion+to+Judaism+and+the+Chronology+of+the+Kings+of+the+Rus%27+Oleg+and+Igor&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=237-270&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Frebyz.1995.1906&rft.aulast=Zuckerman&rft.aufirst=Constantine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Frebyz_0766-5598_1995_num_53_1_1906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuckerman2007" class="citation book cs1">Zuckerman, Constantine (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/The_World_of_the_Khazars.html%3Fid%3D3ZzXjdyK-CEC">"The Khazars and Byzantium –The First Encounter"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Peter_Benjamin_Golden" title="Peter Benjamin Golden">Golden, Peter B.</a>; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A1s_R%C3%B3na-Tas" title="András Róna-Tas">Róna-Tas, András</a> (eds.). The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Handbuch der Orientalistik: Handbook of Uralic studies. Vol. 17. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. 399–431. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16042-2"><bdi>978-90-04-16042-2</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Khazars+and+Byzantium+%E2%80%93The+First+Encounter&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+Khazars%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.series=Handbuch+der+Orientalistik%3A+Handbook+of+Uralic+studies&rft.pages=399-431&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16042-2&rft.aulast=Zuckerman&rft.aufirst=Constantine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FThe_World_of_the_Khazars.html%253Fid%253D3ZzXjdyK-CEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaspian_Sea_translation" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.classes.ru/all-crtatar/dictionary-russian-crtatar-cyr-term-3892.htm">"КАСПИЙСКОЕ МОРЕ перевод [CASPIAN SEA translation]"</a>. Русско-крымскотатарский словарь (кириллица) [Russian-Crimean Tatar Dictionary (Cyrillic)] (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211026015642/http://www.classes.ru/all-crtatar/dictionary-russian-crtatar-cyr-term-3892.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%A1%D0%9F%D0%98%D0%99%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%9E%D0%95+%D0%9C%D0%9E%D0%A0%D0%95+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4+%5BCASPIAN+SEA+translation%5D&rft.btitle=%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C+%28%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0%29+%5BRussian-Crimean+Tatar+Dictionary+%28Cyrillic%29%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.classes.ru%2Fall-crtatar%2Fdictionary-russian-crtatar-cyr-term-3892.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWho_are_the_Mishars?2016" class="citation magazine cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inde.io/article/2207-yasno-ponyatno-kto-takie-mishari">"Ясно-понятно. Кто такие мишари?"</a> [Clearly understood: Who are the Mishars?]. Инде (inde.io) (in Russian). 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221108191102/https://inde.io/article/2207-yasno-ponyatno-kto-takie-mishari">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5+%28inde.io%29&rft.atitle=%D0%AF%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE.+%D0%9A%D1%82%D0%BE+%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%3F&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finde.io%2Farticle%2F2207-yasno-ponyatno-kto-takie-mishari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKhazars" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/GOLD/thumbs?class_mark=T-S_12.122">The Kievan Letter scan</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Library" title="Cambridge University Library">Cambridge University Library</a> collection.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.khazaria.com">Khazaria.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19971221083021/http://khazaria.com/">Archived</a> 21 December 1997 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20061003195338/http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryid=457&rsid=478">Resources – Medieval Jewish History – The Khazars</a> The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091026233731/http://geocities.com/ayatoles/">Khazar Historic Maps</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 26 October 2009)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/khz/index.htm">The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100106005357/http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/khz/index.htm">Archived</a> 6 January 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/2.209/ancient-lost-capital-of-the-jewish-khazar-kingdom-found-1.254377">Ancient lost capital of the Khazar kingdom found</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170810091901/http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/2.209/ancient-lost-capital-of-the-jewish-khazar-kingdom-found-1.254377">Archived</a> 10 August 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise; color:inherit;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afshar_dialect" title="Afshar dialect">Afshar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altai_languages" title="Altai languages">Altai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Altai_language" title="Northern Altai language">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Altai_language" title="Southern Altai language">Southern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%84ynu_language" title="Äynu language">Äynu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashkir_language" title="Bashkir language">Bashkir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgar_language" title="Bulgar language">Bulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_language" title="Chagatai language">Chagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chulym_language" title="Chulym language">Chulym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuvash_language" title="Chuvash language">Chuvash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_language" title="Crimean Tatar language">Crimean Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuman_language" title="Cuman language">Cuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolgan_language" title="Dolgan language">Dolgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuyu_Kyrgyz_language" title="Fuyu Kyrgyz language">Fuyü Gïrgïs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gagauz_language" title="Gagauz language">Gagauz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Turki_language" title="Ili Turki language">Ili Turki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karachay-Balkar" title="Karachay-Balkar">Karachay-Balkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakalpak_language" title="Karakalpak language">Karakalpak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karamanli_Turkish" title="Karamanli Turkish">Karamanli Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khakas_language" title="Khakas language">Khakas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalaj_language" title="Khalaj language">Khalaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_language" title="Khazar language">Khazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Turkic" title="Khorasani Turkic">Khorasani Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipchak_languages" title="Kipchak languages">Kipchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumyk_language" title="Kumyk language">Kumyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipchak_languages" title="Kipchak languages">Kipchak languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogai_language" title="Nogai language">Nogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic" title="Old Turkic">Old Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish" title="Ottoman Turkish">Ottoman Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pecheneg_language" title="Pecheneg language">Pecheneg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qashqai_language" title="Qashqai language">Qashqai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_language" title="Yakut language">Sakha/Yakut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salar_language" title="Salar language">Salar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shor_language" title="Shor language">Shor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Tatar_language" title="Siberian Tatar language">Siberian Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tofa_language" title="Tofa language">Tofa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvan_language" title="Tuvan language">Tuvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urum_language" title="Urum language">Urum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yugur_language" title="Western Yugur language">Western Yugur</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Alphabets" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise; color:inherit;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_alphabets_used_by_Turkic_languages" title="List of alphabets used by Turkic languages">Alphabets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Old Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Turkic_Alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Turkic Alphabet">Common Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Old Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_alphabet" title="Persian alphabet">Persian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Turkic_States" title="Organization of Turkic States"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Emblem_of_the_Organization_of_Turkic_States.svg/100px-Emblem_of_the_Organization_of_Turkic_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Emblem_of_the_Organization_of_Turkic_States.svg/150px-Emblem_of_the_Organization_of_Turkic_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Emblem_of_the_Organization_of_Turkic_States.svg/200px-Emblem_of_the_Organization_of_Turkic_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise; color:inherit;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Peoples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afshar_people" title="Afshar people">Afshars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altai_people" title="Altai people">Altaians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chelkans" title="Chelkans">Chelkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kumandins" title="Kumandins">Kumandins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telengits" title="Telengits">Telengits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teleuts" title="Teleuts">Teleuts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tubalars" title="Tubalars">Tubalars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a> <ul><li>in <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijanis" title="Iranian Azerbaijanis">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis_in_Armenia" title="Azerbaijanis in Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis_in_Georgia" title="Azerbaijanis in Georgia">Georgia</a>1</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkars" title="Balkars">Balkars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashkirs" title="Bashkirs">Bashkirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chulyms" title="Chulyms">Chulyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuvash_people" title="Chuvash people">Chuvash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolgans" title="Dolgans">Dolgans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gagauz_people" title="Gagauz people">Gagauz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karachays" title="Karachays">Karachays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakalpaks" title="Karakalpaks">Karakalpaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakhs</a> <ul><li>in <a href="/wiki/Kazakhs_in_China" title="Kazakhs in China">China</a>1</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khakas" title="Khakas">Khakas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalaj_people" title="Khalaj people">Khalaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Turks" title="Khorasani Turks">Khorasani Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_people" title="Kyrgyz people">Kyrgyz</a> <ul><li>in <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_in_China" title="Kyrgyz in China">China</a>1</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumyks" title="Kumyks">Kumyks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naimans" title="Naimans">Naimans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogais" title="Nogais">Nogais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarai_Turks" class="mw-redirect" title="Qarai Turks">Qarai Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qashqai_people" title="Qashqai people">Qashqai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salar_people" title="Salar people">Salar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shors" title="Shors">Shors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Tatars" title="Siberian Tatars">Siberian Tatars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baraba_Tatars" title="Baraba Tatars">Baraba Tatars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrakhan_Tatars" title="Astrakhan Tatars">Astrakhan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Tatars" title="Chinese Tatars">Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lipka_Tatars" title="Lipka Tatars">Lipka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kryashens" title="Kryashens">Kryashens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mishar_Tatars" title="Mishar Tatars">Mishar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Na%C4%9Fayb%C3%A4k" title="Nağaybäk">Nağaybäk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volga_Tatars" title="Volga Tatars">Volga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tofalar" title="Tofalar">Tofalar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmens" title="Turkmens">Turkmens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Turkmens" title="Afghan Turkmens">Afghan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Turkmens" title="Iranian Turkmens">Iranian</a>1</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turkish</a> <ul><li>in <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Abkhazia" title="Turks in Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Algeria" title="Turks in Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Turks" title="Bulgarian Turks">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Croatia" title="Turks in Croatia">Croatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cretan_Turks" class="mw-redirect" title="Cretan Turks">Crete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Cypriots" title="Turkish Cypriots">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_of_the_Dodecanese" title="Turks of the Dodecanese">Dodecanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Egypt" title="Turks in Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Turks in Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Kosovo" title="Turks in Kosovo">Kosovo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Turks in Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Libya" title="Turks in Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_North_Macedonia" title="Turks in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meskhetian_Turks" title="Meskhetian Turks">Meskhetia (Ahiska)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Montenegro" title="Turks in Montenegro">Montenegro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_of_Romania" title="Turks of Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Serbia" title="Turks in Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen" title="Syrian Turkmen">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Tunisia" title="Turks in Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_of_Western_Thrace" title="Turks of Western Thrace">Western Thrace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Yemen" title="Turks in Yemen">Yemen</a>1</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvans" title="Tuvans">Tuvans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a> <ul><li>in <a href="/wiki/Uzbeks_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uzbeks in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>1</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakuts" title="Yakuts">Yakuts</a> (Sakha)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugurs" title="Yugurs">Yugurs</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Extinct_Turkic_groups" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise;;width:1%">Extinct Turkic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulaqs" title="Bulaqs">Bulaqs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dughlats" title="Dughlats">Dughlats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karluks" title="Karluks">Karluks</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khazars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemek" title="Yemek">Kimek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27o-sa" title="K'o-sa">K'o-sa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatuo" title="Shatuo">Shatuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzes_(people)" title="Uzes (people)">Uzes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise; color:inherit;;width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grey_Wolves_(organization)" title="Grey Wolves (organization)">Grey Wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jadid" title="Jadid">Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Turkism" title="Pan-Turkism">Pan-Turkism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Turkey)" title="Idealism (Turkey)">Turkesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turanism" title="Turanism">Turanism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Turanism" title="Hungarian Turanism">Hungarian</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise; color:inherit;;width:1%">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkestan" title="Turkestan">Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples#History" title="Turkic peoples">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Timeline of the Göktürks">Timeline of the Göktürks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Turkic_peoples_(500%E2%80%931300)" title="Timeline of the Turkic peoples (500–1300)">Timeline 500–1300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_migration" title="Turkic migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkification" title="Turkification">Turkification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomadic_empire" title="Nomadic empire">Nomadic empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongol_tradition" title="Turco-Mongol tradition">Turco-Mongol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tian Shan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altai Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otuken" class="mw-redirect" title="Otuken">Otuken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_tribal_confederations" title="Turkic tribal confederations">Oğuz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise; color:inherit;;width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cyprus" title="Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_division" title="Autonomous administrative division">Autonomous areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altai_Republic" title="Altai Republic">Altai Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashkortostan" title="Bashkortostan">Bashkortostan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuvashia" title="Chuvashia">Chuvashia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gagauzia" title="Gagauzia">Gagauzia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabardino-Balkaria" title="Kabardino-Balkaria">Kabardino-Balkaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karachay-Cherkessia" title="Karachay-Cherkessia">Karachay-Cherkessia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakalpakstan" title="Karakalpakstan">Karakalpakstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khakassia" title="Khakassia">Khakassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakhchivan_Autonomous_Republic" title="Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic">Nakhchivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakha_Republic" title="Sakha Republic">Sakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarstan" title="Tatarstan">Tatarstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva" title="Tuva">Tuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise; color:inherit;;width:1%">Studies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Old Turkic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Turkic_language" title="Proto-Turkic language">Proto-Turkic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkology" title="Turkology">Turkology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise; color:inherit;;width:1%">Religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turkic mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism#Central_Asia" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aiyy_Faith" title="Aiyy Faith">Aiyy Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Central_Asia" title="Islam in Central Asia">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batiniyya" title="Batiniyya">Batiniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayramiye" title="Bayramiye">Bayramiye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bektashi_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Bektashi Order">Bektashi Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_Christians" title="Turkic Christians">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurufism" title="Hurufism">Hurufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalwati_order" title="Khalwati order">Khalwati order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malamatiyya" title="Malamatiyya">Malamatiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadiriyya" title="Qadiriyya">Qadiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalandariyya" title="Qalandariyya">Qalandariyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifa%CA%BDi" title="Rifaʽi">Rifaʽi</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_order" title="Safavid order">Safaviyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zahediyeh" title="Zahediyeh">Zahediyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise; color:inherit;;width:1%">Traditional sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyz_kuu" title="Kyz kuu">Kyz kuu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jereed" title="Jereed">Jereed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buzkashi" title="Buzkashi">Kokpar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jigit" title="Jigit">Jigit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chovgan" title="Chovgan">Chovgan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:paleturquoise; color:inherit;;width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Turkic_States" title="Organization of Turkic States">Organization of Turkic States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Organization_of_Turkic_Culture" title="International Organization of Turkic Culture">International Organization of Turkic Culture (TÜRKSOY)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TURKPA" title="TURKPA">Parliamentary Assembly (TURKPA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_Academy" title="Turkic Academy">Turkic Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAKM" title="TAKM">Organization of the Eurasian Law Enforcement Agencies with Military Status (TAKM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Turks_Qurultai" title="World Turks Qurultai">World Turks Qurultai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:paleturquoise; color:inherit;"><div>1These are traditional areas of settlement; the Turkic group has been living in the listed country/region for centuries and should not be confused with modern diasporas. 2<a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">State with limited international recognition</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Khazaria" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:burlywood; font-weight:bold;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Khazaria" title="Template:Khazaria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Khazaria" title="Template talk:Khazaria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Khazaria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Khazaria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Khazaria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khazaria</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:burlywood; font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria" title="Old Great Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Khazar_wars" title="Arab–Khazar wars">Arab–Khazar wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meshchera" class="mw-redirect" title="Meshchera">Meshchera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Khazarica" title="Pax Khazarica">Pax Khazarica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">Dnieper trade route</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:burlywood; font-weight:bold;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Khazar_rulers" title="List of Khazar rulers">Khazar rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irbis_(Khazar)" title="Irbis (Khazar)">Irbis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Busir" title="Busir">Busir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bihar_(Khazar)" title="Bihar (Khazar)">Bihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsbit" title="Parsbit">Parsbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachariah_(Khazar)" title="Zachariah (Khazar)">Zachariah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulan_(Khazar)" title="Bulan (Khazar)">Bulan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obadiah_(Khazar)" title="Obadiah (Khazar)">Obadiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezekiah_(Khazar)" title="Hezekiah (Khazar)">Hezekiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manasseh_I" title="Manasseh I">Manasseh I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanukkah_ben_Obadiah" title="Hanukkah ben Obadiah">Hanukkah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_(Khazar)" title="Isaac (Khazar)">Isaac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebulun_(Khazar)" title="Zebulun (Khazar)">Zebulun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manasseh_II" title="Manasseh II">Manasseh II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisi_ben_Menasseh" title="Nisi ben Menasseh">Nisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_I" title="Aaron I">Aaron I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menahem_(Khazar)" title="Menahem (Khazar)">Menahem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_(Khazar)" title="Benjamin (Khazar)">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_II" title="Aaron II">Aaron II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_(Khazar)" title="Joseph (Khazar)">Joseph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_of_Taman" title="David of Taman">David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgius_Tzul" title="Georgius Tzul">George</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Chasaren.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map showing extent of Khazar lands"><img alt="Map showing extent of Khazar lands" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Chasaren.jpg/120px-Chasaren.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Chasaren.jpg/180px-Chasaren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Chasaren.jpg/240px-Chasaren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1394" data-file-height="1133" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:burlywood; font-weight:bold;;width:1%">Other figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alp_Iluetuer" title="Alp Iluetuer">Alp Iluetuer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alp_Tarkhan" title="Alp Tarkhan">Alp Tarkhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balgitzin" title="Balgitzin">Balgitzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barjik" title="Barjik">Barjik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulchan" title="Bulchan">Bulchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazer_Tarkhan" title="Hazer Tarkhan">Hazer Tarkhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleg_of_Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Oleg of Novgorod">HLGW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Gothia" title="John of Gothia">John of Gothia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_IV_the_Khazar" title="Leo IV the Khazar">Leo IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papatzys" title="Papatzys">Papatzys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesakh_(general)" title="Pesakh (general)">Pesakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ras_Tarkhan" title="Ras Tarkhan">Ras Tarkhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serach_(Khazar)" title="Serach (Khazar)">Serach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sfengus" title="Sfengus">Sfengus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav_I_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sviatoslav I of Kiev">Sviatoslav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodora_of_Khazaria" title="Theodora of Khazaria">Theodora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzitzak" title="Tzitzak">Tzitzak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_ha-Sangari" title="Yitzhak ha-Sangari">Yitzhak ha-Sangari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:burlywood; font-weight:bold;;width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atil" title="Atil">Atil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azov" title="Azov">Azaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balanjar" title="Balanjar">Balanjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dnieper" title="Dnieper">Bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chersonesus" title="Chersonesus">Chersonesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCsliyev" class="mw-redirect" title="Güsliyev">Güsliyev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Hills_(Russia)" title="Golden Hills (Russia)">Golden Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaffa_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaffa (city)">Kaffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Kavkaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazarki" title="Kazarki">Kazarki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerch" title="Kerch">Kerch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Kerem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazaran" title="Khazaran">Khazaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khumar" title="Khumar">Khumar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Levedia">Levedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltovo-Mayaki" title="Saltovo-Mayaki">Saltovo-Mayaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samandar_(city)" title="Samandar (city)">Samandar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambalut" title="Sambalut">Sambalut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Sambat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samiran" title="Samiran">Samiran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samosdelka" title="Samosdelka">Samosdelka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqsin" title="Saqsin">Saqsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarkel" title="Sarkel">Sarkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semikarakorsk_Fortress" title="Semikarakorsk Fortress">Semikarakorsk Fortress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudak" title="Sudak">Sudak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taman_Peninsula" title="Taman Peninsula">Taman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tmutarakan" title="Tmutarakan">Tamatarkha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:burlywood; font-weight:bold;;width:1%">Tributaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazians" title="Abkhazians">Abkhazians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsiyah" title="Arsiyah">Arsiyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baranjars" title="Baranjars">Baranjars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barsils" title="Barsils">Barsils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashkirs" title="Bashkirs">Bashkirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Klobuks" title="Black Klobuks">Black Klobuks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burtas" title="Burtas">Burtas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Crimean Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_Huns" title="North Caucasian Huns">Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Juhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabar" title="Kabar">Kabars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumyks" title="Kumyks">Kumyks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Kassogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_people" title="Laz people">Laz people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lezgins" title="Lezgins">Lezgins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_prehistory" title="Hungarian prehistory">Magyars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordvins" title="Mordvins">Mordvins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onogurs" title="Onogurs">Onogurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabir_people" title="Sabir people">Sabirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarir" title="Sarir">Sarir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria" title="Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:burlywood; font-weight:bold;;width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Artamonov_(historian)" title="Mikhail Artamonov (historian)">Mikhail Artamonov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Bartold" title="Vasily Bartold">Vasily Bartold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Morton_Dunlop" title="Douglas Morton Dunlop">D.M. Dunlop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Golb" title="Norman Golb">Norman Golb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Benjamin_Golden" title="Peter Benjamin Golden">Peter B. Golden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Gumilev" title="Lev Gumilev">Lev Gumilev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Harkavy" title="Alexander Harkavy">Alexander Harkavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Noonan" title="Thomas S. Noonan">Thomas S. Noonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Pletnyova" title="Svetlana Pletnyova">Svetlana Pletnyova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omeljan_Pritsak" title="Omeljan Pritsak">Omeljan Pritsak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:burlywood; font-weight:bold;;width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_Correspondence" title="Khazar Correspondence">Khazar Correspondence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_language" title="Khazar language">Khazar language</a></li> <li>Khazar ancestry claims <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry" title="Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Cossack_ancestry" title="Khazar hypothesis of Cossack ancestry">Cossacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Cossacks" title="Jewish Cossacks">Jewish Cossacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#In_literature">Khazars in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuzari" title="Kuzari">Kuzari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Letter" title="Kievan Letter">Kievan Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandgelis_Document" title="Mandgelis Document">Mandgelis Document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Jews" title="Red Jews">Red Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schechter_Letter" title="Schechter Letter">Schechter Letter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:burlywood; font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Khazars" title="Category:Khazars">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Turkic_peoples" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Turkic_peoples" title="Template:Turkic peoples"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Turkic_peoples" title="Template talk:Turkic peoples"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Turkic_peoples" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Turkic peoples"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Turkic_peoples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Peoples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Azerbaijani communities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijanis" title="Iranian Azerbaijanis">Iranian Azerbaijanis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahsevan" title="Shahsevan">Shahsevans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCres%C3%BCnni" title="Küresünni">Küresünni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis_in_Georgia" title="Azerbaijanis in Georgia">Georgian Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis_in_Armenia" title="Azerbaijanis in Armenia">Western Azerbaijanis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karapapakhs" title="Karapapakhs">Karapapakhs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanshir_Qizilbash" title="Javanshir Qizilbash">Javanshir Qizilbash</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kazakh communities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakhs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhs_in_China" title="Kazakhs in China">Chinese Kazakhs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Kazakhs" title="Iranian Kazakhs">Iranian Kazakhs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Kazakhs" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian Kazakhs">Mongolian Kazakhs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kyrgyz communities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_people" title="Kyrgyz people">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_in_China" title="Kyrgyz in China">Chinese Kyrgyz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akto_Turkmen" title="Akto Turkmen">Akto Turkmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrgyz in Afghanistan">Afghan Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_in_Tajikistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrgyz in Tajikistan">Tajik Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Kyrgyz" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Kyrgyz">Van Kyrgyz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Turkmen1 communities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkmens" title="Turkmens">Turkmens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Turkmens" title="Afghan Turkmens">Afghan Turkmens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ansarlu" title="Ansarlu">Ansarlu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Turkmens" title="Iranian Turkmens">Iranian Turkmens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akto_Turkmen" title="Akto Turkmen">Akto Turkmen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Turkish communities2</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gajal" title="Gajal">Gajal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhacir" title="Muhacir">Muhacirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahtac%C4%B1" title="Tahtacı">Tahtacıs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C3%B6r%C3%BCks" title="Yörüks">Yörüks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Abkhazia" title="Turks in Abkhazia">Abkhazian Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Algeria" title="Turks in Algeria">Algerian Turks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kouloughlis" title="Kouloughlis">Kouloughlis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnian Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Turks" title="Bulgarian Turks">Bulgarian Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Croatia" title="Turks in Croatia">Croatian Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_Muslims" title="Cretan Muslims">Cretan Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Cypriots" title="Turkish Cypriots">Cypriot Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_of_the_Dodecanese" title="Turks of the Dodecanese">Dodecanese Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Egypt" title="Turks in Egypt">Egyptian Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Turkmen" title="Israeli Turkmen">Israeli Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Kosovo" title="Turks in Kosovo">Kosovan Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Turkmen" title="Lebanese Turkmen">Lebanese Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Libya" title="Turks in Libya">Libyan Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_North_Macedonia" title="Turks in North Macedonia">Macedonian Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meskhetian_Turks" title="Meskhetian Turks">Meskhetian (Ahiska) Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Montenegro" title="Turks in Montenegro">Montenegrin Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Palestine" title="Turks in Palestine">Palestinian Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_of_Romania" title="Turks of Romania">Romanian Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Serbia" title="Turks in Serbia">Serbian Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen" title="Syrian Turkmen">Syrian Turkmen/Turkoman</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Tunisia" title="Turks in Tunisia">Tunisian Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_of_Western_Thrace" title="Turks of Western Thrace">Western Thracian Turks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Turkic peoples in Uzbekistan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakalpaks" title="Karakalpaks">Karakalpaks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Turkic minorities in China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%84ynu_people" title="Äynu people">Äynu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Tatars" title="Chinese Tatars">Chinese Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhs_in_China" title="Kazakhs in China">Chinese Kazakhs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_in_China" title="Kyrgyz in China">Chinese Kyrgyz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akto_Turkmen" title="Akto Turkmen">Akto Turkmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbeks_in_China" title="Uzbeks in China">Chinese Uzbeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuyu_Kyrgyz_people" title="Fuyu Kyrgyz people">Fuyu Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ili_Turk_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ili Turk people">Ili Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salar_people" title="Salar people">Salar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tor_Uyghurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tor Uyghurs">Tor Uyghurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugurs" title="Yugurs">Yugurs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Turkic minorities in Crimea</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urums" title="Urums">Urums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Turkic minorities in Iran</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijanis" title="Iranian Azerbaijanis">Iranian Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afshar_people" title="Afshar people">Afshar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaharmahali_Turks" title="Chaharmahali Turks">Chaharmahali Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalaj_people" title="Khalaj people">Khalajs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Turks" title="Khorasani Turks">Khorasani Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarai_Turks" class="mw-redirect" title="Qarai Turks">Qarai Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qashqai_people" title="Qashqai people">Qashqai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Turkmens" title="Iranian Turkmens">Iranian Turkmens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Kazakhs" title="Iranian Kazakhs">Iranian Kazakhs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Turkic minorities in Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altai_people" title="Altai people">Altaians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chelkans" title="Chelkans">Chelkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telengits" title="Telengits">Telengits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubalars" title="Tubalars">Tubalars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkars" title="Balkars">Balkars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashkirs" title="Bashkirs">Bashkirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Besermyan" title="Besermyan">Besermyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chulyms" title="Chulyms">Chulyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuvash_people" title="Chuvash people">Chuvash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolgans" title="Dolgans">Dolgans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karachays" title="Karachays">Karachays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khakas" title="Khakas">Khakas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koibal_people" title="Koibal people">Koibal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumandins" title="Kumandins">Kumandins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumyks" title="Kumyks">Kumyks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogais" title="Nogais">Nogais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shors" title="Shors">Shors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyot" title="Soyot">Soyots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrakhan_Tatars" title="Astrakhan Tatars">Astrakhan Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kryashens" title="Kryashens">Kryashens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishar_Tatars" title="Mishar Tatars">Mishar Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C4%9Fayb%C3%A4k" title="Nağaybäk">Nağaybäk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Tatars" title="Volga Tatars">Volga Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Tatars" title="Siberian Tatars">Siberian Tatars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Bukharans" title="Siberian Bukharans">Siberian Bukharans</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleuts" title="Teleuts">Teleuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tofalar" title="Tofalar">Tofalars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvans" title="Tuvans">Tuvans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tozhu_Tuvans" title="Tozhu Tuvans">Tozhu Tuvans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakuts" title="Yakuts">Yakuts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Turkic minorities in Mongolia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khotons" title="Khotons">Khotons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Kazakhs" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian Kazakhs">Mongolian Kazakhs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukha_people" title="Dukha people">Dukha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_people_in_Afghanistan" title="Turkic people in Afghanistan">Turkic minorities in Afghanistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Turkmens" title="Afghan Turkmens">Afghan Turkmens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afshar_people" title="Afshar people">Afshar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aimaq_people" title="Aimaq people">Aimaqs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timuri" title="Timuri">Timuri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ansarlu" title="Ansarlu">Ansarlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karategin_Uzbeks" title="Karategin Uzbeks">Karategin Uzbeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrgyz in Afghanistan">Afghan Kyrgyz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Turkic minorities in Europe (exc. Russia)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars_in_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Tatars in Bulgaria">Bulgarian Crimean Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Tatars" title="Finnish Tatars">Finnish Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gagauz_people" title="Gagauz people">Gagauz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipka_Tatars" title="Lipka Tatars">Lipka Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatars_of_Romania" title="Tatars of Romania">Tatars of Romania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extinct Turkic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alat_tribe" title="Alat tribe">Alat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Az_people" title="Az people">Az</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basmyl" title="Basmyl">Basmyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barsils" title="Barsils">Barsils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berendei" title="Berendei">Berendei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulaqs" title="Bulaqs">Bulaqs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chigils" title="Chigils">Chigils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Klobuks" title="Black Klobuks">Black Klobuks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dingling" title="Dingling">Dingling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duolu" title="Duolu">Duolu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dughlats" title="Dughlats">Dughlats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esegel" title="Esegel">Esegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangly" title="Kangly">Kangly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karluks" title="Karluks">Karluks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keraites" title="Keraites">Keraites</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khazars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemek" title="Yemek">Kimek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sir-K%C4%B1vchak" title="Sir-Kıvchak">Sir-Kıvchak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurykans" title="Kurykans">Kurykans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutrigurs" title="Kutrigurs">Kutrigurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkit" title="Merkit">Merkit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naimans" title="Naimans">Naimans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nushibi" title="Nushibi">Nushibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkoman_(ethnonym)" title="Turkoman (ethnonym)">Turkomans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onogurs" title="Onogurs">Onogurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabir_people" title="Sabir people">Sabirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saragurs" title="Saragurs">Saragurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatuo" title="Shatuo">Shatuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Tiele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuhsi" title="Tuhsi">Tuhsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tork_people" title="Tork people">Torks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toquz_Oghuz" title="Toquz Oghuz">Toquz Oghuz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uriankhai" title="Uriankhai">Uriankhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utigurs" title="Utigurs">Utigurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueyantuo" title="Xueyantuo">Xueyantuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenisei_Kyrgyz" title="Yenisei Kyrgyz">Yenisei Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yueban" title="Yueban">Yueban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yagma" title="Yagma">Yagma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yabaku" title="Yabaku">Yabaku</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdal_people_(West_Asia)" title="Abdal people (West Asia)">Abdals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazaras" title="Hazaras">Hazaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_people" title="Mughal people">Mughals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diasporas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_diaspora" title="Azerbaijani diaspora">Azerbaijani diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_diaspora" title="Crimean Tatar diaspora">Crimean Tatar diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_diaspora" title="Turkish diaspora">Turkish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot_diaspora" title="Turkish Cypriot diaspora">Turkish Cypriot diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_diaspora" title="Kazakh diaspora">Kazakh diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><div>1 Central Asian (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmeni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iranian</a>) <a href="/wiki/Turkmens" title="Turkmens">Turkmens</a>, distinct from Levantine (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraqi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syrian</a>) Turkmen/Turkoman minorities, who mostly adhere to an Ottoman-Turkish heritage and identity. 2 In traditional areas of Turkish settlement (i.e. former <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> territories).</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Crimea_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Crimea_topics" title="Template:Crimea topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Crimea_topics" title="Template talk:Crimea topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Crimea_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Crimea topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Crimea_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Crimea" title="Political status of Crimea">Political status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sevastopol" title="Sevastopol">Sevastopol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Crimea_(Russia)" title="Republic of Crimea (Russia)">Republic of Crimea (Russia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Republic_of_Crimea" title="Autonomous Republic of Crimea">Autonomous Republic of Crimea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Crimea" title="History of Crimea">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Crimea" title="Greek Crimea">Greek Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea_in_the_Roman_era" title="Crimea in the Roman era">Crimea in the Roman era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherson_(theme)" title="Cherson (theme)">Cherson (theme)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom" title="Bosporan Kingdom">Bosporan Kingdom</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akatziri" title="Akatziri">Akatziri</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khazars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Crimean Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Empire of Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_Gazaria" title="Genoese Gazaria">Genoese Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese%E2%80%93Mongol_Wars" title="Genoese–Mongol Wars">Genoese–Mongol Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_campaigns_of_1687_and_1689" title="Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689">Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_the_Crimean_Khanate_by_the_Russian_Empire" title="Annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire">1783 annexation by Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Crimea in the Soviet Union">Soviet period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Crimea_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Crimea during World War II">Crimea in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars" title="Deportation of the Crimean Tatars">1944 Crimean Tatar deportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaming_of_Crimean_toponyms" title="Renaming of Crimean toponyms">Renaming of Crimean toponyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_Crimea_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Transfer of Crimea in the Soviet Union">1954 transfer to Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_repatriation" title="Crimean Tatar repatriation">Crimean Tatar repatriation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Republic_of_Crimea" title="Autonomous Republic of Crimea">Autonomous Republic of Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Crimea" title="President of Crimea">President of Crimea (historical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Tuzla_Island_conflict" title="2003 Tuzla Island conflict">2003 Tuzla Island conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Crimean_status_referendum" title="2014 Crimean status referendum">2014 status referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">2014 annexation by Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verkhovna_Rada_of_Crimea" title="Verkhovna Rada of Crimea">Supreme Council of Crimea (until 2014)</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_Supreme_Council_of_Crimea" title="List of chairmen of the Supreme Council of Crimea">Chairman</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Crimea" title="Prime Minister of Crimea">Prime Minister of Crimea (until 2014)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_Crimea" title="Council of Ministers of Crimea">Council of Ministers (until 2014)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mejlis_of_the_Crimean_Tatar_People" title="Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People">Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Satellite_picture_of_Crimea,_Terra-MODIS,_05-16-2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Satellite image of Crimea"><img alt="Satellite image of Crimea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Satellite_picture_of_Crimea%2C_Terra-MODIS%2C_05-16-2015.jpg/100px-Satellite_picture_of_Crimea%2C_Terra-MODIS%2C_05-16-2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Satellite_picture_of_Crimea%2C_Terra-MODIS%2C_05-16-2015.jpg/150px-Satellite_picture_of_Crimea%2C_Terra-MODIS%2C_05-16-2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Satellite_picture_of_Crimea%2C_Terra-MODIS%2C_05-16-2015.jpg/200px-Satellite_picture_of_Crimea%2C_Terra-MODIS%2C_05-16-2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1817" data-file-height="1198" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Crimea#Geography" title="Crimea">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabat_Spit" title="Arabat Spit">Arabat Spit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Arabat" title="Bay of Arabat">Arabat Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Azov" title="Sea of Azov">Azov Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a></li> <li>Caves <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marble_Cave_(Crimea)" title="Marble Cave (Crimea)">Marble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyalova_cave" title="Vyalova cave">Vyalova</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Mountains" title="Crimean Mountains">Crimean Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerch_Strait" title="Kerch Strait">Kerch Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Perekop" title="Isthmus of Perekop">Perekop Isthmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontic%E2%80%93Caspian_steppe" title="Pontic–Caspian steppe">Pontic–Caspian steppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Coast_(Crimea)" title="Southern Coast (Crimea)">Southern Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syvash" title="Syvash">Syvash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Crimea" title="Administrative divisions of Crimea">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Crimea" title="List of cities in Crimea">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raions_of_Ukraine#Autonomous_Republic_of_Crimea" title="Raions of Ukraine">Raions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban-type_settlements_in_Ukraine_by_subdivision#Autonomous_Republic_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="List of urban-type settlements in Ukraine by subdivision">Urban-type settlements</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Crimea" title="Politics of Crimea">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Crimea_(Russia)" title="Republic of Crimea (Russia)">Republic of Crimea</a>/<a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Republic_of_Crimea" title="Autonomous Republic of Crimea">Autonomous Republic of Crimea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Crimea" title="Constitution of the Republic of Crimea">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_the_Republic_of_Crimea" title="Head of the Republic of Crimea">Head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_Crimea" title="State Council of Crimea">State Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Crimean_parliamentary_election" title="2014 Crimean parliamentary election">2014 parliamentary election</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sevastopol" title="Sevastopol">Sevastopol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Sevastopol" title="Legislative Assembly of Sevastopol">Legislative Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Sevastopol_(Russia)" title="Governor of Sevastopol (Russia)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2017_Sevastopol_gubernatorial_election" title="2017 Sevastopol gubernatorial election">2017 election</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_Fleet" title="Black Sea Fleet">Black Sea Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Federal_District" title="Crimean Federal District">Crimean Federal District</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Crimea#Economy" title="Crimea">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourism in Crimea">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Bridge" title="Crimean Bridge">Crimean Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Trolleybus" title="Crimean Trolleybus">Crimean Trolleybus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Sports" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Premier_League" title="Crimean Premier League">Crimean Premier League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Crimea" title="Demographics of Crimea">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russians_in_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Russians in Crimea">Russians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainians_in_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainians in Crimea">Ukrainians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Crimea" title="Armenians in Crimea">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greeks" title="Pontic Greeks">Pontic Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea_Germans" title="Crimea Germans">Crimea Germans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_language" title="Crimean Tatar language">Crimean Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Crimea" title="Religion in Crimea">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Ukraine" title="History of Christianity in Ukraine">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Odesa-Simferopol" title="Roman Catholic Diocese of Odesa-Simferopol">Roman Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Catholic_Archiepiscopal_Exarchate_of_Krym" title="Ukrainian Catholic Archiepiscopal Exarchate of Krym">Ukrainian Catholicism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Crimea">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Crimea">Islam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Crimea" title="Category:Crimea">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Barbarian_kingdoms_established_around_the_Migration_Period" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Template:Barbarian kingdoms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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Burgundians">Burgundian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gepids" title="Gepids">Gepid kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hunnic empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Altava" title="Kingdom of Altava">Kingdom of Altava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Kingdom of Odoacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Aur%C3%A8s" title="Kingdom of the Aurès">Kingdom of the Aurès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombard kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro-Roman_Kingdom" title="Mauro-Roman Kingdom">Mauro-Roman kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugiland" title="Rugiland">Rugian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Suebi" title="Kingdom of the Suebi">Suebian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q173282#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Khazars" title="Category:Khazars">Khazars</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_peoples_of_Russia" title="Category:Ancient peoples of Russia">Ancient peoples of Russia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ashina_tribe" title="Category:Ashina tribe">Ashina tribe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Category:Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Groups_who_converted_to_Judaism" title="Category:Groups who converted to Judaism">Groups who converted to Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Kuban" title="Category:History of Kuban">History of Kuban</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_polities" title="Category:Jewish polities">Jewish polities</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Khanates" title="Category:Khanates">Khanates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Khanates_of_the_North_Caucasus" title="Category:Khanates of the North Caucasus">Khanates of the North Caucasus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Saltovo-Mayaki_culture" title="Category:Saltovo-Mayaki culture">Saltovo-Mayaki culture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_disestablished_in_the_960s" title="Category:States and territories disestablished in the 960s">States and territories disestablished in the 960s</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_the_650s" title="Category:States and territories established in the 650s">States and territories established in the 650s</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Turkic_peoples" title="Category:Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Greek-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Greek-language text">Articles containing Greek-language text</a></li><li><a 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4.65% 189.257 3 Template:Plainlist"," 3.51% 142.672 5 Template:Langx"," 3.21% 130.677 1 Template:History_of_the_Turkic_peoples_pre-14th_century"," 3.11% 126.287 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.784","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":26161437,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbu_El-Haj2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbulafia1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAltschüler1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAtzmonOstrer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBailey1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBailey1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarkun1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarkun2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaron1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarthold1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBauer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeckwith2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeharMetspaluBaranKopelman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeharThomasSkoreckiHammer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlady2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoller1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowersock2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowmanAnkori2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrook2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrook2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrook2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrook2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrook2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowning1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurrage_Dixon1923\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCahen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameronHerrin1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaspian_Sea_translation\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCokal2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCostaPereiraRichards2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCountry_Study:_Hungary1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeWeese1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDinur1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobrovits2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubnov1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunlop1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElhaik2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEncyclopedia_Britannica:_Khazar2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErdal2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFalk2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeldman1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeldman2022a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeldman2022b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFishberg1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeanakoplos1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGil2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolbPritsak1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden1994a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden1994b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden2001a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden2001b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden2007a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden2007b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden2007c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden2011a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden2011b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolden2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldstein2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldstein2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodmanMiyazawa2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodrick-Clarke2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGow1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarkabi1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeath1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerlihy1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoworth1870\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInabaBalogh2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJiu_Tangshu,_Vol._199b_Tiele\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaegi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKizilov2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKizilov2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoestler1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohen2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolditz2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKordosis2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKornienkoFaleevaSchurrAramova2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorobkin1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorobkin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKovalev2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeviant2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLitman1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLobel2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLogan1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuttwak2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMakkai1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMako2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalkiel2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMango2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMariner1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaroney2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeduza2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelamed2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeserve2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMikheyevQiuZarubinMoshkov2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoss2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNebelFilonBrinkmann2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNebelFilonFaerman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoonan1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoonan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoonan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOppenheim1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstrer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstrogorski1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPataiPatai1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeacock2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetrukhin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetrukhinFlyorov2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiltz2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoliakov2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolonskyBasistaLink-Lenczowski1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPritsak1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReuter1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRezakhani2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussian_Primary_Chronicle\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRóna-Tas1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSand2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchama2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartzwald2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchweid2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSerrano2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapira2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapira2007a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapira2007b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapira2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShepard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShingiray2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShirota2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShnirelman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSima_Guang,_vol._196\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingerman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSneath2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSomogyi2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpinei2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpolsky2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStampfer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStampfer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzpiech2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzyszman1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzádeczky-Kardoss1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaagepera1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToch2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToynbee1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVogt1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWachtel1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang_Pu,_vol._72\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang_Pu,_vol_98\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWasserstein2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebChron:_Magyars\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWei_Zheng,_vol._84\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinryb1973a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinryb1973b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells1920\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWexler1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWexler1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWexler2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWexler2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhittow1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWho_are_the_Mishars?2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXin_Tangshu,_vol_217a_Huihe\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhivkov2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimonyi1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuckerman1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuckerman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_Kutschera1909\"] = 1,\n [\"Second_Khazar-Arab_war\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"=\"] = 2,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Barbarian kingdoms\"] = 1,\n [\"C.\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 5,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite bioRxiv\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 135,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 30,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 3,\n [\"Clarify inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Colbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Continental Asia in 800 CE\"] = 1,\n [\"Crimea topics\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Khazar\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 122,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Grc-transl\"] = 1,\n [\"Harv\"] = 87,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 15,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 34,\n [\"History of Tatarstan\"] = 1,\n [\"History of the Turkic peoples pre-14th century\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Khazaria\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 7,\n [\"Lang-zh\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 5,\n [\"Lit\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 5,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Pb\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 3,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect2\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 305,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Turkic peoples\"] = 1,\n [\"Turkic topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 4,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","700","24.3"],["?","440","15.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","220","7.6"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","6.2"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","180","6.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","140","4.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","120","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","3.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","60","2.1"],["[others]","640","22.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-w49w4","timestamp":"20241124160752","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Khazars","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Khazars","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q173282","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q173282","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-08-18T21:17:39Z","dateModified":"2024-11-09T20:18:24Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a9\/Chasaren.jpg","headline":"historical semi-nomadic Turkic ethnic group"}</script> </body> </html>