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</button> <ul id="toc-Eight_kingdoms_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_first_two_kingdoms_of_life:_Plantae_and_Animalia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_first_two_kingdoms_of_life:_Plantae_and_Animalia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>The first two kingdoms of life: Plantae and Animalia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_first_two_kingdoms_of_life:_Plantae_and_Animalia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_third_kingdom:_Protista" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_third_kingdom:_Protista"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>The third kingdom: Protista</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_third_kingdom:_Protista-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_fourth_kingdom:_Fungi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_fourth_kingdom:_Fungi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>The fourth kingdom: Fungi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_fourth_kingdom:_Fungi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_fifth_kingdom:_Bacteria_(Monera)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_fifth_kingdom:_Bacteria_(Monera)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>The fifth kingdom: Bacteria (Monera)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_fifth_kingdom:_Bacteria_(Monera)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_sixth_kingdom:_Archaebacteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_sixth_kingdom:_Archaebacteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>The sixth kingdom: Archaebacteria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_sixth_kingdom:_Archaebacteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_seventh_kingdom:_Chromista" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_seventh_kingdom:_Chromista"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>The seventh kingdom: Chromista</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_seventh_kingdom:_Chromista-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_eighth_kingdom:_Archezoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_eighth_kingdom:_Archezoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>The eighth kingdom: Archezoa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_eighth_kingdom:_Archezoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kingdom_Protozoa_sensu_Cavalier-Smith" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdom_Protozoa_sensu_Cavalier-Smith"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Kingdom Protozoa <i>sensu</i> Cavalier-Smith</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdom_Protozoa_sensu_Cavalier-Smith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Six_kingdoms_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Six_kingdoms_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Six kingdoms models</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Six_kingdoms_models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Six kingdoms models subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Six_kingdoms_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_1998_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_1998_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The 1998 model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_1998_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kingdom_Animalia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdom_Animalia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Kingdom Animalia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdom_Animalia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kingdom_Protozoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdom_Protozoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Kingdom Protozoa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdom_Protozoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_2003_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_2003_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>The 2003 model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_2003_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kingdom_Protozoa_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingdom_Protozoa_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Kingdom Protozoa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingdom_Protozoa_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unikonts_and_bikonts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unikonts_and_bikonts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Unikonts and bikonts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unikonts_and_bikonts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cladogram_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cladogram_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Cladogram of life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cladogram_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seven_kingdoms_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seven_kingdoms_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Seven kingdoms model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seven_kingdoms_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" 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class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Biological classification system</div> <p>The initial version of a classification system of life by British zoologist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cavalier-Smith" title="Thomas Cavalier-Smith">Thomas Cavalier-Smith</a> appeared in 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This initial system continued to be modified in subsequent versions that were published until he died in 2021. As with classifications of others, such as <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Whittaker_(ecologist)" title="Robert Whittaker (ecologist)">Robert Whittaker</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a>, Cavalier-Smith's classification attempts to incorporate the latest developments in taxonomy.,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cavalier-Smith used his classifications to convey his opinions about the evolutionary relationships among various organisms, principally microbial. His classifications complemented his ideas communicated in scientific publications, talks, and diagrams. Different iterations might have a wider or narrow scope, include different groupings, provide greater or lesser detail, and place groups in different arrangements as his thinking changed. His classifications has been a major influence in the modern taxonomy, particularly of protists. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Cavalier-Smith has published extensively on the <a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">classification</a> of <a href="/wiki/Protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Protists">protists</a>. One of his major contributions to biology was his proposal of a new <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a> of life: the <a href="/wiki/Chromista" title="Chromista">Chromista</a>, although the usefulness of the grouping is questionable given that it is generally agreed to be an arbitrary (polyphyletic) grouping of taxa. He also proposed that all chromista and <a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">alveolata</a> share the same common ancestor, a claim later refuted by studies of morphological and molecular evidence by other labs. He named this new group the <a href="/wiki/Chromalveolate" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromalveolate">Chromalveolates</a>. He also proposed and named many other high-rank taxa, like <a href="/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">Opisthokonta</a> (1987), <a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a> (2002), and <a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavata</a> (2002), though he himself consistently does not include Opisthonkonta as a formal taxon in his schemes. Together with Chromalveolata, <a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a> (he amended their description in 1998), and <a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a> (which he called Plantae since 1981) the six formed the basis of the taxonomy of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> in the middle 2000s. He has also published prodigiously on issues such as the origin of various <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Organelles" class="mw-redirect" title="Organelles">organelles</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a>), <a href="/wiki/Genome_size" title="Genome size">genome size</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiosis">endosymbiosis</a>. Though fairly well known, many of his claims have been controversial and have not gained widespread acceptance in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a> to date. Most recently, he has published a paper citing the <a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">paraphyly</a> of his <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacterial</a> kingdom, the origin of <a href="/wiki/Neomura" title="Neomura">Neomura</a> from <a href="/wiki/Actinobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinobacteria">Actinobacteria</a> and taxonomy of <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>. </p><p> According to <a href="/wiki/Palaeos" title="Palaeos">Palaeos</a>.com: </p><blockquote><p> Prof. Cavalier-Smith of Oxford University has produced a large body of work which is well regarded. Still, he is controversial in a way that is a bit difficult to describe. The issue may be one of writing style. Cavalier-Smith has a tendency to make pronouncements where others would use declarative sentences, to use declarative sentences where others would express an opinion, and to express opinions where angels would fear to tread. In addition, he can sound arrogant, reactionary, and even perverse. On the other [hand], he has a long history of being right when everyone else was wrong. To our way of thinking, all of this is overshadowed by one incomparable virtue: the fact that he <i>will</i> grapple with the details. This makes for very long, very complex papers and causes all manner of dark murmuring, tearing of hair, and gnashing of teeth among those tasked with trying to explain his views of early life. See, [for example], Zrzavý (2001)<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> [and] Patterson (1999).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, he deals with all of the relevant facts.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eight_kingdoms_model">Eight kingdoms model</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Eight kingdoms model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_first_two_kingdoms_of_life:_Plantae_and_Animalia">The first two kingdoms of life: Plantae and Animalia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The first two kingdoms of life: Plantae and Animalia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of the word "<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a>" to describe a major branch of the living world dates as far back as <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a> (1707–1778) who divided the natural world into three kingdoms: <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plantae" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantae">vegetable</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolson_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scamardella_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scamardella-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The taxa "animal kingdom" (or kingdom <a href="/wiki/Animalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Animalia">Animalia</a>) and "plant kingdom" (or kingdom <a href="/wiki/Plantae" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantae">Plantae</a>) remain in use by some modern <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary biologists">evolutionary biologists</a>. The initial targets of Cavalier-Smith's classification, the protozoa were classified as members of the animal kingdom,<sup id="cite_ref-Penny_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penny-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many algae were regarded as part of the plant kingdom. With growing awareness that the animals and plants embraced unrelated taxa, the use of the two kingdom system was rejected by specialists. It remains in use in less critical circles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_third_kingdom:_Protista">The third kingdom: Protista</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The third kingdom: Protista"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anemone_monterey_madrabbit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Anemone_monterey_madrabbit.jpg/250px-Anemone_monterey_madrabbit.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Anemone_monterey_madrabbit.jpg/375px-Anemone_monterey_madrabbit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Anemone_monterey_madrabbit.jpg/500px-Anemone_monterey_madrabbit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2608" data-file-height="1820" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemone</a> is an animal that resembles a plant.</figcaption></figure> <p>By mid-nineteenth century, <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microscopic organisms</a> were generally classified into four groups: </p> <ol><li>Protozoa (primitive animals),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Protophyta">Protophyta</a> (primitive plants),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoophytes">Phytozoa</a> (animal-like plants & plant-like animals), and</li></ol> <p>In 1858, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Owen" title="Richard Owen">Richard Owen</a> (1804–1892) proposed that the animal phylum Protozoa be elevated to the status of kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-1993-12_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1993-12-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1860, <a href="/wiki/John_Hogg_(biologist)" title="John Hogg (biologist)">John Hogg</a> (1800–1869) proposed that protozoa and protophyta be grouped together into a new kingdom which he called "Regnum Primigenum" (kingdom primitive). According to Hogg, this new classification scheme prevented "the unnecessary trouble of contending about their supposed natures, and of uselessly trying to distinguish the Protozoa from the Protophyta". In 1866, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> (1834–1919) proposed the name "<a href="/wiki/Protista" class="mw-redirect" title="Protista">Protista</a>" for the primigenial kingdom and included bacteria in this third kingdom of life.<sup id="cite_ref-Scamardella_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scamardella-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_fourth_kingdom:_Fungi">The fourth kingdom: Fungi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The fourth kingdom: Fungi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asian_mushrooms.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Asian_mushrooms.jpg/250px-Asian_mushrooms.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Asian_mushrooms.jpg/375px-Asian_mushrooms.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Asian_mushrooms.jpg/500px-Asian_mushrooms.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="564" /></a><figcaption>Japanese popular mushrooms, clockwise from left, <a href="/wiki/Enokitake" class="mw-redirect" title="Enokitake">enokitake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypsizygus_tessellatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypsizygus tessellatus">buna-shimeji, bunapi-shimeji</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_oyster_mushroom" class="mw-redirect" title="King oyster mushroom">king oyster mushroom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shiitake" title="Shiitake">shiitake</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1959, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Whittaker_(ecologist)" title="Robert Whittaker (ecologist)">Robert Whittaker</a> proposed that fungi, which were formerly classified as plants, be given their own kingdom. Therefore, he divided life into four kingdoms such as: </p> <ol><li>Protista, (or unicellular organisms);</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantae" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantae">Plantae</a>, (or multicellular plants);</li> <li>Fungi; and</li> <li>Animalia (or <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a> animals).</li></ol> <p>Whittaker subdivided the Protista into two subkingdoms: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Monera" title="Monera">Monera</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>) and</li> <li>Eunucleata (single celled <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotes">eukaryotes</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_fifth_kingdom:_Bacteria_(Monera)"><span id="The_fifth_kingdom:_Bacteria_.28Monera.29"></span>The fifth kingdom: Bacteria (Monera)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The fifth kingdom: Bacteria (Monera)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bacteria are fundamentally different from the <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> (plants, animals, fungi, <a href="/wiki/Amoeba_(genus)" title="Amoeba (genus)">amebas</a>, protozoa, and <a href="/wiki/Chromista" title="Chromista">chromista</a>). Eukaryotes have <a href="/wiki/Cell_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell nuclei">cell nuclei</a>, bacteria do not. In 1969, Whittaker elevated the bacteria to the status of kingdom. His new classification system divided the living world into five kingdoms: </p> <ol><li>Plantae,</li> <li>Animalia,</li> <li>Protista (Eunucleata),</li> <li>Fungi, and</li> <li>Monera (the kingdom bacteria).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_sixth_kingdom:_Archaebacteria">The sixth kingdom: Archaebacteria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The sixth kingdom: Archaebacteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phylogenetic_tree.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Phylogenetic_tree.svg/300px-Phylogenetic_tree.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Phylogenetic_tree.svg/450px-Phylogenetic_tree.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Phylogenetic_tree.svg/600px-Phylogenetic_tree.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1860" data-file-height="1010" /></a><figcaption>Phylogenetic tree based on Woese <i>et al.</i> rRNA analysis in 1990 <sup id="cite_ref-Woese_1990_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woese_1990-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The kingdom Monera can be divided into two distinct groups: <a href="/wiki/Eubacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Eubacteria">eubacteria</a> (true bacteria) and <a href="/wiki/Archaebacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaebacteria">archaebacteria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>). In 1977 <a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_E._Fox" title="George E. Fox">George E. Fox</a> established that archaebacteria (methanogens in their case) were genetically different (based on their ribosomal RNA genes) from bacteria so that life could be divided into three principle lineages, namely: </p> <ol><li>Eubacteria (all typical bacteria),</li> <li>Archaebacteria (methanogens), and</li> <li>Urkaryotes (all eukaryotes).<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>In 1990, Woese introduced domain above kingdom by creating <a href="/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">three-domain system</a> such as: </p> <ol><li>Bacteria,</li> <li>Archaea, and</li> <li>Eucarya.<sup id="cite_ref-Woese_1990_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woese_1990-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>But Cavalier-Smith considered Archaebacteria as a kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-nat1989_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat1989-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_seventh_kingdom:_Chromista">The seventh kingdom: Chromista</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The seventh kingdom: Chromista"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pacific_rockweed,_Olympic_National_Park,_USA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_Park%2C_USA.jpg/350px-Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_Park%2C_USA.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_Park%2C_USA.jpg/525px-Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_Park%2C_USA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_Park%2C_USA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a> are a member of the kingdom Chromista. </figcaption></figure> <p>By 1981, Cavalier-Smith had divided all the eukaryotes into nine kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-bio1981_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bio1981-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In it, he created Chromista for a separate kingdom of some protists.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most chromists are <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a>. This distinguishes them from most other protists which lack photosynthesis. In both plants and chromists photosynthesis takes place in <a href="/wiki/Chloroplasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloroplasts">chloroplasts</a>. In plants, however, the chloroplasts are located in the <a href="/wiki/Cytosol" title="Cytosol">cytosol</a> while in chromists the chloroplasts are located in the <a href="/wiki/Lumen_(anatomy)" title="Lumen (anatomy)">lumen</a> of their <a href="/wiki/Rough_endoplasmic_reticulum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rough endoplasmic reticulum">rough endoplasmic reticulum</a>. This distinguishes chromists from plants.<sup id="cite_ref-1993-12_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1993-12-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on the addition of Chromista as a kingdom, he suggested that even with his nine kingdoms of eukaryotes, "the best one for general scientific use is a system of seven kingdoms",<sup id="cite_ref-bio1981_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bio1981-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which includes: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Plantae" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantae">Plantae</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Animalia">Animalia</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromista" title="Chromista">Chromista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Eubacteria">Eubacteria</a>, and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaebacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaebacteria">Archaebacteria</a>.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_eighth_kingdom:_Archezoa">The eighth kingdom: Archezoa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The eighth kingdom: Archezoa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1983, Cavalier-Smith adapted the term Archezoa, previously used by Haeckel, Perty, and for protists that lack <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, the taxon included the quite unrelated metamonads and microscopridia, and expanded to include other unrelated taxa such that the term referred to many different groupings of protists.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He originally considered it as a subkingdom, but by 1989, with the establishment of Chromista as separate kingdom, he treated it as a kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-nat1989_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nat1989-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Composition of Archezoa <sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>1983a</th> <th>1983b</th> <th>1987</th> <th>1989</th> <th>1990</th> <th>1991</th> <th>1993</th> <th>1995</th> <th>1996</th> <th>1997</th> <th>1998</th> <th>1999 </th></tr> <tr> <td>Diplomonads</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Retortamonads</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Oxymonads</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Microspora</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hypermastigids</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Trichomonads</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mastigamoebids</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Pelomyxa</i></td> <td></td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Entamoeba</i></td> <td></td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Phreatamoeba</i></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>+</td> <td>+</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Trimastix</i></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>+</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Archezoa is now defunct.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He now assigns former members of the kingdom Archezoa to the phylum Amoebozoa.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingdom_Protozoa_sensu_Cavalier-Smith">Kingdom Protozoa <i>sensu</i> Cavalier-Smith</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Kingdom Protozoa sensu Cavalier-Smith"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cavalier-Smith referred to what remained of the protist kingdom, after he removed the kingdoms Archezoa and Chromista, as the "kingdom Protozoa". In 1993, this kingdom contained 18 phyla as summarized in the following table.<sup id="cite_ref-1993-12_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1993-12-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first major division relied on the basis of presence or absence of dictyosomes, although a Gogli Apparatus was subsequently demonstrated in the 'Adictyozoa'.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:80%;line-height:110%"> <tbody><tr> <th width="4%"># </th> <th width="18%">Phylum </th> <th width="23%">Assigned to: </th> <th width="34%">Characteristics </th> <th width="21%">Fate </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">1 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Percolozoa" title="Percolozoa">Percolozoa</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Adictyozoa </td> <td>lacks <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">2 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Parabasalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parabasalia">Parabasalia</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Parabasalia </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a><br />lacks mitochondria </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">3 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Euglenozoa </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> mostly with <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a><br />with <a href="/wiki/RNA_splicing" title="RNA splicing">trans-splicing</a> of <p><a href="/wiki/Exon" title="Exon">miniexons</a> </p> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">4 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Opalozoa" title="Opalozoa">Opalozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Flagellates" class="mw-redirect" title="Flagellates">flagellates</a>) </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Ciliomyxa<br />superphylum Opalomyxa </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> tubular mitochondrial <a href="/wiki/Cristae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cristae">cristae</a> with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a> <br /> predominantly <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">ciliated</a>, <br />no <a href="/wiki/Cortical_alveoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical alveoli">cortical alveoli</a> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">5 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mycetozoa" title="Mycetozoa">Mycetozoa</a> (slime molds) </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Ciliomyxa<br />superphylum Opalomyxa </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> tubular mitochondrial <a href="/wiki/Cristae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cristae">cristae</a><br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a><br /> <p>predominantly <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">ciliated</a>,<br />no <a href="/wiki/Cortical_alveoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical alveoli">cortical alveoli</a> </p> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">6 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Choanozoa" title="Choanozoa">Choanozoa</a> (choanoflagellates) </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Ciliomyxa<br />superphylum Choanozoa </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> flattened mitochondrial <a href="/wiki/Cristae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cristae">cristae</a><br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a><br />predominantly <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">ciliated</a>,<br />no <a href="/wiki/Cortical_alveoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical alveoli">cortical alveoli</a> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">7 </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dinozoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dinozoa (page does not exist)">Dinozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellata" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinoflagellata">Dinoflagellata</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Protalveolata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protalveolata (page does not exist)">Protalveolata</a>) </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Alveolata<br />superphylum Miozoa </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> tubular mitochondrial cristae<br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a><br />with <a href="/wiki/Cortical_alveoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical alveoli">cortical alveoli</a> </td> <td>Reassigned to Miozoa in Alveolata.<sup id="cite_ref-2003-09_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2003-09-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">8 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexa</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Alveolata<br />superphylum Miozoa </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> tubular mitochondrial cristae<br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a><br />with <a href="/wiki/Cortical_alveoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical alveoli">cortical alveoli</a> </td> <td>Reassigned to Miozoa in Alveolata.<sup id="cite_ref-2003-09_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2003-09-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">9 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ciliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciliophora">Ciliophora</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Alveolata<br />superphylum Heterokaryota </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> tubular mitochondrial cristae<br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a><br />with <a href="/wiki/Cortical_alveoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical alveoli">cortical alveoli</a> </td> <td>Reassigned to Alveolata.<sup id="cite_ref-2003-09_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2003-09-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">10 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rhizopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhizopoda">Rhizopoda</a> (lobose and filose <a href="/wiki/Amoebae" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoebae">amoebae</a>) </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Neosarcodina </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> usually with tubular cristae<br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">11 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Reticulosa" title="Reticulosa">Reticulosa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminifera</a>; <a href="/wiki/Reticulopodium" title="Reticulopodium">reticulopodial</a> amoebae) </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Neosarcodina </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> usually with tubular cristae<br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">12 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Heliozoa" title="Heliozoa">Heliozoa</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Actinopoda </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> mostly with <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a><br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a><br />has <a href="/wiki/Pseudopod" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudopod">axopodia</a> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">13 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Radiozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiozoa">Radiozoa</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Actinopoda </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a> mostly with <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a><br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a><br />has <a href="/wiki/Pseudopod" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudopod">axopodia</a> </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">14 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Archamoebae" title="Archamoebae">Entamoebia</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Entamoebia </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a><br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a><br />no mitochondria, peroxisomes, hydrogenosomes or cilia transient intranuclear centrosomes </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">15 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Myxosporidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Myxosporidia">Myxosporidia</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Myxozoa </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a><br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a> endoparasitic, multicellular spores, mitochondria, <br />and no cilia </td> <td>Reclassified as animals in 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-1998-08_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1998-08-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">16 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Haplosporidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplosporidia">Haplosporidia</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Myxozoa </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a><br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a> endoparasitic, multicellular spores, mitochondria, <br /> and no cilia </td> <td>Reclassified as animals in 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-1998-08_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1998-08-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Haplosporidia was placed in phylum Sporozoa in the source. Was this considered an animal? It's contents are now part of Cavalier-Smith's Chromista. (November 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">17 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ascetosporea" title="Ascetosporea">Paramyxia</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Myxozoa </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a><br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a> endoparasitic, multicellular spores, mitochondria, <br /> and no cilia </td> <td>Reclassified as animals in 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-1998-08_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1998-08-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td align="right">18 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mesozoa" title="Mesozoa">Mesozoa</a> </td> <td>subkingdom Dictyozoa<br />branch Bikonta<br />infrakingdom Neozoa<br />parvkingdom Mesozoa </td> <td>has <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi dictyosomes</a><br />with cis-spliced <a href="/wiki/Introns" class="mw-redirect" title="Introns">introns</a><br />tubular mitochondrial cristae multicellular with no collagenous connective tissue </td> <td>Reclassified as animals in 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-1998-08_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1998-08-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The phylum Opalozoa was established by Cavalier-Smith in 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Six_kingdoms_models">Six kingdoms models</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Six kingdoms models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 1998, Cavalier-Smith had reduced the total number of kingdoms from eight to six: Animalia, Protozoa, Fungi, Plantae (including <a href="/wiki/Red_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Red alga">red</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>), Chromista, and Bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-1998-08_44-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1998-08-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Five of Cavalier-Smith's kingdoms are classified as <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotes">eukaryotes</a> as shown in the following scheme: </p> <ul><li><b>Eubacteria</b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Neomura" title="Neomura">Neomura</a></b> <ul><li>Archaebacteria</li> <li><b>Eukaryotes</b> <ul><li><b>Kingdom Protozoa</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unikont" class="mw-redirect" title="Unikont">Unikonts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Heterotrophs" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophs">heterotrophs</a>) <ul><li><b>Kingdom Animalia</b></li> <li><b>Kingdom Fungi</b></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikont" title="Bikont">Bikonts</a> (primarily <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a>) <ul><li><b>Kingdom Plantae</b> (including red and green algae)</li> <li><b>Kingdom Chromista</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p>Eukaryotes are divided into two major groups: Unikont and Bikont. Uniciliates are cells with only one <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagellum</a> and unikonts are descended from uniciliates. Unikont cells often have only one <a href="/wiki/Centriole" title="Centriole">centriole</a> as well. <a href="/wiki/Biciliate" title="Biciliate">Biciliate</a> cells have two flagella and bikonts are descended from biciliates. Biciliates undergo <a href="/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">ciliary</a> transformation by converting a younger anterior flagellum into a dissimilar older posterior flagellum. Animals and fungi are unikonts while plants and chromists are bikonts. Some protozoa are unikonts while others are bikonts. </p><p>The Bacteria (= prokaryotes) are subdivided into Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. According to Cavalier-Smith, Eubacteria is the oldest group of terrestrial organisms still living. He classifies the groups which he believes are younger (archaebacteria and eukaryotes) as Neomura. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_1998_model">The 1998 model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The 1998 model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kingdom_Animalia">Kingdom Animalia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Kingdom Animalia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1993, Cavalier-Smith classified <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a> as a protozoan <a href="/wiki/Parvkingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Parvkingdom">parvkingdom</a>. By 1998, he had reclassified it as an animal subkingdom. Myxozoa contains three phyla, <a href="/wiki/Myxosporidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Myxosporidia">Myxosporidia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplosporidia" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplosporidia">Haplosporidia</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paramyxia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paramyxia (page does not exist)">Paramyxia</a>, which were reclassified as animals along with Myxozoa. Likewise, Cavalier-Smith reclassified the protozoan phylum <a href="/wiki/Mesozoa" title="Mesozoa">Mesozoa</a> as an animal subkingdom. </p><p>In his 1998 scheme, the animal kingdom was divided into four subkingdoms: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiata" title="Radiata">Radiata</a> (phyla <a href="/wiki/Porifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Porifera">Porifera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a>),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a>,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesozoa" title="Mesozoa">Mesozoa</a>, and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a> (all other animal phyla).</li></ul> <p>He created five new animal phyla: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acanthognatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Acanthognatha">Acanthognatha</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rotifers" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifers">rotifers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acanthocephalans" class="mw-redirect" title="Acanthocephalans">acanthocephalans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastrotrichs" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrotrichs">gastrotrichs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulids" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomulids">gnathostomulids</a>),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachiozoa" title="Brachiozoa">Brachiozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brachiopods" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopods">brachiopods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoronids" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoronids">phoronids</a>),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobopodia" title="Lobopodia">Lobopoda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Onychophorans" class="mw-redirect" title="Onychophorans">onychophorans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tardigrades" class="mw-redirect" title="Tardigrades">tardigrades</a>),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamptozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamptozoa">Kamptozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Symbion" title="Symbion">Symbion</a></i>), and</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nemathelminthes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematoda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha</a>)</li></ul> <p>and recognized a total of 23 animal phyla, as shown here: </p> <ul><li>Kingdom Animaia <ul><li>Subkingdom <a href="/wiki/Radiata" title="Radiata">Radiata</a> <ul><li>Infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Spongiaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Spongiaria">Spongiaria</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Porifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Porifera">Porifera</a></li></ul></li> <li>Infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Coelenterata" title="Coelenterata">Coelenterata</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></li> <li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li></ul></li> <li>Infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Subkingdom <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Myxosporea" title="Myxosporea">Myxosporidia</a></li></ul></li> <li>Subkingdom <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a> <ul><li>Branch <a href="/wiki/Protostomia" class="mw-redirect" title="Protostomia">Protostomia</a> <ul><li>Infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa">Lophozoa</a> <ul><li>Superphylum <a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Polyzoa</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a></li> <li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Kamptozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamptozoa">Kamptozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cycliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycliophora">Cycliophora</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Superphylum <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conchozoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conchozoa (page does not exist)">Conchozoa</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li> <li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Brachiozoa" title="Brachiozoa">Brachiozoa</a> <i>sensu lato</i> (<a href="/wiki/Brachiozoa" title="Brachiozoa">Brachiozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoronida" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoronida">Phoronida</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Superphylum <a href="/wiki/Sipuncula" title="Sipuncula">Sipuncula</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Sipuncula" title="Sipuncula">Sipuncula</a></li></ul></li> <li>Superphylum <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vermizoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vermizoa (page does not exist)">Vermizoa</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea">Nemertina</a></li> <li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Annelida" class="mw-redirect" title="Annelida">Annelida</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognathi</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li></ul></li> <li>Infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Ecdysozoa" title="Ecdysozoa">Ecdysozoa</a> <ul><li>Superphylum <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nemathelminthes</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nemathelminthes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nematoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematoda">Nematoda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha</a>; <a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Superphylum <a href="/wiki/Panarthropoda" title="Panarthropoda">Haemopoda</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Lobopodia" title="Lobopodia">Lobopodia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tardigrada" class="mw-redirect" title="Tardigrada">Tardigrada</a>)</li> <li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Arthropoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropoda">Arthropoda</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Platyzoa" title="Platyzoa">Platyzoa</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Platyhelminthes" class="mw-redirect" title="Platyhelminthes">Platyhelminthes</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a>)</li> <li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Acanthognatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Acanthognatha">Acanthognatha</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Rotifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifera">Rotifera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulida" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomulida">Gnathostomulida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastrotricha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrotricha">Gastrotricha</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Branch <a href="/wiki/Deuterostomia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterostomia">Deuterostomia</a> <ul><li>Infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Ambulacraria" title="Ambulacraria">Coelomopora</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinodermata</a></li> <li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Hemichordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemichordata">Hemichordata</a></li></ul></li> <li>Infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Chordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Chordata">Chordonia</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Tunicata" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunicata">Urochorda</a></li> <li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Chordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Chordata">Chordata</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Subkingdom <a href="/wiki/Mesozoa" title="Mesozoa">Mesozoa</a> <ul><li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Mesozoa" title="Mesozoa">Mesozoa</a><sup id="cite_ref-1998-08_44-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1998-08-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kingdom_Protozoa">Kingdom Protozoa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Kingdom Protozoa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under Cavalier-Smith's proposed classification system, protozoa share the following traits: </p> <ul><li>they have or are descended from organisms with mitochondria</li> <li>they have or are descended from organisms with <a href="/wiki/Peroxisomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Peroxisomes">peroxisomes</a></li> <li>they lack <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagenous</a> connective tissue</li> <li>they lack epiciliary retronemes (rigid thrust-reversing tubular ciliary hairs)</li> <li>they lack two additional membranes outside their chloroplast envelope</li></ul> <p>Organisms that do not meet these criteria were reassigned to other kingdoms by Cavalier-Smith. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_2003_model">The 2003 model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The 2003 model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kingdom_Protozoa_2">Kingdom Protozoa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Kingdom Protozoa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1993, Cavalier-Smith divided the kingdom Protozoa into two subkingdoms and 18 phyla.<sup id="cite_ref-1993-12_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1993-12-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2003 he used <a href="/wiki/Phylogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenic">phylogenic</a> evidence to revise the total number of proposed phyla down to 11: Amoebozoa, Choanozoa, Cercozoa, Retaria, Loukozoa, Metamonada, Euglenozoa, Percolozoa, Apusozoa, Alveolata, Ciliophora, and Miozoa.<sup id="cite_ref-2003-09_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2003-09-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unikonts_and_bikonts">Unikonts and bikonts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Unikonts and bikonts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Amoebas" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoebas">Amoebozoa</a> do not have flagella and are difficult to classify as unikont or bikont based on <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>. In his 1993 classification scheme, Cavalier-Smith incorrectly classified amoebas as bikonts. Gene fusion research later revealed that the <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> Amoebozoa, was ancestrally uniciliate. In his 2003 classification scheme, Cavalier-Smith reassigned Amoebozoa to the unikont clade along with animals, fungi, and the protozoan phylum Choanozoa. Plants and all other protists were assigned to the clade Bikont by Cavalier-Smith.<sup id="cite_ref-2003-09_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2003-09-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cavalier-Smith's 2003 classification scheme: </p> <ul><li>Unikonts <ul><li>protozoan phylum Amoebozoa (ancestrally uniciliate)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opisthokonts" class="mw-redirect" title="Opisthokonts">opisthokonts</a> <ul><li>uniciliate protozoan phylum Choanozoa</li> <li>kingdom Fungi</li> <li>kingdom Animalia</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Bikonts <ul><li>protozoan infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a> <ul><li>phylum <a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li>phylum <a href="/wiki/Retaria" title="Retaria">Retaria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Radiozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiozoa">Radiozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">Foraminifera</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>protozoan infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavata</a> <ul><li>phylum <a href="/wiki/Loukozoa" title="Loukozoa">Loukozoa</a></li> <li>phylum <a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></li> <li>phylum <a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></li> <li>phylum <a href="/wiki/Percolozoa" title="Percolozoa">Percolozoa</a></li></ul></li> <li>protozoan phylum <a href="/wiki/Apusozoa" title="Apusozoa">Apusozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thecomonadea" class="mw-redirect" title="Thecomonadea">Thecomonadea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diphylleida" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphylleida">Diphylleida</a>)</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Chromalveolate" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromalveolate">chromalveolate</a> clade <ul><li>kingdom <a href="/wiki/Chromista" title="Chromista">Chromista</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heterokonta" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterokonta">Heterokonta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Haptophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Haptophyta">Haptophyta</a>)</li> <li>protozoan infrakingdom <a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a> <ul><li>phylum <a href="/wiki/Ciliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciliophora">Ciliophora</a></li> <li>phylum <a href="/wiki/Miozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Miozoa">Miozoa</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Protalveolata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protalveolata (page does not exist)">Protalveolata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellata" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinoflagellata">Dinozoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexa</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>kingdom <a href="/wiki/Plantae" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantae">Plantae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Viridaeplantae" class="mw-redirect" title="Viridaeplantae">Viridaeplantae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cladogram_of_life">Cladogram of life</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cladogram of life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By September 2003, Cavalier-Smith's tree of life looked like this:<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eubacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Eubacteria">Eubacteria</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Neomura" title="Neomura">Neomura</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Archaebacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaebacteria">Archaebacteria</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Bikont" title="Bikont">Bikonts</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Apusozoa" title="Apusozoa">Apusozoa</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Cabozoa" title="Cabozoa">Cabozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavata</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Retaria" title="Retaria">Retaria</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Kingdom <a href="/wiki/Plantae" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantae">Plantae</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Chromalveolata" title="Chromalveolata">Chromalveolata</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Kingdom <a href="/wiki/Chromista" title="Chromista">Chromista</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Unikont" class="mw-redirect" title="Unikont">Unikonts</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">Opisthokonts</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Choanozoa" title="Choanozoa">Choanozoa</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Kingdom <a href="/wiki/Animalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Animalia">Animalia</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Kingdom <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>In the above tree, the traditional plant, animal, and fungal kingdoms, as well as Cavalier-Smith's proposed kingdom Chromista, are shown as leaves. The leaves Eubacteria and Archaebacteria together make up the kingdom Bacteria. All remaining leaves together make up the kingdom Protozoa. </p><p>By 2006, Cavalier-Smith's microbial tree look like this: <b>Cavalier-Smith's Tree of Life, 2006</b><sup id="cite_ref-Cavalier-Smith-06-TOL_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavalier-Smith-06-TOL-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>cstol 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade" style="font-size:100%; line-height:100%"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"> <span style="color:#008800;">[A]</span> </div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Chlorobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorobacteria">Chlorobacteria</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"> <span style="color:#008800;">[B]</span> </div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Hadobacteria</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> [C]  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"> <span style="color:#008800;">[D]</span> </div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> [E]  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> [F] Gracilicutes </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetae</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Sphingobacteria_(phylum)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphingobacteria (phylum)">Sphingobacteria</a> (FCB) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Planctobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Planctobacteria">Planctobacteria</a> (PVC) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Proteobacteria <i>s.l.</i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> [G]  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eurybacteria" title="Eurybacteria">Eurybacteria</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> [H] [I]  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Endobacteria</a> (Bacillota) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> [J]  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinobacteria</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> [K] <a href="/wiki/Neomura" title="Neomura">Neomura</a>   </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> [L]  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> [M]  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><b>Legend:</b> <span style="color:#008800;"><br /> [A]</span> <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-negative">Gram-negative</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a> <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a> like <a href="/wiki/Chlorosome" title="Chlorosome">Chlorosome</a>.<br /> <span style="color:#008800;">[B]</span> Oxygenic <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jcb.rupress.org/cgi/content/full/164/1/19">Omp85</a> and four new <a href="/wiki/Catalase" title="Catalase">catalases</a>.<br /> [C] <a href="/w/index.php?title=Glycobacteria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glycobacteria (page does not exist)">Glycobacterial</a> revolution: outer membrane with insertion of <a href="/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide" title="Lipopolysaccharide">lipopolysaccharides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hopanoids" title="Hopanoids">hopanoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diaminopimelic_acid" title="Diaminopimelic acid">diaminopimelic acid</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/12/4776.pdf">ToIC</a> and <a href="/wiki/TonB-dependent_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="TonB-dependent receptors">TonB</a>.<br /> <span style="color:#008800;">[D]</span> <a href="/wiki/Phycobilin" title="Phycobilin">Phycobilin</a> <a href="/wiki/Chromophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromophores">chromophores</a>.<br /> [E] <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">Flagella</a>.<br /> [F] Four sections: an <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> in <a href="/wiki/GroEL" title="GroEL">HSP60</a> and <a href="/wiki/FtsZ" title="FtsZ">FtsZ</a> and a domain in <a href="/wiki/RNA_polymerase" title="RNA polymerase">RNA polymerases</a> β and σ.<br /> [G] <a href="/wiki/Endospores" class="mw-redirect" title="Endospores">Endospores</a>.<br /> [H] <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-positive">Gram-positive</a> Bacteria: hypertrophy of the wall <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sortase" title="Sortase">sortase</a> enzyme and a loss of the outer membrane.<br /> [I] <a href="/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">Glycerol</a> 1-P <a href="/wiki/Dehydrogenase" title="Dehydrogenase">dehydrogenase</a>.<br /> [J] <a href="/wiki/Proteasome" title="Proteasome">Proteasome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol" title="Phosphatidylinositol">phosphatidylinositol</a>.<br /> [K] <a href="/wiki/Neomura" title="Neomura">Neomura</a> revolution: Replacement of <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a> by <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoproteins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lipoprotein" title="Lipoprotein">lipoproteins</a>.<br /> [L] Reverse <a href="/wiki/DNA_gyrase" title="DNA gyrase">DNA gyrase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ether" title="Ether">ether</a> lipid <a href="/wiki/Isoprenoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Isoprenoids">isoprenoids</a>.<br /> [M] <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">Phagocytosis</a>.<br /> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Cavalier-Smith-06-TOL-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cavalier-Smith-06-TOL_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCavalier-Smith_T2006" class="citation journal cs1">Cavalier-Smith T (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1578732">"Cell evolution and Earth history: stasis and revolution"</a>. <i>Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci</i>. <b>361</b> (1470): 969–1006. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2006.1842">10.1098/rstb.2006.1842</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1578732">1578732</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16754610">16754610</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philos+Trans+R+Soc+Lond+B+Biol+Sci&rft.atitle=Cell+evolution+and+Earth+history%3A+stasis+and+revolution&rft.volume=361&rft.issue=1470&rft.pages=969-1006&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1578732%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16754610&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2006.1842&rft.au=Cavalier-Smith+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1578732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACavalier-Smith%27s+system+of+classification" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>By 2010 new data emerged that showed that Unikonts and Bikonts, originally considered to be separate because of an apparently different organization of cilia and cytoskeleton, are in reality more similar than previously thought. As a consequence, Cavalier-Smith revised the above tree and proposed to move its root to reside in between the Excavata and Euglenozoa kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seven_kingdoms_model">Seven kingdoms model</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Seven kingdoms model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1987, Cavalier-Smith introduced a classification divided into two superkingdoms (Prokaryota and Eukaryota) and seven kingdoms, two prokaryotic kingdoms (Eubacteria and Archaebacteria) and five eukaryotic kingdoms (Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cavalier-Smith and his collaborators revised the classification in 2015, and published it in <i><a href="/wiki/PLOS_ONE" class="mw-redirect" title="PLOS ONE">PLOS ONE</a></i>. In this scheme they reintroduced the classification with the division of prokaryotes superkingdom into two kingdoms, Bacteria (=Eubacteria) and Archaea (=Archaebacteria). This is based on the consensus in the <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_taxonomy" title="Bacterial taxonomy">Taxonomic Outline of Bacteria and Archaea</a> (TOBA) and the <a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">Catalogue of Life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavalier-Smith%27s_system_of_classification&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cavalier-Smith, T. 1978. 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Endocytobiology 5:399–406.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cavalier Smith, T. Kingdom Protozoa and its 18 Phyla. Microbiological Reviews 57:953–994.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cavalier Smith, T. 1995. Zooflagellate phylogeny and classification. Cytology 37:1010–1029.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cavalier Smith, T. 1997. Amoeboflagellates and mitochondrial cristae in eukaryote evolution: megasystematics of the new protozoan subkingdoms Eozoa and Neozoa. Archiv für Protistenkunde 147:237–258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cavalier Smith, T. 1997. Zooflagellate phylogeny and the evolution and classification of protozoa. Page 65 in Programme and abstracts, Tenth International Congress of Protozoology, Sydney.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cavalier Smith, T. 1998. A revised six–kingdom system of life. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 73:203–266.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cavalier Smith, T. 1999. Zooflagellate phylogeny and the systematics of protozoa. Biological Bulletin (Woods Hole) 196: 393–395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cavalier-Smith, T.and Chao, E. 1995. The opalozoan Apusomonas is related to the common ancestor of animals, fungi and choanoflagellates. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences 261:1–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cavalier-Smith, T.and Chao, E. 1996. Molecular diversity of the free-living archezoan Trepomonas agilis and the nature of the first eukaryote. Journal of Molecular Evolution 43:551–563.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patterson, D. J. 1999. The diversity of eukaryotes. American Naturalist, Supplement 65: 96-124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavalier-SmithChao1996" class="citation journal cs1">Cavalier-Smith, T.; Chao, E. E. (1996). 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