CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Color vision - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"8721cbbf-ab2f-4159-b30e-dedeb5cfd50a","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Color_vision","wgTitle":"Color vision","wgCurRevisionId":1258160880,"wgRevisionId":1258160880,"wgArticleId":302812,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1: long volume value","CS1 German-language sources (de)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use American English from August 2021","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","All articles that are too technical","Wikipedia articles that are too technical from May 2018","All articles needing expert attention","Articles needing expert attention from May 2018","All articles with unsourced statements", "Articles with unsourced statements from September 2010","Articles needing additional references from May 2016","All articles needing additional references","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Color vision","Image processing","Visual perception","Mathematics in medicine"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Color_vision","wgRelevantArticleId":302812,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false, "wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q374259","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Filterstef.JPG/1200px-Filterstef.JPG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="900"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Filterstef.JPG/800px-Filterstef.JPG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="600"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Filterstef.JPG/640px-Filterstef.JPG"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="480"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Color vision - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Color_vision rootpage-Color_vision skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Color+vision" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Color+vision" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Color+vision" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Color+vision" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Wavelength" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wavelength"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Wavelength</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Wavelength-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Wavelength subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Wavelength-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hue_detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hue_detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Hue detection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hue_detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-spectral_colors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-spectral_colors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Non-spectral colors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-spectral_colors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dimensionality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dimensionality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Dimensionality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dimensionality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiology_of_color_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiology_of_color_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Physiology of color perception</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physiology_of_color_perception-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physiology of color perception subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physiology_of_color_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cone_cells_in_the_human_eye" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cone_cells_in_the_human_eye"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Cone cells in the human eye</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cone_cells_in_the_human_eye-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Color_in_the_primate_brain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color_in_the_primate_brain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Color in the primate brain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Color_in_the_primate_brain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subjectivity_of_color_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subjectivity_of_color_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Subjectivity of color perception</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Subjectivity_of_color_perception-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Subjectivity of color perception subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Subjectivity_of_color_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chromatic_adaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chromatic_adaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Chromatic adaptation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chromatic_adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Color_vision_in_nonhumans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color_vision_in_nonhumans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Color vision in nonhumans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Color_vision_in_nonhumans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics_of_color_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics_of_color_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Mathematics of color perception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics_of_color_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Color vision</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">41 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A4%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86" title="رؤية اللون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رؤية اللون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceici%C3%B3n_del_color" title="Perceición del color – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Perceición del color" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="বর্ণ দর্শনশক্তি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বর্ণ দর্শনশক্তি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percepci%C3%B3_del_color" title="Percepció del color – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Percepció del color" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barevn%C3%A9_vid%C4%9Bn%C3%AD" title="Barevné vidění – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Barevné vidění" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farbwahrnehmung" title="Farbwahrnehmung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Farbwahrnehmung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4rvitaju" title="Värvitaju – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Värvitaju" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percepci%C3%B3n_del_color" title="Percepción del color – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Percepción del color" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolora_vidkapablo" title="Kolora vidkapablo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kolora vidkapablo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolore_ikusmen" title="Kolore ikusmen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kolore ikusmen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="دید رنگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دید رنگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_des_couleurs" title="Vision des couleurs – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vision des couleurs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dathamharc" title="Dathamharc – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Dathamharc" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percepci%C3%B3n_da_cor" title="Percepción da cor – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Percepción da cor" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%89%EC%B1%84_%EC%A7%80%EA%B0%81" title="색채 지각 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="색채 지각" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գունային տեսողություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գունային տեսողություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF" title="रंग दृष्टि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रंग दृष्टि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visi_warna" title="Visi warna – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Visi warna" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visione_del_colore" title="Visione del colore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Visione del colore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9D" title="ראיית צבעים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ראיית צבעים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A6%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ფერების აღქმა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფერების აღქმა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%ADnl%C3%A1t%C3%A1s" title="Színlátás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Színlátás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="വർണ്ണദർശനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വർണ്ണദർശനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penglihatan_warna" title="Penglihatan warna – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penglihatan warna" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleuren_zien" title="Kleuren zien – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kleuren zien" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E8%A6%9A" title="色覚 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="色覚" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fargesyn" title="Fargesyn – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fargesyn" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fargesyn" title="Fargesyn – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fargesyn" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widzenie_barwne" title="Widzenie barwne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Widzenie barwne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%89%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Цветоощущение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цветоощущение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour_vision" title="Colour vision – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Colour vision" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barvni_vid" title="Barvni vid – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Barvni vid" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vid_u_boji" title="Vid u boji – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Vid u boji" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4riaisti" title="Väriaisti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Väriaisti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A4rgseende" title="Färgseende – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Färgseende" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renkli_g%C3%B6rme" title="Renkli görme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Renkli görme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%87%D1%83%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8F" title="Кольоровідчуття – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кольоровідчуття" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuzion" title="Vuzion – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Vuzion" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BD%A9%E8%89%B2%E8%A7%86%E8%A7%89" title="彩色视觉 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="彩色视觉" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BD%A9%E8%89%B2%E8%A6%96%E8%A6%BA" title="彩色視覺 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="彩色視覺" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BD%A9%E8%89%B2%E8%A7%86%E8%A7%89" title="彩色视觉 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="彩色视觉" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q374259#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Color_vision" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Color_vision"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Color_vision"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Color_vision" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Color_vision" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&oldid=1258160880" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Color_vision&id=1258160880&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FColor_vision"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FColor_vision"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Color_vision&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Color_vision" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q374259" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ability to perceive differences in light frequency</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Filterstef.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Filterstef.JPG/290px-Filterstef.JPG" decoding="async" width="290" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Filterstef.JPG/435px-Filterstef.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Filterstef.JPG/580px-Filterstef.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Colorless, <a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">green</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a> <a href="/wiki/Photographic_filter" title="Photographic filter">photographic filters</a> as imaged by <a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">camera</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Color vision</b>, a feature of <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a>, is an ability to perceive differences between light composed of different frequencies independently of light intensity. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">Color</a> perception is a part of the larger <a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">visual system</a> and is mediated by a complex process between neurons that begins with differential stimulation of different types of <a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">photoreceptors</a> by light entering the <a href="/wiki/Eye" title="Eye">eye</a>. Those photoreceptors then emit outputs that are propagated through many layers of neurons and then ultimately to the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. Color vision is found in many animals and is mediated by similar underlying mechanisms with common types of biological molecules and a complex history of <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">evolution</a> in different animal taxa. In <a href="/wiki/Primates" class="mw-redirect" title="Primates">primates</a>, color vision may have evolved under selective pressure for a variety of visual tasks including the foraging for nutritious young leaves, ripe fruit, and flowers, as well as detecting predator camouflage and emotional states in other primates.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wavelength">Wavelength</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Wavelength"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4" style="background:#FFF;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Linear_visible_spectrum.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="sRGB rendering of the spectrum of visible light"><img alt="sRGB rendering of the spectrum of visible light" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Linear_visible_spectrum.svg/300px-Linear_visible_spectrum.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Linear_visible_spectrum.svg/450px-Linear_visible_spectrum.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Linear_visible_spectrum.svg/600px-Linear_visible_spectrum.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="115" /></a><figcaption>sRGB rendering of the spectrum of visible light</figcaption></figure> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">Color</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">Wavelength</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometer">nm</a>) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">Frequency</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">THz</a>) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Photon_energy" title="Photon energy">Photon energy</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">eV</a>) </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#7f00ff; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Violet_(color)" title="Violet (color)"><b>violet</b></a></div> </td> <td>380–450 </td> <td>670–790 </td> <td>2.75–3.26 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:blue; color:white;"> </span> <b><a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">blue</a></b></div> </td> <td>450–485 </td> <td>620–670 </td> <td>2.56–2.75 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:cyan; color:black;"> </span> <b><a href="/wiki/Cyan" title="Cyan">cyan</a></b></div> </td> <td>485–500 </td> <td>600–620 </td> <td>2.48–2.56 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00FF00; color:black;"> </span> <b><a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">green</a></b></div> </td> <td>500–565 </td> <td>530–600 </td> <td>2.19–2.48 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:yellow; color:black;"> </span> <b><a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">yellow</a></b></div> </td> <td>565–590 </td> <td>510–530 </td> <td>2.10–2.19 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:orange; color:black;"> </span> <b><a href="/wiki/Orange_(colour)" title="Orange (colour)">orange</a></b></div> </td> <td>590–625 </td> <td>480–510 </td> <td>1.98–2.10 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:red; color:black;"> </span> <b><a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a></b></div> </td> <td>625–750 </td> <td>400–480 </td> <td>1.65–1.98 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> discovered that <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum#Visible_radiation_(light)" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">white light</a> after being split into its component colors when passed through a <a href="/wiki/Dispersive_prism" title="Dispersive prism">dispersive prism</a> could be recombined to make white light by passing them through a different prism.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eyesensitivity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Eyesensitivity.svg/280px-Eyesensitivity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Eyesensitivity.svg/420px-Eyesensitivity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Eyesensitivity.svg/560px-Eyesensitivity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="589" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Photopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photopic">Photopic</a> relative brightness sensitivity of the human visual system as a function of wavelength (<a href="/wiki/Luminosity_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Luminosity function">luminosity function</a>)</figcaption></figure><p> The <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible light spectrum</a> ranges from about 380 to 740 nanometers. <a href="/wiki/Spectral_color" title="Spectral color">Spectral colors</a> (colors that are produced by a narrow band of wavelengths) such as red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, and violet can be found in this range. These spectral colors do not refer to a single wavelength, but rather to a set of wavelengths: red, 625–740 nm; orange, 590–625 nm; yellow, 565–590 nm; green, 500–565 nm; cyan, 485–500 nm; blue, 450–485 nm; violet, 380–450 nm. </p><p>Wavelengths longer or shorter than this range are called <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a>, respectively. Humans cannot generally see these wavelengths, but other animals may. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hue_detection">Hue detection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hue detection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sufficient differences in wavelength cause a difference in the perceived <a href="/wiki/Hue" title="Hue">hue</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Just-noticeable_difference" title="Just-noticeable difference">just-noticeable difference</a> in wavelength varies from about 1 <a href="/wiki/Nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometer">nm</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Blue-green" title="Blue-green">blue-green</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">yellow</a> wavelengths to 10 nm and more in the longer red and shorter blue wavelengths. Although the human eye can distinguish up to a few hundred hues, when those pure <a href="/wiki/Spectral_color" title="Spectral color">spectral colors</a> are mixed together or diluted with white light, the number of distinguishable <a href="/wiki/Chromaticity" title="Chromaticity">chromaticities</a> can be much higher. </p><p>In very low light levels, vision is <a href="/wiki/Scotopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Scotopic">scotopic</a>: light is detected by <a href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">rod cells</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>. Rods are maximally sensitive to wavelengths near 500 nm and play little, if any, role in color vision. In brighter light, such as daylight, vision is <a href="/wiki/Photopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photopic">photopic</a>: light is detected by <a href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cone cells</a> which are responsible for color vision. Cones are sensitive to a range of wavelengths, but are most sensitive to wavelengths near 555 nm. Between these regions, <a href="/wiki/Mesopic_vision" title="Mesopic vision">mesopic vision</a> comes into play and both rods and cones provide signals to the <a href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">retinal ganglion cells</a>. The shift in color perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the <a href="/wiki/Purkinje_effect" title="Purkinje effect">Purkinje effect</a>. </p><p>The perception of "white" is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colors of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of color receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, and blue, or just a pair of <a href="/wiki/Complementary_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementary color">complementary colors</a> such as blue and yellow.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-spectral_colors">Non-spectral colors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Non-spectral colors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a variety of colors in addition to spectral colors and their hues. These include <a href="/wiki/Greyscale" class="mw-redirect" title="Greyscale">grayscale colors</a>, shades of colors obtained by mixing grayscale colors with spectral colors, violet-red colors, <a href="/wiki/Impossible_color" title="Impossible color">impossible colors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metallic_color" title="Metallic color">metallic colors</a>. </p><p>Grayscale colors include white, gray, and black. Rods contain rhodopsin, which reacts to light intensity, providing grayscale coloring. </p><p>Shades include colors such as pink or brown. Pink is obtained from mixing red and white. Brown may be obtained from mixing orange with gray or black. Navy is obtained from mixing blue and black. </p><p>Violet-red colors include hues and shades of magenta. The light spectrum is a line on which violet is one end and the other is red, and yet we see hues of purple that connect those two colors. </p><p>Impossible colors are a combination of cone responses that cannot be naturally produced. For example, medium cones cannot be activated completely on their own; if they were, we would see a 'hyper-green' color. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dimensionality">Dimensionality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dimensionality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Color vision is categorized foremost according to the dimensionality of the color <a href="/wiki/Gamut" title="Gamut">gamut</a>, which is defined by the number of <a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">primaries</a> required to represent the color vision. This is generally equal to the number of <a href="/wiki/Photopsin" class="mw-redirect" title="Photopsin">photopsins</a> expressed: a correlation that holds for <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> but not <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>. The common vertebrate ancestor possessed four photopsins (expressed in <a href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cones</a>) plus <a href="/wiki/Rhodopsin" title="Rhodopsin">rhodopsin</a> (expressed in <a href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">rods</a>), so was <a href="/wiki/Tetrachromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrachromatic">tetrachromatic</a>. However, many vertebrate <a href="/wiki/Lineage_(evolution)" title="Lineage (evolution)">lineages</a> have lost one or many photopsin genes, leading to lower-dimension color vision. The dimensions of color vision range from 1-dimensional and up: </p> <table class="wikitable nowrap"> <tbody><tr> <th>Dimension </th> <th>Characteristic </th> <th>Occurrence </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</a> </td> <td>1D color vision<br /> lack of any color perception </td> <td>Some mammals, including <a href="/wiki/Pinnipeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinnipeds">Pinnipeds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cetaceans" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetaceans">Cetaceans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xenarthra" title="Xenarthra">Xenarthra</a><sup id="cite_ref-Peichl_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peichl-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a> </td> <td>2D color vision </td> <td>most mammals and a quarter of <a href="/wiki/Color_blind" class="mw-redirect" title="Color blind">color blind</a> humans </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Trichromacy" title="Trichromacy">Trichromacy</a> </td> <td>3D color vision </td> <td>most humans </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetrachromacy" title="Tetrachromacy">Tetrachromacy</a> </td> <td>4D color vision </td> <td>most <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">fish</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pentachromacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentachromacy">Pentachromacy</a> and higher </td> <td>5D+ color vision </td> <td>rare in vertebrates </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology_of_color_perception">Physiology of color perception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Physiology of color perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cone-fundamentals-with-srgb-spectrum.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cone-fundamentals-with-srgb-spectrum.svg/280px-Cone-fundamentals-with-srgb-spectrum.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cone-fundamentals-with-srgb-spectrum.svg/420px-Cone-fundamentals-with-srgb-spectrum.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cone-fundamentals-with-srgb-spectrum.svg/560px-Cone-fundamentals-with-srgb-spectrum.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>Normalized response spectra of human cones to monochromatic spectral stimuli, with wavelength given in nanometers</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spectrum_locus_12.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Spectrum_locus_12.png/280px-Spectrum_locus_12.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Spectrum_locus_12.png/420px-Spectrum_locus_12.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Spectrum_locus_12.png/560px-Spectrum_locus_12.png 2x" data-file-width="1814" data-file-height="1511" /></a><figcaption>The same figures as above represented here as a single curve in three (normalized cone response) dimensions</figcaption></figure><p>Perception of color begins with specialized retinal cells known as <a href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cone cells</a>. Cone cells contain different forms of opsin – a pigment protein – that have different <a href="/wiki/Spectral_sensitivity" title="Spectral sensitivity">spectral sensitivities</a>. Humans contain three types, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Trichromatic_color_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichromatic color vision">trichromatic color vision</a>. </p><p>Each individual cone contains pigments composed of <a href="/wiki/Opsin" title="Opsin">opsin</a> apoprotein covalently linked to a light-absorbing <a href="/wiki/Prosthetic_group" title="Prosthetic group">prosthetic group</a>: either <a href="/wiki/Retinal" title="Retinal">11-<i>cis</i>-hydroretinal</a> or, more rarely, 11-<i>cis</i>-dehydroretinal.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cones are conventionally labeled according to the ordering of the wavelengths of the peaks of their <a href="/wiki/Spectral_sensitivity" title="Spectral sensitivity">spectral sensitivities</a>: short (S), medium (M), and long (L) cone types. These three types do not correspond well to particular colors as we know them. Rather, the perception of color is achieved by a complex process that starts with the differential output of these cells in the retina and which is finalized in the <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a> and associative areas of the brain. </p><p>For example, while the L cones have been referred to simply as <a href="/wiki/Red#Seeing_red" title="Red">red</a> receptors, <a href="/wiki/Microspectrophotometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Microspectrophotometry">microspectrophotometry</a> has shown that their peak sensitivity is in the greenish-yellow region of the spectrum. Similarly, the S cones and M cones do not directly correspond to <a href="/wiki/Blue#Optics" title="Blue">blue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green#Color_vision_and_colorimetry" title="Green">green</a>, although they are often described as such. The <a href="/wiki/RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB color model</a>, therefore, is a convenient means for representing color but is not directly based on the types of cones in the human eye. </p><p>The peak response of human cone cells varies, even among individuals with so-called normal color vision;<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in some non-human species this polymorphic variation is even greater, and it may well be adaptive.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style#Technical_language" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style"><span title="The material near this tag may be using jargon that limits the article's accessibility. (May 2018)">jargon</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories">Theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_of_the_opponent_process.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Diagram_of_the_opponent_process.png/410px-Diagram_of_the_opponent_process.png" decoding="async" width="410" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Diagram_of_the_opponent_process.png/615px-Diagram_of_the_opponent_process.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Diagram_of_the_opponent_process.png 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="257" /></a><figcaption>Opponent process theory</figcaption></figure> <p>Two complementary theories of color vision are the <a href="/wiki/Trichromatic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichromatic theory">trichromatic theory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Opponent_process" title="Opponent process">opponent process</a> theory. The trichromatic theory, or <a href="/wiki/Young%E2%80%93Helmholtz_theory" title="Young–Helmholtz theory">Young–Helmholtz theory</a>, proposed in the 19th century by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a>, posits three types of cones preferentially sensitive to blue, green, and red, respectively. Others have suggested that the trichromatic theory is not specifically a theory of color vision but a theory of receptors for all vision, including color but not specific or limited to it.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Equally, it has been suggested that the relationship between the phenomenal opponency described by Hering and the physiological opponent processes are not straightforward (see below), making of physiological opponency a mechanism that is relevant to the whole of vision, and not just to color vision alone.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ewald_Hering" title="Ewald Hering">Ewald Hering</a> proposed the opponent process theory in 1872.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It states that the visual system interprets color in an antagonistic way: red vs. green, blue vs. yellow, black vs. white. Both theories are generally accepted as valid, describing different stages in visual physiology, visualized in the adjacent diagram.<sup id="cite_ref-Ali_1985_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ali_1985-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 168">: 168 </span></sup> </p><p>Green–magenta and blue–yellow are scales with mutually exclusive boundaries. In the same way that there cannot exist a "slightly negative" positive number, a single eye cannot perceive a bluish-yellow or a reddish-green. Although these two theories are both currently widely accepted theories, past and more recent work has led to <a href="/wiki/Opponent_process#Criticism_and_the_complementary_color_cells" title="Opponent process">criticism of the opponent process theory</a>, stemming from a number of what are presented as discrepancies in the standard opponent process theory. For example, the phenomenon of an after-image of complementary color can be induced by fatiguing the cells responsible for color perception, by staring at a vibrant color for a length of time, and then looking at a white surface. This phenomenon of complementary colors demonstrates cyan, rather than green, to be the complement of red and magenta, rather than red, to be the complement of green, as well as demonstrating, as a consequence, that the reddish-green color proposed to be impossible by opponent process theory is, in fact, the color yellow. Although this phenomenon is more readily explained by the trichromatic theory, explanations for the discrepancy may include alterations to the opponent process theory, such as redefining the opponent colors as red vs. cyan, to reflect this effect. Despite such criticisms, both theories remain in use. </p><p>A newer theory proposed by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_H._Land" title="Edwin H. Land">Edwin H. Land</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Color_constancy#Retinex_theory" title="Color constancy">Retinex Theory</a>, is based on a demonstration of <a href="/wiki/Color_constancy" title="Color constancy">color constancy</a>, which shows that the color of any surface that is part of a complex <i>natural scene</i> is to a large degree independent of the wavelength composition of the light reflected from it. Also the after-image produced by looking at a given part of a complex scene is also independent of the wavelength composition of the light reflected from it alone. Thus, while the color of the after-image produced by looking at a green surface that is reflecting more "green" (middle-wave) than "red" (long-wave) light is magenta, so is the after–image of the same surface when it reflects more "red" than "green" light (when it is still perceived as green). This would seem to rule out an explanation of color opponency based on retinal cone adaptation.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Land's Retinex theory, color in a <i>natural scene</i> depends upon the three sets of cone cells ("red," "green," and "blue") separately perceiving each surface's relative lightness in the scene and, together with the <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a>, assigning color based on comparing the lightness values perceived by each set of cone cells.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cone_cells_in_the_human_eye">Cone cells in the human eye</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cone cells in the human eye"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Distribution_of_Cones_and_Rods_on_Human_Retina.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Distribution_of_Cones_and_Rods_on_Human_Retina.png/220px-Distribution_of_Cones_and_Rods_on_Human_Retina.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Distribution_of_Cones_and_Rods_on_Human_Retina.png/330px-Distribution_of_Cones_and_Rods_on_Human_Retina.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Distribution_of_Cones_and_Rods_on_Human_Retina.png/440px-Distribution_of_Cones_and_Rods_on_Human_Retina.png 2x" data-file-width="891" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption>Cones are present at a low density throughout most of the retina, with a sharp peak in the center of the fovea. Conversely, rods are present at high density throughout most of the retina, with a sharp decline in the fovea.</figcaption></figure> <p>A range of wavelengths of light stimulates each of these receptor types to varying degrees. The brain combines the information from each type of receptor to give rise to different perceptions of different wavelengths of light. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Cone type</th> <th>Name</th> <th>Range</th> <th>Peak wavelength<sup id="cite_ref-Wyszecki_1982_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wyszecki_1982-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td>S</td> <td>β</td> <td>400–500 <a href="/wiki/Nanometre" title="Nanometre">nm</a></td> <td>420–440 nm </td></tr> <tr> <td>M</td> <td>γ</td> <td>450–630 nm</td> <td>534–555 nm </td></tr> <tr> <td>L</td> <td>ρ</td> <td>500–700 nm</td> <td>564–580 nm </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Cones and rods are not evenly distributed in the human eye. Cones have a high density at the <a href="/wiki/Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">fovea</a> and a low density in the rest of the retina.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus color information is mostly taken in at the fovea. Humans have poor color perception in their peripheral vision, and much of the color we see in our periphery may be filled in by what our brains expect to be there on the basis of context and memories. However, our accuracy of color perception in the periphery increases with the size of stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_1986_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_1986-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The opsins (photopigments) present in the L and M cones are encoded on the X <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a>; defective encoding of these leads to the two most common forms of <a href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">color blindness</a>. The <i><a href="/wiki/OPN1LW" title="OPN1LW">OPN1LW</a></i> gene, which encodes the opsin present in the L cones, is highly <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">polymorphic</a>; one study found 85 variants in a sample of 236 men.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small percentage of women may have an extra type of color receptor because they have different alleles for the gene for the L opsin on each X chromosome. <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome_inactivation" class="mw-redirect" title="X chromosome inactivation">X chromosome inactivation</a> means that while only one opsin is expressed in each cone cell, both types may occur overall, and some women may therefore show a degree of <a href="/wiki/Tetrachromat" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrachromat">tetrachromatic</a> color vision.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Variations in <i><a href="/wiki/OPN1MW" title="OPN1MW">OPN1MW</a></i>, which encodes the opsin expressed in M cones, appear to be rare, and the observed variants have no effect on <a href="/wiki/Spectral_sensitivity" title="Spectral sensitivity">spectral sensitivity</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Color_in_the_primate_brain">Color in the primate brain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Color in the primate brain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg/220px-Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg/330px-Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg/440px-Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>Visual pathways in the human brain. The <a href="/wiki/Ventral_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral stream">ventral stream</a> (purple) is important in color recognition. The <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal stream">dorsal stream</a> (green) is also shown. They originate from a common source in the <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Color processing begins at a very early level in the visual system (even within the retina) through initial color opponent mechanisms. Both Helmholtz's trichromatic theory and Hering's opponent-process theory are therefore correct, but trichromacy arises at the level of the receptors, and opponent processes arise at the level of <a href="/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell" title="Retinal ganglion cell">retinal ganglion cells</a> and beyond. In Hering's theory, opponent mechanisms refer to the opposing color effect of red–green, blue–yellow, and light-dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red–green opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blue–yellow opponency but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet. </p><p>Visual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via the <a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Optic_chiasma" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic chiasma">optic chiasma</a>: a point where the two optic nerves meet and information from the temporal (contralateral) visual field crosses to the other side of the brain. After the optic chiasma, the visual tracts are referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Optic_tract" title="Optic tract">optic tracts</a>, which enter the <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a> to synapse at the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a> (LGN). </p><p>The lateral geniculate nucleus is divided into laminae (zones), of which there are three types: the M-laminae, consisting primarily of M-cells, the P-laminae, consisting primarily of P-cells, and the koniocellular laminae. M- and P-cells receive relatively balanced input from both L- and M-cones throughout most of the retina, although this seems to not be the case at the fovea, with midget cells synapsing in the P-laminae. The koniocellular laminae receives axons from the small bistratified ganglion cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodieck_1988_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodieck_1988-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hendry_1970_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hendry_1970-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapsing</a> at the LGN, the visual tract continues on back to the primary <a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a> (V1) located at the back of the brain within the <a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital lobe</a>. Within V1 there is a distinct band (striation). This is also referred to as "striate cortex", with other cortical visual regions referred to collectively as "extrastriate cortex". It is at this stage that color processing becomes much more complicated. </p><p>In V1 the simple three-color segregation begins to break down. Many cells in V1 respond to some parts of the spectrum better than others, but this "color tuning" is often different depending on the adaptation state of the visual system. A given cell that might respond best to long-wavelength light if the light is relatively bright might then become responsive to all wavelengths if the stimulus is relatively dim. Because the color tuning of these cells is not stable, some believe that a different, relatively small, population of neurons in V1 is responsible for color vision. These specialized "color cells" often have receptive fields that can compute local cone ratios. Such "double-opponent" cells were initially described in the goldfish retina by Nigel Daw;<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> their existence in primates was suggested by <a href="/wiki/David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">David H. Hubel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</a>, first demonstrated by C.R. Michael<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and subsequently confirmed by <a href="/wiki/Bevil_Conway" title="Bevil Conway">Bevil Conway</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Margaret Livingstone and David Hubel showed, double opponent cells are clustered within localized regions of V1 called <a href="/wiki/Blob_(visual_system)" title="Blob (visual system)">blobs</a>, and are thought to come in two flavors, red–green and blue-yellow.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Red–green cells compare the relative amounts of red–green in one part of a scene with the amount of red–green in an adjacent part of the scene, responding best to local color contrast (red next to green). Modeling studies have shown that double-opponent cells are ideal candidates for the neural machinery of <a href="/wiki/Color_constancy" title="Color constancy">color constancy</a> explained by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_H._Land" title="Edwin H. Land">Edwin H. Land</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Retinex" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinex">retinex</a> theory.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:16777216colors.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/16777216colors.png/220px-16777216colors.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/16777216colors.png/330px-16777216colors.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/16777216colors.png/440px-16777216colors.png 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="4096" /></a><figcaption>When viewed in full size, this image contains about 16 million pixels, each corresponding to a different color in the full set of RGB colors. The <a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">human eye</a> can distinguish about 10 million different colors.<sup id="cite_ref-Judd_1975_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Judd_1975-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>From the V1 blobs, color information is sent to cells in the second visual area, V2. The cells in V2 that are most strongly color tuned are clustered in the "thin stripes" that, like the blobs in V1, stain for the enzyme cytochrome oxidase (separating the thin stripes are interstripes and thick stripes, which seem to be concerned with other visual information like motion and high-resolution form). Neurons in V2 then synapse onto cells in the extended V4. This area includes not only V4, but two other areas in the posterior inferior temporal cortex, anterior to area V3, the dorsal posterior inferior temporal cortex, and posterior TEO.<sup id="cite_ref-Conway_2007_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conway_2007-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conway_2009_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conway_2009-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Area V4 was initially suggested by <a href="/wiki/Semir_Zeki" title="Semir Zeki">Semir Zeki</a> to be exclusively dedicated to color,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he later showed that V4 can be subdivided into subregions with very high concentrations of color cells separated from each other by zones with lower concentration of such cells though even the latter cells respond better to some wavelengths than to others,<sup id="cite_ref-Zeki_1983_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeki_1983-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a finding confirmed by subsequent studies.<sup id="cite_ref-Conway_2007_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conway_2007-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence in V4 of orientation-selective cells led to the view that V4 is involved in processing both color and form associated with color<sup id="cite_ref-Zeki_2005_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeki_2005-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is worth noting that the orientation selective cells within V4 are more broadly tuned than their counterparts in V1, V2 and V3.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeki_1983_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeki_1983-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Color processing in the extended V4 occurs in millimeter-sized color modules called <a href="/wiki/Glob_(visual_system)" title="Glob (visual system)">globs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Conway_2007_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conway_2007-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conway_2009_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conway_2009-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the part of the brain in which color is first processed into the full range of <a href="/wiki/Hue" title="Hue">hues</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Color_space" title="Color space">color space</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conway_2007_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conway_2007-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conway_2009_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conway_2009-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anatomical studies have shown that neurons in extended V4 provide input to the inferior <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a>. "IT" cortex is thought to integrate color information with shape and form, although it has been difficult to define the appropriate criteria for this claim. Despite this murkiness, it has been useful to characterize this pathway (V1 > V2 > V4 > IT) as the <a href="/wiki/Ventral_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventral stream">ventral stream</a> or the "what pathway", distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal stream">dorsal stream</a> ("where pathway") that is thought to analyze motion, among other features. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subjectivity_of_color_perception">Subjectivity of color perception <span class="anchor" id="Subjectivity"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Subjectivity of color perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Color_appearance" class="mw-redirect" title="Color appearance">Color appearance</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate" title="Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate">Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate</a></div> <p>Color is a feature of visual perception by an observer. There is a complex relationship between the wavelengths of light in the visual spectrum and human experiences of color. Although most people are assumed to have the same mapping, the philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> recognized that alternatives are possible, and described one such hypothetical case with the "<a href="/wiki/Inverted_spectrum" title="Inverted spectrum">inverted spectrum</a>" thought experiment. For example, someone with an inverted spectrum might experience green while seeing 'red' (700 nm) light, and experience red while seeing 'green' (530 nm) light. This inversion has never been demonstrated in experiment, though. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Synesthesia" title="Synesthesia">Synesthesia</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Ideasthesia" title="Ideasthesia">ideasthesia</a>) provides some atypical but illuminating examples of subjective color experience triggered by input that is not even light, such as sounds or shapes. The possibility of a clean dissociation between color experience from properties of the world reveals that color is a subjective psychological phenomenon. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Himba_people" title="Himba people">Himba people</a> have been found to categorize colors differently from most Westerners and are able to easily distinguish close shades of green, barely discernible for most people.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Himba have created a very different color scheme which divides the spectrum to dark shades (<i>zuzu</i> in Himba), very light (<i>vapa</i>), vivid blue and green (<i>buru</i>) and dry colors as an adaptation to their specific way of life. </p><p>The perception of color depends heavily on the context in which the perceived object is presented.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Psychophysical experiments have shown that color is perceived before the orientation of lines and directional motion by as much as 40ms and 80 ms respectively, thus leading to a <a href="/wiki/Perceptual_asynchrony" title="Perceptual asynchrony">perceptual asynchrony</a> that is demonstrable with brief presentation times. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chromatic_adaptation">Chromatic adaptation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chromatic adaptation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chromatic_adaptation" title="Chromatic adaptation">Chromatic adaptation</a></div> <p>In color vision, chromatic adaptation refers to <a href="/wiki/Color_constancy" title="Color constancy">color constancy</a>; the ability of the visual system to preserve the appearance of an object under a wide range of light sources.<sup id="cite_ref-Fairchild_2005_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairchild_2005-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a white page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain, however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects) and is more likely to interpret the page as white under all three conditions, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Color_constancy" title="Color constancy">color constancy</a>. </p><p>In color science, chromatic adaptation is the estimation of the representation of an object under a different light source from the one in which it was recorded. A common application is to find a <i>chromatic adaptation transform</i> (CAT) that will make the recording of a neutral object appear neutral (<a href="/wiki/Color_balance" title="Color balance">color balance</a>), while keeping other colors also looking realistic.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, chromatic adaptation transforms are used when converting images between <a href="/wiki/ICC_profile" title="ICC profile">ICC profiles</a> with different <a href="/wiki/White_point" title="White point">white points</a>. <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Photoshop" title="Adobe Photoshop">Adobe Photoshop</a>, for example, uses the Bradford CAT.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Color_vision_in_nonhumans">Color vision in nonhumans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Color vision in nonhumans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many species can see light with frequencies outside the human "<a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible spectrum</a>". <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">Bees</a> and many other insects can detect ultraviolet light,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which helps them to find <a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a> in flowers. Plant species that depend on insect pollination may owe reproductive success to ultraviolet "colors" and patterns rather than how colorful they appear to humans. Birds, too, can see into the ultraviolet (300–400 nm), and some have sex-dependent markings on their plumage that are visible only in the ultraviolet range.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many animals that can see into the ultraviolet range, however, cannot see red light or any other reddish wavelengths. For example, bees' visible spectrum ends at about 590 nm, just before the orange wavelengths start. Birds, however, can see some red wavelengths, although not as far into the light spectrum as humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Varela_1993_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Varela_1993-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a myth that the common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultraviolet light;<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> their color vision extends into the ultraviolet but not the infrared.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The basis for this variation is the number of cone types that differ between species. Mammals, in general, have a color vision of a limited type, and usually have <a href="/wiki/Red%E2%80%93green_color_blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Red–green color blindness">red–green color blindness</a>, with only two types of cones. Humans, some primates, and some marsupials see an extended range of colors, but only by comparison with other mammals. Most non-mammalian vertebrate species distinguish different colors at least as well as humans, and many species of birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians, and some invertebrates, have more than three cone types and probably superior color vision to humans. </p><p>In most <a href="/wiki/Catarrhini" title="Catarrhini">Catarrhini</a> (Old World monkeys and apes—primates closely related to humans), there are three types of <a href="/wiki/Color_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Color receptors">color receptors</a> (known as <a href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cone cells</a>), resulting in <a href="/wiki/Trichromatic_color_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichromatic color vision">trichromatic color vision</a>. These primates, like humans, are known as <a href="/wiki/Trichromacy" title="Trichromacy">trichromats</a>. Many other primates (including New World monkeys) and other mammals are <a href="/wiki/Dichromat" class="mw-redirect" title="Dichromat">dichromats</a>, which is the general color vision state for mammals that are active during the day (i.e., felines, canines, ungulates). Nocturnal mammals may have little or no color vision. Trichromat non-primate mammals are rare.<sup id="cite_ref-Ali_1985_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ali_1985-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 174–175">: 174–175 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> have color vision. <a href="/wiki/Honeybee" class="mw-redirect" title="Honeybee">Honeybees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bumblebee" title="Bumblebee">bumblebees</a> have trichromatic color vision which is insensitive to red but sensitive to ultraviolet. <i><a href="/wiki/Osmia_rufa" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmia rufa">Osmia rufa</a></i>, for example, possess a trichromatic color system, which they use in foraging for pollen from flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In view of the importance of color vision to bees one might expect these receptor sensitivities to reflect their specific visual ecology; for example the types of flowers that they visit. However, the main groups of <a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">hymenopteran</a> insects excluding ants (i.e., bees, wasps and <a href="/wiki/Sawfly" title="Sawfly">sawflies</a>) mostly have three types of photoreceptor, with spectral sensitivities similar to the honeybee's.<sup id="cite_ref-Osorio_2008_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osorio_2008-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><i> <a href="/wiki/Papilio" title="Papilio">Papilio</a></i> butterflies possess six types of photoreceptors and may have pentachromatic vision.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most complex color vision system in the animal kingdom has been found in <a href="/wiki/Stomatopod" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomatopod">stomatopods</a> (such as the <a href="/wiki/Mantis_shrimp" title="Mantis shrimp">mantis shrimp</a>) having between 12 and 16 spectral receptor types thought to work as multiple dichromatic units.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vertebrate animals such as <a href="/wiki/Tropical_fish" title="Tropical fish">tropical fish</a> and birds sometimes have more complex color vision systems than humans; thus the many subtle colors they exhibit generally serve as direct signals for other fish or birds, and not to signal mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Bird_vision" title="Bird vision">bird vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tetrachromacy" title="Tetrachromacy">tetrachromacy</a> is achieved through up to four <a href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cone</a> types, depending on species. Each single cone contains one of the four main types of vertebrate cone <a href="/wiki/Photopigment" title="Photopigment">photopigment</a> (LWS/ MWS, RH2, SWS2 and SWS1) and has a colored <a href="/wiki/Oil_droplet" title="Oil droplet">oil droplet</a> in its inner segment.<sup id="cite_ref-Osorio_2008_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osorio_2008-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brightly colored oil droplets inside the cones shift or narrow the spectral sensitivity of the cell. <a href="/wiki/Pigeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pigeon">Pigeons</a> may be <a href="/wiki/Pentachromat" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentachromat">pentachromats</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reptiles and amphibians also have four cone types (occasionally five), and probably see at least the same number of colors that humans do, or perhaps more. In addition, some nocturnal <a href="/wiki/Gecko" title="Gecko">geckos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frog" title="Frog">frogs</a> have the capability of seeing color in dim light.<sup id="cite_ref-GeckoNocturnalVision_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeckoNocturnalVision-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AmphibianNocturnalVision_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmphibianNocturnalVision-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least some color-guided behaviors in amphibians have also been shown to be wholly innate, developing even in visually deprived animals.<sup id="cite_ref-InnateColorBehaviors_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InnateColorBehaviors-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">evolution of mammals</a>, segments of color vision were lost, then for a few species of primates, regained by <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">gene duplication</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eutherian" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutherian">Eutherian</a> mammals other than primates (for example, dogs, mammalian farm animals) generally have less-effective two-receptor (<a href="/wiki/Dichromat" class="mw-redirect" title="Dichromat">dichromatic</a>) color perception systems, which distinguish blue, green, and yellow—but cannot distinguish oranges and reds. There is some evidence that a few mammals, such as cats, have redeveloped the ability to distinguish longer wavelength colors, in at least a limited way, via one-amino-acid mutations in opsin genes.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adaptation to see reds is particularly important for primate mammals, since it leads to the identification of fruits, and also newly sprouting reddish leaves, which are particularly nutritious. </p><p>However, even among primates, full color vision differs between New World and Old World monkeys. Old World primates, including monkeys and all apes, have vision similar to humans. <a href="/wiki/New_World_monkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="New World monkeys">New World monkeys</a> may or may not have color sensitivity at this level: in most species, males are dichromats, and about 60% of females are trichromats, but the <a href="/wiki/Owl_monkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Owl monkey">owl monkeys</a> are cone <a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">monochromats</a>, and both sexes of <a href="/wiki/Howler_monkey" title="Howler monkey">howler monkeys</a> are trichromats.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visual sensitivity differences between males and females in a single species is due to the gene for yellow-green sensitive <a href="/wiki/Opsin" title="Opsin">opsin</a> protein (which confers ability to differentiate red from green) residing on the X sex chromosome. </p><p>Several <a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">marsupials</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Fat-tailed_dunnart" title="Fat-tailed dunnart">fat-tailed dunnart</a> (<i>Sminthopsis crassicaudata</i>), have trichromatic color vision.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammals</a>, adapted for low-light vision, have only a single cone type and are thus <a href="/wiki/Monochromat" class="mw-redirect" title="Monochromat">monochromats</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Evolution of color vision</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Evolution of color vision in primates</a></div> <p>Color perception mechanisms are highly dependent on evolutionary factors, of which the most prominent is thought to be satisfactory recognition of food sources. In <a href="/wiki/Herbivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivorous">herbivorous</a> primates, color perception is essential for finding proper (immature) leaves. In <a href="/wiki/Hummingbird" title="Hummingbird">hummingbirds</a>, particular flower types are often recognized by color as well. On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Nocturnal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nocturnal">nocturnal</a> mammals have less-developed color vision since adequate light is needed for cones to function properly. There is evidence that <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light plays a part in color perception in many branches of the <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal kingdom</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>. In general, the optical spectrum encompasses the most common <a href="/wiki/Molecular_electronic_transition" title="Molecular electronic transition">electronic transitions</a> in matter and is therefore the most useful for collecting information about the environment. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">evolution of trichromatic color vision in primates</a> occurred as the ancestors of modern monkeys, apes, and humans switched to <a href="/wiki/Diurnal_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Diurnal animal">diurnal</a> (daytime) activity and began consuming fruits and leaves from flowering plants.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Color vision, with UV discrimination, is also present in a number of arthropods—the only terrestrial animals besides the vertebrates to possess this trait.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some animals can distinguish colors in the ultraviolet spectrum. The UV spectrum falls outside the human visible range, except for some <a href="/wiki/Cataract_surgery" title="Cataract surgery">cataract surgery</a> patients.<sup id="cite_ref-Hambling_2002_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hambling_2002-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birds, turtles, lizards, many fish and some rodents have UV receptors in their retinas.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These animals can see the UV patterns found on flowers and other wildlife that are otherwise invisible to the human eye. </p><p>Ultraviolet vision is an especially important adaptation in birds. It allows birds to spot small prey from a distance, navigate, avoid predators, and forage while flying at high speeds. Birds also utilize their broad spectrum vision to recognize other birds, and in sexual selection.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematics_of_color_perception">Mathematics of color perception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mathematics of color perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Color_vision" title="Special:EditPage/Color vision">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A "physical color" is a combination of pure <a href="/wiki/Spectral_color" title="Spectral color">spectral colors</a> (in the visible range). In principle there exist infinitely many distinct spectral colors, and so the set of all physical colors may be thought of as an infinite-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Vector_space" title="Vector space">vector space</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Hilbert_space" title="Hilbert space">Hilbert space</a>). This space is typically notated <i>H</i><sub>color</sub>. More technically, the space of physical colors may be considered to be the <a href="/wiki/Cone_(topology)" title="Cone (topology)">topological cone</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Simplex" title="Simplex">simplex</a> whose vertices are the spectral colors, with white at the <a href="/wiki/Centroid" title="Centroid">centroid</a> of the simplex, black at the apex of the cone, and the monochromatic color associated with any given vertex somewhere along the line from that vertex to the apex depending on its brightness. </p><p>An element <i>C</i> of <i>H</i><sub>color</sub> is a function from the range of visible wavelengths—considered as an interval of real numbers [<i>W</i><sub>min</sub>,<i>W</i><sub>max</sub>]—to the real numbers, assigning to each wavelength <i>w</i> in [<i>W</i><sub>min</sub>,<i>W</i><sub>max</sub>] its intensity <i>C</i>(<i>w</i>). </p><p>A humanly perceived color may be modeled as three numbers: the extents to which each of the 3 types of cones is stimulated. Thus a humanly perceived color may be thought of as a point in 3-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_space" title="Euclidean space">Euclidean space</a>. We call this space <b>R</b><sup>3</sup><sub>color</sub>. </p><p>Since each wavelength <i>w</i> stimulates each of the 3 types of cone cells to a known extent, these extents may be represented by 3 functions <i>s</i>(<i>w</i>), <i>m</i>(<i>w</i>), <i>l</i>(<i>w</i>) corresponding to the response of the <i>S</i>, <i>M</i>, and <i>L</i> cone cells, respectively. </p><p>Finally, since a beam of light can be composed of many different wavelengths, to determine the extent to which a physical color <i>C</i> in <i>H</i><sub>color</sub> stimulates each cone cell, we must calculate the integral (with respect to <i>w</i>), over the interval [<i>W</i><sub>min</sub>,<i>W</i><sub>max</sub>], of <i>C</i>(<i>w</i>)·<i>s</i>(<i>w</i>), of <i>C</i>(<i>w</i>)·<i>m</i>(<i>w</i>), and of <i>C</i>(<i>w</i>)·<i>l</i>(<i>w</i>). The triple of resulting numbers associates with each physical color <i>C</i> (which is an element in <i>H</i><sub>color</sub>) a particular perceived color (which is a single point in <b>R</b><sup>3</sup><sub>color</sub>). This association is easily seen to be linear. It may also easily be seen that many different elements in the "physical" space <i>H</i><sub>color</sub> can all result in the same single perceived color in <b>R</b><sup>3</sup><sub>color</sub>, so a perceived color is not unique to one physical color. </p><p>Thus human color perception is determined by a specific, non-unique linear mapping from the infinite-dimensional Hilbert space <i>H</i><sub>color</sub> to the 3-dimensional Euclidean space <b>R</b><sup>3</sup><sub>color</sub>. </p><p>Technically, the image of the (mathematical) cone over the simplex whose vertices are the spectral colors, by this linear mapping, is also a (mathematical) cone in <b>R</b><sup>3</sup><sub>color</sub>. Moving directly away from the vertex of this cone represents maintaining the same <a href="/wiki/Chromaticity" title="Chromaticity">chromaticity</a> while increasing its intensity. Taking a cross-section of this cone yields a 2D chromaticity space. Both the 3D cone and its projection or cross-section are convex sets; that is, any mixture of spectral colors is also a color. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CIE_chromaticity_diagram_2012_version.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/CIE_chromaticity_diagram_2012_version.png/280px-CIE_chromaticity_diagram_2012_version.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/CIE_chromaticity_diagram_2012_version.png/420px-CIE_chromaticity_diagram_2012_version.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/CIE_chromaticity_diagram_2012_version.png/560px-CIE_chromaticity_diagram_2012_version.png 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>The CIE 1931 xy chromaticity diagram with a triangle showing the <a href="/wiki/Gamut" title="Gamut">gamut</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Adobe_RGB_color_space" title="Adobe RGB color space">Adobe RGB color space</a>. The Planckian locus is shown with color temperatures labeled in <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvins</a>. The outer curved boundary is the <a href="/wiki/Spectral_color" title="Spectral color">spectral locus</a>, with wavelengths shown in nanometers. Note that the colors in this file are specified in Adobe RGB. Areas outside the triangle cannot be accurately rendered because they are out of the gamut of Adobe RGB, therefore they have been interpreted. Note that the colors depicted depend on the color space of the device you use to view the image (number of colors on your monitor, etc.), and may not be a strictly accurate representation of the color at a particular position.</figcaption></figure> <p>In practice, it would be quite difficult to physiologically measure an individual's three cone responses to various physical color stimuli. Instead, a <a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">psychophysical</a> approach is taken.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three specific benchmark test lights are typically used; let us call them <i>S</i>, <i>M</i>, and <i>L</i>. To calibrate human perceptual space, scientists allowed human subjects to try to match any physical color by turning dials to create specific combinations of intensities (<i>I</i><sub><i>S</i></sub>, <i>I</i><sub><i>M</i></sub>, <i>I</i><sub><i>L</i></sub>) for the <i>S</i>, <i>M</i>, and <i>L</i> lights, resp., until a match was found. This needed only to be done for physical colors that are spectral, since a linear combination of spectral colors will be matched by the same linear combination of their (<i>I</i><sub><i>S</i></sub>, <i>I</i><sub><i>M</i></sub>, <i>I</i><sub><i>L</i></sub>) matches. Note that in practice, often at least one of <i>S</i>, <i>M</i>, <i>L</i> would have to be added with some intensity to the <i>physical test color</i>, and that combination matched by a linear combination of the remaining 2 lights. Across different individuals (without color blindness), the matchings turned out to be nearly identical. </p><p>By considering all the resulting combinations of intensities (<i>I</i><sub><i>S</i></sub>, <i>I</i><sub><i>M</i></sub>, <i>I</i><sub><i>L</i></sub>) as a subset of 3-space, a model for human perceptual color space is formed. (Note that when one of <i>S</i>, <i>M</i>, <i>L</i> had to be added to the test color, its intensity was counted as negative.) Again, this turns out to be a (mathematical) cone, not a quadric, but rather all rays through the origin in 3-space passing through a certain convex set. Again, this cone has the property that moving directly away from the origin corresponds to increasing the intensity of the <i>S</i>, <i>M</i>, <i>L</i> lights proportionately. Again, a cross-section of this cone is a planar shape that is (by definition) the space of "chromaticities" (informally: distinct colors); one particular such cross-section, corresponding to constant <i>X</i>+<i>Y</i>+<i>Z</i> of the <a href="/wiki/CIE_1931_color_space" title="CIE 1931 color space">CIE 1931 color space</a>, gives the CIE chromaticity diagram. </p><p>This system implies that for any hue or non-spectral color not on the boundary of the chromaticity diagram, there are infinitely many distinct physical spectra that are all perceived as that hue or color. So, in general, there is no such thing as <i>the</i> combination of spectral colors that we perceive as (say) a specific version of tan; instead, there are infinitely many possibilities that produce that exact color. The boundary colors that are pure spectral colors can be perceived only in response to light that is purely at the associated wavelength, while the boundary colors on the "line of purples" can each only be generated by a specific ratio of the pure violet and the pure red at the ends of the visible spectral colors. </p><p>The CIE chromaticity diagram is horseshoe-shaped, with its curved edge corresponding to all spectral colors (the <i>spectral <a href="/wiki/Locus_(mathematics)" title="Locus (mathematics)">locus</a></i>), and the remaining straight edge corresponding to the most saturated <a href="/wiki/Purple" title="Purple">purples</a>, mixtures of <a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a> and <a href="/wiki/Violet_(color)" title="Violet (color)">violet</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_theory" title="Color theory">Color theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_dress" title="The dress">The dress</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVorobyev2004" class="citation journal cs1">Vorobyev M (July 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1444-0938.2004.tb05053.x">"Ecology and evolution of primate colour vision"</a>. <i>Clinical & Experimental Optometry</i>. <b>87</b> (4–5): 230–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1444-0938.2004.tb05053.x">10.1111/j.1444-0938.2004.tb05053.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15312027">15312027</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40234800">40234800</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+%26+Experimental+Optometry&rft.atitle=Ecology+and+evolution+of+primate+colour+vision&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=230-8&rft.date=2004-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A40234800%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15312027&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1444-0938.2004.tb05053.x&rft.aulast=Vorobyev&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1444-0938.2004.tb05053.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarvalhoPessoaMountfordDavies2017" class="citation journal cs1">Carvalho LS, Pessoa D, Mountford JK, Davies WI, Hunt DM (26 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffevo.2017.00034">"The Genetic and Evolutionary Drives behind Primate Color Vision"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</i>. <b>5</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffevo.2017.00034">10.3389/fevo.2017.00034</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Ecology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+Genetic+and+Evolutionary+Drives+behind+Primate+Color+Vision&rft.volume=5&rft.date=2017-04-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffevo.2017.00034&rft.aulast=Carvalho&rft.aufirst=LS&rft.au=Pessoa%2C+D&rft.au=Mountford%2C+JK&rft.au=Davies%2C+WI&rft.au=Hunt%2C+DM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3389%252Ffevo.2017.00034&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiramatsuMelinAllenDubuc2017" class="citation journal cs1">Hiramatsu C, Melin AD, Allen WL, Dubuc C, Higham JP (June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5474062">"Experimental evidence that primate trichromacy is well suited for detecting primate social colour signals"</a>. <i>Proceedings. Biological Sciences</i>. <b>284</b> (1856): 20162458. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2016.2458">10.1098/rspb.2016.2458</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5474062">5474062</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28615496">28615496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings.+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Experimental+evidence+that+primate+trichromacy+is+well+suited+for+detecting+primate+social+colour+signals&rft.volume=284&rft.issue=1856&rft.pages=20162458&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5474062%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28615496&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2016.2458&rft.aulast=Hiramatsu&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Melin%2C+AD&rft.au=Allen%2C+WL&rft.au=Dubuc%2C+C&rft.au=Higham%2C+JP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5474062&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavsonPerkins2020" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Davson H, Perkins ES (7 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/human-eye">"Human eye"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Human+eye&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2020-08-07&rft.aulast=Davson&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Perkins%2C+ES&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fhuman-eye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peichl-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Peichl_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeichlBehrmannKroger2001" class="citation journal cs1">Peichl, Leo; Behrmann, Gunther; Kroger, Ronald H. H. (April 2001). "For whales and seals the ocean is not blue: a visual pigment loss in marine mammals". <i>European Journal of Neuroscience</i>. <b>13</b> (8): 1520–1528. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.486.616">10.1.1.486.616</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.0953-816x.2001.01533.x">10.1046/j.0953-816x.2001.01533.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11328346">11328346</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16062564">16062564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=For+whales+and+seals+the+ocean+is+not+blue%3A+a+visual+pigment+loss+in+marine+mammals&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1520-1528&rft.date=2001-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.486.616%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16062564%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11328346&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.0953-816x.2001.01533.x&rft.aulast=Peichl&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft.au=Behrmann%2C+Gunther&rft.au=Kroger%2C+Ronald+H.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmerlingSpringer2015" class="citation journal cs1">Emerling, Christopher A.; Springer, Mark S. (2015-02-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4298209">"Genomic evidence for rod monochromacy in sloths and armadillos suggests early subterranean history for Xenarthra"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>282</b> (1800): 20142192. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2014.2192">10.1098/rspb.2014.2192</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8452">0962-8452</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4298209">4298209</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25540280">25540280</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Genomic+evidence+for+rod+monochromacy+in+sloths+and+armadillos+suggests+early+subterranean+history+for+Xenarthra&rft.volume=282&rft.issue=1800&rft.pages=20142192&rft.date=2015-02-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4298209%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0962-8452&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25540280&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2014.2192&rft.aulast=Emerling&rft.aufirst=Christopher+A.&rft.au=Springer%2C+Mark+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4298209&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNathansThomasHogness1986" class="citation journal cs1">Nathans J, Thomas D, Hogness DS (April 1986). "Molecular genetics of human color vision: the genes encoding blue, green, and red pigments". <i>Science</i>. <b>232</b> (4747): 193–202. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986Sci...232..193N">1986Sci...232..193N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.2937147">10.1126/science.2937147</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/169687">169687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2937147">2937147</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34321827">34321827</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Molecular+genetics+of+human+color+vision%3A+the+genes+encoding+blue%2C+green%2C+and+red+pigments&rft.volume=232&rft.issue=4747&rft.pages=193-202&rft.date=1986-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34321827%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986Sci...232..193N&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2937147&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.2937147&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F169687%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nathans&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Thomas%2C+D&rft.au=Hogness%2C+DS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeitzJacobs1986" class="citation journal cs1">Neitz J, Jacobs GH (1986). "Polymorphism of the long-wavelength cone in normal human colour vision". <i>Nature</i>. <b>323</b> (6089): 623–5. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986Natur.323..623N">1986Natur.323..623N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F323623a0">10.1038/323623a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3773989">3773989</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4316301">4316301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Polymorphism+of+the+long-wavelength+cone+in+normal+human+colour+vision&rft.volume=323&rft.issue=6089&rft.pages=623-5&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F323623a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4316301%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3773989&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986Natur.323..623N&rft.aulast=Neitz&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Jacobs%2C+GH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs1996" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobs GH (January 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC40094">"Primate photopigments and primate color vision"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>93</b> (2): 577–81. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996PNAS...93..577J">1996PNAS...93..577J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.93.2.577">10.1073/pnas.93.2.577</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC40094">40094</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8570598">8570598</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Primate+photopigments+and+primate+color+vision&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=577-81&rft.date=1996-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC40094%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8570598&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.93.2.577&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996PNAS...93..577J&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=GH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC40094&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZeki2022" class="citation journal cs1">Zeki, Semir (2022-10-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1113/ep089760">"The Paton prize lecture 2021: A colourful experience leading to a reassessment of colour vision and its theories"</a>. <i>Experimental Physiology</i>. <b>107</b> (11): 1189–1208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1113%2Fep089760">10.1113/ep089760</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0958-0670">0958-0670</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36114718">36114718</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252335063">252335063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Experimental+Physiology&rft.atitle=The+Paton+prize+lecture+2021%3A+A+colourful+experience+leading+to+a+reassessment+of+colour+vision+and+its+theories&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1189-1208&rft.date=2022-10-09&rft.issn=0958-0670&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252335063%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36114718&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1113%2Fep089760&rft.aulast=Zeki&rft.aufirst=Semir&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1113%2Fep089760&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHering1872" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Ewald_Hering" title="Ewald Hering">Hering E</a> (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u5MCAAAAYAAJ&q=1872+hering+ewald+Zur+Lehre+vom+Lichtsinne.+Sitzungsberichte+der+kaiserlichen+Akademie+der+Wissenschaften.+Mathematisch%E2%80%93naturwissenschaftliche+Classe,&pg=PA5">"Zur Lehre vom Lichtsinne"</a>. <i>Sitzungsberichte der Mathematisch–Naturwissenschaftliche Classe der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften</i>. LXVI. Band (III Abtheilung). K.-K. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei in Commission bei C. Gerold's Sohn.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sitzungsberichte+der+Mathematisch%E2%80%93Naturwissenschaftliche+Classe+der+Kaiserlichen+Akademie+der+Wissenschaften&rft.atitle=Zur+Lehre+vom+Lichtsinne&rft.volume=LXVI.+Band&rft.issue=III+Abtheilung&rft.date=1872&rft.aulast=Hering&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du5MCAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D1872%2Bhering%2Bewald%2BZur%2BLehre%2Bvom%2BLichtsinne.%2BSitzungsberichte%2Bder%2Bkaiserlichen%2BAkademie%2Bder%2BWissenschaften.%2BMathematisch%25E2%2580%2593naturwissenschaftliche%2BClasse%2C%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ali_1985-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ali_1985_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ali_1985_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAliKlyne1985" class="citation book cs1">Ali MA, Klyne MA (1985). <i>Vision in Vertebrates</i>. New York: Plenum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-42065-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-42065-8"><bdi>978-0-306-42065-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vision+in+Vertebrates&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Plenum+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-306-42065-8&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=MA&rft.au=Klyne%2C+MA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZekiCheadlePepperMylonas2017" class="citation journal cs1">Zeki S, Cheadle S, Pepper J, Mylonas D (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5423953">"The Constancy of Colored After-Images"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Human Neuroscience</i>. <b>11</b>: 229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2017.00229">10.3389/fnhum.2017.00229</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5423953">5423953</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28539878">28539878</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Human+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=The+Constancy+of+Colored+After-Images&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=229&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5423953%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28539878&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnhum.2017.00229&rft.aulast=Zeki&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Cheadle%2C+S&rft.au=Pepper%2C+J&rft.au=Mylonas%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5423953&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CC_BY_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/50px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/75px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/CC_BY_icon.svg/100px-CC_BY_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="88" data-file-height="31" /></a></span> Text was copied from this source, which is available under a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLand1977" class="citation journal cs1">Land, Edwin (December 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24953876">"The Retinex Theory of Color Vision"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>237</b> (6): 108–28. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977SciAm.237f.108L">1977SciAm.237f.108L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1277-108">10.1038/scientificamerican1277-108</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24953876">24953876</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/929159">929159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Retinex+Theory+of+Color+Vision&rft.volume=237&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=108-28&rft.date=1977-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1277-108&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F929159&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24953876%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977SciAm.237f.108L&rft.aulast=Land&rft.aufirst=Edwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24953876&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wyszecki_1982-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wyszecki_1982_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyszeckiStiles1982" class="citation book cs1">Wyszecki G, Stiles WS (1982). <i>Color Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley Series in Pure and Applied Optics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-02106-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-02106-3"><bdi>978-0-471-02106-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Color+Science%3A+Concepts+and+Methods%2C+Quantitative+Data+and+Formulae&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley+Series+in+Pure+and+Applied+Optics&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-471-02106-3&rft.aulast=Wyszecki&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Stiles%2C+WS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2004" class="citation book cs1">Hunt RW (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reproductionofco0000hunt/page/11"><i>The Reproduction of Colour</i></a> (6th ed.). Chichester UK: Wiley–IS&T Series in Imaging Science and Technology. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reproductionofco0000hunt/page/11">11–2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-02425-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-02425-6"><bdi>978-0-470-02425-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reproduction+of+Colour&rft.place=Chichester+UK&rft.pages=11-2&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Wiley%E2%80%93IS%26T+Series+in+Imaging+Science+and+Technology&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-470-02425-6&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=RW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freproductionofco0000hunt%2Fpage%2F11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurvesAugustineFitzpatrickKatz2001" class="citation journal cs1">Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, Katz LC, LaMantia AS, McNamara JO, Williams SM (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10848/">"Anatomical Distribution of Rods and Cones"</a>. <i>Neuroscience. 2nd Edition</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience.+2nd+Edition&rft.atitle=Anatomical+Distribution+of+Rods+and+Cones&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Purves&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Augustine%2C+GJ&rft.au=Fitzpatrick%2C+D&rft.au=Katz%2C+LC&rft.au=LaMantia%2C+AS&rft.au=McNamara%2C+JO&rft.au=Williams%2C+SM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK10848%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson_1986-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_1986_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1986" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson MA (February 1986). "Color vision in the peripheral retina". <i>American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics</i>. <b>63</b> (2): 97–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00006324-198602000-00003">10.1097/00006324-198602000-00003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3953765">3953765</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Optometry+and+Physiological+Optics&rft.atitle=Color+vision+in+the+peripheral+retina&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=97-103&rft.date=1986-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00006324-198602000-00003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3953765&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=MA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerrelliTishkoff2004" class="citation journal cs1">Verrelli BC, Tishkoff SA (September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182016">"Signatures of selection and gene conversion associated with human color vision variation"</a>. <i>American Journal of Human Genetics</i>. <b>75</b> (3): 363–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F423287">10.1086/423287</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182016">1182016</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15252758">15252758</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Signatures+of+selection+and+gene+conversion+associated+with+human+color+vision+variation&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=363-75&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182016%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15252758&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F423287&rft.aulast=Verrelli&rft.aufirst=BC&rft.au=Tishkoff%2C+SA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth2006" class="citation web cs1">Roth M (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061108171635/http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06256/721190-114.stm">"Some women may see 100 million colors, thanks to their genes"</a>. <i>Post-Gazette.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06256/721190-114.stm">the original</a> on 2006-11-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Post-Gazette.com&rft.atitle=Some+women+may+see+100+million+colors%2C+thanks+to+their+genes&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.post-gazette.com%2Fpg%2F06256%2F721190-114.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rodieck_1988-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rodieck_1988_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodieck1998" class="citation book cs1">Rodieck RW (1998). <i>The First Steps in Seeing</i>. Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-757-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-757-8"><bdi>978-0-87893-757-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Steps+in+Seeing&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+Massachusetts%2C+USA&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-757-8&rft.aulast=Rodieck&rft.aufirst=RW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hendry_1970-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hendry_1970_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendryReid1970" class="citation journal cs1">Hendry SH, Reid RC (1970-01-01). "The koniocellular pathway in primate vision". <i>Annual Review of Neuroscience</i>. <b>23</b>: 127–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.23.1.127">10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.127</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10845061">10845061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=The+koniocellular+pathway+in+primate+vision&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=127-53&rft.date=1970-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.23.1.127&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10845061&rft.aulast=Hendry&rft.aufirst=SH&rft.au=Reid%2C+RC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaw1967" class="citation journal cs1">Daw NW (November 1967). "Goldfish retina: organization for simultaneous color contrast". <i>Science</i>. <b>158</b> (3803): 942–4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967Sci...158..942D">1967Sci...158..942D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.158.3803.942">10.1126/science.158.3803.942</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6054169">6054169</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1108881">1108881</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Goldfish+retina%3A+organization+for+simultaneous+color+contrast&rft.volume=158&rft.issue=3803&rft.pages=942-4&rft.date=1967-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.158.3803.942&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1108881%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6054169&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1967Sci...158..942D&rft.aulast=Daw&rft.aufirst=NW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConway2002" class="citation book cs1">Conway BR (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pFodUlHfQmcC&q=goldfish+retina+by+Nigel-Daw&pg=PR7"><i>Neural Mechanisms of Color Vision: Double-Opponent Cells in the Visual Cortex</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-7092-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-7092-1"><bdi>978-1-4020-7092-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neural+Mechanisms+of+Color+Vision%3A+Double-Opponent+Cells+in+the+Visual+Cortex&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-7092-1&rft.aulast=Conway&rft.aufirst=BR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpFodUlHfQmcC%26q%3Dgoldfish%2Bretina%2Bby%2BNigel-Daw%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael1978" class="citation journal cs1">Michael, C. R. (1978-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/jn.1978.41.3.572">"Color vision mechanisms in monkey striate cortex: dual-opponent cells with concentric receptive fields"</a>. <i>Journal of Neurophysiology</i>. <b>41</b> (3): 572–588. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fjn.1978.41.3.572">10.1152/jn.1978.41.3.572</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3077">0022-3077</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/96222">96222</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neurophysiology&rft.atitle=Color+vision+mechanisms+in+monkey+striate+cortex%3A+dual-opponent+cells+with+concentric+receptive+fields&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=572-588&rft.date=1978-05-01&rft.issn=0022-3077&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F96222&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fjn.1978.41.3.572&rft.aulast=Michael&rft.aufirst=C.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.physiology.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1152%2Fjn.1978.41.3.572&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConway2001" class="citation journal cs1">Conway BR (April 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6762533">"Spatial structure of cone inputs to color cells in alert macaque primary visual cortex (V-1)"</a>. <i>The Journal of Neuroscience</i>. <b>21</b> (8): 2768–83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.21-08-02768.2001">10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-08-02768.2001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6762533">6762533</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11306629">11306629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Spatial+structure+of+cone+inputs+to+color+cells+in+alert+macaque+primary+visual+cortex+%28V-1%29&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=2768-83&rft.date=2001-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6762533%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11306629&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.21-08-02768.2001&rft.aulast=Conway&rft.aufirst=BR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6762533&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowling2001" class="citation book cs1">Dowling JE (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=adeUwgfwdKwC&q=Margaret+Livingstone+David+Hubel+double+opponent+blobs&pg=PA376"><i>Neurons, and Networks: An Introduction to Behavioral Neuroscience</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00462-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00462-7"><bdi>978-0-674-00462-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neurons%2C+and+Networks%3A+An+Introduction+to+Behavioral+Neuroscience&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00462-7&rft.aulast=Dowling&rft.aufirst=JE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DadeUwgfwdKwC%26q%3DMargaret%2BLivingstone%2BDavid%2BHubel%2Bdouble%2Bopponent%2Bblobs%26pg%3DPA376&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCann1993" class="citation book cs1">McCann M, ed. (1993). <i><a href="/wiki/Edwin_H._Land" title="Edwin H. Land">Edwin H. Land</a>'s Essays</i>. Springfield, Va.: Society for Imaging Science and Technology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edwin+H.+Land%27s+Essays&rft.place=Springfield%2C+Va.&rft.pub=Society+for+Imaging+Science+and+Technology&rft.date=1993&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Judd_1975-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Judd_1975_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuddWyszecki1975" class="citation book cs1">Judd DB, Wyszecki G (1975). <i>Color in Business, Science and Industry</i>. Wiley Series in Pure and Applied Optics (third ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Interscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiley-Interscience">Wiley-Interscience</a>. p. 388. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-45212-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-45212-6"><bdi>978-0-471-45212-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Color+in+Business%2C+Science+and+Industry&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Wiley+Series+in+Pure+and+Applied+Optics&rft.pages=388&rft.edition=third&rft.pub=Wiley-Interscience&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-471-45212-6&rft.aulast=Judd&rft.aufirst=DB&rft.au=Wyszecki%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conway_2007-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Conway_2007_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conway_2007_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conway_2007_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conway_2007_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConwayMoellerTsao2007" class="citation journal cs1">Conway BR, Moeller S, Tsao DY (November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/100800/">"Specialized color modules in macaque extrastriate cortex"</a>. <i>Neuron</i>. <b>56</b> (3): 560–73. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2007.10.008">10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8162777">8162777</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17988638">17988638</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11724926">11724926</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuron&rft.atitle=Specialized+color+modules+in+macaque+extrastriate+cortex&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=560-73&rft.date=2007-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8162777%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11724926%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17988638&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2007.10.008&rft.aulast=Conway&rft.aufirst=BR&rft.au=Moeller%2C+S&rft.au=Tsao%2C+DY&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fauthors.library.caltech.edu%2F100800%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conway_2009-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Conway_2009_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conway_2009_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conway_2009_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConwayTsao2009" class="citation journal cs1">Conway BR, Tsao DY (October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2764907">"Color-tuned neurons are spatially clustered according to color preference within alert macaque posterior inferior temporal cortex"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>106</b> (42): 18034–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PNAS..10618034C">2009PNAS..10618034C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0810943106">10.1073/pnas.0810943106</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2764907">2764907</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19805195">19805195</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Color-tuned+neurons+are+spatially+clustered+according+to+color+preference+within+alert+macaque+posterior+inferior+temporal+cortex&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=42&rft.pages=18034-9&rft.date=2009-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2764907%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19805195&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0810943106&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PNAS..10618034C&rft.aulast=Conway&rft.aufirst=BR&rft.au=Tsao%2C+DY&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2764907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZeki1973" class="citation journal cs1">Zeki SM (April 1973). "Colour coding in rhesus monkey prestriate cortex". <i>Brain Research</i>. <b>53</b> (2): 422–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0006-8993%2873%2990227-8">10.1016/0006-8993(73)90227-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4196224">4196224</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain+Research&rft.atitle=Colour+coding+in+rhesus+monkey+prestriate+cortex&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=422-7&rft.date=1973-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0006-8993%2873%2990227-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4196224&rft.aulast=Zeki&rft.aufirst=SM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zeki_1983-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zeki_1983_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zeki_1983_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZeki1983" class="citation journal cs1">Zeki S (March 1983). "The distribution of wavelength and orientation selective cells in different areas of monkey visual cortex". <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>217</b> (1209): 449–70. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983RSPSB.217..449Z">1983RSPSB.217..449Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.1983.0020">10.1098/rspb.1983.0020</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6134287">6134287</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39700958">39700958</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+distribution+of+wavelength+and+orientation+selective+cells+in+different+areas+of+monkey+visual+cortex&rft.volume=217&rft.issue=1209&rft.pages=449-70&rft.date=1983-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.1983.0020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39700958%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6134287&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983RSPSB.217..449Z&rft.aulast=Zeki&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBushnellHardingKosaiBair2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bushnell BN, Harding PJ, Kosai Y, Bair W, Pasupathy A (August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3171995">"Equiluminance cells in visual cortical area v4"</a>. <i>The Journal of Neuroscience</i>. <b>31</b> (35): 12398–412. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.1890-11.2011">10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1890-11.2011</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3171995">3171995</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21880901">21880901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Equiluminance+cells+in+visual+cortical+area+v4&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=35&rft.pages=12398-412&rft.date=2011-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3171995%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21880901&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.1890-11.2011&rft.aulast=Bushnell&rft.aufirst=BN&rft.au=Harding%2C+PJ&rft.au=Kosai%2C+Y&rft.au=Bair%2C+W&rft.au=Pasupathy%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3171995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanigawaLuRoe2010" class="citation journal cs1">Tanigawa H, Lu HD, Roe AW (December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005205">"Functional organization for color and orientation in macaque V4"</a>. <i>Nature Neuroscience</i>. <b>13</b> (12): 1542–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnn.2676">10.1038/nn.2676</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005205">3005205</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21076422">21076422</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Functional+organization+for+color+and+orientation+in+macaque+V4&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1542-8&rft.date=2010-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3005205%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21076422&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnn.2676&rft.aulast=Tanigawa&rft.aufirst=H&rft.au=Lu%2C+HD&rft.au=Roe%2C+AW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3005205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zeki_2005-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zeki_2005_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZeki2005" class="citation journal cs1">Zeki S (June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1609195">"The Ferrier Lecture 1995 behind the seen: the functional specialization of the brain in space and time"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>360</b> (1458): 1145–83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2005.1666">10.1098/rstb.2005.1666</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1609195">1609195</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16147515">16147515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Ferrier+Lecture+1995+behind+the+seen%3A+the+functional+specialization+of+the+brain+in+space+and+time&rft.volume=360&rft.issue=1458&rft.pages=1145-83&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1609195%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16147515&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2005.1666&rft.aulast=Zeki&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1609195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZeki1980" class="citation journal cs1">Zeki, S. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/284412a0">"The representation of colours in the cerebral cortex"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>284</b> (5755): 412–418. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980Natur.284..412Z">1980Natur.284..412Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F284412a0">10.1038/284412a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6767195">6767195</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4310049">4310049</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+representation+of+colours+in+the+cerebral+cortex&rft.volume=284&rft.issue=5755&rft.pages=412-418&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4310049%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980Natur.284..412Z&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F284412a0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6767195&rft.aulast=Zeki&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F284412a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobersonDavidoffDaviesShapiro2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Roberson D, Davidoff J, Davies IR, Shapiro LR (November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/ECD246/Διάφορα%20κείμενα%20και%20για%20εργασίες/ProgressInColour.pdf">"Colour categories and category acquisition in Himba and English"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Pitchford N, Biggam CP (eds.). <i>Progress in Colour Studies</i>. Vol. II. Psychological aspects. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 159–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-9302-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-9302-2"><bdi>978-90-272-9302-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Colour+categories+and+category+acquisition+in+Himba+and+English&rft.btitle=Progress+in+Colour+Studies&rft.pages=159-72&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=2006-11&rft.isbn=978-90-272-9302-2&rft.aulast=Roberson&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Davidoff%2C+J&rft.au=Davies%2C+IR&rft.au=Shapiro%2C+LR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feclass.uoa.gr%2Fmodules%2Fdocument%2Ffile.php%2FECD246%2F%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%AC%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B1%2520%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B1%2520%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9%2520%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%B1%2520%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%82%2FProgressInColour.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNänni2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nänni, Jürg (2008). <i>Visual perception - an interactive journey of discovery through our visual system</i> (in German and English). Sulgen Zurich, Switzerland: Niggli AG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7212-0618-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7212-0618-0"><bdi>978-3-7212-0618-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visual+perception+-+an+interactive+journey+of+discovery+through+our+visual+system&rft.place=Sulgen+Zurich%2C+Switzerland&rft.pub=Niggli+AG&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-7212-0618-0&rft.aulast=N%C3%A4nni&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fairchild_2005-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fairchild_2005_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairchild2005" class="citation book cs1">Fairchild MD (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8_TxzK2B-5MC&q=%22chromatic+adaptation%22&pg=PA146">"8. Chromatic Adaptation"</a>. <i>Color Appearance Models</i>. Wiley. p. 146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-01216-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-01216-1"><bdi>978-0-470-01216-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8.+Chromatic+Adaptation&rft.btitle=Color+Appearance+Models&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-470-01216-1&rft.aulast=Fairchild&rft.aufirst=MD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8_TxzK2B-5MC%26q%3D%2522chromatic%2Badaptation%2522%26pg%3DPA146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSüsstrunk" class="citation web cs1">Süsstrunk S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110818184220/http://ivrgwww.epfl.ch/research/past_topics/chromatic_adaptation.html">"Chromatic Adaptation"</a>. <i>The Image and Visual Representation Lab (IVRL)</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ivrgwww.epfl.ch/research/past_topics/chromatic_adaptation.html">the original</a> on 2011-08-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Image+and+Visual+Representation+Lab+%28IVRL%29&rft.atitle=Chromatic+Adaptation&rft.aulast=S%C3%BCsstrunk&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fivrgwww.epfl.ch%2Fresearch%2Fpast_topics%2Fchromatic_adaptation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindbloom" class="citation web cs1">Lindbloom B. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110926223613/http://www.brucelindbloom.com/Eqn_ChromAdapt.html">"Chromatic Adaptation"</a>. <i>Lindbloom.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brucelindbloom.com/Eqn_ChromAdapt.html">the original</a> on 2011-09-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lindbloom.com&rft.atitle=Chromatic+Adaptation&rft.aulast=Lindbloom&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brucelindbloom.com%2FEqn_ChromAdapt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>World Book</i> (72nd ed.). Chicago, IL: World Book, Inc. 2022. p. 819. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780716601227" title="Special:BookSources/9780716601227"><bdi>9780716601227</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Book&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.pages=819&rft.edition=72nd&rft.pub=World+Book%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780716601227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuthill1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Innes_Cuthill" title="Innes Cuthill">Cuthill IC</a> (1997). "Ultraviolet vision in birds". In Slater PJ (ed.). <i>Advances in the Study of Behavior</i>. Vol. 29. Oxford, England: Academic Press. p. 161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-004529-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-004529-7"><bdi>978-0-12-004529-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ultraviolet+vision+in+birds&rft.btitle=Advances+in+the+Study+of+Behavior&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=161&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-12-004529-7&rft.aulast=Cuthill&rft.aufirst=IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamieson2007" class="citation book cs1">Jamieson BG (2007). <i>Reproductive Biology and Phylogeny of Birds</i>. Charlottesville VA: University of Virginia. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57808-386-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57808-386-2"><bdi>978-1-57808-386-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reproductive+Biology+and+Phylogeny+of+Birds&rft.place=Charlottesville+VA&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-57808-386-2&rft.aulast=Jamieson&rft.aufirst=BG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Varela_1993-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Varela_1993_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarelaPalaciosGoldsmith1993" class="citation book cs1">Varela FJ, Palacios AG, Goldsmith TH (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p1SUzc5GUVcC">"Color vision of birds"</a>. In Zeigler HP, Bischof HJ (eds.). <i>Vision, Brain, and Behavior in Birds</i>. MIT Press. pp. 77–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-24036-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-24036-9"><bdi>978-0-262-24036-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Color+vision+of+birds&rft.btitle=Vision%2C+Brain%2C+and+Behavior+in+Birds&rft.pages=77-94&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-262-24036-9&rft.aulast=Varela&rft.aufirst=FJ&rft.au=Palacios%2C+AG&rft.au=Goldsmith%2C+TH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp1SUzc5GUVcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131224110616/http://www.skeptive.com/disputes/4484">"True or False? The common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultra-violet light"</a>. <i>Skeptive</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skeptive.com/disputes/4484">the original</a> on December 24, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 28,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Skeptive&rft.atitle=True+or+False%3F+The+common+goldfish+is+the+only+animal+that+can+see+both+infrared+and+ultra-violet+light.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skeptive.com%2Fdisputes%2F4484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeumeyer2012" class="citation book cs1">Neumeyer C (2012). "Chapter 2: Color Vision in Goldfish and Other Vertebrates". In Lazareva O, Shimizu T, Wasserman E (eds.). <i>How Animals See the World: Comparative Behavior, Biology, and Evolution of Vision</i>. Oxford Scholarship Online. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-195-33465-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-195-33465-4"><bdi>978-0-195-33465-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Color+Vision+in+Goldfish+and+Other+Vertebrates&rft.btitle=How+Animals+See+the+World%3A+Comparative+Behavior%2C+Biology%2C+and+Evolution+of+Vision&rft.pub=Oxford+Scholarship+Online&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-195-33465-4&rft.aulast=Neumeyer&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs1993" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobs GH (August 1993). "The distribution and nature of colour vision among the mammals". <i>Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society</i>. <b>68</b> (3): 413–71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1993.tb00738.x">10.1111/j.1469-185X.1993.tb00738.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8347768">8347768</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24172719">24172719</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Reviews+of+the+Cambridge+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=The+distribution+and+nature+of+colour+vision+among+the+mammals&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=413-71&rft.date=1993-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24172719%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8347768&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-185X.1993.tb00738.x&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=GH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenzelSteinmannDe_SouzaBackhaus1988" class="citation journal cs1">Menzel R, Steinmann E, De Souza J, Backhaus W (1988-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jeb.biologists.org/content/136/1/35">"Spectral Sensitivity of Photoreceptors and Colour Vision in the Solitary Bee, Osmia Rufa"</a>. <i>Journal of Experimental Biology</i>. <b>136</b> (1): 35–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.136.1.35">10.1242/jeb.136.1.35</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0949">0022-0949</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304133039/http://jeb.biologists.org/content/136/1/35">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-03-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Biology&rft.atitle=Spectral+Sensitivity+of+Photoreceptors+and+Colour+Vision+in+the+Solitary+Bee%2C+Osmia+Rufa&rft.volume=136&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=35-52&rft.date=1988-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1242%2Fjeb.136.1.35&rft.issn=0022-0949&rft.aulast=Menzel&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Steinmann%2C+E&rft.au=De+Souza%2C+J&rft.au=Backhaus%2C+W&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjeb.biologists.org%2Fcontent%2F136%2F1%2F35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osorio_2008-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Osorio_2008_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Osorio_2008_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsorioVorobyev2008" class="citation journal cs1">Osorio D, Vorobyev M (September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.visres.2008.06.018">"A review of the evolution of animal colour vision and visual communication signals"</a>. <i>Vision Research</i>. <b>48</b> (20): 2042–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.visres.2008.06.018">10.1016/j.visres.2008.06.018</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18627773">18627773</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12025276">12025276</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vision+Research&rft.atitle=A+review+of+the+evolution+of+animal+colour+vision+and+visual+communication+signals&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=2042-51&rft.date=2008-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12025276%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18627773&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.visres.2008.06.018&rft.aulast=Osorio&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Vorobyev%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.visres.2008.06.018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArikawa2003" class="citation journal cs1">Arikawa K (November 2003). "Spectral organization of the eye of a butterfly, Papilio". <i>Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural & Behavioral Physiology</i>. <b>189</b> (11): 791–800. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00359-003-0454-7">10.1007/s00359-003-0454-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14520495">14520495</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25685593">25685593</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Comparative+Physiology+A%3A+Neuroethology%2C+Sensory%2C+Neural+%26+Behavioral+Physiology&rft.atitle=Spectral+organization+of+the+eye+of+a+butterfly%2C+Papilio&rft.volume=189&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=791-800&rft.date=2003-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A25685593%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14520495&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00359-003-0454-7&rft.aulast=Arikawa&rft.aufirst=K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroninMarshall1989" class="citation journal cs1">Cronin TW, Marshall NJ (1989). "A retina with at least ten spectral types of photoreceptors in a mantis shrimp". <i>Nature</i>. <b>339</b> (6220): 137–40. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989Natur.339..137C">1989Natur.339..137C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F339137a0">10.1038/339137a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4367079">4367079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+retina+with+at+least+ten+spectral+types+of+photoreceptors+in+a+mantis+shrimp&rft.volume=339&rft.issue=6220&rft.pages=137-40&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4367079%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F339137a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989Natur.339..137C&rft.aulast=Cronin&rft.aufirst=TW&rft.au=Marshall%2C+NJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelberVorobyevOsorio2003" class="citation journal cs1">Kelber A, Vorobyev M, Osorio D (February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lup.lub.lu.se/record/131377">"Animal colour vision--behavioural tests and physiological concepts"</a>. <i>Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society</i>. <b>78</b> (1): 81–118. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1464793102005985">10.1017/S1464793102005985</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12620062">12620062</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7610125">7610125</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Reviews+of+the+Cambridge+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Animal+colour+vision--behavioural+tests+and+physiological+concepts&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=81-118&rft.date=2003-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7610125%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12620062&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1464793102005985&rft.aulast=Kelber&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Vorobyev%2C+M&rft.au=Osorio%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flup.lub.lu.se%2Frecord%2F131377&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1995" class="citation book cs1">Thompson E (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fB0madWbjBIC&pg=PA149">"Introducing Comparative Colour Vision"</a>. <i>Colour vision : a study in cognitive science and the philosophy of perception</i>. London: Routledge. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-41767-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-41767-6"><bdi>978-0-203-41767-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introducing+Comparative+Colour+Vision&rft.btitle=Colour+vision+%3A+a+study+in+cognitive+science+and+the+philosophy+of+perception&rft.place=London&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-203-41767-6&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfB0madWbjBIC%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GeckoNocturnalVision-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GeckoNocturnalVision_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothLundströmKelberKröger2009" class="citation journal cs1">Roth LS, Lundström L, Kelber A, Kröger RH, Unsbo P (March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1167%2F9.3.27">"The pupils and optical systems of gecko eyes"</a>. <i>Journal of Vision</i>. <b>9</b> (3): 27.1–11. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1167%2F9.3.27">10.1167/9.3.27</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19757966">19757966</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Vision&rft.atitle=The+pupils+and+optical+systems+of+gecko+eyes&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=27.1-11&rft.date=2009-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1167%2F9.3.27&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19757966&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=LS&rft.au=Lundstr%C3%B6m%2C+L&rft.au=Kelber%2C+A&rft.au=Kr%C3%B6ger%2C+RH&rft.au=Unsbo%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1167%252F9.3.27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AmphibianNocturnalVision-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AmphibianNocturnalVision_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYovanovichKoskelaNevalaKondrashev2017" class="citation journal cs1">Yovanovich CA, Koskela SM, Nevala N, Kondrashev SL, Kelber A, Donner K (April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5312016">"The dual rod system of amphibians supports colour discrimination at the absolute visual threshold"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>372</b> (1717). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2016.0066">10.1098/rstb.2016.0066</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5312016">5312016</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28193811">28193811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+dual+rod+system+of+amphibians+supports+colour+discrimination+at+the+absolute+visual+threshold&rft.volume=372&rft.issue=1717&rft.date=2017-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5312016%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28193811&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2016.0066&rft.aulast=Yovanovich&rft.aufirst=CA&rft.au=Koskela%2C+SM&rft.au=Nevala%2C+N&rft.au=Kondrashev%2C+SL&rft.au=Kelber%2C+A&rft.au=Donner%2C+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5312016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-InnateColorBehaviors-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-InnateColorBehaviors_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntBrunoPratt2020" class="citation journal cs1">Hunt JE, Bruno JR, Pratt KG (May 12, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7235192">"An Innate Color Preference Displayed by <i>Xenopus</i> Tadpoles Is Persistent and Requires the Tegmentum"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience</i>. <b>14</b> (71): 71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnbeh.2020.00071">10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00071</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7235192">7235192</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32477078">32477078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Behavioral+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=An+Innate+Color+Preference+Displayed+by+Xenopus+Tadpoles+Is+Persistent+and+Requires+the+Tegmentum&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=71&rft.pages=71&rft.date=2020-05-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7235192%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32477078&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnbeh.2020.00071&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=JE&rft.au=Bruno%2C+JR&rft.au=Pratt%2C+KG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7235192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shozo Yokoyama and F. Bernhard Radlwimmera, "The Molecular Genetics of Red and Green Color Vision in Mammals", Genetics, Vol. 153, 919–932, October 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsDeegan2001" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobs GH, Deegan JF (April 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088658">"Photopigments and colour vision in New World monkeys from the family Atelidae"</a>. <i>Proceedings. Biological Sciences</i>. <b>268</b> (1468): 695–702. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2000.1421">10.1098/rspb.2000.1421</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088658">1088658</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11321057">11321057</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings.+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Photopigments+and+colour+vision+in+New+World+monkeys+from+the+family+Atelidae&rft.volume=268&rft.issue=1468&rft.pages=695-702&rft.date=2001-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1088658%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11321057&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2000.1421&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=GH&rft.au=Deegan%2C+JF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1088658&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsDeeganNeitzCrognale1993" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobs GH, Deegan JF, Neitz J, Crognale MA, Neitz M (September 1993). "Photopigments and color vision in the nocturnal monkey, Aotus". <i>Vision Research</i>. <b>33</b> (13): 1773–83. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.568.1560">10.1.1.568.1560</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0042-6989%2893%2990168-V">10.1016/0042-6989(93)90168-V</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8266633">8266633</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3745725">3745725</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vision+Research&rft.atitle=Photopigments+and+color+vision+in+the+nocturnal+monkey%2C+Aotus&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=1773-83&rft.date=1993-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.568.1560%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3745725%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8266633&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0042-6989%2893%2990168-V&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=GH&rft.au=Deegan%2C+JF&rft.au=Neitz%2C+J&rft.au=Crognale%2C+MA&rft.au=Neitz%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMollonBowmakerJacobs1984" class="citation journal cs1">Mollon JD, Bowmaker JK, Jacobs GH (September 1984). "Variations of colour vision in a New World primate can be explained by polymorphism of retinal photopigments". <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>222</b> (1228): 373–99. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984RSPSB.222..373M">1984RSPSB.222..373M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.1984.0071">10.1098/rspb.1984.0071</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6149558">6149558</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24416536">24416536</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Variations+of+colour+vision+in+a+New+World+primate+can+be+explained+by+polymorphism+of+retinal+photopigments&rft.volume=222&rft.issue=1228&rft.pages=373-99&rft.date=1984-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.1984.0071&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24416536%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6149558&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984RSPSB.222..373M&rft.aulast=Mollon&rft.aufirst=JD&rft.au=Bowmaker%2C+JK&rft.au=Jacobs%2C+GH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternberg2006" class="citation book cs1">Sternberg RJ (2006). <i>Cognitive Psychology</i> (4th ed.). Thomson Wadsworth.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Psychology&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Thomson+Wadsworth&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Sternberg&rft.aufirst=RJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArreseBeazleyNeumeyer2006" class="citation journal cs1">Arrese CA, Beazley LD, Neumeyer C (March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.02.036">"Behavioural evidence for marsupial trichromacy"</a>. <i>Current Biology</i>. <b>16</b> (6): R193-4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006CBio...16.R193A">2006CBio...16.R193A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.02.036">10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.036</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16546067">16546067</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Behavioural+evidence+for+marsupial+trichromacy&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=R193-4&rft.date=2006-03&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16546067&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.02.036&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006CBio...16.R193A&rft.aulast=Arrese&rft.aufirst=CA&rft.au=Beazley%2C+LD&rft.au=Neumeyer%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2006.02.036&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven P</a> (1997). <a href="/wiki/How_the_Mind_Works" title="How the Mind Works"><i>How the Mind Works</i></a>. New York: Norton. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howmindworks00pink/page/191">191</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04535-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04535-2"><bdi>978-0-393-04535-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Mind+Works&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-393-04535-2&rft.aulast=Steven&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoyanagiNagataKatohYamashita2008" class="citation journal cs1">Koyanagi M, Nagata T, Katoh K, Yamashita S, Tokunaga F (February 2008). "Molecular evolution of arthropod color vision deduced from multiple opsin genes of jumping spiders". <i>Journal of Molecular Evolution</i>. <b>66</b> (2): 130–7. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JMolE..66..130K">2008JMolE..66..130K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00239-008-9065-9">10.1007/s00239-008-9065-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18217181">18217181</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23837628">23837628</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Evolution&rft.atitle=Molecular+evolution+of+arthropod+color+vision+deduced+from+multiple+opsin+genes+of+jumping+spiders&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=130-7&rft.date=2008-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00239-008-9065-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23837628%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18217181&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008JMolE..66..130K&rft.aulast=Koyanagi&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Nagata%2C+T&rft.au=Katoh%2C+K&rft.au=Yamashita%2C+S&rft.au=Tokunaga%2C+F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hambling_2002-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hambling_2002_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHambling2002" class="citation news cs1">Hambling D (May 30, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2002/may/30/medicalscience.research">"Let the light shine in: You don't have to come from another planet to see ultraviolet light"</a>. EducationGuardian.co.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141123170913/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2002/may/30/medicalscience.research">Archived</a> from the original on November 23, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Let+the+light+shine+in%3A+You+don%27t+have+to+come+from+another+planet+to+see+ultraviolet+light&rft.date=2002-05-30&rft.aulast=Hambling&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2002%2Fmay%2F30%2Fmedicalscience.research&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsNeitzDeegan1991" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobs GH, Neitz J, Deegan JF (October 1991). "Retinal receptors in rodents maximally sensitive to ultraviolet light". <i>Nature</i>. <b>353</b> (6345): 655–6. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991Natur.353..655J">1991Natur.353..655J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F353655a0">10.1038/353655a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1922382">1922382</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4283145">4283145</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Retinal+receptors+in+rodents+maximally+sensitive+to+ultraviolet+light&rft.volume=353&rft.issue=6345&rft.pages=655-6&rft.date=1991-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F353655a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4283145%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1922382&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991Natur.353..655J&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=GH&rft.au=Neitz%2C+J&rft.au=Deegan%2C+JF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarelaPalaciosGoldsmith1993" class="citation book cs1">Varela FJ, Palacios AG, Goldsmith TM (1993). Bischof HJ, Zeigler HP (eds.). <i>Vision, brain, and behavior in birds</i>. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. pp. 77–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-24036-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-24036-9"><bdi>978-0-262-24036-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vision%2C+brain%2C+and+behavior+in+birds&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass&rft.pages=77-94&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-262-24036-9&rft.aulast=Varela&rft.aufirst=FJ&rft.au=Palacios%2C+AG&rft.au=Goldsmith%2C+TM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuthillPartridgeBennettChurch2000" class="citation book cs1">Cuthill IC, Partridge JC, Bennett AT, Church SC, Hart NS, Hunt S (2000). "Ultraviolet Vision in Birds". <i>Advances in the Study of Behavior</i>. Vol. 29. pp. 159–214.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ultraviolet+Vision+in+Birds&rft.btitle=Advances+in+the+Study+of+Behavior&rft.pages=159-214&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Cuthill&rft.aufirst=IC&rft.au=Partridge%2C+JC&rft.au=Bennett%2C+AT&rft.au=Church%2C+SC&rft.au=Hart%2C+NS&rft.au=Hunt%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsGalloCooperPulli2015" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobs DE, Gallo O, Cooper EA, Pulli K, Levoy M (May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://graphics.stanford.edu/papers/gazehdr/">"Simulating the Visual Experience of Very Bright and Very Dark Scenes"</a>. <i>ACM Trans. Graph</i>. <b>34</b> (3): 15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2714573">10.1145/2714573</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14960893">14960893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+Trans.+Graph.&rft.atitle=Simulating+the+Visual+Experience+of+Very+Bright+and+Very+Dark+Scenes.&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=15&rft.date=2015-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2714573&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14960893%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=DE&rft.au=Gallo%2C+O&rft.au=Cooper%2C+EA&rft.au=Pulli%2C+K&rft.au=Levoy%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgraphics.stanford.edu%2Fpapers%2Fgazehdr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Color_vision" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Color vision">Color vision</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiggsMcPhailNassauPatankar" class="citation web cs1">Biggs T, McPhail S, Nassau K, Patankar H, Stenerson M, Maulana F, Douma M. Smith SE (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/17.html">"What colors do animals see?"</a>. <i>Web Exhibits</i>. Institute for Dynamic Educational Advancement (IDEA).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Web+Exhibits&rft.atitle=What+colors+do+animals+see%3F&rft.aulast=Biggs&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=McPhail%2C+S&rft.au=Nassau%2C+K&rft.au=Patankar%2C+H&rft.au=Stenerson%2C+M&rft.au=Maulana%2C+F&rft.au=Douma%2C+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.webexhibits.org%2Fcausesofcolor%2F17.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeynman2015" class="citation book cs1">Feynman RP (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_35.html">"Color Vision"</a>. In Gottlieb MA, Pfeiffer R (eds.). <i>Feynman lectures on physics. Volume, Mainly mechanics, radiation, and heat</i> (New millennium ed.). New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04085-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04085-8"><bdi>978-0-465-04085-8</bdi></a> – via California Institute of Technology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Color+Vision&rft.btitle=Feynman+lectures+on+physics.+Volume%2C+Mainly+mechanics%2C+radiation%2C+and+heat&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=New+millennium&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-465-04085-8&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=RP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffeynmanlectures.caltech.edu%2FI_35.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGouras2009" class="citation journal cs1">Gouras P (May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/part-vii-color-vision/color-vision/">"Color Vision"</a>. <i>Webvision</i>. University of Utah School of Medicine. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21413395">21413395</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Webvision&rft.atitle=Color+Vision&rft.date=2009-05&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21413395&rft.aulast=Gouras&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebvision.med.utah.edu%2Fbook%2Fpart-vii-color-vision%2Fcolor-vision%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcEvoy2008" class="citation web cs1">McEvoy B (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.handprint.com/LS/CVS/color.html">"Color vision"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Color+vision&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=McEvoy&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.handprint.com%2FLS%2FCVS%2Fcolor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers2015" class="citation magazine cs1">Rogers A (26 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2015/02/science-one-agrees-color-dress/">"The Science of Why No One Agrees on the Color of This Dress"</a>. <i>Wired</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=The+Science+of+Why+No+One+Agrees+on+the+Color+of+This+Dress&rft.date=2015-02-26&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2015%2F02%2Fscience-one-agrees-color-dress%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+vision" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physiology_of_the_visual_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eye_physiology" title="Template:Eye physiology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eye_physiology" title="Template talk:Eye physiology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eye_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eye physiology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physiology_of_the_visual_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_body#Physiology" title="Human body">Physiology</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">visual system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Vision</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">Accommodation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze_(physiology)" title="Gaze (physiology)">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraocular_pressure" title="Intraocular pressure">Intraocular pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_field" title="Visual field">Visual field</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Color vision</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6llner%27s_rule" title="Köllner's rule">Köllner's rule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opponent_process" title="Opponent process">Opponent process</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentachromacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentachromacy">Pentachromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrachromacy" title="Tetrachromacy">Tetrachromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichromacy" title="Trichromacy">Trichromacy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Color_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Color_topics" title="Template:Color topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Color_topics" title="Template talk:Color topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Color_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Color topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Color_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">Color</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_science" title="Color science">Color science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Color physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">Electromagnetic spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow" title="Rainbow">Rainbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">Visible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_color" title="Spectral color">Spectral colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromophore" title="Chromophore">Chromophore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">Structural coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_chemicals" title="Color of chemicals">Color of chemicals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_power_distribution" title="Spectral power distribution">Spectral power distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorimetry" title="Colorimetry">Colorimetry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Color perception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromesthesia" title="Chromesthesia">Chromesthesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sonochromatism" title="Sonochromatism">Sonochromatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_calibration" title="Color calibration">Color calibration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_constancy" title="Color constancy">Color constancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_task" title="Color task">Color task</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_code" title="Color code">Color code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_temperature" title="Color temperature">Color temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_vision_test" title="Color vision test">Color vision test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Evolution of color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impossible_color" title="Impossible color">Impossible colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamerism_(color)" title="Metamerism (color)">Metamerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opponent_process" title="Opponent process">Opponent process</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterimage" title="Afterimage">Afterimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unique_hues" title="Unique hues">Unique hues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrachromacy" title="Tetrachromacy">Tetrachromacy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_dress" title="The dress">The dress</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_psychology" title="Color psychology">Color psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_symbolism" title="Color symbolism">Color symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_preferences" title="Color preferences">Color preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCscher_color_test" title="Lüscher color test">Lüscher color test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kruithof_curve" title="Kruithof curve">Kruithof curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_colour" title="Political colour">Political color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_colours" title="National colours">National colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromophobia" title="Chromophobia">Chromophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_reproduction" title="Color reproduction">Color reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_photography" title="Color photography">Color photography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_balance" title="Color balance">Color balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_cast" title="Colour cast">Color cast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">Digital image processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_management" title="Color management">Color management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_printing" title="Color printing">Color printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-primary_color_display" title="Multi-primary color display">Multi-primary color display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattron" title="Quattron">Quattron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_model" title="Color model">Color model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Additive_color" title="Additive color">additive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RGB" class="mw-redirect" title="RGB">RGB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtractive_color" title="Subtractive color">subtractive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CMYK" class="mw-redirect" title="CMYK">CMYK</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_space" title="Color space">Color space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Color mapping">Color mapping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:RGB_color_wheel.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RGB_color_wheel.svg/100px-RGB_color_wheel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RGB_color_wheel.svg/150px-RGB_color_wheel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RGB_color_wheel.svg/200px-RGB_color_wheel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color<br />philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_scheme" title="Color scheme">Color scheme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_picker" title="Color picker">Color tool</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monochromatic_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="Monochromatic colors">Monochromatic colors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">black-and-white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_colors" title="Complementary colors">Complementary colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analogous_colors" title="Analogous colors">Analogous colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey" title="Grey">Achromatic colors (Neutral)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychrome" title="Polychrome">Polychromatic colors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-on-dark_color_scheme" title="Light-on-dark color scheme">Light-on-dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_colors" title="Web colors">Web colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tincture_(heraldry)" title="Tincture (heraldry)">Tinctures in heraldry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_theory" title="Color theory">Color theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_mixing" title="Color mixing">Color mixing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">Primary color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_color" title="Secondary color">Secondary color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromaticity" title="Chromaticity">Chromaticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_solid" title="Color solid">Color solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_wheel" title="Color wheel">Color wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_triangle" title="Color triangle">Color triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_analysis" title="Color analysis">Color analysis</a> (fashion)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_realism_(art_style)" title="Color realism (art style)">Color realism (art style)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Vision_and_Colours" title="On Vision and Colours">On Vision and Colours</a></i> (Schopenhauer)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Colours" title="Theory of Colours">Theory of Colours</a></i> (Goethe)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_term" title="Color term">Color terms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_term#Basic_color_terms" title="Color term">Basic terms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink" title="Pink">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purple" title="Purple">Purple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_(colour)" title="Orange (colour)">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black" title="Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey" title="Grey">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White" title="White">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown" title="Brown">Brown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Color_in_culture" title="Category:Color in culture">Cultural differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate" title="Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate">Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue%E2%80%93green_distinction_in_language" title="Blue–green distinction in language">Blue–green distinction in language</a></li></ul></li> <li>Color history <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white_dualism" title="Black-and-white dualism">Black-and-white dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_in_culture" title="Blue in culture">Blue in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_in_Chinese_culture" title="Color in Chinese culture">Color in Chinese culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_colors_of_Japan" title="Traditional colors of Japan">Traditional colors of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin_color" title="Human skin color">Human skin color</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Color dimensions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hue" title="Hue">Hue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dichromatism" title="Dichromatism">Dichromatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorfulness" title="Colorfulness">Colorfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pastel_(color)" title="Pastel (color)">Pastel colors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminance" title="Luminance">Luminance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lightness" title="Lightness">Lightness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkness" title="Darkness">Darkness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brightness" title="Brightness">Brightness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridescence" title="Iridescence">Iridescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">Fluorescence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grayscale" title="Grayscale">Grayscale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tint,_shade_and_tone" title="Tint, shade and tone">Tint, shade and tone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Color<br />organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pantone" title="Pantone">Pantone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_Marketing_Group" title="Color Marketing Group">Color Marketing Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_Association_of_the_United_States" title="Color Association of the United States">Color Association of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Colour_Authority" title="International Colour Authority">International Colour Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Illumination" title="International Commission on Illumination">International Commission on Illumination</a> (CIE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Color_Consortium" title="International Color Consortium">International Color Consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Colour_Association" title="International Colour Association">International Colour Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Names</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_colors" title="Lists of colors">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_A%E2%80%93F" title="List of colors: A–F">List of colors: A–F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_G%E2%80%93M" title="List of colors: G–M">List of colors: G–M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_N%E2%80%93Z" title="List of colors: N–Z">List of colors: N–Z</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors_(compact)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colors (compact)">List of colors (compact)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade" title="List of colors by shade">List of colors by shade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_color_palettes" title="List of color palettes">List of color palettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_color_spaces_and_their_uses" title="List of color spaces and their uses">List of color spaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors" title="List of Crayola crayon colors">List of Crayola crayon colors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Crayola_crayons" title="History of Crayola crayons">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_chart" title="Color chart">Color chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_RAL_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of RAL colors">List of RAL colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_colors" title="Web colors">List of web colors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade" title="List of colors by shade">Shades of:</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_red" title="Shades of red">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_orange" title="Shades of orange">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_yellow" title="Shades of yellow">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_green" title="Shades of green">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_cyan" title="Shades of cyan">Cyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_blue" title="Shades of blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_violet" title="Shades of violet">Violet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_purple" title="Shades of purple">Purple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_magenta" title="Shades of magenta">Magenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_pink" title="Shades of pink">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_brown" title="Shades of brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_white" title="Shades of white">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_gray" title="Shades of gray">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_black" title="Shades of black">Black</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_color-related_articles" title="Index of color-related articles">Related</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contrast_(vision)" title="Contrast (vision)">Contrast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting" title="Lighting">Lighting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Color" title="Category:Color">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_color-related_articles" title="Index of color-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mental_processes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_processes" title="Template:Mental processes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mental_processes" title="Template talk:Mental processes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mental_processes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mental processes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mental_processes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Mental processes</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_(psychology)" title="Association (psychology)">Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_flexibility" title="Cognitive flexibility">Cognitive flexibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forecasting" title="Forecasting">Forecasting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_forecasting" title="Affective forecasting">affective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">Foresight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Comprehension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">Imagination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving#Problem-solving_methods" title="Problem solving">methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving#Problem-solving_strategies" title="Problem solving">strategies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospection" title="Prospection">Prospection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amodal_perception" title="Amodal perception">Amodal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Color</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_perception" title="Form perception">Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_perception" title="Haptic perception">Haptic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">Touch</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Perception as interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_vision" title="Peripheral vision">Peripheral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_perception" title="Social perception">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoacoustics" title="Psychoacoustics">Sound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic" title="Harmonic">Harmonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">Pitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_perception" title="Speech perception">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiential_avoidance" title="Experiential avoidance">Experiential avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Higher_Nervous_Activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Higher Nervous Activity">Higher nervous activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ironic_process_theory" title="Ironic process theory">Ironic process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatigue#Mental" title="Fatigue">Mental fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_frame_theory" title="Relational frame theory">Relational frame theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(psychology)" title="Set (psychology)">Mental set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">Thought suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volition_(psychology)" title="Volition (psychology)">Volition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q374259#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Farbensehen"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4016454-8">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Color vision"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85028654">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="barevné vidění"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph118771&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007284592705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&oldid=1258160880">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&oldid=1258160880</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Color_vision" title="Category:Color vision">Color vision</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Image_processing" title="Category:Image processing">Image processing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Visual_perception" title="Category:Visual perception">Visual perception</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mathematics_in_medicine" title="Category:Mathematics in medicine">Mathematics in medicine</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_August_2021" title="Category:Use American English from August 2021">Use American English from August 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_that_are_too_technical" title="Category:All articles that are too technical">All articles that are too technical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_that_are_too_technical_from_May_2018" title="Category:Wikipedia articles that are too technical from May 2018">Wikipedia articles that are too technical from May 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_expert_attention" title="Category:All articles needing expert attention">All articles needing expert attention</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_expert_attention_from_May_2018" title="Category:Articles needing expert attention from May 2018">Articles needing expert attention from May 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2010" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2010">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_May_2016" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from May 2016">Articles needing additional references from May 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 18 November 2024, at 12:59<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Color_vision&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-fn5x6","wgBackendResponseTime":151,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.053","walltime":"1.209","ppvisitednodes":{"value":6144,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":248678,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":3755,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":11,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":321108,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 984.181 1 -total"," 46.28% 455.523 1 Template:Reflist"," 27.09% 266.589 44 Template:Cite_journal"," 12.79% 125.844 7 Template:Navbox"," 9.14% 89.919 1 Template:Color_vision"," 9.04% 89.015 22 Template:Cite_book"," 6.73% 66.211 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.83% 47.575 1 Template:Commons_category"," 4.62% 45.447 1 Template:Sister_project"," 4.40% 43.265 1 Template:Side_box"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.594","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7256994,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-twlxc","timestamp":"20241122140813","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Color vision","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Color_vision","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q374259","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q374259","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-08-23T05:23:20Z","dateModified":"2024-11-18T12:59:02Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a3\/Filterstef.JPG","headline":"ability of an organism or machine to distinguish objects based on wavelengths of light"}</script> </body> </html>