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<div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Hungarian Revolution of 1848</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li 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role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Special:EditPage/Hungarian Revolution of 1848">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22">"Hungarian Revolution of 1848"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (December 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style>The Hungarian Revolution of 1848, also known in <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> as Hungarian Revolution and War of Independence of 1848–1849 (<a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>: 1848–49-es forradalom és szabadságharc) was one of many <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">European Revolutions of 1848</a> and was closely linked to other <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Habsburg_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas">revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas</a>. Although the revolution failed, it is one of the most significant events in Hungary's modern history, forming the cornerstone of modern Hungarian national identity—the anniversary of the Revolution's outbreak, 15 March, is one of Hungary's three <a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Hungary" title="Public holidays in Hungary">national holidays</a>. <table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Hungarian Revolution of 1848</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:March15.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/March15.jpg/275px-March15.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="399" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/March15.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="413" data-file-height="599"></a> Artist <a href="/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_Zichy" title="Mihály Zichy">Mihály Zichy</a>'s painting of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1ndor_Pet%C5%91fi" title="Sándor Petőfi">Sándor Petőfi</a> reciting the <a href="/wiki/Nemzeti_dal" title="Nemzeti dal">National Song</a> to a crowd on 15 March 1848</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>15 March 1848 – 4 October 1849 (1 year, 6 months, and 19 days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526-1867)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1526-1867)">Kingdom of Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Austro-Russian victory <ul><li>Revolution suppressed</li> <li>Hungary placed under martial law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_13_Martyrs_of_Arad" title="The 13 Martyrs of Arad">Thirteen rebel generals executed at Arad</a></li> <li>Hungary placed under military dictatorship until the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Compromise_of_1867" title="Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867">Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867</a>.</li> <li>Kossuth and many of his allies go into exile in the United States</li> <li>Austrian Empire introduces policy of <a href="/wiki/Germanisation" title="Germanisation">Germanisation</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted 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href="/wiki/Supreme_Ruthenian_Council" title="Supreme Ruthenian Council">Supreme Ruthenian Council</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_Bohemia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Bohemia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"> <a href="/wiki/Czechs" title="Czechs">Czech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moravians" title="Moravians">Moravian</a> volunteers </li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/33px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/33px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> </li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="942"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526%E2%80%931867)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)">Kingdom of Hungary</a><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Hungary_with_great_coat_of_arms_%281849%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary_with_great_coat_of_arms_%281849%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Hungary_with_great_coat_of_arms_%281849%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary_with_great_coat_of_arms_%281849%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Hungary_with_great_coat_of_arms_%281849%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary_with_great_coat_of_arms_%281849%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="900"> <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_State_(1849)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian State (1849)">Hungarian State</a><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div>(14 April – 13 August 1849)</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"> Legions of the revolutionaries from <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a> states </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Polish</a> legions </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/File:Olasz_l%C3%A9gi%C3%B3_z%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_1849_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Olasz_l%C3%A9gi%C3%B3_z%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_1849_1.jpg/22px-Olasz_l%C3%A9gi%C3%B3_z%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_1849_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Olasz_l%C3%A9gi%C3%B3_z%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_1849_1.jpg/33px-Olasz_l%C3%A9gi%C3%B3_z%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_1849_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Olasz_l%C3%A9gi%C3%B3_z%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_1849_1.jpg/44px-Olasz_l%C3%A9gi%C3%B3_z%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_1849_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="800"></a> <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italian</a> legions </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Flag_of_Szekely_Land.svg/23px-Flag_of_Szekely_Land.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Flag_of_Szekely_Land.svg/35px-Flag_of_Szekely_Land.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Flag_of_Szekely_Land.svg/46px-Flag_of_Szekely_Land.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500"> <a href="/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kelys" title="Székelys">Székelys</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian Jews">Hungarian Jews</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Germans_of_Hungary" title="Germans of Hungary">Hungarian Germans</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Slovenes" title="Hungarian Slovenes">Hungarian Slovenes</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Pro-Hungarian Slovaks </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Pro-Hungarian Romanians </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Pro-Hungarian Serbs </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> Pro-Hungarian <a href="/wiki/Rusyns" title="Rusyns">Rusyns</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Zipser_Germans" title="Zipser Germans">Zipser Saxons</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Burgenland_Croats" title="Burgenland Croats">Croats from Western Hungary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Me%C4%91imurje" class="mw-redirect" title="Međimurje">Muraköz</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/%C5%A0okci" title="Šokci">Šokac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bunjevci" title="Bunjevci">Bunjevac people</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Banat_Bulgarians" title="Banat Bulgarians">Banat Bulgarians</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph I</a> (after 2 December 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Austria" title="Ferdinand I of Austria">Ferdinand I</a> (before 2 December 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_I,_Prince_of_Windisch-Gr%C3%A4tz" title="Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz">Alfred I of Windisch-Grätz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Welden" title="Ludwig von Welden">Ludwig von Welden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Jacob_von_Haynau" title="Julius Jacob von Haynau">Julius Jacob von Haynau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <a href="/wiki/Franz_Schlik" title="Franz Schlik">Franz Schlik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Urban" title="Karl von Urban">Karl von Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Flag_of_the_Triune_Kingdom_of_Croatia%2C_Slavonia_and_Dalmatia.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Triune_Kingdom_of_Croatia%2C_Slavonia_and_Dalmatia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Flag_of_the_Triune_Kingdom_of_Croatia%2C_Slavonia_and_Dalmatia.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Triune_Kingdom_of_Croatia%2C_Slavonia_and_Dalmatia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Flag_of_the_Triune_Kingdom_of_Croatia%2C_Slavonia_and_Dalmatia.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Triune_Kingdom_of_Croatia%2C_Slavonia_and_Dalmatia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533"> <a href="/wiki/Josip_Jela%C4%8Di%C4%87" title="Josip Jelačić">Josip Jelačić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Serbian_Vojvodina.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbian_Vojvodina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Serbian_Vojvodina.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbian_Vojvodina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Serbian_Vojvodina.svg/46px-Flag_of_Serbian_Vojvodina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="588"> <a href="/wiki/Stevan_Kni%C4%87anin" title="Stevan Knićanin">Stevan Knićanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/SlovenskaVlajka1848.png/23px-SlovenskaVlajka1848.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/SlovenskaVlajka1848.png/35px-SlovenskaVlajka1848.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/SlovenskaVlajka1848.png/45px-SlovenskaVlajka1848.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533"> <a href="/wiki/%C4%BDudov%C3%ADt_%C5%A0t%C3%BAr" title="Ľudovít Štúr">Ľudovít Štúr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/1848_Blaj_Romanian_flag_%28%C8%98tefan_Branea%27s_report%29.svg/23px-1848_Blaj_Romanian_flag_%28%C8%98tefan_Branea%27s_report%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/1848_Blaj_Romanian_flag_%28%C8%98tefan_Branea%27s_report%29.svg/35px-1848_Blaj_Romanian_flag_%28%C8%98tefan_Branea%27s_report%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/1848_Blaj_Romanian_flag_%28%C8%98tefan_Branea%27s_report%29.svg/46px-1848_Blaj_Romanian_flag_%28%C8%98tefan_Branea%27s_report%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2494" data-file-height="1363"> <a href="/wiki/Avram_Iancu" title="Avram Iancu">Avram Iancu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800"></a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_the_Ruthenian_National_Guard_from_Yavoriv.png/15px-Flag_of_the_Ruthenian_National_Guard_from_Yavoriv.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_the_Ruthenian_National_Guard_from_Yavoriv.png/23px-Flag_of_the_Ruthenian_National_Guard_from_Yavoriv.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_the_Ruthenian_National_Guard_from_Yavoriv.png/30px-Flag_of_the_Ruthenian_National_Guard_from_Yavoriv.png 2x" data-file-width="8147" data-file-height="8150"> <a href="/wiki/Hryhory_Yakhymovych" class="mw-redirect" title="Hryhory Yakhymovych">Hryhory Yakhymovych</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"></a> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600"></a> <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Paskevich" title="Ivan Paskevich">Ivan Paskevich</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526%E2%80%931867)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)"><img alt="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="942"></a> <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Lajos Kossuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526%E2%80%931867)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)"><img alt="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="942"></a> <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Batthy%C3%A1ny" title="Lajos Batthyány">Lajos Batthyány</a> <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490"></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526%E2%80%931867)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)"><img alt="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="942"></a> <a href="/wiki/Art%C3%BAr_G%C3%B6rgey" class="mw-redirect" title="Artúr Görgey">Artúr Görgey</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526%E2%80%931867)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)"><img alt="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="942"></a> <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Klapka" title="György Klapka">György Klapka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526%E2%80%931867)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)"><img alt="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="942"></a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Damjanich" title="János Damjanich">János Damjanich</a> <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490"></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1526%E2%80%931867)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)"><img alt="Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary_%281848%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="954" data-file-height="942"></a> <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Aulich" title="Lajos Aulich">Lajos Aulich</a> <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490"></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Dembi%C5%84ski" title="Henryk Dembiński">Henryk Dembiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Bem" title="Józef Bem">Józef Bem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wysocki_(general)" title="Józef Wysocki (general)">Józef Wysocki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 170,000 men from the Austrian Empire, and 200,000 men from the Russian Empire<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Beginning of 1849: 170,000 men<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferdinando_I_d%27Austria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ferdinando_I_d%27Austria.jpg/220px-Ferdinando_I_d%27Austria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ferdinando_I_d%27Austria.jpg/330px-Ferdinando_I_d%27Austria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ferdinando_I_d%27Austria.jpg/440px-Ferdinando_I_d%27Austria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="960"></a><figcaption>Photograph of the aged <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Austria" title="Ferdinand I of Austria">Emperor Ferdinand I</a> dated c. 1870</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> In April 1848, Hungary became the third country of <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">Continental Europe</a> (after <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, in 1791, and <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, in 1831) to enact a law implementing democratic parliamentary elections. The new suffrage law (Act V of 1848) transformed the old feudal parliament (<a href="/wiki/The_Estates" title="The Estates">Estates General</a>) into a democratic representative parliament. This law offered the widest right to vote in Europe at the time.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> The April laws utterly erased all privileges of the Hungarian nobility.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The crucial turning point came when the new Austrian monarch <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph I</a> arbitrarily revoked the <a href="/wiki/April_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="April laws">April laws</a> without any legal right (since they had already been ratified by King <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Austria" title="Ferdinand I of Austria">Ferdinand I</a>).<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> This unconstitutional act irreversibly escalated the conflict between him and the Hungarian parliament. The new constrained <a href="/wiki/Stadion_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadion Constitution">Stadion Constitution</a> of Austria, the revocation of the April laws, and the Austrian military campaign against the Kingdom of Hungary resulted in the fall of the pacifist <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Batthy%C3%A1ny" title="Lajos Batthyány">Batthyány government</a> (who sought agreement with the court) and led to <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Lajos Kossuth</a>'s followers (who demanded full independence for Hungary) suddenly gaining power in the parliament. Austrian military intervention in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a> resulted in strong anti-Habsburg sentiment among Hungarians, and the events in Hungary grew into a war for total <a href="/wiki/Independence" title="Independence">independence</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg dynasty">Habsburg dynasty</a>. Around 40% of the private soldiers in the Hungarian Revolutionary Volunteer Army consisted of ethnic minorities of the country.<a href="#cite_note-epa.oszk.hu-7">[7]</a> Regarding the officer staff of Hungary: Around half of the officers and generals of the Hungarian Honvéd Army had foreign origin. There were at least as many ethnic Hungarian professional officers in the Imperial Habsburg army as in the Hungarian revolutionary Honvéd army.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In regard to diplomacy and foreign policy during the revolution, the Hungarian liberals - similar to the other European liberal revolutionaries of 1848 - were primarily motivated by ideological considerations. They supported countries and forces that aligned with their new moral and political standards. They also believed that governments and political movements sharing the same modern liberal values should form an alliance against the "feudal type" of monarchies. This outlook was similar to modern <a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">liberal internationalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> After a series of serious Austrian defeats in 1849, the Austrian Empire came close to the brink of collapse. The new emperor <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph I</a> had to call for Russian help in the name of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In the hope of Russian military support, the young Emperor Franz Joseph kissed the hands of the Ruler of all the Russians in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> on 21 May 1849.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I of Russia</a> agreed with Franz Joseph and sent a 200,000 strong army with 80,000 auxiliary forces. The joint Russo-Austrian army finally defeated the Hungarian forces, Habsburg power was restored and Hungary was placed under <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Hungary_before_the_Revolution">1 Hungary before the Revolution</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#The_Hungarian_Jacobin_Club">1.1 The Hungarian Jacobin Club</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Era_of_Reforms">1.2 Era of Reforms</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#%22Long_debate%22_of_reformers_in_the_press_(1841%E2%80%931848)">1.2.1 "Long debate" of reformers in the press (1841–1848)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#%22The_Twelve_Points%22_of_the_reformers">1.2.2 "The Twelve Points" of the reformers</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#The_one_day_bloodless_revolution_in_Pest_and_Buda">2 The one day bloodless revolution in Pest and Buda</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Revolution_in_Vienna">2.1 Revolution in Vienna</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Revolution_in_Pest">2.2 Revolution in Pest</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Parliamentary_monarchy,_the_Batthy%C3%A1ny_government">3 Parliamentary monarchy, the Batthyány government</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#The_Austrian_Stadion_Constitution_and_the_renewal_of_antagonism">3.1 The Austrian Stadion Constitution and the renewal of antagonism</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Szemere_government_and_Regent-President_Lajos_Kossuth">4 Szemere government and Regent-President Lajos Kossuth</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#War_of_Independence">5 War of Independence</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Croats">5.1 Croats</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Serbs_of_Vojvodina">5.2 Serbs of Vojvodina</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Western_Slovak_Uprising">5.3 Western Slovak Uprising</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Transylvania">5.4 Transylvania</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Romanians">5.4.1 Romanians</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#Transylvanian_Saxons">5.4.2 Transylvanian Saxons</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Attempts_of_reconciliation_with_the_nationalities">5.5 Attempts of reconciliation with the nationalities</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Russians">5.6 Russians</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Austrians">5.7 Austrians</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Aftermath">6 Aftermath</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Hungarian_revolutionaries_in_the_American_Civil_War">6.1 Hungarian revolutionaries in the American Civil War</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#See_also">7 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#References">8 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Further_reading">9 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#External_links">10 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Hungary_before_the_Revolution">Hungary before the Revolution</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> Unlike other Habsburg-ruled areas, the Kingdom of Hungary had an <a href="/wiki/Uncodified_constitution" title="Uncodified constitution">old historic constitution</a>,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> which limited the power of the Crown and had greatly increased the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Hungary" title="Diet of Hungary">parliament</a> since the 13th century. The <a href="/wiki/Golden_Bull_of_1222" title="Golden Bull of 1222">Golden Bull of 1222</a> was one of the earliest examples of constitutional limits being placed on the powers of a European monarch,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> which was forced on the Hungarian king in much the same way King <a href="/wiki/John_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="John of England">John of England</a> was made to sign <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>. In 1804, Emperor Franz assumed the title of Emperor of Austria for all the <a href="/wiki/Erblande" title="Erblande">Erblande</a> of the dynasty and for the other Lands, however the new Erblande term was not applied to Kingdom of Hungary<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The Court reassured Hungary's separate parliament, the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Hungary" title="Diet of Hungary">Diet of Hungary</a>, however, that the assumption of the monarch's new title did not in any sense affect Hungary's separate legal system and constitution.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The other serious problem for the Habsburgs was the traditionally <a href="/wiki/Counties_of_Hungary_(1000%E2%80%931920)" title="Counties of Hungary (1000–1920)">highly autonomous counties of Hungary</a>, which proved to be a solid and major obstacle in the construction of Habsburg absolutism in Hungary. The counties were the centers of local public administration and local politics in Hungary, and they possessed a recognized right to refuse to carry out any "unlawful" (unconstitutional) royal orders. Thus, it was possible to question the legality of a surprisingly high proportion of the royal orders which emanated from Vienna.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Until 1848, the Kingdom of Hungary's administration and government remained largely untouched by the government structure of the "overarching" Austrian Empire. However the old Hungarian constitution and Hungarian public law made it legally impossible to merge the Kingdom of Hungary into a different state.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Hungary's central government structures remained well separated from the imperial government. The country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary (the Gubernium) – based in <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Pozsony (now Bratislava)</a> and later in <a href="/wiki/Pest,_Hungary" title="Pest, Hungary">Pest</a> – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> While in most Western European countries (like France and Britain) the king's reign <a href="/wiki/The_king_is_dead,_long_live_the_king!" title="The king is dead, long live the king!">began immediately upon the death of his predecessor</a>, in Hungary the coronation was absolutely indispensable as, if it were not properly executed, the Kingdom stayed "<a href="/wiki/Interregnum" title="Interregnum">orphaned</a>". Even during the long <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a> between the Kingdom of Hungary and other Habsburg ruled areas, the Habsburg monarchs had to be crowned as <a href="/wiki/King_of_Hungary" title="King of Hungary">King of Hungary</a> in order to promulgate laws there or exercise royal prerogatives in the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-review1-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Bull_of_1222" title="Golden Bull of 1222">Golden Bull of 1222</a>, all Hungarian monarchs were obliged to take an oath during the coronation ceremony to uphold the <a href="/wiki/Uncodified_constitution" title="Uncodified constitution">constitutional arrangement</a> of the country, to preserve the liberties of its subjects and to respect the territorial integrity of the realm.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> From 1526 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary also maintained its own customs borders, which separated Hungary from the united customs system of other Habsburg ruled territories. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Hungarian_Jacobin_Club">The Hungarian Jacobin Club</h3></div> In February 1790 the Holy Roman Emperor, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II</a> died and was succeeded by Francis I, putting a stop to enlightened reforms in Hungary, which outraged many reform-oriented <a href="/wiki/Francophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Francophone">French-speaking</a> intellectuals who were followers of new radical ideas based on French <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosophy. <a href="/wiki/Ign%C3%A1c_Martinovics" title="Ignác Martinovics">Ignác Martinovics</a>, who worked as a secret agent for the new Holy Roman Emperor, <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold II</a>, until 1792 in his Oratio pro Leopoldo II explicitly declared that only authority derived from a <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> should be recognized; he saw the aristocracy as the enemy of mankind, because they prevented ordinary people from becoming educated. In another of his works, Catechism of People and Citizens, he argued that citizens tend to oppose any repression and that sovereignty resides with the people. He also became a Freemason, and was in favour of the adoption of a federal republic in Hungary. As a member of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Jacobins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hungarian Jacobins (page does not exist)">Hungarian Jacobins</a>, he was considered an idealistic forerunner of revolutionary thought by some, and an unscrupulous adventurer by others. He stirred up a revolt against the nobility among the Hungarian serfs, a subversive act which led Francis II, the Holy Roman Emperor, to dismiss Martinovics and his boss, Ferenc Gotthardi, the former chief of the secret police. He was executed, together with six other prominent Jacobins, in May 1795. More than 42 members of the republican secret society were arrested, including the poet <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Bats%C3%A1nyi" title="János Batsányi">János Batsányi</a> and linguist <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Kazinczy" title="Ferenc Kazinczy">Ferenc Kazinczy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Though the Hungarian Jacobin republican movement did not affect the policy of the Hungarian Parliament and the parliamentary parties, it had strong ideological ties with forces beyond the parliament: radical youths and students like the poet <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1ndor_Pet%C5%91fi" title="Sándor Petőfi">Sándor Petőfi</a>, the novel-writer <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B3r_J%C3%B3kai" title="Mór Jókai">Mór Jókai</a>, the philosopher and historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=P%C3%A1l_Vasv%C3%A1ri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pál Vasvári (page does not exist)">Pál Vasvári</a>, and the journalist József Irinyi who sparked the revolution in the Pilvax coffee palace on 15 March 1848.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Era_of_Reforms">Era of Reforms</h3></div> The frequent diets held in the earlier part of the reign occupied themselves with little else but war subsidies; after 1811 the Holy Roman Emperor stopped summoning them.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> In the latter years of Francis I's rule the dark shadow of <a href="/wiki/Metternich" class="mw-redirect" title="Metternich">Metternich</a>'s policy of "stability" fell across Hungary, and the forces of reactionary absolutism reigned supreme. However, beneath the surface a strong popular current was beginning to run in the opposite direction. Affected by western Liberalism but without any direct help from abroad, Hungarian society was preparing for its future emancipation. Writers, scholars, poets, artists, noble and ordinary people, lay people and priests, without any previous history of working together or obvious connections between them, were working towards that ideal of political liberty which was to unite all Hungarians. Consciously or unconsciously, Mihály Vörösmarty, Ferenc Kölcsey, Ferencz Kazinczy and his associates, to name but a few, were giving new life to Hungarian literature and simultaneously accomplishing political goals, with their pens proving no less powerful than their ancestors' swords.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-31">[31]</a> In 1825 <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Francis_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Francis II">Emperor Francis II</a> finally convened the Diet in response to growing concerns amongst the Hungarian nobility about taxes and the diminishing economy, after the Napoleonic Wars. This – and the reaction to the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor#Ruling_emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II</a> – started what is known as the Reform Period (<a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>: reformkor).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Even so, the Nobles still retained their privileges of paying no taxes and not giving the vote to the masses. The influential Hungarian politician Count <a href="/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_Sz%C3%A9chenyi" title="István Széchenyi">István Széchenyi</a> recognized the need to bring the country the advances of the more developed West European countries, such as Britain. It was a direct attack upon the constitution which, in István Széchenyi's words, first "startled the nation out of its sickly drowsiness". In 1823, when the reactionary powers were considering joint action to suppress the <a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">revolution in Spain</a>, the government imposed a war-tax and conscription without consulting the diet. The county assemblies instantly protested against this illegal act and at the 1823 diet Francis I was obliged to repudiate his ministers' actions. However, the estates felt that the maintenance of their liberties demanded more substantial guarantees than the dead letter of ancient laws. Széchenyi, who had resided abroad and studied Western institutions, was recognised as their leader of all those who wished to create a new Hungary out of the old. For years he and his friends educated public opinion by issuing innumerable pamphlets in which the new Liberalism was eloquently expounded. In particular Széchenyi insisted that the people must not look exclusively to the government, or even to the diet, for the necessary reforms. Society itself must take the initiative by breaking down the barriers of class exclusion and reviving a healthy notion of popular consciousness. The effect of this teaching was manifest at the diet of 1832, when the Liberals in the Lower Chamber had a large majority. Prominent among whom were Ferenc Deák and Ödön Beothy. In the Upper House, however, the magnates united with the government to form a conservative party obstinately opposed to any project of reform, which frustrated all the Liberals' efforts.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-31">[31]</a> The journalist <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Lajos Kossuth</a> became the new rising star of the Hungarian Parliament in the mid 1830s and began to rival Szécheny's popularity thanks to his talent as orator in the parliament's liberal faction. Kossuth called for broader parliamentary democracy, rapid industrialization, general taxation, economic expansion through exports, and the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> and aristocratic privileges (equality before the law). The government's alarm at the power and popularity of the Liberal party led it, soon after emperor Ferdinand I's accession in 1835, to attempt to crush the reform movement by arresting and imprisoning the most active agitators, including Kossuth and <a href="/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_Wessel%C3%A9nyi" title="Miklós Wesselényi">Miklós Wesselényi</a>. However, the nation was no longer to be cowed, with the diet of 1839 refusing to proceed to business until the political prisoners were released. While in the Lower Chamber the reforming majority was larger than ever, a Liberal party now also formed in the Upper House under the leadership of Count Louis Batthyány and Baron Joseph Eotvos. The results of the diet of 1839 did not satisfy the advanced Liberals, while the opposition of the government and of the Upper House still further fomented discontent in the general populace. This ill-feeling was also mainly fanned by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pesti_Hirlap&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pesti Hirlap (page does not exist)">Pesti Hirlap</a>, Hungary's first political newspaper, founded in 1841 by Kossuth. Its articles advocated armed reprisals if necessary, thus inflaming the extremists but alienating Széchenyi, who openly attacked Kossuth's opinions. Both sides produced violent polemics, but, as usual, the extreme views prevailed, and when the diet of 1843 convened Kossuth was more popular than ever while Széchenyi's influence had visibly declined. The tone of this diet was passionate, and the government was fiercely attacked for interfering with the elections. A new party called as <a href="/wiki/Opposition_Party_(Hungary)" title="Opposition Party (Hungary)">Opposition party</a> was created, which united the reform oriented Liberals, to oppose the conservatives. Fresh triumphs were won by the Liberals (the Opposition Party) – in 1844 the diet made <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Magyar</a> the official language of administration, legislation and schooling in the Kingdom of Hungary,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] ending Latin's 844-year reign in that role, as well as freeing the peasants' holdings from all feudal obligations,<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-31">[31]</a> legalising mixed marriages and throwing open official positions to non-nobles.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id='"Long_debate"_of_reformers_in_the_press_(1841–1848)'>"Long debate" of reformers in the press (1841–1848)</h4></div> The interval between the Diet of 1843 and that of 1847 saw the various political parties completely disintegrate and transform. Széchenyi openly joined the government, while the moderate Liberals separated from the extremists and formed a new party, the Centralists. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pilvax_Pest_Preiszler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Pilvax_Pest_Preiszler.jpg/300px-Pilvax_Pest_Preiszler.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1997" data-file-height="1052"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 158px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Pilvax_Pest_Preiszler.jpg/300px-Pilvax_Pest_Preiszler.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="158" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Pilvax_Pest_Preiszler.jpg/450px-Pilvax_Pest_Preiszler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Pilvax_Pest_Preiszler.jpg/600px-Pilvax_Pest_Preiszler.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The entrance room of the Pilvax coffee palace at <a href="/wiki/Pest,_Hungary" title="Pest, Hungary">Pest</a> in the 1840s</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pet%C5%91fi_Nemzeti_M%C3%BAzeum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Pet%C5%91fi_Nemzeti_M%C3%BAzeum.jpg/300px-Pet%C5%91fi_Nemzeti_M%C3%BAzeum.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="246" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1576"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 246px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Pet%C5%91fi_Nemzeti_M%C3%BAzeum.jpg/300px-Pet%C5%91fi_Nemzeti_M%C3%BAzeum.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="246" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Pet%C5%91fi_Nemzeti_M%C3%BAzeum.jpg/450px-Pet%C5%91fi_Nemzeti_M%C3%BAzeum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Pet%C5%91fi_Nemzeti_M%C3%BAzeum.jpg/600px-Pet%C5%91fi_Nemzeti_M%C3%BAzeum.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The National Song being recited at the National Museum</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_szabadsajt%C3%B3_els%C5%91_term%C3%A9ke_Pesten_1848._m%C3%A1rcius_15.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/A_szabadsajt%C3%B3_els%C5%91_term%C3%A9ke_Pesten_1848._m%C3%A1rcius_15.JPG/300px-A_szabadsajt%C3%B3_els%C5%91_term%C3%A9ke_Pesten_1848._m%C3%A1rcius_15.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="307" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="993" data-file-height="1017"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 307px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/A_szabadsajt%C3%B3_els%C5%91_term%C3%A9ke_Pesten_1848._m%C3%A1rcius_15.JPG/300px-A_szabadsajt%C3%B3_els%C5%91_term%C3%A9ke_Pesten_1848._m%C3%A1rcius_15.JPG" data-width="300" data-height="307" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/A_szabadsajt%C3%B3_els%C5%91_term%C3%A9ke_Pesten_1848._m%C3%A1rcius_15.JPG/450px-A_szabadsajt%C3%B3_els%C5%91_term%C3%A9ke_Pesten_1848._m%C3%A1rcius_15.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/A_szabadsajt%C3%B3_els%C5%91_term%C3%A9ke_Pesten_1848._m%C3%A1rcius_15.JPG/600px-A_szabadsajt%C3%B3_els%C5%91_term%C3%A9ke_Pesten_1848._m%C3%A1rcius_15.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The crowd captured the Landerer & Heckenast printing house, where they printed the 12 points and the National Song. Thus 15 March became the memorial Day of the Freedom of the Press in Hungary.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1848-49_Batthyany-kormany.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/1848-49_Batthyany-kormany.jpg/300px-1848-49_Batthyany-kormany.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="213" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1848" data-file-height="1309"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 213px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/1848-49_Batthyany-kormany.jpg/300px-1848-49_Batthyany-kormany.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="213" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/1848-49_Batthyany-kormany.jpg/450px-1848-49_Batthyany-kormany.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/1848-49_Batthyany-kormany.jpg/600px-1848-49_Batthyany-kormany.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Members of the Batthyány government</figcaption></figure> In his 1841 pamphlet People of the East (Kelet Népe), Count Széchenyi analyzed Kossuth's policy and responded to Kossuth's reform proposals. Széchenyi believed that economic, political and social reforms should proceed slowly and with care, in order to avoid the potentially disastrous prospect of violent interference from the Habsburg dynasty. Széchenyi was aware of the spread of Kossuth's ideas in Hungarian society, which he felt overlooked the need for a good relationship with the Habsburg dynasty. Kossuth, for his part, rejected the role of the aristocracy, and questioned the established norms of social status. In contrast to Széchenyi, Kossuth believed that in the process of social reform it would be impossible to restrain civil society in a passive role. According to Kossuth, the wider social movements can not be continually excluded from political life. Behind Kossuth's conception of society was a notion of freedom that emphasized the unitary origin of rights, which he saw manifested in universal suffrage. In exercising political rights, Széchenyi took into account wealth and education of the citizens, thus he supported only limited suffrage similar to the Western European (British, French and Belgian) limited suffrage of the era. In 1885, Kossuth called Széchenyi a liberal elitist aristocrat while Széchenyi considered himself to be a democrat.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Széchenyi was an isolationist politician while, according to Kossuth, strong relations and collaboration with international liberal and progressive movements are essential for the success of liberty.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Regarding foreign policy, Kossuth and his followers refused the isolationist policy of Széchenyi, thus they stood on the ground of the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">liberal internationalism</a>: They supported countries and political forces that aligned with their moral and political standards. They also believed that political movements sharing the same modern liberal values should form an alliance against the "feudalist" conservatives.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Széchenyi based his economic policy on the <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> principles practised by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, while Kossuth supported protective tariffs due to the comparatively weak Hungarian industrial sector. While Kossuth envisaged the construction of a rapidly industrialized country, Széchenyi wanted to preserve the traditionally strong agricultural sector as the main bedrock of the economy.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id='"The_Twelve_Points"_of_the_reformers'>"The Twelve Points" of the reformers</h4></div> The conservatives – who usually opposed most of the reforms – thought they could maintain a slim majority in the old feudal parliament, as the reformer liberals were divided between the ideas of Széchenyi and Kossuth. Immediately before the elections, however, Deák succeeded in reuniting all the Liberals on the common platform of "The Twelve Points".<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-31">[31]</a> The twelve points served as basis for the later <a href="/wiki/April_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="April laws">April laws</a>. They were as follows:<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>Freedom of the Press (The abolition of censorship and the censor's offices)</li><li>Accountable ministries in Buda and Pest (Instead of the simple royal appointment of ministers, all ministers and the government must be elected and dismissed by the parliament)</li><li>An annual parliamentary session in Pest. (instead of the rare ad-hoc sessions which were convened by the king)</li><li>Civil and religious equality before the law. (The abolition of separate laws for the common people and nobility, the abolition of the legal privileges of nobility. Full religious liberty instead of moderated tolerance: the abolition of (Catholic) <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>)</li><li>National Guard. (The forming of their own Hungarian national guard, it worked like a police force to keep the law and order during the transition of the system, thus preserving the morality of the revolution)</li><li>Joint share of tax burdens. (abolition of the tax exemption of the nobility, the abolition of customs and tariff exemption of the nobility)</li><li>The abolition of socage. (abolition of Feudalism and abolition of the serfdom of peasantry and their bondservices)</li><li>Juries and representation on an equal basis. (The common people can be elected as juries at the legal courts, all people can be officials even at the highest levels of public administration and the judiciary, if they have the prescribed education)</li><li>National Bank.</li><li>The army to swear to support the constitution, our soldiers should not be sent abroad, and foreign soldiers should leave our country.</li><li>The freeing of political prisoners.</li><li>Union. (with Transylvania, including the re-union of the Hungarian and Transylvanian parliaments, which became separate during the Ottoman wars)</li></ol></div> The ensuing parliamentary elections resulted in a complete victory for the Progressives. This was also the last election which was based on the parliamentary system of the old feudal estates. All efforts to bring about an understanding between the government and the opposition were fruitless. Kossuth demanded not merely the redress of actual grievances, but a liberal reform which would make grievances impossible in the future. In the highest circles a dissolution of the diet now seemed to be the sole remedy; but, before it could be carried out, tidings of the February revolution in Paris reached Pressburg on 1 March, and on 3 March Kossuth's motion for the appointment of an independent, responsible ministry was accepted by the Lower House. The moderates, alarmed not so much by the motion itself as by its tone, again tried to intervene; but on 13 March the Vienna revolution broke out, and the Emperor, yielding to pressure or panic, appointed Count Louis Batthyány premier of the first Hungarian responsible ministry, which included Kossuth, Széchenyi and Deák.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-31">[31]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="The_one_day_bloodless_revolution_in_Pest_and_Buda">The one day bloodless revolution in Pest and Buda</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/12_points_of_the_Hungarian_Revolutionaries_of_1848" title="12 points of the Hungarian Revolutionaries of 1848">12 points of the Hungarian Revolutionaries of 1848</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magyar_kok%C3%A1rda.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Magyar_kok%C3%A1rda.png/100px-Magyar_kok%C3%A1rda.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="154" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="336" data-file-height="518"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 100px;height: 154px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Magyar_kok%C3%A1rda.png/100px-Magyar_kok%C3%A1rda.png" data-width="100" data-height="154" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Magyar_kok%C3%A1rda.png/150px-Magyar_kok%C3%A1rda.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Magyar_kok%C3%A1rda.png/200px-Magyar_kok%C3%A1rda.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Hungarian <a href="/wiki/Cockade" title="Cockade">cockade</a> used in 1848</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolution_in_Vienna">Revolution in Vienna</h3></div> The crisis came from abroad – as Kossuth expected – and he used it to the full. On 3 March 1848, shortly after the news of the <a href="/wiki/The_Revolutions_of_1848_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="The Revolutions of 1848 in France">revolution in Paris</a> had arrived, in a speech of surpassing power he demanded parliamentary government for Hungary and constitutional government for the rest of Austria. He appealed to the hope of the Habsburgs, "our beloved Archduke <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph</a>" (then seventeen years old), to perpetuate the ancient glory of the dynasty by meeting half-way the aspirations of a free people. He at once became a massively popular revolutionary speaker across Austria and most of continental Europe; his speech was read aloud in the streets of <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> to the mob by which <a href="/wiki/Metternich" class="mw-redirect" title="Metternich">Metternich</a> was overthrown (13 March), and when a deputation from the Diet visited Vienna to receive the assent of Emperor Ferdinand to their petition it was Kossuth who received the chief ovation. The arrival of the news of the revolution in Paris, and Kossuth's German speech about freedom and human rights had whipped up the passions of Austrian crowd in Vienna on 13 March.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> While the Viennese masses celebrated Kossuth as their hero, revolution broke out in Buda on 15 March; Kossuth traveled home immediately.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolution_in_Pest">Revolution in Pest</h3></div> The process of commodity production and capitalization slowly reshaped the social conditions and the world view of the nobility, which began to advocate the human and civil rights in Hungary since the reform era. Recent studies of social history have also suggested that the so-called "youth of March", the plebeian intelligentsia, should not be seen as a separate phenomenon in itself, but as an intellectual vanguard of an emerging societal strata that can be classified as the petty bourgeoisie. They did not represent a measurable political and economic force in a comparison with the nobility in the nationwide scene, but in historically critical situations, especially in the more developed, larger urban centers, they could still prove to become a significant or even the determinant factor. Politically, the petty bourgeoisie was the bearer of radical, republican aspirations similar to the French and German political events. The revolution started in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pilvax_coffee_house&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pilvax coffee house (page does not exist)">Pilvax coffee house</a> [<a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilvax" class="extiw" title="hu:Pilvax">hu</a>] at Pest, which was a favourite meeting point of the young extra-parliamentary radical liberal intellectuals in the 1840s. Early that morning, Sándor Petőfi hurried to the Pilvax café, where the young people gathered. He found Pál Vasvári and Gyula Bulyovszky there, invited them to the apartment of Mór Jókai, where a proclamation was edited for the <a href="/wiki/12_points_of_the_Hungarian_Revolutionaries_of_1848" title="12 points of the Hungarian Revolutionaries of 1848">12 points</a>. Around 8 o'clock, Petőfi and his companions went to the Pilvax café , and only six appeared at the set time (Petőfi, Jókai, Bulyovszky, Sebő, Ernő Gaál and Dániel Hamary). Here Jókai read out the 12 points and the proclamation. Petofi recited his new poem the <a href="/wiki/Nemzeti_dal" title="Nemzeti dal">National Song</a>. From here – according to a preliminary agreement – they went first to the University of Law on University Street. A group of students was already waiting for them in the yard and they immediately brought a chair for Petőfi and Jókai, here Petőfi recited his poem written the night before, the National Song, and Jókai read the 12 points. From here they went to the Medical University on Újvilág Street, where the students also interrupted their university lectures and acted similarly in the courtyard, and later in front of the students of the Faculty of Engineering and Philosophy; the very same choreography happened in the University Square too. By this time, not only were they surrounded by a large crowd of youth, but they were also joined by a large audience from the street, which grew. Petőfi has decided that the people would fulfill the first point of the 12 points, the freedom of the press, by his own authority, which he did. At 10 O'clock they went to the Landerer Publishing and Press company (the largest in the city) on the Hatvani street. Saw the enthusianism of the crowd, Petőfi renamed the Hatvani Street to Street of the Free Press.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> " The print owner gave in, and immediately translating the desired documents into German, a few moments later, thousands came out of the fast press, copies of which were distributed to a gathering audience incessantly despite the pouring rain." It was only around noon that the raging crowd dispersed, agreeing to go to Buda in the afternoon to release <a href="/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_T%C3%A1ncsics" title="Mihály Táncsics">Mihály Táncsics</a>, a political prisoner. A symbol of Petőfi's famous day, activists distributed a three-colored Hungarian cockade to the crowd. At 3 p.m., a mass demonstration was held in Museum Square at the front of the building of the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum" title="Hungarian National Museum">Hungarian National Museum</a>, and thousands of copies of the National Song and 12 points were distributed; from there they went to the town hall, urging the adoption of the 12 points. The gathered people decided to head to the town hall and there called on the city council to sign their wishes. The council hall opened, the items of the program were submitted to the council, which were accepted by the council members and was signed by the clerk of the town council too. They immediately elected a regular commission, of which Petőfi was a member. The people, appointing their temporary committee, wished the political prisoner Mihály Táncsics – who had been arrested in Buda by the censor's officers – to be released from prison. In order to fulfill this wish, he moved to Buda around 5 o'clock pm, and gathered around his battalion in the courtyard of the official building, steadfastly stood by his wishes, while his constituency declared: the election of a press court from among the people; . Ferenc Zichy, the chairman of the council, immediately released Táncsics, dragged his car from Buda to the National Theater Square with his own hands, and entered the theater. On the afternoon of this day, the people wanted József Bajza, the deputy director of the national theater, to perform the banned opera <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1nk_b%C3%A1n" title="Bánk bán">Bánk bán</a> in the theater with full lighting for the celebration of this day. The actors took the stage with <a href="/wiki/Cockade" title="Cockade">cockades</a> of national color, Gábor Egressy sang the National Song, the choir sang the Hungarian Hymn and the National Song. The majority of the audience wanted Táncsics to appear on the stage, but when he became aware of its ailing condition, he gave up his wish. Eventually, the people dispersed alongside the Rákóczi runner-up. However, the standing committee sat together until morning. The next day, on 16 March, Pál Nyáry, the deputy mayor of Pest County, Lipót Rottenbiller, the deputy mayor of Pest and others, took the head of the movement and thus the events became of national significance. It was the very first task of the troubled people to demand the immediate entry of the National Guard, and by this time they had begun collecting signatures, and in a few hours thousands of signatures had been collected. The people demanded the weapons. The military authority reported that it could only give 500 weapons because the rest were taken to Komárom. And below, the people, who had already gone to about 20–25 thousand, demanded the weapons and threatened to break into the arsenal if they did not get the weapon. A subcommittee was then appointed on the distribution of weapons for the national guards, and after an hour of deliberation, Rottenbiller reassured the people gathered in the hall, and Jókai reassured the crowd by announcing a bill alternately as national guards at night to take care of law and order. In the evening, the two sister cities were fully illuminated, a crowd of enthusiastic people roared in the streets, shouting, "Long live freedom!" From the windows hung national flags embroidered with the name of freedom. Throughout the night, order and tranquility guarded the city, with raiding national guards who arrested wanted criminals, vagrants, and looters hiding in several locations who wanted to take advantage of the turbulent situation of the day. The bloodless mass demonstrations in <a href="/wiki/Pest,_Hungary" title="Pest, Hungary">Pest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buda" title="Buda">Buda</a> forced the Imperial governor to accept all twelve of their demands. Austria had its own problems with the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Vienna Revolt">revolution in Vienna</a> that year, and it initially acknowledged Hungary's government. Therefore, the Governor-General's officers, acting in the name of the King, appointed Hungary's new parliament with <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Batthy%C3%A1ny" title="Lajos Batthyány">Lajos Batthyány</a> as its first Prime Minister. The Austrian monarchy also made other concessions[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] to subdue the Viennese masses: on 13 March 1848, Prince <a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a> was made to resign his position as the Austrian Government's Chancellor. He then fled to London for his own safety. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Parliamentary_monarchy,_the_Batthyány_government">Parliamentary monarchy, the Batthyány government</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Special:EditPage/Hungarian Revolution of 1848">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22">"Hungarian Revolution of 1848"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Hungarian+Revolution+of+1848%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (March 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/April_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="April laws">April laws</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barab%C3%A1s_V%C3%A1laszt%C3%A1si_menet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Barab%C3%A1s_V%C3%A1laszt%C3%A1si_menet.jpg/300px-Barab%C3%A1s_V%C3%A1laszt%C3%A1si_menet.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1437"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 225px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Barab%C3%A1s_V%C3%A1laszt%C3%A1si_menet.jpg/300px-Barab%C3%A1s_V%C3%A1laszt%C3%A1si_menet.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="225" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Barab%C3%A1s_V%C3%A1laszt%C3%A1si_menet.jpg/450px-Barab%C3%A1s_V%C3%A1laszt%C3%A1si_menet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Barab%C3%A1s_V%C3%A1laszt%C3%A1si_menet.jpg/600px-Barab%C3%A1s_V%C3%A1laszt%C3%A1si_menet.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A parliamentary election campaign of a candidate</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orsz%C3%A1ggy%C5%B1l%C3%A9s_megnyit%C3%A1sa_1848.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Orsz%C3%A1ggy%C5%B1l%C3%A9s_megnyit%C3%A1sa_1848.jpg/300px-Orsz%C3%A1ggy%C5%B1l%C3%A9s_megnyit%C3%A1sa_1848.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="201" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1540" data-file-height="1030"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 201px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Orsz%C3%A1ggy%C5%B1l%C3%A9s_megnyit%C3%A1sa_1848.jpg/300px-Orsz%C3%A1ggy%C5%B1l%C3%A9s_megnyit%C3%A1sa_1848.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="201" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Orsz%C3%A1ggy%C5%B1l%C3%A9s_megnyit%C3%A1sa_1848.jpg/450px-Orsz%C3%A1ggy%C5%B1l%C3%A9s_megnyit%C3%A1sa_1848.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Orsz%C3%A1ggy%C5%B1l%C3%A9s_megnyit%C3%A1sa_1848.jpg/600px-Orsz%C3%A1ggy%C5%B1l%C3%A9s_megnyit%C3%A1sa_1848.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>5 July 1848: The opening ceremony of the first parliament, which was based on popular representation. The members of the first responsible government are on the balcony.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jellasics_tamadasa_EN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Jellasics_tamadasa_EN.jpg/300px-Jellasics_tamadasa_EN.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="325" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="565"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 325px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Jellasics_tamadasa_EN.jpg/300px-Jellasics_tamadasa_EN.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="325" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Jellasics_tamadasa_EN.jpg/450px-Jellasics_tamadasa_EN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Jellasics_tamadasa_EN.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Jelačić's attacks in the last quarter of 1848</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P%C3%A1kozdi_csata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/P%C3%A1kozdi_csata.jpg/300px-P%C3%A1kozdi_csata.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="195" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3550" data-file-height="2308"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 195px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/P%C3%A1kozdi_csata.jpg/300px-P%C3%A1kozdi_csata.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="195" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/P%C3%A1kozdi_csata.jpg/450px-P%C3%A1kozdi_csata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/P%C3%A1kozdi_csata.jpg/600px-P%C3%A1kozdi_csata.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_P%C3%A1kozd" title="Battle of Pákozd">Battle of Pákozd</a> was a draw that pushed the loyalist Croatian forces towards Vienna and away from Pest.</figcaption></figure> On 17 March 1848 the Emperor assented and Batthyány created the first Hungarian responsible government. On 23 March 1848, as <a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">head of government</a>, Batthyány commended his government to the Diet. The first responsible government was formed with <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Batthy%C3%A1ny" title="Lajos Batthyány">Lajos Batthyány</a> serving as Prime Minister. With the exception of <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Lajos Kossuth</a>, all members of the government were the supporters of Széchenyi's ideas.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Twelve Points, or the March Laws as they were now called, were then adopted by the legislature and received royal assent on 10 April. Hungary had, to all intents and purposes, become an independent state bound to Austria only by the Austrian Archduke as Palatine.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-31">[31]</a> The new government approved a sweeping reform package, referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/April_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="April laws">April laws</a>", which created a democratic political system.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The newly established government also demanded that the Habsburg Empire spend all taxes they received from Hungary in Hungary itself, and that the Parliament should have authority over the Hungarian regiments of the Habsburg Army. The new suffrage law (Act V of 1848) transformed the old feudal estates based parliament (<a href="/wiki/The_Estates" title="The Estates">Estates General</a>) into a democratic representative parliament. This law offered the widest suffrage right in Europe at the time.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The first general parliamentary elections were held in June, which were based on popular representation instead of feudal forms. The reform oriented political forces won the elections. The electoral system and franchise were similar to the contemporary British system.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> At that time the internal affairs and foreign policy of Hungary were not stable, and Batthyány faced many problems. His first and most important act was to organize the armed forces and the local governments. He insisted that the Austrian army, when in Hungary, would come under Hungarian law, and this was conceded by the Austrian Empire. He tried to repatriate conscript soldiers from Hungary. He established the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Organisation_of_Militiamen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Organisation of Militiamen (page does not exist)">Organisation of Militiamen</a>, whose job was to ensure internal security of the country. Batthyány was a very capable leader, but he was stuck in the middle of a clash between the Austrian monarchy and the Hungarian separatists. He was devoted to the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> and aimed to keep the constitution, but the Emperor was dissatisfied with his work. <a href="/wiki/Josip_Jela%C4%8Di%C4%87" title="Josip Jelačić">Josip Jelačić</a> was <a href="/wiki/Ban_of_Croatia" title="Ban of Croatia">Ban (Viceroy) of Croatia and Dalmatia</a>, regions in personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary. He was opposed to the new Hungarian government, and raised troops in his domains. Legally this meant that a monarch was preparing to attack one of his country's appointed and lawful government with another of his country's army. In the summer of 1848, the Hungarian government, seeing the civil war ahead, tried to get the Habsburgs' support against Jelačić. They offered to send troops to northern Italy. In August 1848, the Imperial Government in Vienna officially ordered the Hungarian government in Pest not to form an army. On 29 August, with the assent of parliament, Batthyány went with <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_(politician)" title="Ferenc Deák (politician)">Ferenc Deák</a> to the Emperor to ask him to order the Serbs to capitulate and stop Jelačić, who was going to attack Hungary. But Jelačić went ahead and invaded Hungary to dissolve the Hungarian government, without any order from Austria. Though the Emperor formally relieved Jelačić of his duties, Jelačić and his army invaded <a href="/wiki/Me%C4%91imurje_(region)" title="Međimurje (region)">Muraköz (Međimurje)</a> and the Southern <a href="/wiki/Transdanubia" title="Transdanubia">Transdanubian</a> parts of Hungary on 11 September 1848. After the Austrian revolution in Vienna was defeated, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph I of Austria</a> replaced his uncle <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Austria" title="Ferdinand I of Austria">Ferdinand I of Austria</a>, who was not of sound mind. Franz Joseph didn't recognise Batthyány's second premiership, which began on 25 September. In addition, Franz Joseph was not recognized as king of Hungary by the Hungarian parliament, and he was not crowned king of Hungary until 1867. In the end, the final break between Vienna and Pest occurred when Field-Marshal <a href="/wiki/Count_Franz_Philipp_von_Lamberg" title="Count Franz Philipp von Lamberg">Count Franz Philipp von Lamberg</a> was given control of all armies in Hungary (including Jelačić's). He went to Hungary where he was mobbed and brutally murdered. Following his murder the Imperial court dissolved the Hungarian Diet and appointed Jelačić as Regent.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Meanwhile, Batthyány travelled again to Vienna to seek a compromise with the new Emperor. His efforts remained unsuccessful, because Franz Joseph refused to accept the reforms, which were known as the "April laws". This was unconstitutional, as the laws had already been signed by his uncle King Ferdinand, and he had no right to revoke them. Hungarian liberals in Pest saw this as an opportunity. In September 1848, the Diet made concessions to the Pest Uprising, so as not to break up the Austro-Hungarian Union. But the counter-revolutionary forces were gathering. After many[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">quantify</a>] local victories, the combined Bohemian and Croatian armies entered Pest on 5 January 1849.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Consequently, Batthyány and his government resigned, except for Kossuth, Szemere, and Mészáros. Later, on <a href="/wiki/Archduke_Stephen,_Palatine_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Archduke Stephen, Palatine of Hungary">Palatine Stephen</a>'s request, Batthyány became Prime Minister again. On 13 September Batthyány announced a rebellion and requested that the Palatine lead them. However the Palatine, under the Emperor's orders, resigned and left Hungary. Hungary now had war raging on four fronts: Jelačić's <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(Habsburg)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)">Croatian</a> troops to the South; <a href="/wiki/Hungarians_in_Romania" title="Hungarians in Romania">Romanians</a> in <a href="/wiki/Banat" title="Banat">Banat</a> to the South-East; Austrian troops led by <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Urban" title="Karl von Urban">Karl von Urban</a> and Romanian insurgents headed by <a href="/wiki/Avram_Iancu" title="Avram Iancu">Avram Iancu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a> to the East; and Austrian main forces under the supreme commander of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_I,_Prince_of_Windisch-Gr%C3%A4tz" title="Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz">Windischgrätz</a> to the west. The Hungarian government was in serious military crisis due to the lack of soldiers, therefore they sent Kossuth (a brilliant orator) to recruit volunteers for the new Hungarian army. While Jelačić was marching on Pest, Kossuth went from town to town rousing the people to the defence of the country, and the popular force of the Honvéd was his creation. With the help of Kossuth's recruiting speeches, Batthyány quickly formed the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolutionary_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian Revolutionary Army">Hungarian Revolutionary Army</a>. 40% of private soldiers in the revolutionary army consisted of ethnic minorities of the country.<a href="#cite_note-epa.oszk.hu-7">[7]</a> The new Hungarian army defeated the Croatians on 29 September at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_P%C3%A1kozd" title="Battle of Pákozd">Battle of Pákozd</a>. The battle became an icon for the Hungarian army for its effect on politics and morale. Kossuth's second letter for the Austrian people and this battle were the causes of the second revolution in Vienna on 6 October. Batthyány slowly realized that he could not reach his main goal, which was peaceful compromise with the Habsburg dynasty. On 2 October he resigned and simultaneously resigned his seat in parliament. The ministers of his cabinet also resigned on the same day. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Austrian_Stadion_Constitution_and_the_renewal_of_antagonism">The Austrian Stadion Constitution and the renewal of antagonism</h3></div> The Habsburg government in Vienna proclaimed a new constitution, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Stadion_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadion Constitution">Stadion Constitution</a> on 4 March 1849.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The centralist Stadion Constitution provided very strong power for the monarch, and marked the way of neo-absolutism.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The new March Constitution of Austria was drafted by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Diet_(Austria)" title="Imperial Diet (Austria)">Imperial Diet of Austria</a>, where Hungary had no representation. Austrian legislative bodies like the Imperial Diet traditionally had no power in Hungary. Despite this, the Imperial Diet also tried to abolish the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Hungary" title="Diet of Hungary">Diet of Hungary</a> (which had existed as the supreme legislative power in Hungary since the late 12th century.)<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The Austrian Stadion constitution attempted to contradict the existing constitution of Hungary, with a view to its abolition.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Even the territorial integrity of the country was in danger: on 7 March an imperial proclamation was issued in the name of the emperor Francis Joseph establishing a united constitution for the whole empire, of which the Kingdom of Hungary was carved up into five independent military districts.<a href="#cite_note-phillips-49">[49]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Szemere_government_and_Regent-President_Lajos_Kossuth">Szemere government and Regent-President Lajos Kossuth</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> When Batthyány resigned he was appointed with Szemere to carry on the government provisionally, and at the end of September Kossuth was made President of the Committee of National Defence. From a constitutional point of view, and according to the coronation oath, a crowned Hungarian King cannot abdicate the Hungarian throne during his lifetime. If the king is alive but unable do his duty as ruler, a governor (or, in English, regent) had to undertake the royal duties. Therefore, Ferdinand remained still the legal <a href="/wiki/King_of_Hungary" title="King of Hungary">king of Hungary</a>. If there was no possibility of inheriting the throne automatically due to the death of the predecessor king (as king Ferdinand was still alive), but the monarch was wanting to relinquish his throne and appoint another king before his death, there was technically only one legal solution: the parliament had the power to dethrone the monarch and elect his successor as the new king of Hungary. Owing to the legal and military tensions, the Hungarian parliament did not grant Franz Joseph this honour. This event gave to the Hungarian resistance a solid foundation of legality. From this time until the collapse of the revolution, <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Lajos Kossuth</a>, as head of state of Hungary, became the de facto and de jure ruler of the country.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-31">[31]</a> With the exception of Kázmér Batthyány, all members of the new cabinet were Kossuth's supporters. The new government (the Szemere administration) was formed on 2 May 1849:<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <ul><li>Head of state, Lajos Kossuth.</li> <li>Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior, <a href="/wiki/Bertalan_Szemere" title="Bertalan Szemere">Bertalan Szemere</a></li> <li>Foreign Minister, Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Trade : <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1zm%C3%A9r_Batthy%C3%A1ny" title="Kázmér Batthyány">Kázmér Batthyány</a></li> <li>Finance Minister: <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Duschek" title="Ferenc Duschek">Ferenc Duschek</a></li> <li>Minister of Justice: <a href="/wiki/Seb%C5%91_Vukovics" title="Sebő Vukovics">Sebő Vukovics</a></li> <li>Minister of Education, Science and Culture: <a href="/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_Horv%C3%A1th" title="Mihály Horváth">Mihály Horváth</a></li> <li>Minister of Labour, Infrastructure and Transport: <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Cs%C3%A1ny" title="László Csány">László Csány</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_(Hungary)" title="Minister of Defence (Hungary)">Minister of Defence</a>: <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1z%C3%A1r_M%C3%A9sz%C3%A1ros" title="Lázár Mészáros">Lázár Mészáros</a> (14 April – 1 May 1849) <a href="/wiki/Art%C3%BAr_G%C3%B6rgey" class="mw-redirect" title="Artúr Görgey">Artúr Görgey</a> (7 May – 7 July 1849) and <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Aulich" title="Lajos Aulich">Lajos Aulich</a> (14 July – 11 August 1849)</li></ul> From this time he had an increased amount of power. The direction of the whole government was in his hands. Without military experience, he had to control and direct the movements of armies; he was unable to keep control over the generals or to establish that military co-operation so essential to success. Arthur Görgey in particular, whose abilities Kossuth was the first to recognize, refused obedience; the two men were very different personalities. Twice Kossuth deposed him from the command; twice he had to restore him. It would have been well if Kossuth had had something more of Görgey's calculated ruthlessness, for, as has been rightly said, the revolutionary power he had seized could only be held by revolutionary means; but he was by nature soft-hearted and always merciful; though often audacious, he lacked decision in dealing with men. It has been said that he showed a want of personal courage; this is not improbable, the excess of feeling which made him so great an orator could hardly be combined with the coolness in danger required of a soldier; but no one was able, as he was, to infuse courage into others. Throughout the terrible winter which followed, his energy and spirit never failed him. It was he who overcame the reluctance of the army to march to the relief of Vienna; after the defeat at the Battle of Schwechat, at which he was present, he sent Józef Bem to carry on the war in Transylvania. At the end of the year, when the Austrians were approaching Pest, he asked for the mediation of Mr <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Stiles" class="mw-redirect" title="William Henry Stiles">William Henry Stiles</a> (1808–1865), the American envoy. Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, however, refused all terms, and the Diet and government fled to Debrecen, Kossuth taking with him the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Crown_of_Hungary" title="Holy Crown of Hungary">Crown of St Stephen</a>, the sacred emblem of the Hungarian nation. In November 1848, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favour of Franz Joseph. The new Emperor revoked all the concessions granted in March and outlawed Kossuth and the Hungarian government – set up lawfully on the basis of the April laws. In April 1849, when the Hungarians had won many successes, after sounding the army, Kossuth issued the celebrated Hungarian Declaration of Independence, in which he declared that "the house of Habsburg-Lorraine, perjured in the sight of God and man, had forfeited the Hungarian throne." It was a step characteristic of his love for extreme and dramatic action, but it added to the dissensions between him and those who wished only for autonomy under the old dynasty, and his enemies did not hesitate to accuse him of aiming for kingship. The dethronement also made any compromise with the Habsburgs practicably impossible. Kossuth played a key role in tying down the Hungarian army for weeks for the siege and recapture of Buda castle, finally successful on 21 May 1849. The hopes of ultimate success were, however, frustrated by the intervention of Russia; all appeals to the western powers were vain, and on 11 August, Kossuth abdicated in favor of Görgey, on the ground that in the last extremity the general alone could save the nation. Görgey capitulated at Világos (now Şiria, Romania) to the Russians, who handed over the army to the Austrians.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-31">[31]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="War_of_Independence">War of Independence</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buda_ostroma_1849._m%C3%A1jus_21.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Buda_ostroma_1849._m%C3%A1jus_21.jpg/250px-Buda_ostroma_1849._m%C3%A1jus_21.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4792" data-file-height="4016"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Buda_ostroma_1849._m%C3%A1jus_21.jpg/250px-Buda_ostroma_1849._m%C3%A1jus_21.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Buda_ostroma_1849._m%C3%A1jus_21.jpg/375px-Buda_ostroma_1849._m%C3%A1jus_21.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Buda_ostroma_1849._m%C3%A1jus_21.jpg/500px-Buda_ostroma_1849._m%C3%A1jus_21.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Buda_(1849)" title="Siege of Buda (1849)">Siege of Buda</a> in May 1849</figcaption></figure> In 1848 and 1849, the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian people">Hungarian people</a> or Magyars, who wanted independence, formed a majority only in the central areas of the country. The Hungarians were surrounded by other nationalities. In 1848–49, the Austrian monarchy and those advising them manipulated the Croatians, Serbians and Romanians, making promises to the Magyars one day and making conflicting promises to the Serbs and other groups the next.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels229-52">[52]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">additional citation(s) needed</a>] Some of these groups were led to fight against the Hungarian Government by their leaders who were striving for their own independence; this triggered numerous brutal incidents between the Magyars and Romanians among others. In 1848 and 1849, however, the Hungarians were supported by most Slovaks, Germans, <a href="/wiki/Rusyn_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Rusyn people">Rusyns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Slovene" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian Slovene">Hungarian Slovenes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary#Jews_and_the_Hungarian_Revolution" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungarian Jews</a>, and many[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">quantify</a>] Polish, Austrian and Italian volunteers.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> On 28 July 1849, the Hungarian Revolutionary Parliament proclaimed and enacted the first<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> laws on ethnic and minority rights in Europe, but these were overturned after the Russian and Austrian armies crushed the Hungarian Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Occasionally, the Austrian throne would overplay their hand in their tactics of divide and conquer in Hungary – with some quite unintended results. This happened in the case of the Slovaks who had begun the war as at least indifferent if not positively anti-Magyar but came to support the Hungarian Government against the Dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels3903_May_1848-62">[62]</a> But in another case, the Austrians' double-dealing brought some even more surprising new allies to the Hungarian cause during the war in 1849. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Croats">Croats</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(Habsburg)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)">Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Croatia_in_union_with_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Croatia in union with Hungary">Kingdom of Croatia</a> had been in a personal union with the kingdom of Hungary since the 12th century. <a href="/wiki/Croatian_nationalism" title="Croatian nationalism">Croatian nationalism</a> was weak in the beginning of the 19th century, but grew with increasing Hungarian pressure, especially the April Laws that ignored Croatian autonomy under Hungarian Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> In response, Croatian leaders called for a distinct <a href="/wiki/Triune_Kingdom" title="Triune Kingdom">Triune Kingdom</a>. Ban <a href="/wiki/Josip_Jela%C4%8Di%C4%87" title="Josip Jelačić">Josip Jelačić</a>, who would go on to be a revered Croatian hero, sought to free Croatia from Hungary as a separate entity under the Habsburgs. Eventually, he traveled to Vienna to take oaths to become counsel of Austrian Emperor. Soon after <a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Lajos Kossuth</a> declared an independent Kingdom of Hungary dethroning the Habsburgs, the Croats rebelled against the Hungarians and declared their loyalty to <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a>. The first fighting in the Hungarian revolution was between the Croats and Magyars, and Austria's intervention on the part of their loyal Croatian subjects caused an upheaval in Vienna.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Jelačić sent his army under the order of him, hoping to suppress the increasing power of Hungarian revolutionaries, but failed and was repelled by the Hungarians on 29 September near <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1kozd" title="Pákozd">Pákozd</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> With the end of Hungarian Revolution, Croatia would be directly ruled by Austria until the <a href="/wiki/Croatian%E2%80%93Hungarian_Settlement" title="Croatian–Hungarian Settlement">Croatian–Hungarian Settlement</a> in the 1860s.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serbs_of_Vojvodina">Serbs of Vojvodina</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Serb_Uprising_of_1848%E2%80%9349" class="mw-redirect" title="Serb Uprising of 1848–49">Serb Uprising of 1848–49</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Vojvodina" title="Serbian Vojvodina">Serbian Vojvodina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Voivodeship_of_Serbia_and_Banat_of_Temeschwar" title="Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar">Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Vojvodina" title="Vojvodina">Vojvodina</a> became a Hungarian Crown Land after the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Great Turkish War</a>. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Armee_Bulletin_V.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Armee_Bulletin_V.jpg/250px-Armee_Bulletin_V.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="182" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="747"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 182px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Armee_Bulletin_V.jpg/250px-Armee_Bulletin_V.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="182" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Armee_Bulletin_V.jpg/375px-Armee_Bulletin_V.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Armee_Bulletin_V.jpg/500px-Armee_Bulletin_V.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Battle of Vršac, between army of Serbian Vojvodina and Hungarian army, January 1849</figcaption></figure> Between the Tisza river and Transylvania, north of the Danube lies the former region of Hungary called the "<a href="/wiki/Banat" title="Banat">Banat</a>".<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Battle of Mohács</a>, under Ottoman rule the area north of the Danube saw an influx of Southern Slavs along with the invading Ottoman army. In 1804 the semi-independent <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Principality of Serbia</a> had formed south of the Danube with <a href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</a> as its capital. So in 1849, the Danube divided Serbia from the Kingdom of Hungary. The Hungarian district on the northern side of the river was called "<a href="/wiki/Vojvodina" title="Vojvodina">Vojvodina</a>", and by that time it was home to almost half a million Serbian inhabitants. According to the <a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Vojvodina#1840" title="Demographic history of Vojvodina">census of 1840 in Vojvodina</a> Serbs comprised 49% of the total population. The Serbs of Vojvodina had sought their independence or attachment with the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Principality of Serbia</a> on the other side of the Danube. In face of the emerging Hungarian independence movement leading up to the 1848 Revolution the Austrian monarchy had promised an independent status for the Serbs of Vojvodina within the Austrian Empire.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Toward this end, <a href="/wiki/Josif_Raja%C4%8Di%C4%87" title="Josif Rajačić">Josif Rajačić</a> was appointed Patriarch of Vojvodina in February 1849.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels613-68">[68]</a> Rajačić was a supporter of the Serbian national movement, although somewhat conservative with pro-Austrian leanings. At a crucial point during the war against the Hungarian Government, in late March 1849 when the Austrians needed more Serbian soldiers to fight the war, the Austrian General <a href="/wiki/Juraj_Rukavina_Vidovgradski_(soldier,_born_in_1777)" class="mw-redirect" title="Juraj Rukavina Vidovgradski (soldier, born in 1777)">Juraj Rukavina Vidovgradski</a>, who commanded the Austrian troops in Hungary, officially re-stated this promise of independence for Vojvodina and conceded to all the demands of the Patriarch regarding Serbian nationhood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels250The_War_in_Hungary-69">[69]</a> Acquiescence to the demands of the Patriarch should have meant a relaxation of the strict military administration of Vojvodina. Under this military administration in the border areas, any male between the ages of 16 years and 60 years of age could be conscripted into the army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels8_April_1848-70">[70]</a> The Serbs of Vojvodina were expecting their requirement for Austrian military conscription to be the first measure to be relaxed. But the new Emperor Franz Joseph had other ideas and this promise was broken not more than two weeks after it had been made to the people of Vojvodina. This caused a split in the population of the Vojvodina and at least part of the Serbs in that province began to support the elected Hungarian Government against the Austrians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels8_April_1848-70">[70]</a> Some Serbs sought to ingratiate the Serb nation with the Austrian Empire to promote the independence of Vojvodina. With war on three fronts the Hungarian Government should have been squashed immediately[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">according to whom?</a>] upon the start of hostilities. However, events early in the war worked in favor of the Government. The unity of the Serbs on the southern front was ruined by Austrian perfidy over the legal status of Vojvodina. Some right-wing participants in the Serbian national movement felt that a "revolution" in Hungary more threatened the prerogatives of landowners, and the nobles in Serbian Vojvodina, than the occupying Austrians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJudah199760-71">[71]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Than_tapiobicskei_utk%C3%B6zet2_1849_aprilis_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Than_tapiobicskei_utk%C3%B6zet2_1849_aprilis_4.jpg/250px-Than_tapiobicskei_utk%C3%B6zet2_1849_aprilis_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1141" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 175px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Than_tapiobicskei_utk%C3%B6zet2_1849_aprilis_4.jpg/250px-Than_tapiobicskei_utk%C3%B6zet2_1849_aprilis_4.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="175" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Than_tapiobicskei_utk%C3%B6zet2_1849_aprilis_4.jpg/375px-Than_tapiobicskei_utk%C3%B6zet2_1849_aprilis_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Than_tapiobicskei_utk%C3%B6zet2_1849_aprilis_4.jpg/500px-Than_tapiobicskei_utk%C3%B6zet2_1849_aprilis_4.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Battle at <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A1pi%C3%B3bicske" title="Tápióbicske">Tápióbicske</a> (4 April 1849) by <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B3r_Than" title="Mór Than">Mór Than</a></figcaption></figure> At the start of the war, the Hungarian Defence Forces (<a href="/wiki/Royal_Hungarian_Landwehr" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Hungarian Landwehr">Honvédség</a>) won some [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">quantify</a>] battles<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> against the Austrians, for example at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_P%C3%A1kozd" title="Battle of Pákozd">Battle of Pákozd</a> in September 1848 and at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Isaszeg_(1849)" title="Battle of Isaszeg (1849)">Isaszeg</a> in April 1849, at which time they even stated the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Hungarian Declaration of Independence">Hungarian Declaration of Independence</a> from the Habsburg Empire. The same month, <a href="/wiki/Art%C3%BAr_G%C3%B6rgey" class="mw-redirect" title="Artúr Görgey">Artúr Görgey</a> became the new Commander-in-Chief of all the armies of the independent Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels603-74">[74]</a> After the fall of the Hungarian revolution in 1849, Vojvodina became an Austrian Crown Land. In 1860 it became again a Hungarian Crown Land and was part of Hungary until the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Slovak_Uprising">Western Slovak Uprising</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slovak_Uprising_1848%E2%80%9349" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovak Uprising 1848–49">Slovak Uprising 1848–49</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slovensk%C3%AD_dobrovo%C4%BEn%C3%ADci.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Slovensk%C3%AD_dobrovo%C4%BEn%C3%ADci.jpg/220px-Slovensk%C3%AD_dobrovo%C4%BEn%C3%ADci.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1451" data-file-height="1324"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 201px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Slovensk%C3%AD_dobrovo%C4%BEn%C3%ADci.jpg/220px-Slovensk%C3%AD_dobrovo%C4%BEn%C3%ADci.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="201" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Slovensk%C3%AD_dobrovo%C4%BEn%C3%ADci.jpg/330px-Slovensk%C3%AD_dobrovo%C4%BEn%C3%ADci.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Slovensk%C3%AD_dobrovo%C4%BEn%C3%ADci.jpg/440px-Slovensk%C3%AD_dobrovo%C4%BEn%C3%ADci.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Slovak volunteers, 1848/49</figcaption></figure> The Slovak volunteers units were a reactionary armed movement opposed to the Hungarian Revolution. Organized in the Western parts of modern <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>, the volunteers led multiple campaign across majority Slovak areas in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Hungary" title="Upper Hungary">Upper Hungary</a>, all the way to <a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%A1ice" title="Košice">Kassa (Košice)</a> in the east.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> The leaders of the Slovak Volunteers, <a href="/wiki/%C4%BDudov%C3%ADt_%C5%A0t%C3%BAr" title="Ľudovít Štúr">Ľudovít Štúr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jozef_Miloslav_Hurban" title="Jozef Miloslav Hurban">Jozef Miloslav Hurban</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michal_Miloslav_Hod%C5%BEa" title="Michal Miloslav Hodža">Michal Miloslav Hodža</a>, struggled to elicit total support from the Slovak nation. Many Slovak peasants were more concerned with the abolition of feudal servitude, and not with wider national goals. Religious differences also played a key role, as the leaders of the Slovak volunteers were predominantly Protestant, which led to difficulties in eliciting support in regions with a catholic Slovak majority.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> As a result, they could recruit only up to 2,000 people, while a much higher percentage of the Slovak population was serving in the Hungarian Honvédség (Home Guard) among the Hungarian revolutionaries.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> The Slovak nation and people had been poorly defined up to this point, as the Slovak people lacked a definitive border or national identity. However, in the years leading up to the revolution, the Hungarians had taken steps to <a href="/wiki/Magyarization" title="Magyarization">Magyarize</a> the Slovak region under Hungarian control. The aim of this was to bring the varied ethnic groups around Hungary into a common culture. At the outbreak of the Hungarian Revolution this process was seen as more imminent and threatening to ethnic groups, especially many Slovak intellectuals.<a href="#cite_note-slovak-79">[79]</a> Slovaks made demands that their culture be spared Magyarization and that they be given certain liberties and rights. These demands soon broke out into wider demonstrations clamouring for the rights of ethnic minorities in Hungary. Arrests were made that further enraged the demonstrators and eventually a Pan-Slavic Congress was held in Prague. A document was drafted at this congress and sent to the Hungarian government demanding the rights of the Slovak people. The Hungarians responded by imposing martial law on the Slovak region.<a href="#cite_note-slovak-79">[79]</a> The Imperial government recognized that all across the Empire, ethnic minorities were seeking more autonomy, but it was only Hungary that desired a complete break. They used this by supporting the ethnic national movements against the Hungarian government. Slovak volunteer units were commissioned in Vienna to join campaigns against the Hungarians across the theatre. A Slovak regiment then marched to Miava (today <a href="/wiki/Myjava" title="Myjava">Myjava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>), where a Slovak council openly seceded from Hungary. Tensions rose as the Hungarian army executed a number of Slovak leaders for high treason and the fighting became more bloody.<a href="#cite_note-slovak-79">[79]</a> However, the leaders of the Slovak Volunteers also wanted its autonomy from Hungary. They hoped that the Slovak lands would become a direct part of the Austrian empire. Tensions caused due to unfulfilled promises from the Austrians soon began to rise. Lacking support and with increased Hungarian efforts, the Slovak volunteer corps had little impact for the rest of the war until the Russians marched in. It was used in 'mopping up' resistance in the wake of the Russian advance and then soon after was disbanded, ending Slovak involvement in the Revolution. The conclusion of the uprising is unclear, as the Slovaks fell back under Imperial authority and lacked any autonomy for some time.<a href="#cite_note-slovak-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transylvania">Transylvania</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/1848%E2%80%931849_massacres_in_Transylvania" title="1848–1849 massacres in Transylvania">1848–1849 massacres in Transylvania</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schlacht_von_Temesvar_am_9_August_1849.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Schlacht_von_Temesvar_am_9_August_1849.jpg/250px-Schlacht_von_Temesvar_am_9_August_1849.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4792" data-file-height="3240"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 169px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Schlacht_von_Temesvar_am_9_August_1849.jpg/250px-Schlacht_von_Temesvar_am_9_August_1849.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="169" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Schlacht_von_Temesvar_am_9_August_1849.jpg/375px-Schlacht_von_Temesvar_am_9_August_1849.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Schlacht_von_Temesvar_am_9_August_1849.jpg/500px-Schlacht_von_Temesvar_am_9_August_1849.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Temesv%C3%A1r" title="Battle of Temesvár">Battle of Temesvár</a> in August 1849</figcaption></figure> On 29 May 1848, at Kolozsvár (now <a href="/wiki/Cluj-Napoca" title="Cluj-Napoca">Cluj</a>, Romania), the Transylvanian Diet (formed of 116 Hungarians, 114 Székelys and 35 Saxons<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a>) ratified the re-union with Hungary. Romanians and Germans disagreed with the decision.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> On 10 June 1848 the newspaper <a href="/wiki/Wiener_Zeitung" title="Wiener Zeitung">Wiener Zeitung</a> wrote: In any case, the union of Transylvania, proclaimed against all human rights, is not valid, and the courts of law in the entire world must admit the justness of the Romanian people's protest<a href="#cite_note-google-82">[82]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kriehuber,_lithografy_Karl_von_Urban_in_COLOR,_1850.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Kriehuber%2C_lithografy_Karl_von_Urban_in_COLOR%2C_1850.jpg/153px-Kriehuber%2C_lithografy_Karl_von_Urban_in_COLOR%2C_1850.jpg" decoding="async" width="153" height="218" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="924"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 153px;height: 218px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Kriehuber%2C_lithografy_Karl_von_Urban_in_COLOR%2C_1850.jpg/153px-Kriehuber%2C_lithografy_Karl_von_Urban_in_COLOR%2C_1850.jpg" data-width="153" data-height="218" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Kriehuber%2C_lithografy_Karl_von_Urban_in_COLOR%2C_1850.jpg/229px-Kriehuber%2C_lithografy_Karl_von_Urban_in_COLOR%2C_1850.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Kriehuber%2C_lithografy_Karl_von_Urban_in_COLOR%2C_1850.jpg/306px-Kriehuber%2C_lithografy_Karl_von_Urban_in_COLOR%2C_1850.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Karl von Urban</figcaption></figure> In September 1848, the Austrian commander <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Urban" title="Karl von Urban">Karl von Urban</a> was the first to make a stand against the Revolution. He summoned leaders of all 44 districts of the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Transylvania_(1711%E2%80%931867)" title="Principality of Transylvania (1711–1867)">Principality of Transylvania</a> to his headquarters in <a href="/wiki/N%C4%83s%C4%83ud" title="Năsăud">Naszód (Năsăud)</a> on September 10, and offered protection both to villages that rejected conscription and to the landowners who feared a peasant uprising. Urban then administered the oath of allegiance to the hundreds of peasants and village delegate, finally denouncing the Revolution in a Memorandum widely distributed. Von Urban acted in such a compelling manner that, by the end of September, 918 communities in the region had distanced themselves from the Revolution and were won over to the Imperial and Counter-revolutionary cause. This dealt a fatal blow to the power of the revolutionary party in Transylvania.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Romanians">Romanians</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Avram_Iancu" title="Avram Iancu">Avram Iancu</a></div> On 25 February 1849 the representatives of the Romanian population sent to the Habsburg Emperor The Memorandum of the Romanian nation from the Great Principality of Transylvania, Banat, from neighbouring territories to Hungary and Bukovina where they demanded the union of Bukovina, Transylvania and Banat under a government (...) the union of all Romanians in the Austrian state into one single independent nation under the rule of Austria as completing part of the Monarchy<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transylvanian_Saxons">Transylvanian Saxons</h4></div> In the first days of October 1848, <a href="/wiki/Stephan_Ludwig_Roth" title="Stephan Ludwig Roth">Stephan Ludwig Roth</a> considered that there were two options for the Saxons: The first is to side with the Hungarians, and thus turn against the Romanians and the empire; the second is to side with the Romanians, and thus support the empire against the Hungarians. In this choice, the Romanians and Hungarians are incidental factors. The most important principle is that of a united empire, for it guarantees the extension of Austria's proclaimed constitution.<a href="#cite_note-oszk-85">[85]</a> The Transylvanian Saxons rejected the incorporation of Transylvania into Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attempts_of_reconciliation_with_the_nationalities">Attempts of reconciliation with the nationalities</h3></div> As early as August to September 1848, the Hungarian Parliament's Nationality Committee drafted a nationality bill for the Romanians, promising them such wide rights that could meet even today's democratic standards: <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kossuth_bank%C3%B3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Kossuth_bank%C3%B3.jpg/220px-Kossuth_bank%C3%B3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1572" data-file-height="1103"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 154px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Kossuth_bank%C3%B3.jpg/220px-Kossuth_bank%C3%B3.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="154" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Kossuth_bank%C3%B3.jpg/330px-Kossuth_bank%C3%B3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Kossuth_bank%C3%B3.jpg/440px-Kossuth_bank%C3%B3.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Hungarian money called "Kossuth bankó" with inscriptions in the language of the nationalities on it</figcaption></figure> <ol><li>Education in the mother tongue. The bill promised that the Romanian tongued population would be taken into account at the establishment of public schools. However, secondary schools with Romanian as the language of teaching would have to teach Hungarian language and literature as an ordinary subject.</li> <li>A department of Romanian philology and literature would be established at the university.</li> <li>Full ecclesiastical equality for the Orthodox Church with the Catholic and Protestant churches,</li> <li>Election of officials according to the national proportion of the place,</li> <li>Official correspondence between the State and districts and municipalities with a Romanian majority may be conducted in Romanian,</li> <li>Romanians may address the State and local authorities in their mother tongue,</li> <li>Representatives elected to city and county councils do not have to understand Hungarian,</li> <li>In ethnic majority areas, the national guards will receive their orders in the ethnic language,</li> <li>All rights granted to one nationality will be extended to all other nationalities.<a href="#cite_note-Katus-87">[87]</a></li></ol> Despite this effort from the Hungarians, the Romanians sought the fulfillment of their demands from the emperor, which led to a bloody civil war between them and the Hungarians.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russians">Russians</h3></div> Because of the success of revolutionary resistance, Franz Joseph had to ask for help from the "<a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">gendarme</a> of Europe"<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Tsar <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I of Russia</a> in March 1849. A Russian army, composed of about 8,000 soldiers, invaded Transylvania on 8 April 1849.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels242,_2628_April_1849-90">[90]</a> But as they crossed the Southern Carpathian mountain passes (along the border of Transylvania and Wallachia), they were met by a large Hungarian revolutionary army led by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Bem" title="Józef Bem">Józef Bem</a>, a Polish-born General.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Bem had been a participant in the <a href="/wiki/November_Uprising" title="November Uprising">Polish insurrection of 1830–31</a>, had been involved in the uprising in Vienna in 1848 and, finally, became one of the top army commanders for Hungary from 1848 to 1849.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels31922_April_1848-92">[92]</a> When he encountered the Russians, Bem defeated them and forced them back out of the towns of Hermannstadt (now <a href="/wiki/Sibiu" title="Sibiu">Sibiu</a>, Romania) and Kronstadt (now <a href="/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov" title="Brașov">Brașov</a>) in Transylvania, back over the Southern Carpathian Mountains through the <a href="/wiki/Roterturm_Pass" class="mw-redirect" title="Roterturm Pass">Roterturm Pass</a> into Wallachia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels31922_April_1848-92">[92]</a> Only 2,000 Russian soldiers made it out of Transylvania back into Wallachia, the other 6,000 troops being killed or captured by the Hungarian Army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels24222_April_1848-93">[93]</a> After securing all of Transylvania, Bem moved his 30,000–40,000-man Hungarian army against Austrian forces in the northern Banat <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Temesv%C3%A1r" title="Battle of Temesvár">capturing the city of Temesvár</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara" title="Timișoara">Timișoara</a>, Romania).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels334-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austrians">Austrians</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G%C3%B6rgei_Art%C3%BAr_by_Mikl%C3%B3s_Barab%C3%A1s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/G%C3%B6rgei_Art%C3%BAr_by_Mikl%C3%B3s_Barab%C3%A1s.jpg/220px-G%C3%B6rgei_Art%C3%BAr_by_Mikl%C3%B3s_Barab%C3%A1s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="753" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 234px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/G%C3%B6rgei_Art%C3%BAr_by_Mikl%C3%B3s_Barab%C3%A1s.jpg/220px-G%C3%B6rgei_Art%C3%BAr_by_Mikl%C3%B3s_Barab%C3%A1s.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="234" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/G%C3%B6rgei_Art%C3%BAr_by_Mikl%C3%B3s_Barab%C3%A1s.jpg/330px-G%C3%B6rgei_Art%C3%BAr_by_Mikl%C3%B3s_Barab%C3%A1s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/G%C3%B6rgei_Art%C3%BAr_by_Mikl%C3%B3s_Barab%C3%A1s.jpg/440px-G%C3%B6rgei_Art%C3%BAr_by_Mikl%C3%B3s_Barab%C3%A1s.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Art%C3%BAr_G%C3%B6rgey" class="mw-redirect" title="Artúr Görgey">Artúr Görgey</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Windisch-Graetz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Windisch-Graetz.jpg/130px-Windisch-Graetz.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="191" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="778"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 130px;height: 191px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Windisch-Graetz.jpg/130px-Windisch-Graetz.jpg" data-width="130" data-height="191" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Windisch-Graetz.jpg/195px-Windisch-Graetz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Windisch-Graetz.jpg/260px-Windisch-Graetz.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Laval_Nugent_von_Westmeath" title="Laval Nugent von Westmeath">Laval Nugent von Westmeath</a> was the Austrian Master of Ordnance, but was serving as the general in the field attempting to marshall all the Serbs still loyal to the Austrian throne, for another offensive against the Hungarian Government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels611-95">[95]</a> Here, even on the southern front the Hungarian Armies were proving successful, initially. This combat led to the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Uprising" title="Vienna Uprising">Vienna Uprising</a> of October 1848, when insurgents attacked a garrison on its way to Hungary to support forces. However, the Austrian army was able to quell the rebellion. At the same time, at Schwechat, the Austrians defeated a Hungarian attempt to capture Vienna. After this victory, General <a href="/wiki/Alfred_I,_Prince_of_Windisch-Gr%C3%A4tz" title="Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz">Windischgrätz</a> and 70,000 troops were sent to Hungary to crush the Hungarian revolution. The Austrians followed the Danube down from Vienna and crossed over into Hungary to envelope Komorn (now <a href="/wiki/Kom%C3%A1rom" title="Komárom">Komárom</a>, Hungary and <a href="/wiki/Kom%C3%A1rno" title="Komárno">Komárno</a>, Slovakia). They continued down the Danube to Pest, the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian Kingdom">Hungarian Kingdom</a>. After some fierce fighting, the Austrians, led by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_I,_Prince_of_Windisch-Gr%C3%A4tz" title="Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz">Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz</a>, captured Buda and Pest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels343-96">[96]</a> (the town was known in German as Ofen and later Buda and Pest were united into <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>). In April 1849, after these defeats, the Hungarian Government recovered and scored several victories on this western front. They stopped the Austrian advance and retook Buda and Pest. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels304-97">[97]</a> Then, the Hungarian Army <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Kom%C3%A1rom_(1849)" title="First Battle of Komárom (1849)">relieved the siege of Komárom</a>. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels346-98">[98]</a> The Spring Offensive hence proved to be a great success for the revolution. Thus, the Hungarian Government was equally successful on its eastern front (Transylvania) against the Russians, and on its western front against the Austrians. But there was a third front – the southern front in Banat, fighting the troops of the Serbian national movement and the Croatian troops of Jelačić within the province of Vojvodina itself. <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B3r_Perczel" title="Mór Perczel">Mór Perczel</a>, the General of the Hungarian forces in the Banat, was initially successful in battles along the southern front.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels331-99">[99]</a> In April 1849, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Welden" title="Ludwig von Welden">Ludwig Baron von Welden</a> replaced Windischgrätz as the new supreme commander of Austrian forces in Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels29319_April_1849-100">[100]</a> Instead of pursuing the Austrian army, the Hungarians stopped to retake the Fort of Buda and prepared defenses. At the same time, however, victory in Italy had freed many Austrian troops which had hitherto been fighting on this front. In June 1849 Russian and Austrian troops entered Hungary heavily outnumbering the Hungarian army. After all appeals to other European states failed, Kossuth abdicated on 11 August 1849, in favour of <a href="/wiki/Art%C3%BAr_G%C3%B6rgey" class="mw-redirect" title="Artúr Görgey">Artúr Görgey</a>, who he thought was the only general who was capable of saving the nation. However, in May 1849, Tsar Nicholas I pledged to redouble his efforts against the Hungarian Government. He and Emperor Franz Joseph started to regather and rearm an army to be commanded by Anton Vogl, the Austrian lieutenant-field-marshal who had actively participated in the suppression of the national liberation movement in Galicia in 1848.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels618-101">[101]</a> But even at this stage Vogl was occupied trying to stop another revolutionary uprising in Galicia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels303-102">[102]</a> The Tsar was also preparing to send 30,000 Russian soldiers back over the Eastern Carpathian Mountains from Poland. Austria held Galicia and moved into Hungary, independent of Vogl's forces. At the same time, the able <a href="/wiki/Julius_Jacob_von_Haynau" title="Julius Jacob von Haynau">Julius Jacob von Haynau</a> led an army of 60,000 Austrians from the West and retook the ground lost throughout the spring. On 18 July, he finally captured Buda and Pest.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-103">[103]</a> The Russians were also successful in the east and the situation of the Hungarians became increasingly desperate. On 13 August, after several bitter defeats, especially the battle of Segesvár against the Russians and the battles of Szöreg and Temesvár <a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-103">[103]</a> against the Austrian army, it was clear that Hungary had lost. In a hopeless situation, Görgey signed a <a href="/wiki/Surrender_at_Vil%C3%A1gos" title="Surrender at Világos">surrender at Világos</a> (now <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eiria,_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Şiria, Romania">Şiria, Romania</a>) to the Russians (so that the war would be considered a Russian victory and because the rebels considered the Russians more lenient), who handed the army over to the Austrians.<a href="#cite_note-jbszabo-104">[104]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitulaton_of_Hungarian_Army_at_Vil%C3%A1gos_1849.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Capitulaton_of_Hungarian_Army_at_Vil%C3%A1gos_1849.png/250px-Capitulaton_of_Hungarian_Army_at_Vil%C3%A1gos_1849.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="205" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2521" data-file-height="2063"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 205px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Capitulaton_of_Hungarian_Army_at_Vil%C3%A1gos_1849.png/250px-Capitulaton_of_Hungarian_Army_at_Vil%C3%A1gos_1849.png" data-width="250" data-height="205" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Capitulaton_of_Hungarian_Army_at_Vil%C3%A1gos_1849.png/375px-Capitulaton_of_Hungarian_Army_at_Vil%C3%A1gos_1849.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Capitulaton_of_Hungarian_Army_at_Vil%C3%A1gos_1849.png/500px-Capitulaton_of_Hungarian_Army_at_Vil%C3%A1gos_1849.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Surrender_at_Vil%C3%A1gos" title="Surrender at Világos">Surrender at Világos</a>, 1849</figcaption></figure> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Jacob_von_Haynau" title="Julius Jacob von Haynau">Julius Jacob von Haynau</a>, the leader of the Austrian army, was appointed <a href="/wiki/Plenipotentiary" title="Plenipotentiary">plenipotentiary</a> to restore order in Hungary after the conflict. He ordered the execution of <a href="/wiki/The_13_Martyrs_of_Arad" title="The 13 Martyrs of Arad">The 13 Martyrs of Arad</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Arad,_Romania" title="Arad, Romania">Arad, Romania</a>) and Prime Minister Batthyány was executed the same day in <a href="/wiki/Pest_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pest (city)">Pest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jbszabo-104">[104]</a> After the failed revolution, in 1849 there was nationwide "passive resistance".<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> In 1851 <a href="/wiki/Archduke_Albrecht,_Duke_of_Teschen" title="Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen">Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen</a> was appointed as <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">Regent</a>, which lasted until 1860, during which time he implemented a process of <a href="/wiki/Germanisation" title="Germanisation">Germanisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-elte-106">[106]</a> Kossuth went into exile after the revolution, initially gaining asylum in the Ottoman Empire, where he resided in <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BCtahya" title="Kütahya">Kütahya</a> until 1851. That year the US Congress invited him to come to the United States. He left the Ottoman Empire in September, stopped in Britain, then arrived in New York in December. In the US he was warmly received by the general public as well as the then <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Webster#State_Department" title="Daniel Webster">US Secretary of State, Daniel Webster</a>, which made relations between the US and Austria somewhat strained for the following twenty years. <a href="/wiki/Kossuth_County,_Iowa" title="Kossuth County, Iowa">Kossuth County, Iowa</a> was named for him. He left the United States for England in the summer of 1852. He remained there until 1859, when he moved to <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>, at the time the capital of <a href="/wiki/Piedmont-Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Piedmont-Sardinia">Piedmont-Sardinia</a>, in hopes of returning to Hungary. He never did. Kossuth thought his biggest mistake was to confront the Hungarian minorities. He set forth the dream of a multi-ethnic confederation of republics along the Danube, which might have prevented the escalation of hostile feelings between the ethnic groups in these areas.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Many of Kossuth's comrades-in-exile joined him in the United States, including the sons of one of his sisters. Some of these "<a href="/wiki/Forty-Eighters" class="mw-redirect" title="Forty-Eighters">Forty-Eighters</a>" remained after Kossuth departed, and fought on the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> side in the <a href="/wiki/US_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="US Civil War">US Civil War</a>. Hungarian lawyer <a href="/wiki/George_Lichtenstein_(musician)" title="George Lichtenstein (musician)">George Lichtenstein</a>, who served as Kossuth's private secretary, fled to <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a> after the revolution and eventually settled in <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> where he became noted as a musician.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> After the Hungarian Army's <a href="/wiki/Surrender_at_Vil%C3%A1gos" title="Surrender at Világos">surrender at Világos</a> in 1849, their revolutionary banners were taken to <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> by the Tsarist troops, and were kept there both under the Tsarist and Communist systems. In 1940 the Soviet Union offered the banners to the <a href="/wiki/Horthy" class="mw-redirect" title="Horthy">Horthy</a> government in exchange for the release of the imprisoned Hungarian Communist leader <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ty%C3%A1s_R%C3%A1kosi" title="Mátyás Rákosi">Mátyás Rákosi</a> – the <a href="/wiki/Horthy" class="mw-redirect" title="Horthy">Horthy</a> government accepted the offer.<a href="#cite_note-M%C3%A1ty%C3%A1s_R%C3%A1kosi-109">[109]</a> According to legend, Hungarians do not clink beer glasses together, in memory of Austrians doing so after the revolution's suppression.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The Hungarian Revolution and War of Independence of 1848–49 caused fundamental, decisive changes in social thinking, and in a short time transformed bold ideas into Laws, which could not be negated even when they had been abolished by the "old order".<a href="#cite_note-Csik%C3%A1ny-111">[111]</a> But only for a short while, because the ideas of the Reform Age and Revolution became again laws, winning the final victory after the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Compromise_of_1867" title="Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867">Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867</a>. Hungary made the Austrian Empire understand that it could not defeat it alone. This in turn provided the country with the political capital that led to the Compromise of 1867. During the War of Independence, this strength was represented by the Honvéd Army, which was able to stand as an equal opponent to one of the most powerful armies in Europe, the Austrian Imperial-Royal (K.u.K.) Army.<a href="#cite_note-Csik%C3%A1ny-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hungarian_revolutionaries_in_the_American_Civil_War">Hungarian revolutionaries in the American Civil War</h3></div> During the year 1861, the United States of America had a relatively small Hungarian population of around 4,000 individuals. Surprisingly, out of this number, 1,000 Hungarians joined the Union Army, which was an unmatched percentage compared to other immigrant communities. This fact speaks to the exceptional military qualities possessed by these Hungarians. Despite their small representation, five individuals rose to the rank of brigadier general, fifteen became colonels, two achieved the rank of lieutenant colonel, fourteen were promoted to major, and fifteen held the position of captain. General Julius Stahel-Számwald led a brigade, while General Alexander Asbóth was appointed as the commandant of an entire military zone. Notable achievements were also made by Colonel Philip Figyelmessy and Colonel Géza Mihalóczy, who served as staff officers. Additionally, Colonel George Utassy played a pivotal role as the organizer and commander of the New York Infantry Regiment, known as the Garibaldi Guard. Another remarkable feat was accomplished by Colonel Charles Zágonyi, who, with his Frémont Guard, fearlessly charged against significantly superior hostile forces, capturing the Heights of Springfield. This daring action later became known in American history as Zágonyi's Death Ride. At the onset of the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln appointed Ladislas Ujházy as Consul in Ancona. Following the war's conclusion, many other Hungarians were offered positions in the American diplomatic and consular services, as well as various other public services.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1848%E2%80%931849_massacres_in_Transylvania" title="1848–1849 massacres in Transylvania">1848–1849 massacres in Transylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laszl%C3%B3_Lovassy" title="Laszló Lovassy">Laszló Lovassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_revolution" title="Bourgeois revolution">Bourgeois revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Spring:_Fighting_for_a_New_World_1848%E2%80%931849" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World 1848–1849">Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World 1848–1849</a> by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Clark" title="Christopher Clark">Christopher Clark</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://corvina.kre.hu:8080/phd/rosonczy_ildiko_phd_disszertacio.pdf">Rosonczy: OROSZ GYORSSEGÉLY BÉCSNEK 1849 TAVASZÁN (PhD dissertation 2015)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Zachary C Shirkey: Joining the Fray: Outside Military Intervention in Civil Wars Military Strategy and Operational Art – pp. 1944– <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-7091-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-7091-5">978-1-4094-7091-5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-le65zU_tUC&dq=The+russian+decision+to+join+the+war+sealed&pg=RA1-PA1944">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141227124934/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-le65zU_tUC&pg=RA1-PA1944&dq=The+russian+decision+to+join+the+war+sealed&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_5GeVND3ForzUqbagbAL&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA">Archived</a> 2014-12-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle ..., by Spencer C. Tucker, 2009 p. 1188 </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> prof. András Gerő (2014): Nationalities and the Hungarian Parliament (1867–1918) Link:<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.geroandras.hu/2014_Nationalities_and_the_Hungarian_Parliament.pdf">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190425200559/http://www.geroandras.hu/2014_Nationalities_and_the_Hungarian_Parliament.pdf">Archived</a> 2019-04-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChris_Thornhill2011" class="citation book cs1">Chris Thornhill (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNdH4VRGR5kC&dq=%22april%20laws%22%20%22nobility%20privileges&pg=PA245">A Sociology of Constitutions.Constitutions and State Legitimacy in Historical-Sociological Perspective</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49580-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49580-6"><bdi>978-1-139-49580-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Sociology+of+Constitutions.Constitutions+and+State+Legitimacy+in+Historical-Sociological+Perspective&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-139-49580-6&rft.au=Chris+Thornhill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZNdH4VRGR5kC%26dq%3D%2522april%2520laws%2522%2520%2522nobility%2520privileges%26pg%3DPA245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070224051732/http://www.visit.bratislava.sk/en/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org=700014&id=1011&p1=1575">"Between the campaigns of Napoleonic troops and the abolition of bondage"</a>. City of Bratislava. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.visit.bratislava.sk/en/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org=700014&id=1011&p1=1575">the original</a> on 24 February 2007. Retrieved 8 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Between+the+campaigns+of+Napoleonic+troops+and+the+abolition+of+bondage&rft.pub=City+of+Bratislava&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.visit.bratislava.sk%2Fen%2Fvismo%2Fdokumenty2.asp%3Fid_org%3D700014%26id%3D1011%26p1%3D1575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-epa.oszk.hu-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-epa.oszk.hu_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-epa.oszk.hu_7-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00016/00036/980621.htm">"Bona Gábor: A szabadságharc honvédsége Link</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsser_Woloch1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Isser_Woloch" title="Isser Woloch">Isser Woloch</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l8CROe5b6lIC&dq=%22april%20laws%22%20%22nobility%20privileges&pg=PA309">Revolution and the Meanings of Freedom in the Nineteenth Century</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. p. 309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2748-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2748-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-2748-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+the+Meanings+of+Freedom+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-2748-8&rft.au=Isser+Woloch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl8CROe5b6lIC%26dq%3D%2522april%2520laws%2522%2520%2522nobility%2520privileges%26pg%3DPA309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230730110111/https://www.hungarianconservative.com/articles/culture_society/hungary_europe_liberal_conservative_foreign_policy_reform_era">"Hungary's Place in Europe: Liberal–Conservative Foreign Policy Disputes in the Reform Era"</a>. 29 July 2023. Archived from the original on 30 July 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hungary%27s+Place+in+Europe%3A+Liberal%E2%80%93Conservative+Foreign+Policy+Disputes+in+the+Reform+Era&rft.date=2023-07-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hungarianconservative.com%2Farticles%2Fculture_society%2Fhungary_europe_liberal_conservative_foreign_policy_reform_era&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Eric Roman: Austria-Hungary & the Successor States: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present: p. 67, Publisher: Infobase Publishing, 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7469-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7469-3">978-0-8160-7469-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Lendvai2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lendvai" title="Paul Lendvai">Paul Lendvai</a> (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2C33DwAAQBAJ">The Hungarians A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-20027-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-20027-9"><bdi>978-0-691-20027-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hungarians+A+Thousand+Years+of+Victory+in+Defeat&rft.pages=236&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-691-20027-9&rft.au=Paul+Lendvai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2C33DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> The Making of the West: Volume C, Lynn Hunt, pp. 683–684 </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Young1995" class="citation book cs1">Robert Young (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secessionofquebe0000youn">Secession of Quebec and the Future of Canada</a>. <a href="/wiki/McGill-Queen%27s_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="McGill-Queen's Press">McGill-Queen's Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secessionofquebe0000youn/page/138">138</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780773565470" title="Special:BookSources/9780773565470"><bdi>9780773565470</bdi></a>. <q>the Hungarian constitution was restored.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secession+of+Quebec+and+the+Future+of+Canada&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780773565470&rft.au=Robert+Young&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsecessionofquebe0000youn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Francis Fukuyama: What's Wrong with Hungary? </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Hochedlinger2015" class="citation book cs1">Michael Hochedlinger (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X7pACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT17">Austria's Wars of Emergence, 1683–1797</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. XVII. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317887928" title="Special:BookSources/9781317887928"><bdi>9781317887928</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Austria%27s+Wars+of+Emergence%2C+1683%E2%80%931797&rft.pages=XVII&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781317887928&rft.au=Michael+Hochedlinger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX7pACwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaszlo2011" class="citation cs2">Laszlo, Péter (2011), Hungary's Long Nineteenth Century: Constitutional and Democratic Traditions, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, the Netherlands, p. 6</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hungary%27s+Long+Nineteenth+Century%3A+Constitutional+and+Democratic+Traditions&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Koninklijke+Brill+NV%2C+Leiden%2C+the+Netherlands&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Laszlo&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A9ter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlile_Aylmer_Macartney2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carlile_Aylmer_Macartney" title="Carlile Aylmer Macartney">Carlile Aylmer Macartney</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CCWXBAAAQBAJ&dq=habsburgs+comitatus+hungary+autonomous&pg=PT29">The Habsburg Empire, 1790–1918</a>. <a href="/wiki/Faber_%26_Faber" title="Faber & Faber">Faber & Faber</a>. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780571306299" title="Special:BookSources/9780571306299"><bdi>9780571306299</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Habsburg+Empire%2C+1790%E2%80%931918&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Faber+%26+Faber&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780571306299&rft.au=Carlile+Aylmer+Macartney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCCWXBAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dhabsburgs%2Bcomitatus%2Bhungary%2Bautonomous%26pg%3DPT29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoshua_Toulmin_Smith1861" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Toulmin_Smith" title="Joshua Toulmin Smith">Joshua Toulmin Smith</a> (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CyxYAAAAcAAJ&dq=%22never+been+nor+are+a+part+of+the+Austrian+Empire%22&pg=PA19">Illustrations of the political and diplomatic relations of the independent Kingdom of Hungary; and of the interest that Europe has in the "Austrian Alliance."</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Jeffs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W. Jeffs (page does not exist)">W. Jeffs</a>. pp. 19–23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Illustrations+of+the+political+and+diplomatic+relations+of+the+independent+Kingdom+of+Hungary%3B+and+of+the+interest+that+Europe+has+in+the+%22Austrian+Alliance.%22&rft.pages=19-23&rft.pub=W.+Jeffs&rft.date=1861&rft.au=Joshua+Toulmin+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCyxYAAAAcAAJ%26dq%3D%2522never%2Bbeen%2Bnor%2Bare%2Ba%2Bpart%2Bof%2Bthe%2BAustrian%2BEmpire%2522%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Éva H. Balázs: Hungary and the Habsburgs, 1765–1800: An Experiment in Enlightened Absolutism. p. 320. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYonge1867" class="citation book cs1">Yonge, Charlotte (1867). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/yonge/deeds/crown.html">"The Crown of St. Stephen"</a>. A Book of Golden Deeds Of all Times and all Lands. London, Glasgow and Bombay: Blackie and Son. Retrieved 2008-08-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Crown+of+St.+Stephen&rft.btitle=A+Book+of+Golden+Deeds+Of+all+Times+and+all+Lands&rft.place=London%2C+Glasgow+and+Bombay&rft.pub=Blackie+and+Son&rft.date=1867&rft.aulast=Yonge&rft.aufirst=Charlotte&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.upenn.edu%2Fwomen%2Fyonge%2Fdeeds%2Fcrown.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-review1-21"><a href="#cite_ref-review1_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNemes2000" class="citation web cs1">Nemes, Paul (2000-01-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190517110819/http://www.ce-review.org/00/1/nemes1.html">"Central Europe Review – Hungary: The Holy Crown"</a>. Archived from the original on 2019-05-17. Retrieved 2008-09-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Central+Europe+Review+%E2%80%93+Hungary%3A+The+Holy+Crown&rft.date=2000-01-10&rft.aulast=Nemes&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ce-review.org%2F00%2F1%2Fnemes1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> An account of this service, written by Count Miklos Banffy, a witness, may be read at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.websitetoolbox.com/tool/post/royalcello/vpost?id=2646769&trail=15">The Last Habsburg Coronation: Budapest, 1916</a>. From <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royaltymonarchy.com/">Theodore's Royalty and Monarchy Website</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrás_A._GergelyGábor_Máthé2000" class="citation book cs1">András A. Gergely; Gábor Máthé (2000). The Hungarian state: thousand years in Europe: [1000–2000]. Korona. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9191-79-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9191-79-2"><bdi>978-963-9191-79-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hungarian+state%3A+thousand+years+in+Europe%3A+%5B1000%E2%80%932000%5D&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Korona&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-963-9191-79-2&rft.au=Andr%C3%A1s+A.+Gergely&rft.au=G%C3%A1bor+M%C3%A1th%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Charles W. Ingrao : The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815, Volume 21 of New Approaches to European History, Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 2000 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-26869-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-26869-2">978-1-107-26869-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean_B%C3%A9renger" title="Jean Bérenger">Jean Berenger</a>, C.A. Simpson: The Habsburg Empire 1700–1918 , Publisher: Routledge, 2014, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89572-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89572-5">978-1-317-89572-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Tomasz Kamusella: The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe, Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55070-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55070-4">978-0-230-55070-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Paschalis M. Kitromilides: Enlightenment and Revolution, Publisher: Harvard University Press, 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72641-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72641-3">978-0-674-72641-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Peter McPhee: A Companion to the French Revolution. p. 391 , Publisher: John Wiley & Sons, 2014, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97752-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97752-1">978-1-118-97752-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Ödön Beöthy and Tibor Vágvölgyi: A Magyar Jakobinusok Köztársasági Mozgalma, p. 103 Budapest 1968, English: The Hungarian Jacobin Republican Movement. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLendvai2002" class="citation cs2">Lendvai, Paul (2002), The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat, C Hurst & Co, p. 194, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-682-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-682-1"><bdi>978-1-85065-682-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hungarians%3A+A+Thousand+Years+of+Victory+in+Defeat&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=C+Hurst+%26+Co&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85065-682-1&rft.aulast=Lendvai&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_31-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_31-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_31-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_31-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_31-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_31-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_31-8">i</a> <noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 12px;height: 13px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="12" data-height="13" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBainPhillips1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bain, Robert Nisbet; Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Hungary" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hungary">Hungary</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 915–918.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hungary&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=915-918&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Bain&rft.aufirst=Robert+Nisbet&rft.au=Phillips%2C+Walter+Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Mihály Lackó: Széchenyi és Kossuth vitája, Gondolat, 1977.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Lacko p. 47 </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hungarianconservative.com/articles/culture_society/hungary_europe_liberal_conservative_foreign_policy_reform_era">"Hungary's Place in Europe: Liberal–Conservative Foreign Policy Disputes in the Reform Era"</a>. 29 July 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230730110111/https://www.hungarianconservative.com/articles/culture_society/hungary_europe_liberal_conservative_foreign_policy_reform_era">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hungary%27s+Place+in+Europe%3A+Liberal%E2%80%93Conservative+Foreign+Policy+Disputes+in+the+Reform+Era&rft.date=2023-07-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hungarianconservative.com%2Farticles%2Fculture_society%2Fhungary_europe_liberal_conservative_foreign_policy_reform_era&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Gróf Széchenyi István írói és hírlapi vitája Kossuth Lajossal [Count Stephen Széchenyi,s Literary and Publicistic Debate with Louis Kossuth], ed. Gyula Viszota, 2 vols. (Budapest: Magyar Történelmi Társulat, 1927–1930). </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://marcius15.kormany.hu/a-12-pont-tortenete-2012">"március15"</a>. marcius15.kormany.hu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170917073048/http://marcius15.kormany.hu/a-12-pont-tortenete-2012">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-09-17. Retrieved 2018-03-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=marcius15.kormany.hu&rft.atitle=m%C3%A1rcius15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmarcius15.kormany.hu%2Fa-12-pont-tortenete-2012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Charles Frederick Henningsen: Kossuth and 'The Times', by the author of 'The revelations of Russia'. 1851. p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Peter F. Sugar, Péter Hanák, <a href="/wiki/Tibor_Frank" title="Tibor Frank">Tibor Frank</a>: A History of Hungary (Indiana University Press, 1994) p. 213 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Dr. Gyula Csernatoni and Dr. Zoltán Ferenci: Petőfi Museum, 1st of November, 1890. (in Hungarian) Link: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180315003731/http://documente.bcucluj.ro/web/bibdigit/periodice/petofimuzeum/1890/BCUCLUJ_FP_106452_1890_003_006.pdf">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716180039/http://dragon.unideb.hu/~kltegimn/CLASSES/12C/HTM/PZ/HU/APR21.HTM">"Az áprilisi törvények (English: "The April laws")"</a> (in Hungarian). 22 March 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dragon.unideb.hu/~kltegimn/CLASSES/12C/HTM/PZ/HU/APR21.HTM">the original</a> on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Az+%C3%A1prilisi+t%C3%B6rv%C3%A9nyek+%28English%3A+%22The+April+laws%22%29&rft.date=1999-03-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdragon.unideb.hu%2F~kltegimn%2FCLASSES%2F12C%2FHTM%2FPZ%2FHU%2FAPR21.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> prof. András Gerő (2014): Nationalities and the Hungarian Parliament (1867–1918) LINK:<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.geroandras.hu/2014_Nationalities_and_the_Hungarian_Parliament.pdf">[4]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190425200559/http://www.geroandras.hu/2014_Nationalities_and_the_Hungarian_Parliament.pdf">Archived</a> 2019-04-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Steven A. Seidman and Peter Lang. Posters, Propaganda, and Persuasion in Election Campaigns Around the World. p. 201 </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazi1973" class="citation book cs1">Gazi, Stephen (1973). A History of Croatia. New York: Barnes and Noble Books. p. 150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Croatia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Barnes+and+Noble+Books&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Gazi&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchjerve2003" class="citation book cs1">Schjerve, Rosita Rindler (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JOTFCTYSjicC&pg=PA75">Diglossia and Power: Language Policies and Practice in the 19th Century Habsburg Empire</a>. Language, Power, and Social Process. Vol. 9. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 75–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017654-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017654-4"><bdi>978-3-11-017654-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diglossia+and+Power%3A+Language+Policies+and+Practice+in+the+19th+Century+Habsburg+Empire&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Language%2C+Power%2C+and+Social+Process&rft.pages=75-76&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017654-4&rft.aulast=Schjerve&rft.aufirst=Rosita+Rindler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJOTFCTYSjicC%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahaffy1908" class="citation book cs1">Mahaffy, Robert Pentland (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/francisjosephih00mahagoog">Francis Joseph I.: His Life and Times</a>. Covent Garden: Duckworth. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/francisjosephih00mahagoog/page/n55">39</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Francis+Joseph+I.%3A+His+Life+and+Times&rft.place=Covent+Garden&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Mahaffy&rft.aufirst=Robert+Pentland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrancisjosephih00mahagoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalther_Killy2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Walther_Killy" title="Walther Killy">Walther Killy</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0-hrRQvGV7sC&pg=PA237">Dictionary of German biography</a>. Vol. 9: Schmidt-Theyer. Walter de Gruyter. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-096629-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-096629-9"><bdi>978-3-11-096629-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+German+biography&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-11-096629-9&rft.au=Walther+Killy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0-hrRQvGV7sC%26pg%3DPA237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJúlius_Bartl2002" class="citation book cs1">Július Bartl (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3orG2yZ9mBkC&pg=PA222">Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon</a>. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 222. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86516-444-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86516-444-4"><bdi>978-0-86516-444-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slovak+History%3A+Chronology+%26+Lexicon&rft.pages=222&rft.pub=Bolchazy-Carducci+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-86516-444-4&rft.au=J%C3%BAlius+Bartl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3orG2yZ9mBkC%26pg%3DPA222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Bődy1989" class="citation book cs1">Paul Bődy (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=et9nAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA23">Hungarian statesmen of destiny, 1860–1960</a>. 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Social Sciences Monograph. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88033-159-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88033-159-3"><bdi>978-0-88033-159-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hungarian+statesmen+of+destiny%2C+1860%E2%80%931960&rft.series=Atlantic+studies+on+society+in+change%2C+58%3B+East+European+monographs%2C+262&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Social+Sciences+Monograph&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-88033-159-3&rft.au=Paul+B%C5%91dy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Det9nAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-phillips-49"><a href="#cite_ref-phillips_49-0">^</a> <noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 12px;height: 13px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="12" data-height="13" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Alison_Phillips" title="Walter Alison Phillips">Phillips, Walter Alison</a> (1911). 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Király: Geopolitics in the Danube Region: Hungarian Reconciliation Efforts 1848–1998 p. 413, Publisher: Central European University Press, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9116-29-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9116-29-0">978-963-9116-29-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Greger-Delacroix: The Reliable Book of Facts: Hungary '98 p. 32 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels229-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels229_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarxEngels">Marx & Engels</a>, p. 229. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080925141902/http://www.vasidigitkonyvtar.hu/vdkweb/vm_honvedseg/honvedseg.html">"Kik voltak a honvédek"</a>. www.vasidigitkonyvtar.hu (The Hungarian Peoples' Online Encyclopaedia) (in Hungarian). 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Szombathely-Zalaegerszeg. 2008. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-7227-19-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-7227-19-6"><bdi>978-963-7227-19-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forr%C3%A1sok+a+Muravid%C3%A9k+t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9net%C3%A9hez%2FViri+za+zgodovino+Prekmurja&rft.pub=Szombathely-Zalaegerszeg&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-963-7227-19-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeszenszky2000" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9za_Jeszenszky" title="Géza Jeszenszky">Jeszenszky, Géza</a> (17 November 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130117001618/http://www.hungarianhistory.com/lib/jeszenszky/ethnic.pdf">"From "Eastern Switzerland" to Ethnic Cleansing, address at Duquesne History Forum"</a> (PDF). 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Cambridge University Press. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36713-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36713-4"><bdi>978-0-521-36713-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+National+Question+in+Europe+in+Historical+Context&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-36713-4&rft.au=Mikulas+Teich&rft.au=Roy+Porter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHu2SnETtV3kC%26q%3D%2522first%2Bnationality%2522%2B1849%26pg%3DPA256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerenc_Glatz1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Glatz" title="Ferenc Glatz">Ferenc Glatz</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UwQQAQAAMAAJ&q=%22first+nationality%22+1849">Etudes historiques hongroises 1990: Ethnicity and society in Hungary, Volume 2</a>. Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-8311-68-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-8311-68-9"><bdi>978-963-8311-68-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etudes+historiques+hongroises+1990%3A+Ethnicity+and+society+in+Hungary%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Institute+of+History+of+the+Hungarian+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-963-8311-68-9&rft.au=Ferenc+Glatz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUwQQAQAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522first%2Bnationality%2522%2B1849&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTötösy_de_ZepetnekVasvari2011" class="citation book cs1">Tötösy de Zepetnek, Steven; Vasvari, Louise O. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pFCzty0P4UcC&pg=PA50">Comparative Hungarian Cultural Studies</a>. Purdue University Press. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55753-593-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55753-593-1"><bdi>978-1-55753-593-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Hungarian+Cultural+Studies&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Purdue+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-55753-593-1&rft.aulast=T%C3%B6t%C3%B6sy+de+Zepetnek&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Vasvari%2C+Louise+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpFCzty0P4UcC%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpira1992" class="citation book cs1">Spira, György (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GvUhAQAAIAAJ">The nationality issue in the Hungary of 1848–49</a>. Akadémiai Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-6296-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-6296-6"><bdi>978-963-05-6296-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nationality+issue+in+the+Hungary+of+1848%E2%80%9349&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-963-05-6296-6&rft.aulast=Spira&rft.aufirst=Gy%C3%B6rgy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGvUhAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonenPelinka1997" class="citation book cs1">Ronen, Dov; Pelinka, Anton (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XIN6QmozBE0C&pg=PA40">The challenge of ethnic conflict, democracy and self-determination in Central Europe</a>. Frank Cass. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4752-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4752-4"><bdi>978-0-7146-4752-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+challenge+of+ethnic+conflict%2C+democracy+and+self-determination+in+Central+Europe&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Frank+Cass&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-4752-4&rft.aulast=Ronen&rft.aufirst=Dov&rft.au=Pelinka%2C+Anton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXIN6QmozBE0C%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels3903_May_1848-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels3903_May_1848_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarxEngels">Marx & Engels</a>, p. 390, 3 May 1848. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://staff.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/lect07.htm">"Nationalism in Hungary, 1848–1867"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nationalism+in+Hungary%2C+1848%E2%80%931867&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstaff.lib.msu.edu%2Fsowards%2Fbalkan%2Flect07.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heritage-history.com/index.php?c=resources&s=war-dir&f=wars_hungarian">"Heritage History – Products"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Heritage+History+%E2%80%93+Products&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritage-history.com%2Findex.php%3Fc%3Dresources%26s%3Dwar-dir%26f%3Dwars_hungarian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historynet.com/hungarys-war-of-independence.htm">"Hungary's War of Independence"</a>. 2006-09-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hungary%27s+War+of+Independence&rft.date=2006-09-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historynet.com%2Fhungarys-war-of-independence.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorváth1934" class="citation journal cs1">Horváth, Eugene (1934). 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The Slavonic and East European Review. 12 (36): 628–645. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4202930">4202930</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=Russia+and+the+Hungarian+Revolution+%281848%E2%80%939%29&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=36&rft.pages=628-645&rft.date=1934&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4202930%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Horv%C3%A1th&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinderHilgeman1978" class="citation book cs1">Kinder, Herman; Hilgeman, Werner (1978). 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Pákozd. 29 September 1998. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110728185918/http://www.museum.hu/museum/index_en.php?ID=331">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=P%C3%A1kozd-Sukor%C3%B3+Battle+1848+Exhibition&rft.place=P%C3%A1kozd&rft.date=1998-09-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.museum.hu%2Fmuseum%2Findex_en.php%3FID%3D331&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.1hungary.com/info/isaszeg/">"Isaszeg"</a>. 1hungary.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110707061715/http://www.1hungary.com/info/isaszeg/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=1hungary.com&rft.atitle=Isaszeg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.1hungary.com%2Finfo%2Fisaszeg%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels603-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarxEngels603_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarxEngels">Marx & Engels</a>, p. 603. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeert-Hinrich_Ahrens2007" class="citation book cs1">Geert-Hinrich Ahrens (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b3fLRcHYSVAC&pg=PA243">Diplomacy on the Edge: Containment of Ethnic Conflict and the Minorities Working Group of the Conferences on Yugoslavia</a>. Woodrow Wilson Center Press Series. <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars" title="Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars">Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</a>. p. 243. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8557-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8557-0"><bdi>978-0-8018-8557-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diplomacy+on+the+Edge%3A+Containment+of+Ethnic+Conflict+and+the+Minorities+Working+Group+of+the+Conferences+on+Yugoslavia&rft.series=Woodrow+Wilson+Center+Press+Series&rft.pages=243&rft.pub=Woodrow+Wilson+International+Center+for+Scholars&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-8557-0&rft.au=Geert-Hinrich+Ahrens&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db3fLRcHYSVAC%26pg%3DPA243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Anton Meteňko, (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tahanovce.net/public/media/0024/4%20Dobrovo%C4%BEn%C3%ADci%20Slovensk%C3%A9ho%20n%C3%A1rodn%C3%A9ho%20vojska%20rokov%201848-1849%20v%20Ko%C5%A1iciach%20a%20pri%20%C5%A4ahanovciach_1.pdf">"Dobrovoľníci Slovenského národného vojska rokov 1848–1849 v Košiciach a pri Ťahanovciach"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430201458/https://www.tahanovce.net/public/media/0024/4%20Dobrovo%C4%BEn%C3%ADci%20Slovensk%C3%A9ho%20n%C3%A1rodn%C3%A9ho%20vojska%20rokov%201848-1849%20v%20Ko%C5%A1iciach%20a%20pri%20%C5%A4ahanovciach_1.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-04-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Košice – Sídlisko Ťahanovce </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikuláš_TeichDušan_KováčMartin_D._Brown2011" class="citation book cs1">Mikuláš Teich; Dušan Kováč; Martin D. Brown (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jrC1HFgjJxsC&q=%22%28mainly+in+western+slovakia%29%22&pg=PA126">Slovakia in History</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49494-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49494-6"><bdi>978-1-139-49494-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170208032802/https://books.google.com/books?id=jrC1HFgjJxsC&pg=PA126&dq=%22(mainly+in+western+slovakia)%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwigqvHQvP3RAhWJthQKHVYtAPUQ6AEIIzAA#v=onepage&q=%22(mainly%20in%20western%20slovakia)%22&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-02-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slovakia+in+History&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-139-49494-6&rft.au=Mikul%C3%A1%C5%A1+Teich&rft.au=Du%C5%A1an+Kov%C3%A1%C4%8D&rft.au=Martin+D.+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjrC1HFgjJxsC%26q%3D%2522%2528mainly%2Bin%2Bwestern%2Bslovakia%2529%2522%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPáva1999" class="citation web cs1">Páva, István (1999-08-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210923235324/http://www.magyarszemle.hu/cikk/19990101_szlovakok_a_magyar_szabadsagharcban">"Szlovákok a magyar szabadságharcban"</a>. magyarszemle.hu. Magyar szemle. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.magyarszemle.hu/cikk/19990101_szlovakok_a_magyar_szabadsagharcban">the original</a> on 2021-09-23. Retrieved 2019-02-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=magyarszemle.hu&rft.atitle=Szlov%C3%A1kok+a+magyar+szabads%C3%A1gharcban&rft.date=1999-08-01&rft.aulast=P%C3%A1va&rft.aufirst=Istv%C3%A1n&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.magyarszemle.hu%2Fcikk%2F19990101_szlovakok_a_magyar_szabadsagharcban&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-slovak-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-slovak_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slovak_79-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slovak_79-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slovak_79-3">d</a> Špiesz, Anton (2006), Illustrated Slovak History, Wauconda, Illinois: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86516-500-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-86516-500-9">0-86516-500-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.taraiancului.ro/data/fotografii/biblioteca/materiale/gelu_neamtu_IstoriaTransilvaniei.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140514115537/http://www.taraiancului.ro/data/fotografii/biblioteca/materiale/gelu_neamtu_IstoriaTransilvaniei.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2014-05-14. Retrieved 2014-05-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.taraiancului.ro%2Fdata%2Ffotografii%2Fbiblioteca%2Fmateriale%2Fgelu_neamtu_IstoriaTransilvaniei.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Pál Hatos and Attila Novák (editors). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pjzNAgAAQBAJ&dq=may+1848+diet+transylvania+hungary&pg=PA28">Between Minority and Majority. Hungarian and Jewish/Israeli Ethnical and Cultural Experiences in Recent Centuries</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-google-82"><a href="#cite_ref-google_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCentrul_de_Studii_TransilvaneFundația_Culturală_Română1998" class="citation journal cs1">Centrul de Studii Transilvane; Fundația Culturală Română (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kLFpAAAAMAAJ">"Transylvanian Review"</a>. Transylvanian Review. 7 (Supplement). Romanian Cultural Foundation. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2067-1016">2067-1016</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150620212426/https://books.google.com/books?id=kLFpAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transylvanian+Review&rft.atitle=Transylvanian+Review&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=Supplement&rft.date=1998&rft.issn=2067-1016&rft.au=Centrul+de+Studii+Transilvane&rft.au=Funda%C8%9Bia+Cultural%C4%83+Rom%C3%A2n%C4%83&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkLFpAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiskolczy2002" class="citation book cs1">Miskolczy (2002). Ambrus. 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Retrieved 28 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=M%C3%A1ty%C3%A1s+R%C3%A1kosi&rft.date=2001-09-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rev.hu%2Fhistory_of_56%2Fszerviz%2Fkislex%2Fbiograf%2Frakosi.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPityer2013" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pityer (2 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://retrolegends.hu/2013/05/02/szabad-e-sorrel-koccintani/">"Szabad-e sörrel koccintani?"</a>. Retró Legendák (in Hungarian). Retrieved 2019-10-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Retr%C3%B3+Legend%C3%A1k&rft.atitle=Szabad-e+s%C3%B6rrel+koccintani%3F&rft.date=2013-05-02&rft.au=Pityer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fretrolegends.hu%2F2013%2F05%2F02%2Fszabad-e-sorrel-koccintani%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Csikány-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Csik%C3%A1ny_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Csik%C3%A1ny_111-1">b</a> Csikány Tamás (2004), "Magyar hadtörténelem 1848–1867", in Csikány Tamás, ed., A magyar honvédség 1848–1989. Egyetemi tankönyv I. kötet.. Zrínyi Miklós Nemzetvédelmi Egyetem, Hadtudományi Kar, Budapest, p. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Stephen Gál (1947): Hungary and the Anglo-Saxon World Publisher: Officina Press Budapest Link: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://mek.oszk.hu/02000/02096/html/saxon.htm">[5]</a> </li> </ol></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian Revolution of 1848</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Barany, George. "The awakening of Magyar nationalism before 1848." Austrian History Yearbook 2 (1966) pp: 19–50.</li> <li>Cavendish, Richard. "Declaration of Hungary's Independence: April 14th, 1849." History Today 49#4 (1999) pp: 50–51</li> <li>Deák, István. Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians 1848–1849 (Phoenix, 2001)</li> <li>Deme, László. "The Society for Equality in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848." Slavic Review (1972): 71–88. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2494145">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Gángó, Gábor. "1848–1849 in Hungary," Hungarian Studies (2001) 15#1 pp 39–47. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://epa.niif.hu/01400/01462/00025/pdf/039-047.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Horváth, Eugene. "Russia and the Hungarian Revolution (1848–9)." Slavonic and East European Review 12.36 (1934): 628–645. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4202930">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudah1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Judah" title="Tim Judah">Judah, Tim</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/serbs00timj">The Serbs: History, Myth & the Destruction of Yugoslavia</a>. New Haven, CT: Yale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08507-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08507-5"><bdi>978-0-300-08507-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Serbs%3A+History%2C+Myth+%26+the+Destruction+of+Yugoslavia&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08507-5&rft.aulast=Judah&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fserbs00timj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kosáry, Domokos G. The press during the Hungarian revolution of 1848–1849 (East European Monographs, 1986).</li> <li>Nobili, Johann. Hungary 1848: The Winter Campaign. Edited and translated Christopher Pringle. Warwick, UK: Helion & Company Ltd., 2021.</li> <li>Lincoln, W.B. "Russia and the European Revolutions of 1848" History Today (Jan 1973), Vol. 23 Issue 1, pp 53–59 online.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarxEngels" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx, Karl</a>; <a href="/wiki/Freidrich_Engels" class="mw-redirect" title="Freidrich Engels">Engels, Friedrich</a>. "Articles from the Neue Rheinische Zeitung: March 6–May 19, 1849". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050209051404/http://marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume09/index.htm">Collected Works</a>. Vol. 9. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume09/index.htm">the original</a> on 2005-02-09 – via Marxists.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Articles+from+the+Neue+Rheinische+Zeitung%3A+March+6%E2%80%93May+19%2C+1849&rft.btitle=Collected+Works&rft.aulast=Marx&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft.au=Engels%2C+Friedrich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmarxists.org%2Farchive%2Fmarx%2Fworks%2Fcw%2Fvolume09%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHungarian+Revolution+of+1848" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Szilassy, Sandor. "America and the Hungarian Revolution of 1848–49." Slavonic and East European Review (1966): 180–196. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205719">in JSTOR</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohio.edu/chastain/index.htm">"Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions" new articles by scholars; comprehensive coverage</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848&oldid=1259432526">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848&oldid=1259432526</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 25 November 2024, at 03:29 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungarische_Revolution_1848/49" title="Ungarische Revolution 1848/49 – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ungarische Revolution 1848/49" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_1848" title="الثورة المجرية 1848 – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الثورة المجرية 1848" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_h%C3%BAngara_de_1848" title="Revolución húngara de 1848 – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Revolución húngara de 1848" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macar%C4%B1standa_1848-ci_il_inqilab%C4%B1" title="Macarıstanda 1848-ci il inqilabı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Macarıstanda 1848-ci il inqilabı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%B1%DB%B8%DB%B4%DB%B8_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="۱۸۴۸ ماجاریستان اینقلابی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="۱۸۴۸ ماجاریستان اینقلابی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_1848%E2%80%941849_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%9E_%D1%83_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%96" title="Рэвалюцыя 1848—1849 гадоў у Венгрыі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рэвалюцыя 1848—1849 гадоў у Венгрыі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_(1848_%E2%80%93_1849)" title="Унгарска революция (1848 – 1849) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Унгарска революция (1848 – 1849)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C4%91arska_revolucija_1848." title="Mađarska revolucija 1848. – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mađarska revolucija 1848." data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3_hongaresa_de_1848" title="Revolució hongaresa de 1848 – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Revolució hongaresa de 1848" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C4%8Farsk%C3%A1_revoluce_1848%E2%80%931849" title="Maďarská revoluce 1848–1849 – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Maďarská revoluce 1848–1849" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungarske_revolution_i_1848" title="Ungarske revolution i 1848 – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ungarske revolution i 1848" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungarische_Revolution_1848/1849" title="Ungarische Revolution 1848/1849 – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ungarische Revolution 1848/1849" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/1848._aasta_Ungari_revolutsioon" title="1848. aasta Ungari revolutsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="1848. aasta Ungari revolutsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_h%C3%BAngara_de_1848" title="Revolución húngara de 1848 – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Revolución húngara de 1848" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungara_revolucio_de_1848" title="Hungara revolucio de 1848 – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hungara revolucio de 1848" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/1848ko_Hungariako_Iraultza" title="1848ko Hungariako Iraultza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="1848ko Hungariako Iraultza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%DB%B1%DB%B8%DB%B4%DB%B8_%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="انقلاب ۱۸۴۸ مجارستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انقلاب ۱۸۴۸ مجارستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9volution_hongroise_de_1848" title="Révolution hongroise de 1848 – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Révolution hongroise de 1848" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongaarske_Opst%C3%A2n_(1848)" title="Hongaarske Opstân (1848) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Hongaarske Opstân (1848)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluci%C3%B3n_h%C3%BAngara_de_1848" title="Revolución húngara de 1848 – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Revolución húngara de 1848" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/1848%EB%85%84_%ED%97%9D%EA%B0%80%EB%A6%AC_%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85" title="1848년 헝가리 혁명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="1848년 헝가리 혁명" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6_(1848-1849)" title="Հունգարական հեղափոխություն (1848-1849) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հունգարական հեղափոխություն (1848-1849)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucija_u_Ma%C4%91arskoj_1848." title="Revolucija u Mađarskoj 1848. – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Revolucija u Mađarskoj 1848." data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungara_revoluciono_di_1848" title="Hungara revoluciono di 1848 – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Hungara revoluciono di 1848" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_Hungaria_1848" title="Revolusi Hungaria 1848 – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Revolusi Hungaria 1848" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzione_ungherese_del_1848" title="Rivoluzione ungherese del 1848 – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rivoluzione ungherese del 1848" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9B%D7%AA_1848_%D7%91%D7%94%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94" title="מהפכת 1848 בהונגריה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מהפכת 1848 בהונגריה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90_(1848)" title="უნგრეთის რევოლუცია (1848) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="უნგრეთის რევოლუცია (1848)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B_(1848%E2%80%941849_%D0%B6%D0%B6)" title="Венгрия революциясы (1848—1849 жж) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Венгрия революциясы (1848—1849 жж)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/1848%E2%80%9349-es_forradalom_%C3%A9s_szabads%C3%A1gharc" title="1848–49-es forradalom és szabadságharc – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="1848–49-es forradalom és szabadságharc" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(1848)" title="Унгарска револуција (1848) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Унгарска револуција (1848)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongaarse_Revolutie_van_1848" title="Hongaarse Revolutie van 1848 – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hongaarse Revolutie van 1848" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AC%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD_(1848%E5%B9%B4)" title="ハンガリー革命 (1848年) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハンガリー革命 (1848年)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_ungarske_revolusjonen_(1848)" title="Den ungarske revolusjonen (1848) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den ungarske revolusjonen (1848)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_ungarske_revolusjonen_i_1848" title="Den ungarske revolusjonen i 1848 – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den ungarske revolusjonen i 1848" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vengriya_inqilobi_(1848)" title="Vengriya inqilobi (1848) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Vengriya inqilobi (1848)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%87_%DB%B1%DB%B8%DB%B4%DB%B8_%D8%B2%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84_%DA%A9%DB%90_%D8%AF_%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AB%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="په ۱۸۴۸ زکال کې د هنګري انقلاب – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="په ۱۸۴۸ زکال کې د هنګري انقلاب" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powstanie_w%C4%99gierskie_(1848%E2%80%931849)" title="Powstanie węgierskie (1848–1849) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Powstanie węgierskie (1848–1849)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_h%C3%BAngara_de_1848" title="Revolução húngara de 1848 – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Revolução húngara de 1848" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Bia_Maghiar%C4%83_din_1848" title="Revoluția Maghiară din 1848 – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Revoluția Maghiară din 1848" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_1848%E2%80%941849_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B2_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Революция 1848—1849 годов в Венгрии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Революция 1848—1849 годов в Венгрии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhorsk%C3%A1_revol%C3%BAcia" title="Uhorská revolúcia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Uhorská revolúcia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%86%DA%95%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D9%A1%D9%A8%D9%A4%D9%A8%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%95%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="شۆڕشی ١٨٤٨ی مەجارستان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شۆڕشی ١٨٤٨ی مەجارستان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_1848." title="Мађарска револуција 1848. – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мађарска револуција 1848." data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C4%91arska_revolucija_1848." title="Mađarska revolucija 1848. – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mađarska revolucija 1848." data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unkarin_vallankumous" title="Unkarin vallankumous – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Unkarin vallankumous" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungerska_revolutionen_1848%E2%80%931849" title="Ungerska revolutionen 1848–1849 – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ungerska revolutionen 1848–1849" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himagsikang_Hungaro_ng_1848" title="Himagsikang Hungaro ng 1848 – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Himagsikang Hungaro ng 1848" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5_%E0%B8%84.%E0%B8%A8._1848" title="การปฏิวัติฮังการี ค.ศ. 1848 – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การปฏิวัติฮังการี ค.ศ. 1848" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1848_Macar_Devrimi" title="1848 Macar Devrimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="1848 Macar Devrimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_(1848%E2%80%941849)" title="Угорська революція (1848—1849) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Угорська революція (1848—1849)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revo%C5%82usion_ungareze_del_1848" title="Revołusion ungareze del 1848 – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Revołusion ungareze del 1848" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/1848%E5%B9%B4%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="1848年匈牙利革命 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="1848年匈牙利革命" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 25 November 2024, at 03:29 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a 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