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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Composition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Composition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Composition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Flash_reduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flash_reduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Flash reduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flash_reduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacturing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacturing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Manufacturing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manufacturing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Smokeless powder</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooklose_kruit" title="Rooklose kruit – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rooklose kruit" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="بارود لادخاني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بارود لادخاني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%82" title="Бездимен барут – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бездимен барут" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poultr_divoged" title="Poultr divoged – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Poultr divoged" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3lvora_sense_fum" title="Pólvora sense fum – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pólvora sense fum" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezd%C3%BDmn%C3%BD_st%C5%99eln%C3%BD_prach" title="Bezdýmný střelný prach – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Bezdýmný střelný prach" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B8gsvagt_krudt" title="Røgsvagt krudt – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Røgsvagt krudt" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rauchschwache_Pulver" title="Rauchschwache Pulver – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rauchschwache Pulver" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3lvora_sin_humo" title="Pólvora sin humo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pólvora sin humo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA_%D8%A8%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF" title="باروت بی‌دود – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باروت بی‌دود" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poudre_sans_fum%C3%A9e" title="Poudre sans fumée – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Poudre sans fumée" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%B4%EC%97%B0_%ED%99%94%EC%95%BD" title="무연 화약 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="무연 화약" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0" title="निर्धूम पाउडर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="निर्धूम पाउडर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubuk_tak_berasap" title="Bubuk tak berasap – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bubuk tak berasap" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyklaust_p%C3%BA%C3%B0ur" title="Reyklaust púður – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Reyklaust púður" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polvere_infume" title="Polvere infume – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Polvere infume" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%A7_%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9C_%D7%A2%D7%A9%D7%9F" title="אבק שרפה נטול עשן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבק שרפה נטול עשן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezd%C5%ABmu_pulveris" title="Bezdūmu pulveris – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bezdūmu pulveris" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%B3%D2%AF%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C" title="Утаагүй дарь – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Утаагүй дарь" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rookzwak_kruit" title="Rookzwak kruit – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rookzwak kruit" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E7%85%99%E7%81%AB%E8%96%AC" title="無煙火薬 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="無煙火薬" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B8yksvakt_krutt" title="Røyksvakt krutt – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Røyksvakt krutt" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proch_bezdymny" title="Proch bezdymny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Proch bezdymny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3lvora_sem_fuma%C3%A7a" title="Pólvora sem fumaça – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pólvora sem fumaça" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%85" title="Бездымный порох – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бездымный порох" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruti_pa_tym" title="Baruti pa tym – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Baruti pa tym" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezdimni_barut" title="Bezdimni barut – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Bezdimni barut" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6ksvagt_krut" title="Röksvagt krut – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Röksvagt krut" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81" title="புகையற்ற வெடிமருந்து – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புகையற்ற வெடிமருந்து" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumans%C4%B1z_barut" title="Dumansız barut – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Dumansız barut" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%85" title="Бездимний порох – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бездимний порох" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E7%85%99%E7%81%AB%E8%97%A5" title="無煙火藥 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="無煙火藥" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q901722#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/N110_ruuti.jpg/330px-N110_ruuti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/N110_ruuti.jpg/440px-N110_ruuti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Finnish smokeless powder</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Smokeless powder</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Propellant" title="Propellant">propellant</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">firearms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> that produces less smoke and less <a href="/wiki/Fouling" title="Fouling">fouling</a> when fired compared to <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">black powder</a>. Because of their similar use, both the original black powder formulation and the smokeless propellant which replaced it are commonly described as <b>gunpowder</b>. The <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> products of smokeless powder are mainly gaseous, compared to around 55% solid products (mostly <a href="/wiki/Potassium_carbonate" title="Potassium carbonate">potassium carbonate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium_sulfate" title="Potassium sulfate">potassium sulfate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_sulfide" title="Potassium sulfide">potassium sulfide</a>) for black powder.<sup id="cite_ref-NRA1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRA1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy fouling of <a href="/wiki/Hygroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hygroscopic">hygroscopic</a> material associated with black powder that causes rusting of the barrel.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite its name, smokeless powder is not completely free of <a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Naval_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naval-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 44">: 44 </span></sup> while there may be little noticeable smoke from small-arms ammunition, smoke from artillery fire can be substantial. </p><p>Invented in 1884 by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Vieille" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Vieille">Paul Vieille</a>, the most common formulations are based on <a href="/wiki/Nitrocellulose" title="Nitrocellulose">nitrocellulose</a>, but the term was also used to describe various <a href="/wiki/Picrate" title="Picrate">picrate</a> mixtures with <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorate" title="Chlorate">chlorate</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Dichromate" class="mw-redirect" title="Dichromate">dichromate</a> oxidizers during the late 19th century, before the advantages of nitrocellulose became evident.<sup id="cite_ref-sharpe_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharpe-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 146–149">: 146–149 </span></sup> </p><p>Smokeless powders are typically classified as division 1.3 explosives under the <a href="/wiki/UN" class="mw-redirect" title="UN">UN</a> <i><a href="/wiki/UN_Recommendations_on_the_Transport_of_Dangerous_Goods" title="UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods">Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods</a> – Model Regulations</i>, regional regulations (such as <a href="/wiki/ADR_(treaty)" title="ADR (treaty)">ADR</a>) and national regulations. However, they are used as <a href="/wiki/Propellant#Solid_propellant_rockets_and_projectiles" title="Propellant">solid propellants</a>; in normal use, they undergo <a href="/wiki/Deflagration" title="Deflagration">deflagration</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Detonation" title="Detonation">detonation</a>. </p><p>Smokeless powder made autoloading firearms with many moving parts feasible (which would otherwise jam or seize under heavy black powder fouling). Smokeless powder allowed the development of modern semi- and fully automatic firearms and lighter breeches and barrels for artillery. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the widespread introduction of smokeless powder the use of gunpowder or black powder caused many problems on the battlefield. Military commanders since the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> reported difficulty with giving orders on a battlefield obscured by the smoke of firing. <a href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">Visual signals</a> could not be seen through the thick smoke from the <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> used by the guns. Unless there was a strong wind, after a few shots, soldiers using gunpowder ammunition would have their view obscured by a huge cloud of smoke, and this problem became worse with increasing rate of fire. In 1884 during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tamai" title="Battle of Tamai">Battle of Tamai</a> Sudanese troops were able to break the square of British infantry armed with <a href="/wiki/Martini%E2%80%93Henry" title="Martini–Henry">Martini–Henries</a> because of that.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sharpshooter" title="Sharpshooter">Sharpshooters</a> firing from concealed positions risked revealing their locations with a cloud of smoke. </p><p>Gunpowder burns in a relatively inefficient process that produces lower pressures, making it about one-third as powerful as the same amount of smokeless powder.<sup id="cite_ref-Shell_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A significant portion of the combustion products from gunpowder are solids that are <a href="/wiki/Hygroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hygroscopic">hygroscopic</a>, i.e. they attract moisture from the air and make cleaning mandatory after every use, in order to prevent water accumulation in the barrel that can lead to corrosion and premature failure. These solids are also behind gunpowder's tendency to produce severe <a href="/wiki/Fouling" title="Fouling">fouling</a> that causes <a href="/wiki/Breech-loading" class="mw-redirect" title="Breech-loading">breech-loading</a> <a href="/wiki/Action_(firearms)" title="Action (firearms)">actions</a> to jam and can make reloading difficult. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nitroglycerine_and_guncotton">Nitroglycerine and guncotton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Nitroglycerine and guncotton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nitroglycerine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitroglycerine">Nitroglycerine</a> was synthesized by the Italian <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ascanio_Sobrero" title="Ascanio Sobrero">Ascanio Sobrero</a> in 1847.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 195">: 195 </span></sup> It was subsequently developed and manufactured by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Nobel" title="Alfred Nobel">Alfred Nobel</a> as an industrial explosive under the trademark "<a href="/wiki/Dynamite" title="Dynamite">Dynamite</a>", but even then it was unsuitable as a propellant: despite its energetic and smokeless qualities, it <a href="/wiki/Detonation" title="Detonation">detonates</a> at <a href="/wiki/Supersonic_speed" title="Supersonic speed">supersonic speed</a>, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Deflagration" title="Deflagration">deflagrating</a> smoothly at subsonic speeds, making it more liable to shatter a gun barrel rather than propel a projectile out of it. Nitroglycerine is also highly shock-sensitive, making it unfit to be carried in battlefield conditions. </p><p>A major step forward was the invention of <a href="/wiki/Guncotton" class="mw-redirect" title="Guncotton">guncotton</a>, a nitrocellulose-based material, by German chemist <a href="/wiki/Christian_Friedrich_Sch%C3%B6nbein" title="Christian Friedrich Schönbein">Christian Friedrich Schönbein</a> in 1846. He promoted its use as a blasting explosive<sup id="cite_ref-Handloading_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handloading-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28">: 28 </span></sup> and sold manufacturing rights to the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a>. Guncotton was more powerful than gunpowder, but at the same time was once again somewhat more unstable. John Taylor obtained an English patent for guncotton; and John Hall & Sons began manufacture in <a href="/wiki/Faversham" title="Faversham">Faversham</a>. </p><p>English interest languished after an explosion destroyed the Faversham factory in 1847. Austrian Baron <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Lenk_von_Wolfsberg" title="Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg">Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg</a> built two guncotton plants producing artillery propellent, but it too was dangerous under field conditions, and guns that could fire thousands of rounds using black powder would reach the end of their service life after only a few hundred shots with the more powerful guncotton. Small arms could not withstand the pressures generated by guncotton. </p><p>After one of the Austrian factories blew up in 1862, <a href="/wiki/Stowmarket_Guncotton_Company" title="Stowmarket Guncotton Company">Thomas Prentice & Company</a> began manufacturing guncotton in <a href="/wiki/Stowmarket" title="Stowmarket">Stowmarket</a> in 1863; and British <a href="/wiki/War_Office" title="War Office">War Office</a> chemist Sir <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Abel" title="Frederick Abel">Frederick Abel</a> began thorough research at <a href="/wiki/Waltham_Abbey_Royal_Gunpowder_Mills" title="Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills">Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills</a> leading to a manufacturing process that eliminated the impurities in nitrocellulose making it safer to produce and a stable product safer to handle. Abel patented this process in 1865 when the second Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey began production of guncotton for <a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">torpedo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">mine</a> warheads.<sup id="cite_ref-sharpe_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharpe-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 141–144">: 141–144 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Improvements">Improvements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Improvements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poudre_B.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Poudre_B.JPG/220px-Poudre_B.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Poudre_B.JPG/330px-Poudre_B.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Poudre_B.JPG/440px-Poudre_B.JPG 2x" data-file-width="516" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>An extruded stick powder</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1863, <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a> artillery captain Johann F. E. Schultze patented a small-arms propellant of nitrated hardwood impregnated with <a href="/wiki/Saltpeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltpeter">saltpeter</a> or <a href="/wiki/Barium_nitrate" title="Barium nitrate">barium nitrate</a>. Prentice received an 1866 patent for a sporting powder of nitrated paper manufactured at Stowmarket, but ballistic uniformity suffered as the paper absorbed atmospheric moisture. In 1871, Frederick Volkmann received an Austrian patent for a colloided version of Schultze powder called <i>Collodin</i>, which he manufactured near Vienna for use in sporting firearms. Austrian patents were not published at the time, and the Austrian Empire considered the operation a violation of the government monopoly on explosives manufacture and closed the Volkmann factory in 1875.<sup id="cite_ref-sharpe_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharpe-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 141–144">: 141–144 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1882, the Explosives Company at Stowmarket patented an improved formulation of nitrated cotton gelatinised by ether-alcohol with nitrates of <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>. These propellants were suitable for shotguns but not rifles,<sup id="cite_ref-Artillery_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artillery-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 138–139">: 138–139 </span></sup> because <a href="/wiki/Rifling" title="Rifling">rifling</a> results in resistance to a smooth expansion of the gas, which is reduced in <a href="/wiki/Smoothbore" title="Smoothbore">smoothbore</a> shotguns. </p><p>In 1884, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Vieille" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Vieille">Paul Vieille</a> invented a smokeless powder called <a href="/wiki/Poudre_B" title="Poudre B">Poudre B</a> (short for <i>poudre blanche</i>, white powder, as distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">black powder</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 289–292">: 289–292 </span></sup> made from 68.2% insoluble <a href="/wiki/Nitrocellulose" title="Nitrocellulose">nitrocellulose</a>, 29.8% soluble nitrocellulose gelatinized with <a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">ether</a> and 2% paraffin. This was adopted for the <a href="/wiki/Lebel_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebel rifle">Lebel rifle</a> chambered in <a href="/wiki/8%C3%9750mmR_Lebel" title="8×50mmR Lebel">8×50mmR Lebel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Artillery_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artillery-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 139">: 139 </span></sup> It was passed through rollers to form paper-thin sheets, which were cut into flakes of the desired size.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 289–292">: 289–292 </span></sup> The resulting <a href="/wiki/Propellant" title="Propellant">propellant</a>, known as <i>pyrocellulose</i>, contains somewhat less <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> than <a href="/wiki/Guncotton" class="mw-redirect" title="Guncotton">guncotton</a> does, and is less volatile. A particularly good feature of the propellant is that it will not detonate unless it is compressed, making it very safe to handle under normal conditions. Vieille's powder revolutionized the effectiveness of small guns because it gave off almost no smoke and was three times more powerful than black powder. Higher <a href="/wiki/Muzzle_velocity" title="Muzzle velocity">muzzle velocity</a> meant a flatter <a href="/wiki/Trajectory" title="Trajectory">trajectory</a> and less wind drift and bullet drop, making 1,000 m (1,094 yd) shots practicable. Since less powder was needed to propel a bullet, the <a href="/wiki/Cartridge_(firearms)" title="Cartridge (firearms)">cartridge</a> could be made smaller and lighter. This allowed troops to carry more ammunition for the same weight. Also, it would burn even when wet. Black powder ammunition had to be kept dry and was almost always stored and transported in watertight cartridges. Other European countries swiftly followed and started using their own versions of Poudre B, the first being Germany and Austria, which introduced new weapons in 1888. Subsequently, Poudre B was modified several times with various compounds being added and removed. <a href="/wiki/Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a> began adding <a href="/wiki/Diphenylamine" title="Diphenylamine">diphenylamine</a> as a stabilizer in 1888.<sup id="cite_ref-sharpe_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharpe-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 141–144">: 141–144 </span></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, in 1887, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Nobel" title="Alfred Nobel">Alfred Nobel</a> obtained an English patent for a smokeless gunpowder he called <a href="/wiki/Ballistite" title="Ballistite">ballistite</a>. In this propellant the fibrous structure of cotton (nitro-cellulose) was destroyed by a <a href="/wiki/Nitroglycerine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitroglycerine">nitroglycerine</a> solution instead of a solvent.<sup id="cite_ref-Artillery_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artillery-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 140">: 140 </span></sup> In England in 1889, a similar powder was patented by <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Maxim" title="Hiram Maxim">Hiram Maxim</a>, and in the United States in 1890 by <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Maxim" title="Hudson Maxim">Hudson Maxim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-patent-430212_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-patent-430212-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ballistite was patented in the United States in 1891. The Germans adopted ballistite for naval use in 1898, calling it WPC/98. The Italians adopted it as <i>filite</i>, in cord instead of flake form—but, realising its drawbacks, changed to a formulation with nitroglycerine that they called <i>solenite</i>. In 1891 the Russians tasked the chemist <a href="/wiki/Mendeleev" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendeleev">Mendeleev</a> with finding a suitable propellant. He created nitrocellulose gelatinised by ether-alcohol, which produced more <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and more uniform colloidal structure than the French use of nitro-cottons<sup id="cite_ref-smokeless_powder_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smokeless_powder-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Poudre B. He called it <a href="/wiki/Pyrocollodion" title="Pyrocollodion">pyrocollodion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Artillery_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artillery-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 140">: 140 </span></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cordite_Filled_Cartridge.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Cordite_Filled_Cartridge.JPG/220px-Cordite_Filled_Cartridge.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Cordite_Filled_Cartridge.JPG/330px-Cordite_Filled_Cartridge.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Cordite_Filled_Cartridge.JPG/440px-Cordite_Filled_Cartridge.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Close-up of Cordite filaments in a <a href="/wiki/.303_British" title=".303 British">.303 British</a> rifle cartridge (manufactured in 1964)</figcaption></figure> <p>Britain conducted trials on all the various types of propellant brought to its attention, but was dissatisfied with them all and sought something superior to all existing types. In 1889, Sir <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Abel" title="Frederick Abel">Frederick Abel</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Dewar" title="James Dewar">James Dewar</a> and Dr W Kellner patented (Nos 5614 and 11,664 in the names of Abel and Dewar) a new formulation that was manufactured at the Royal Gunpowder Factory at Waltham Abbey. It entered British service in 1891 as <a href="/wiki/Cordite" title="Cordite">Cordite</a> Mark 1. Its main composition was 58% <a href="/wiki/Nitroglycerine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitroglycerine">nitroglycerine</a>, 37% <a href="/wiki/Guncotton" class="mw-redirect" title="Guncotton">guncotton</a> and 3% <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_jelly" title="Petroleum jelly">mineral jelly</a>. A modified version, Cordite MD, entered service in 1901, with the guncotton percentage increased to 65% and nitroglycerine reduced to 30%. This change reduced the combustion temperature and hence erosion and barrel wear. Cordite's advantages over gunpowder were reduced maximum pressure in the chamber (hence lighter breeches, etc.) but longer high pressure. Cordite could be made in any desired shape or size.<sup id="cite_ref-Artillery_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Artillery-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 141">: 141 </span></sup> The creation of cordite led to a lengthy court battle between Nobel, Maxim, and another inventor over alleged British <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> infringement. </p><p>The Anglo-American Explosives Company began manufacturing its shotgun powder in <a href="/wiki/Oakland,_New_Jersey" title="Oakland, New Jersey">Oakland, New Jersey</a>, in 1890. <a href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> began producing guncotton at <a href="/wiki/Carneys_Point_Township,_New_Jersey" title="Carneys Point Township, New Jersey">Carneys Point Township, New Jersey</a>, in 1891.<sup id="cite_ref-sharpe_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharpe-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 146–149">: 146–149 </span></sup> Charles E. Munroe of the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Torpedo_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval Torpedo Station">Naval Torpedo Station</a> in <a href="/wiki/Newport,_Rhode_Island" title="Newport, Rhode Island">Newport, Rhode Island</a>, patented a formulation of guncotton colloided with nitrobenzene, called <i>Indurite</i>, in 1891.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 296–297">: 296–297 </span></sup> Several United States firms began producing smokeless powder when <a href="/wiki/Winchester_Repeating_Arms_Company" title="Winchester Repeating Arms Company">Winchester Repeating Arms Company</a> started loading sporting cartridges with Explosives Company powder in 1893. <a href="/wiki/California_Powder_Works" title="California Powder Works">California Powder Works</a> began producing a mixture of nitroglycerine and <a href="/wiki/Nitrocellulose" title="Nitrocellulose">nitrocellulose</a> with <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_picrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonium picrate">ammonium picrate</a> as <i>Peyton Powder</i>, Leonard Smokeless Powder Company began producing nitroglycerine–nitrocellulose <i>Ruby</i> powders, <a href="/wiki/Laflin_%26_Rand_Powder_Company" title="Laflin & Rand Powder Company">Laflin & Rand</a> negotiated a license to produce <i>Ballistite</i>, and DuPont started producing smokeless shotgun powder. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> evaluated 25 varieties of smokeless powder and selected <i>Ruby</i> and <i>Peyton Powders</i> as the most suitable for use in the <a href="/wiki/Krag%E2%80%93J%C3%B8rgensen" title="Krag–Jørgensen">Krag–Jørgensen</a> service rifle. <i>Ruby</i> was preferred, because tin-plating was required to protect brass cartridge cases from <a href="/wiki/Picric_acid" title="Picric acid">picric acid</a> in the <i>Peyton Powder</i>. Rather than paying the required royalties for <i>Ballistite</i>, Laflin & Rand financed Leonard's reorganization as the American Smokeless Powder Company. United States Army Lieutenant Whistler assisted American Smokeless Powder Company factory superintendent Aspinwall in formulating an improved powder named W.A. for their efforts. W.A. smokeless powder was the standard for United States military service rifles from 1897 until 1908.<sup id="cite_ref-sharpe_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharpe-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 146–149">: 146–149 </span></sup> </p><p>In 1897, United States Navy Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/John_Bernadou" title="John Bernadou">John Bernadou</a> patented a nitrocellulose powder colloided with ether-alcohol.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 296–297">: 296–297 </span></sup> The Navy licensed or sold patents for this formulation to <a href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> and the California Powder Works while retaining manufacturing rights for the <a href="/wiki/Naval_Powder_Factory,_Indian_Head,_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval Powder Factory, Indian Head, Maryland">Naval Powder Factory, Indian Head, Maryland</a> constructed in 1900. The United States Army adopted the Navy single-base formulation in 1908 and began manufacture at <a href="/wiki/Picatinny_Arsenal" title="Picatinny Arsenal">Picatinny Arsenal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sharpe_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharpe-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 146–149">: 146–149 </span></sup> By that time Laflin & Rand had taken over the American Powder Company to protect their investment, and Laflin & Rand had been purchased by DuPont in 1902.<sup id="cite_ref-dupont_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dupont-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon securing a 99-year lease of the Explosives Company in 1903, DuPont enjoyed use of all significant smokeless powder patents in the United States, and was able to optimize production of smokeless powder.<sup id="cite_ref-sharpe_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharpe-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 146–149">: 146–149 </span></sup> When government anti-trust action forced divestiture in 1912, DuPont retained the nitrocellulose smokeless powder formulations used by the United States military and released the double-base formulations used in sporting ammunition to the reorganized <a href="/wiki/Hercules_Powder_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Hercules Powder Company">Hercules Powder Company</a>. These newer and more powerful propellants were more stable and thus safer to handle than Poudre B. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:H110_Smokeless_Pistol_Powder_Macro.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Macro shot of Hodgdon H110 pistol powder, small black and greenish beads against a white background." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/H110_Smokeless_Pistol_Powder_Macro.png/220px-H110_Smokeless_Pistol_Powder_Macro.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/H110_Smokeless_Pistol_Powder_Macro.png/330px-H110_Smokeless_Pistol_Powder_Macro.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/H110_Smokeless_Pistol_Powder_Macro.png/440px-H110_Smokeless_Pistol_Powder_Macro.png 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Hodgdon H110 smokeless pistol powder</figcaption></figure> <p>The properties of the propellant are greatly influenced by the size and shape of its pieces. The specific surface area of the propellant influences the speed of burning, and the size and shape of the particles determine the specific surface area. By manipulation of the shape it is possible to influence the burning rate and hence the rate at which pressure builds during combustion. Smokeless powder burns only on the surfaces of the pieces. Larger pieces burn more slowly, and the burn rate is further controlled by flame-deterrent coatings that retard burning slightly. The intent is to regulate the burn rate so that a more or less constant pressure is exerted on the propelled projectile as long as it is in the barrel so as to obtain the highest velocity. The perforations stabilize the burn rate because as the outside burns inward (thus shrinking the burning surface area) the inside is burning outward (thus increasing the burning surface area, but faster, so as to fill up the increasing volume of barrel presented by the departing projectile).<sup id="cite_ref-Naval_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naval-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 41–43">: 41–43 </span></sup> Fast-burning <a href="/wiki/Pistol" title="Pistol">pistol</a> powders are made by extruding shapes with more area such as flakes or by flattening the spherical granules. Drying is usually performed under a vacuum. The solvents are condensed and recycled. The granules are also coated with <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> to prevent static electricity sparks from causing undesired ignitions.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 306">: 306 </span></sup> </p><p>Smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy <a href="/wiki/Fouling" title="Fouling">fouling</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hygroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hygroscopic">hygroscopic</a> material associated with black powder that causes rusting of the barrel (though some <a href="/wiki/Primer_(firearm)" class="mw-redirect" title="Primer (firearm)">primer</a> compounds can leave hygroscopic salts that have a similar effect; non-corrosive primer compounds were introduced in the 1920s).<sup id="cite_ref-sharpe_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharpe-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 21">: 21 </span></sup>) </p><p>Faster-burning propellants generate higher temperatures and higher pressures, however they also increase wear on gun barrels.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Nitrocellulose deteriorates with time, yielding acidic byproducts. Those byproducts catalyze the further deterioration, increasing its rate. The released heat, in case of bulk storage of the powder, or too large blocks of solid propellant, can cause self-ignition of the material. Single-base nitrocellulose propellants are hygroscopic and most susceptible to degradation; double-base and triple-base propellants tend to deteriorate more slowly.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 313">: 313 </span></sup> To neutralize the decomposition products, which could otherwise cause corrosion of metals of the cartridges and gun barrels, <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> is added to some formulations.<sup id="cite_ref-dew_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dew-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To prevent buildup of the deterioration products, <a href="/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)" title="Stabilizer (chemistry)">stabilizers</a> are added. Diphenylamine is one of the most common stabilizers used.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nitrated analogs of diphenylamine formed in the process of stabilizing decomposing powder are sometimes used as stabilizers themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Naval_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naval-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28">: 28 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 310">: 310 </span></sup> The stabilizers are added in the amount of 0.5–2% of the total amount of the formulation; higher amounts tend to degrade its ballistic properties. The amount of the stabilizer is depleted with time with substantial changes of ballistic properties.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Propellants in storage should be periodically tested for the amount of stabilizer remaining,<sup id="cite_ref-Naval_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naval-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 46">: 46 </span></sup> as its depletion may lead to auto-ignition of the propellant.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 308">: 308 </span></sup> Moisture changes the stabilizers consumption over time.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composition">Composition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Propellants using <a href="/wiki/Nitrocellulose" title="Nitrocellulose">nitrocellulose</a> (<a href="/wiki/Explosive_velocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Explosive velocity">detonation velocity</a> 7,300 m/s (23,950 ft/s), <a href="/wiki/RE_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="RE factor">RE factor</a> 1.10) (typically an ether-alcohol colloid of nitrocellulose) as the sole explosive propellant ingredient are described as <b>single-base powder</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 297">: 297 </span></sup> </p><p>Propellants mixtures containing nitrocellulose and <a href="/wiki/Nitroglycerin" title="Nitroglycerin">nitroglycerin</a> (detonation velocity 7,700 m/s (25,260 ft/s), RE factor 1.54) as explosive propellant ingredients are known as <b>double-base powder</b>. Alternatively <a href="/wiki/Diethylene_glycol_dinitrate" title="Diethylene glycol dinitrate">diethylene glycol dinitrate</a> (detonation velocity 6,610 m/s (21,690 ft/s), RE factor 1.17) can be used as a nitroglycerin replacement when reduced flame temperatures without sacrificing chamber pressure are of importance.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 298">: 298 </span></sup> Reduction of flame temperature significantly reduces barrel erosion and hence wear.<sup id="cite_ref-Handloading_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handloading-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 30">: 30 </span></sup> </p><p>During the 1930s, <b>triple-base propellants</b> containing nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin or diethylene glycol dinitrate, and a substantial quantity of <a href="/wiki/Nitroguanidine" title="Nitroguanidine">nitroguanidine</a> (detonation velocity 8,200 m/s (26,900 ft/s), RE factor 0.95) as explosive propellant ingredients were commercialized. The first triple-base propellant, featuring 20-25% of nitroguanidine and 30-45% nitroglycerine, was developed at the <a href="/wiki/Dynamit_Nobel" title="Dynamit Nobel">Dynamit Nobel</a> factory at <a href="/wiki/Avigliana" title="Avigliana">Avigliana</a> by its director Dr. Modesto Abelli (1859-1911) and patented in 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These "cold propellant" mixtures have reduced flash and flame temperature without sacrificing chamber pressure compared to single- and double-base propellants, albeit at the cost of more smoke. In practice, triple-base propellants are, due to their higher price, reserved mainly for high-velocity large caliber ammunition such as used in (naval) <a href="/wiki/Artillery#Propellant" title="Artillery">artillery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tank_gun" title="Tank gun">tank guns</a>, which suffer from bore erosion the most. During WWII they had some use by British and German artillery, and after the war they became the standard propellants in all British large-caliber ammunition designs except small arms.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Western nations, except the United States, followed a similar path.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the late 20th century new propellant formulations started to appear. These are based on nitroguanidine and high explosives of the <a href="/wiki/RDX" title="RDX">RDX</a> type (detonation velocity 8,750 m/s (28,710 ft/s), RE factor 1.60).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Detonation velocities are of limited value in assessing the reaction rates of nitrocellulose propellants formulated to avoid detonation. Although the slower reaction is often described as burning because of similar gaseous end products at elevated temperatures, the decomposition differs from <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> in an <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> atmosphere. Conversion of nitrocellulose propellants to high-pressure gas proceeds from the exposed surface to the interior of each solid particle in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Piobert%27s_law" title="Piobert's law">Piobert's law</a>. Studies of solid single- and double-base propellant reactions suggest reaction rate is controlled by <a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">heat transfer</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Temperature_gradient" title="Temperature gradient">temperature gradient</a> across a series of zones or phases as the reaction proceeds from the surface into the solid. The deepest portion of the solid experiencing heat transfer melts and begins phase transition from solid to gas in a <i>foam zone</i>. The gaseous propellant decomposes into simpler molecules in a surrounding <i>fizz zone</i>. Energy is released in a luminous outer <i>flame zone</i> where the simpler gas molecules react to form conventional combustion products like steam and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rimworld_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rimworld-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>foam zone</i> acts as an insulator slowing the rate of heat transfer from the <i>flame zone</i> into the unreacted solid. Reaction rates vary with pressure; because the foam allows less effective heat transfer at low pressure, with greater heat transfer as higher pressures compress the gas volume of that foam. Propellants designed for a minimum heat transfer pressure may fail to sustain the <i>flame zone</i> at lower pressures.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The energetic components used in smokeless propellants include <a href="/wiki/Nitrocellulose" title="Nitrocellulose">nitrocellulose</a> (the most common), <a href="/wiki/Nitroglycerin" title="Nitroglycerin">nitroglycerin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitroguanidine" title="Nitroguanidine">nitroguanidine</a>, DINA (bis-nitroxyethylnitramine; diethanolamine dinitrate, DEADN; DHE), Fivonite (2,2,5,5-tetramethylol-cyclopentanone tetranitrate, CyP), DGN (<a href="/wiki/Diethylene_glycol_dinitrate" title="Diethylene glycol dinitrate">diethylene glycol dinitrate</a>), and acetyl cellulose.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Deterrents (or moderants) are used to slow the burning rate. Deterrents include <a href="/wiki/Centralite" title="Centralite">centralites</a> (symmetrical diphenyl urea—primarily diethyl or dimethyl), <a href="/wiki/Dibutyl_phthalate" title="Dibutyl phthalate">dibutyl phthalate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dinitrotoluene" title="Dinitrotoluene">dinitrotoluene</a> (toxic and carcinogenic), akardite (asymmetrical diphenyl urea), ortho-Tolyl urethane,<sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 174">: 174 </span></sup> and polyester adipate.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Camphor" title="Camphor">Camphor</a> was formerly used but is now obsolete.<sup id="cite_ref-Handloading_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handloading-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)" title="Stabilizer (chemistry)">Stabilizers</a> prevent or slow down self-decomposition. These include <a href="/wiki/Diphenylamine" title="Diphenylamine">diphenylamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_jelly" title="Petroleum jelly">petroleum jelly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide" title="Magnesium oxide">magnesium oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate" title="Sodium bicarbonate">sodium bicarbonate</a>, and beta-Naphthol methyl ether<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Obsolete stabilizers include <a href="/wiki/Amyl_alcohol" title="Amyl alcohol">amyl alcohol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aniline" title="Aniline">aniline</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Decoppering" title="Decoppering">Decoppering</a> additives hinder the buildup of copper residues from the gun barrel rifling. These include <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> metal and compounds (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Tin_dioxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin dioxide">tin dioxide</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Handloading_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handloading-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a> metal and compounds (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Bismuth_trioxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Bismuth trioxide">bismuth trioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bismuth_subcarbonate" title="Bismuth subcarbonate">bismuth subcarbonate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bismuth_nitrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bismuth nitrate">bismuth nitrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bismuth_antimonide" title="Bismuth antimonide">bismuth antimonide</a>); the bismuth compounds are favored as copper dissolves in molten bismuth, forming brittle and easily removable alloy. <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> foil and lead compounds have been phased out due to toxicity.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wear reduction materials including <a href="/wiki/Wax" title="Wax">wax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Talc" title="Talc">talc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">titanium dioxide</a> are added to lower the wear of the gun barrel liners. Large guns use <a href="/wiki/Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">polyurethane</a> jackets over the powder bags.<sup id="cite_ref-NavWeaps_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NavWeaps-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other additives include <a href="/wiki/Ethyl_acetate" title="Ethyl acetate">ethyl acetate</a> (a solvent for manufacture of spherical powder), <a href="/wiki/Rosin" title="Rosin">rosin</a> (a surfactant to hold the grain shape of spherical powder) and <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Lubricant" title="Lubricant">lubricant</a> to cover the grains and prevent them from sticking together, and to dissipate <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flash_reduction">Flash reduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Flash reduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Flash reducers dim <a href="/wiki/Muzzle_flash" title="Muzzle flash">muzzle flash</a>, the light emitted in the vicinity of the muzzle by the hot propellant gases and the chemical reactions that follow as the gases mix with the surrounding air. Before projectiles exit, a slight pre-flash may occur from gases leaking past the projectiles. Following muzzle exit, the heat of gases is usually sufficient to emit visible radiation: the primary flash. The gases expand but as they pass through the Mach disc, they are re-compressed to produce an intermediate flash. Hot, combustible gases (e.g. hydrogen and carbon-monoxide) may follow when they mix with oxygen in the surrounding air to produce the secondary flash, the brightest. The secondary flash does not usually occur with small arms.<sup id="cite_ref-Ballistics_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ballistics-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 55–56">: 55–56 </span></sup> </p><p>Nitrocellulose contains insufficient oxygen to completely oxidize its carbon and hydrogen. The oxygen deficit is increased by addition of graphite and organic stabilizers. Products of combustion within the gun barrel include flammable gasses like hydrogen and carbon monoxide. At high temperature, these flammable gasses will ignite when turbulently mixed with atmospheric oxygen beyond the muzzle of the gun. During night engagements, the flash produced by ignition can reveal the location of the gun to enemy forces<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 322–323">: 322–323 </span></sup> and cause temporary night-blindness among the gun crew by photo-bleaching <a href="/wiki/Rhodopsin" title="Rhodopsin">visual purple</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Milner_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milner-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Flash_suppressor" title="Flash suppressor">Flash suppressors</a> are commonly used on small arms to reduce the flash signature, but this approach is not practical for artillery. Artillery muzzle flash up to 150 feet (46 m) from the muzzle has been observed, and can be reflected off clouds and be visible for distances up to 30 miles (48 km).<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 322–323">: 322–323 </span></sup> For artillery, the most effective method is a propellant that produces a large proportion of inert nitrogen at relatively low temperatures that dilutes the combustible gases. Triple-base propellants are used for this because of the nitrogen in the nitroguanidine.<sup id="cite_ref-Ballistics_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ballistics-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 59–60">: 59–60 </span></sup> </p><p>Flash reducers include <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">potassium nitrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium_sulfate" title="Potassium sulfate">potassium sulfate</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Handloading_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handloading-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_bitartrate" title="Potassium bitartrate">potassium bitartrate</a> (potassium hydrogen tartrate: a byproduct of wine production formerly used by French artillery).<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the use of triple-base propellants, the usual method of flash reduction was to add inorganic salts like potassium chloride so their <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity" title="Specific heat capacity">specific heat capacity</a> might reduce the temperature of combustion gasses and their finely divided particulate smoke might block visible wavelengths of <a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">radiant energy</a> of combustion.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 323–327">: 323–327 </span></sup> </p><p>All flash reducers have a disadvantage: the production of smoke.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Manufacturing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Powder_Samples.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Powder_Samples.jpg/220px-Powder_Samples.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Powder_Samples.jpg/330px-Powder_Samples.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Powder_Samples.jpg/440px-Powder_Samples.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="965" /></a><figcaption>Ammunition <a href="/wiki/Handloading" title="Handloading">handloading</a> powders</figcaption></figure> <p>Smokeless powder may be <a href="/wiki/Corning_(gunpowder)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corning (gunpowder)">corned</a> into small spherical balls or <a href="/wiki/Extrusion" title="Extrusion">extruded</a> into cylinders or strips with many cross-sectional shapes (strips with various rectangular proportions, single or multi-hole cylinders, slotted cylinders) using solvents such as ether. These extrusions can be cut into short ("flakes") or long pieces ("cords" many inches long). <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">Cannon</a> powder has the largest pieces.<sup id="cite_ref-Handloading_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handloading-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28">: 28 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Naval_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naval-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 41">: 41 </span></sup> </p><p>The United States Navy manufactured single-base tubular powder for naval artillery at <a href="/wiki/Indian_Head,_Maryland" title="Indian Head, Maryland">Indian Head, Maryland</a>, beginning in 1900. Similar procedures were used for United States Army production at <a href="/wiki/Picatinny_Arsenal" title="Picatinny Arsenal">Picatinny Arsenal</a> beginning in 1907<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 297">: 297 </span></sup> and for manufacture of smaller grained <a href="/wiki/Improved_military_rifle_powder" title="Improved military rifle powder">Improved Military Rifle</a> (IMR) powders after 1914. Short-fiber <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> linter was boiled in a solution of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> to remove vegetable waxes, and then dried before conversion to nitrocellulose by mixing with concentrated <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acids</a>. Nitrocellulose still resembles fibrous cotton at this point in the manufacturing process, and was typically identified as pyrocellulose because it would spontaneously ignite in air until unreacted acid was removed. The term <i>guncotton</i> was also used; although some references identify guncotton as a more extensively nitrated and refined product used in <a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">torpedo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">mine</a> <a href="/wiki/Warhead" title="Warhead">warheads</a> prior to use of <a href="/wiki/Trinitrotoluene" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitrotoluene">TNT</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Naval_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naval-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28–31">: 28–31 </span></sup> </p><p>Unreacted acid was removed from pyrocellulose pulp by a multistage draining and water washing process similar to that used in <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a> mills during production of chemical <a href="/wiki/Woodpulp" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodpulp">woodpulp</a>. Pressurized alcohol removed remaining water from drained pyrocellulose prior to mixing with ether and diphenylamine. The mixture was then fed through a press extruding a long tubular cord form to be cut into grains of the desired length.<sup id="cite_ref-Naval_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naval-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 31–35">: 31–35 </span></sup> </p><p>Alcohol and ether were then evaporated from "green" powder grains to a remaining solvent concentration between 3 percent for rifle powders and 7 percent for large artillery powder grains. Burning rate is inversely proportional to solvent concentration. Grains were coated with electrically conductive graphite to minimize generation of static electricity during subsequent blending. "Lots" containing more than ten tonnes of powder grains were mixed through a tower arrangement of blending hoppers to minimize ballistic differences. Each blended lot was then subjected to testing to determine the correct loading charge for the desired performance.<sup id="cite_ref-Naval_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naval-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 35–41">: 35–41 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 293 & 306">: 293 & 306 </span></sup> </p><p>Military quantities of old smokeless powder were sometimes reworked into new lots of propellants.<sup id="cite_ref-Naval_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naval-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 39">: 39 </span></sup> Through the 1920s <a href="/wiki/Fred_Olsen" title="Fred Olsen">Fred Olsen</a> worked at Picatinny Arsenal experimenting with ways to salvage tons of single-base cannon powder manufactured for World War I. Olsen was employed by <a href="/wiki/Western_Cartridge_Company" title="Western Cartridge Company">Western Cartridge Company</a> in 1929 and developed a process for manufacturing <a href="/wiki/Ball_propellant" title="Ball propellant">spherical smokeless powder</a> by 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-Ball_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ball-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reworked powder or washed pyrocellulose can be dissolved in ethyl acetate containing small quantities of desired stabilizers and other additives. The resultant syrup, combined with water and <a href="/wiki/Surfactant" title="Surfactant">surfactants</a>, can be heated and agitated in a pressurized container until the syrup forms an <a href="/wiki/Emulsion" title="Emulsion">emulsion</a> of small spherical globules of the desired size. Ethyl acetate distills off as pressure is slowly reduced to leave small spheres of nitrocellulose and additives. The spheres can be subsequently modified by adding nitroglycerine to increase energy, flattening between rollers to a uniform minimum dimension, coating with <a href="/wiki/Phthalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phthalate">phthalate</a> deterrents to slow ignition, and/or glazing with graphite to improve flow characteristics during blending.<sup id="cite_ref-Chemistry_7-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chemistry-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 328–330">: 328–330 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Profile136_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Profile136-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern smokeless powder is produced in the United States by <a href="/wiki/St._Marks_Powder" title="St. Marks Powder">St. Marks Powder</a>, Inc. owned by <a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics" title="General Dynamics">General Dynamics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-St_Mark_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-St_Mark-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shimose_powder" title="Shimose powder">Shimose powder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antique_firearms" title="Antique firearms">Antique firearms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-brown" title="Brown-brown">Brown-brown</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NRA1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NRA1_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hatcher, Julian S. and Barr, Al <i>Handloading</i> Hennage Lithograph Company (1951) p.34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDavis1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_C._Davis_Jr." title="William C. 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A. <i>Winchester-Western Ball Powder Loading Data</i> Olin Corporation (1978) p.3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Profile136-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Profile136_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolfe, Dave <i>Propellant Profiles Volume 1</i> Wolfe Publishing Company (1982) pages 136–137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-St_Mark-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-St_Mark_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gd-ots.com/commercial_powder.html">General Dynamics Commercial Powder Applications</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171116163958/https://www.gd-ots.com/commercial_powder.html">Archived</a> 16 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell,_John1985" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, John (1985). <i>Naval Weapons of World War Two</i>. Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87021-459-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87021-459-4"><bdi>0-87021-459-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naval+Weapons+of+World+War+Two&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-87021-459-4&rft.au=Campbell%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmokeless+powder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis,_Tenney_L.1943" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Tenney L. (1943). <i>The Chemistry of Powder & Explosives</i> (Angriff Press [1992] ed.). John Wiley & Sons Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-913022-00-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-913022-00-4"><bdi>0-913022-00-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chemistry+of+Powder+%26+Explosives&rft.edition=Angriff+Press+%5B1992%5D&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons+Inc&rft.date=1943&rft.isbn=0-913022-00-4&rft.au=Davis%2C+Tenney+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmokeless+powder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDallman2006" class="citation journal cs1">Dallman, John (2006). "Question 27/05: "Flashless" Propellant". <i>Warship International</i>. <b>XLIII</b> (3): 246. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374">0043-0374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Warship+International&rft.atitle=Question+27%2F05%3A+%22Flashless%22+Propellant&rft.volume=XLIII&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=246&rft.date=2006&rft.issn=0043-0374&rft.aulast=Dallman&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmokeless+powder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis,_William_C._Jr.1981" class="citation book cs1">Davis, William C. Jr. (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handloading00will"><i>Handloading</i></a></span>. National Rifle Association of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-935998-34-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-935998-34-9"><bdi>0-935998-34-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handloading&rft.pub=National+Rifle+Association+of+America&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-935998-34-9&rft.au=Davis%2C+William+C.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandloading00will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmokeless+powder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairfield,_A._P.,_CDR_USN1921" class="citation book cs1">Fairfield, A. P., CDR USN (1921). <i>Naval Ordnance</i>. 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"Question 27/05: "Flashless" Propellant". <i>Warship International</i>. <b>XLVII</b> (3): 217. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374">0043-0374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Warship+International&rft.atitle=Question+27%2F05%3A+%22Flashless%22+Propellant&rft.volume=XLVII&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=217&rft.date=2010&rft.issn=0043-0374&rft.aulast=Gibbs&rft.aufirst=Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmokeless+powder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrobmeier2006" class="citation journal cs1">Grobmeier, A.H. (2006). "Question 27/05: "Flashless" Propellant". <i>Warship International</i>. <b>XLIII</b> (3): 245. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374">0043-0374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Warship+International&rft.atitle=Question+27%2F05%3A+%22Flashless%22+Propellant&rft.volume=XLIII&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=245&rft.date=2006&rft.issn=0043-0374&rft.aulast=Grobmeier&rft.aufirst=A.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmokeless+powder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrulich2006" class="citation journal cs1">Grulich, Fred (2006). "Question 27/05: "Flashless" Propellant". <i>Warship International</i>. <b>XLIII</b> (3): 245–246. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374">0043-0374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Warship+International&rft.atitle=Question+27%2F05%3A+%22Flashless%22+Propellant&rft.volume=XLIII&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=245-246&rft.date=2006&rft.issn=0043-0374&rft.aulast=Grulich&rft.aufirst=Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmokeless+powder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatcher,_Julian_S.Barr,_Al1951" class="citation book cs1">Hatcher, Julian S. & Barr, Al (1951). <i>Handloading</i>. Hennage Lithograph Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handloading&rft.pub=Hennage+Lithograph+Company&rft.date=1951&rft.au=Hatcher%2C+Julian+S.&rft.au=Barr%2C+Al&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmokeless+powder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatunas,_E.A.1978" class="citation book cs1">Matunas, E.A. (1978). <i>Winchester-Western Ball Powder Loading Data</i>. Olin Corporation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Winchester-Western+Ball+Powder+Loading+Data&rft.pub=Olin+Corporation&rft.date=1978&rft.au=Matunas%2C+E.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmokeless+powder" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe,_Dave1982" class="citation book cs1">Wolfe, Dave (1982). <i>Propellant Profiles Volume 1</i>. Wolfe Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-935632-10-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-935632-10-7"><bdi>0-935632-10-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Propellant+Profiles+Volume+1&rft.pub=Wolfe+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-935632-10-7&rft.au=Wolfe%2C+Dave&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmokeless+powder" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/april2002/mccord.htm">The Manufacture of Smokeless Powders and their Forensic Analysis: A Brief Review</a>. Robert M. Heramb, Bruce R. McCord</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findingaids.hagley.org/xtf/view?docId=ead/2147.xml">Hudson Maxim papers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180309054124/http://findingaids.hagley.org/xtf/view?docId=ead%2F2147.xml">Archived</a> 9 March 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1851–1925) at <a href="/wiki/Hagley_Museum_and_Library" title="Hagley Museum and Library">Hagley Museum and Library</a>. Collection includes material relating to Maxim's patent on the process of making smokeless powder.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Bullet" title="Bullet">Bullet</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cast_bullet" title="Cast bullet">Cast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expanding_bullet" title="Expanding bullet">Expanding</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hollow-point_bullet" title="Hollow-point bullet">Hollow point</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soft-point_bullet" title="Soft-point bullet">Soft point</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frangible_bullet" title="Frangible bullet">Frangible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_metal_jacket_(ammunition)" title="Full metal jacket (ammunition)">Full metal jacket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow-base_bullet" title="Hollow-base bullet">Hollow-base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic-tipped_bullet" title="Plastic-tipped bullet">Plastic-tipped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiwadcutter" title="Semiwadcutter">Semiwadcutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spitzer_(bullet)" title="Spitzer (bullet)">Spitzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_metal_jacket" title="Total metal jacket">Total metal jacket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-low-drag_bullet" title="Very-low-drag bullet">Very-low-drag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wax_bullet" title="Wax bullet">Wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadcutter" title="Wadcutter">Wadcutter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shotgun_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Shotgun shell">Shotgun shell</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birdshot" class="mw-redirect" title="Birdshot">Birdshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckshot" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckshot">Buckshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flechette" title="Flechette">Flechette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock salt">Rock salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabot_(firearms)" title="Sabot (firearms)">Sabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shotgun_slug" title="Shotgun slug">Slug</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Propellant" title="Propellant">Propellant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">Gunpowder</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Smokeless powder</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pyrocollodion" title="Pyrocollodion">Pyrocollodion</a>, etc)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ball_propellant" title="Ball propellant">Ball propellant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Centerfire_ammunition#Centerfire_primers" title="Centerfire ammunition">Primer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centerfire_ammunition#Boxer_primer" title="Centerfire ammunition">Boxer primer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&oldid=1258465905">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smokeless_powder&oldid=1258465905</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cordite" title="Category:Cordite">Cordite</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Explosives" title="Category:Explosives">Explosives</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Firearm_propellants" title="Category:Firearm 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