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id="toc-Natural_variability_and_climate_feedbacks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_variability_and_climate_feedbacks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Natural variability and climate feedbacks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_variability_and_climate_feedbacks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measured_and_estimated_values" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measured_and_estimated_values"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Measured and estimated values </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Measured_and_estimated_values-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Measured and estimated values subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Measured_and_estimated_values-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Present_day_and_recent_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Present_day_and_recent_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Present day and recent history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Present_day_and_recent_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geologic_past" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geologic_past"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Geologic past </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geologic_past-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predicted_future_values" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predicted_future_values"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Predicted future values </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predicted_future_values-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts_on_oceanic_calcifying_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts_on_oceanic_calcifying_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Impacts on oceanic calcifying organisms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts_on_oceanic_calcifying_organisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impacts on oceanic calcifying organisms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts_on_oceanic_calcifying_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Complexity_of_research_findings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complexity_of_research_findings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Complexity of research findings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complexity_of_research_findings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coccolithophores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coccolithophores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Coccolithophores </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coccolithophores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Corals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Studies_at_carbon_dioxide_seep_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Studies_at_carbon_dioxide_seep_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Studies at carbon dioxide seep sites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Studies_at_carbon_dioxide_seep_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pteropods_and_brittle_stars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pteropods_and_brittle_stars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Pteropods and brittle stars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pteropods_and_brittle_stars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_impacts_on_ecosystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_impacts_on_ecosystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Other impacts on ecosystems </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_impacts_on_ecosystems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Other impacts on ecosystems subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Other_impacts_on_ecosystems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_biological_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_biological_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Other biological impacts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_biological_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acoustic_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acoustic_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Acoustic properties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acoustic_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Algae_and_seagrasses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algae_and_seagrasses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Algae and seagrasses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algae_and_seagrasses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fish_larvae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish_larvae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.3 Fish larvae </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish_larvae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compounded_effects_of_acidification,_warming_and_deoxygenation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compounded_effects_of_acidification,_warming_and_deoxygenation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Compounded effects of acidification, warming and deoxygenation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compounded_effects_of_acidification,_warming_and_deoxygenation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts_on_the_economy_and_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts_on_the_economy_and_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Impacts on the economy and societies </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts_on_the_economy_and_societies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impacts on the economy and societies subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts_on_the_economy_and_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fishing_and_tourism_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fishing_and_tourism_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Fishing and tourism industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fishing_and_tourism_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arctic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arctic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Arctic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arctic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-US_commercial_fisheries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#US_commercial_fisheries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 US commercial fisheries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-US_commercial_fisheries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Possible responses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Possible_responses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Possible responses subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Possible_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Climate_change_mitigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change_mitigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Climate change mitigation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change_mitigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_removal_technologies_which_add_alkalinity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_removal_technologies_which_add_alkalinity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Carbon removal technologies which add alkalinity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_removal_technologies_which_add_alkalinity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ocean_alkalinity_enhancement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_alkalinity_enhancement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Ocean alkalinity enhancement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_alkalinity_enhancement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrochemical_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrochemical_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.2 Electrochemical methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrochemical_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policies_and_goals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policies_and_goals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Policies and goals </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Policies_and_goals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Policies and goals subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Policies_and_goals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Global_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Global policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-UN_Ocean_Decade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#UN_Ocean_Decade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.1 UN Ocean Decade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-UN_Ocean_Decade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_Climate_Indicators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_Climate_Indicators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.2 Global Climate Indicators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_Climate_Indicators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sustainable_Development_Goal_14" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sustainable_Development_Goal_14"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.3 Sustainable Development Goal 14 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sustainable_Development_Goal_14-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policies_at_country_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policies_at_country_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Policies at country level </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policies_at_country_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ocean acidification</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" > 42 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%B6_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="تحمض المحيطات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تحمض المحيطات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF" title="মহাসাগরের অম্লতা বৃদ্ধি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মহাসাগরের অম্লতা বৃদ্ধি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Окисляване на океана – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Окисляване на океана" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidificaci%C3%B3_de_l%27oce%C3%A0" title="Acidificació de l'oceà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Acidificació de l'oceà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okyselov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_oce%C3%A1n%C5%AF" title="Okyselování oceánů – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Okyselování oceánů" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havenes_forsuring" title="Havenes forsuring – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Havenes forsuring" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versauerung_der_Meere" title="Versauerung der Meere – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Versauerung der Meere" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ookeanide_hapestumine" title="Ookeanide hapestumine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ookeanide hapestumine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%BE%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B7_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CF%89%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Οξίνιση των ωκεανών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οξίνιση των ωκεανών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidificaci%C3%B3n_del_oc%C3%A9ano" title="Acidificación del océano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Acidificación del océano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceana_acidi%C4%9Do" title="Oceana acidiĝo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Oceana acidiĝo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozeanoen_azidifikazio" title="Ozeanoen azidifikazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ozeanoen azidifikazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%B4%D8%AF%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3" title="اسیدی شدن اقیانوس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اسیدی شدن اقیانوس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidification_des_oc%C3%A9ans" title="Acidification des océans – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Acidification des océans" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%96%91_%EC%82%B0%EC%84%B1%ED%99%94" title="해양 산성화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해양 산성화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peningkatan_keasaman_air_laut" title="Peningkatan keasaman air laut – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peningkatan keasaman air laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BArnun_sj%C3%A1var" title="Súrnun sjávar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Súrnun sjávar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidificazione_degli_oceani" title="Acidificazione degli oceani – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Acidificazione degli oceani" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9D" title="החמצת אוקיינוסים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="החמצת אוקיינוסים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ოკეანის 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searchaux" style="display:none">Decrease of pH levels in the ocean</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mean-seawater-ph.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mean-seawater-ph.png/350px-Mean-seawater-ph.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mean-seawater-ph.png/525px-Mean-seawater-ph.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mean-seawater-ph.png/700px-Mean-seawater-ph.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Ocean acidification means that the average <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> <a href="/wiki/PH_value" class="mw-redirect" title="PH value">pH value</a> is dropping over time.<a href="#cite_note-:15-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> of the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a>. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05.<a href="#cite_note-role-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide emissions">Carbon dioxide emissions</a> from human activities are the primary cause of ocean acidification, with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels</a> exceeding 422 ppm (as of 2024<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit">[update]</a>).<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> CO2 from the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> is absorbed by the oceans. This chemical reaction produces <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>H2CO3) which <a href="/wiki/Dissociate" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissociate">dissociates</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicarbonate ion">bicarbonate ion</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">HCO−3) and a <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_ion" title="Hydrogen ion">hydrogen ion</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">H+). The presence of free hydrogen ions (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">H+) lowers the pH of the ocean, increasing <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acidity</a> (this does not mean that <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> is acidic yet; it is still <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkaline</a>, with a pH higher than 8). <a href="/wiki/Marine_biogenic_calcification" title="Marine biogenic calcification">Marine calcifying organisms</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">mollusks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, are especially vulnerable because they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons.<a href="#cite_note-raven05-4">[4]</a> A change in pH by 0.1 represents a 26% increase in hydrogen ion concentration in the world's oceans (the pH scale is logarithmic, so a change of one in pH units is equivalent to a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration). Sea-surface pH and carbonate saturation states vary depending on ocean depth and location. Colder and higher latitude waters are capable of absorbing more CO2. This can cause acidity to rise, lowering the pH and carbonate saturation levels in these areas. There are several other factors that influence the atmosphere-ocean CO2 exchange, and thus local ocean acidification. These include <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean currents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> zones, proximity to large continental rivers, <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a> coverage, and atmospheric exchange with <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> from <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> burning and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jian2019-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> A lower ocean pH has a range of potentially harmful effects for <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine organisms</a>. Scientists have observed for example reduced calcification, lowered <a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">immune responses</a>, and reduced energy for basic functions such as reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-bleaching-8">[8]</a> Ocean acidification can impact <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">marine ecosystems</a> that provide food and livelihoods for many people. About one billion people are wholly or partially dependent on the fishing, tourism, and coastal management services provided by <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>. Ongoing acidification of the oceans may therefore threaten <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chains</a> linked with the oceans.<a href="#cite_note-auto-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:18-10">[10]</a> The only solution that would address the root cause of ocean acidification is to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. This is one of the main objectives of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> measures. <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">The removal of carbon dioxide</a> from the atmosphere would also help to reverse ocean acidification. In addition, there are some specific <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Sequestration_techniques_in_oceans" title="Carbon sequestration">ocean-based mitigation methods</a>, for example ocean <a href="/wiki/Alkalinity" title="Alkalinity">alkalinity</a> enhancement and <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_weathering" title="Enhanced weathering">enhanced weathering</a>. These strategies are under investigation, but generally have a low <a href="/wiki/Technology_readiness_level" title="Technology readiness level">technology readiness level</a> and many risks.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Ocean acidification has happened before in Earth's geologic history.<a href="#cite_note-:9-14">[14]</a> The resulting ecological collapse in the oceans had long-lasting effects on the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">global carbon cycle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">climate</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cause">Cause</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Cause">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spatial_distribution_of_global_surface_ocean_pH.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Spatial_distribution_of_global_surface_ocean_pH.webp/260px-Spatial_distribution_of_global_surface_ocean_pH.webp.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Spatial_distribution_of_global_surface_ocean_pH.webp/390px-Spatial_distribution_of_global_surface_ocean_pH.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Spatial_distribution_of_global_surface_ocean_pH.webp/520px-Spatial_distribution_of_global_surface_ocean_pH.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="773" /></a><figcaption>Spatial distribution of global surface ocean pH (Panel a: the annually-averaged surface ocean pH to be approximate for the year 1770; Panel b: the difference between pH in 2000 and 1770 in the global surface ocean).<a href="#cite_note-Jian2019-5">[5]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_cycle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Carbon_cycle.jpg/260px-Carbon_cycle.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Carbon_cycle.jpg/390px-Carbon_cycle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Carbon_cycle.jpg/520px-Carbon_cycle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="2192" /></a><figcaption>This diagram of the fast carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, and red are human contributions in gigatons of carbon per year. White numbers indicate stored carbon.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/330px--Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="330" height="186" data-durationhint="239" data-mwtitle="Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_(NOAA_EVL).webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_(NOAA_EVL).webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm/Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_%28NOAA_EVL%29.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Video summarizing the impacts of ocean acidification. Source: <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> Environmental Visualization Laboratory.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">Oceanic carbon cycle</a></div>Present-day (2021) atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels of around 415 ppm are around 50% higher than preindustrial concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-carbon_budget_2022-16">[16]</a> The current elevated levels and rapid growth rates are unprecedented in the past 55 million years of the geological record. The sources of this excess CO2 are clearly established as human driven: they include anthropogenic fossil fuel, industrial, and land-use/land-change emissions. One source of this is fossil fuels, which are burned for energy. When burned, CO2 is released into the atmosphere as a byproduct of combustion, which is a significant contributor to the increasing levels of CO2 in the Earth's atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The ocean acts as a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a> for anthropogenic CO2 and takes up roughly a quarter of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:14-18">[18]</a> However, the additional CO2 in the ocean results in a wholesale shift in <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> acid-base chemistry toward more acidic, lower pH conditions and lower saturation states for carbonate minerals used in many marine organism shells and skeletons.<a href="#cite_note-:14-18">[18]</a> Accumulated since 1850, the ocean sink holds up to 175 ± 35 gigatons of carbon, with more than two-thirds of this amount (120 GtC) being taken up by the global ocean since 1960. Over the historical period, the ocean sink increased in pace with the exponential anthropogenic emissions increase. From 1850 until 2022, the ocean has absorbed 26 % of total anthropogenic emissions.<a href="#cite_note-carbon_budget_2022-16">[16]</a> Emissions during the period 1850–2021 amounted to 670 ± 65 gigatons of carbon and were partitioned among the atmosphere (41 %), ocean (26 %), and land (31 %).<a href="#cite_note-carbon_budget_2022-16">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a> describes the fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO 2) between the oceans, <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">terrestrial</a> <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>. The carbon cycle involves both <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> and inorganic carbon compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate ion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate ion</a>, together referenced as dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). These inorganic compounds are particularly significant in ocean acidification, as they include many forms of dissolved CO 2 present in the Earth's oceans.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> When CO 2 dissolves, it reacts with water to form a balance of ionic and non-ionic chemical species: dissolved free carbon dioxide (CO 2(aq)), <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> (H 2CO 3), <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a> (HCO− 3) and carbonate (CO2− 3). The ratio of these species depends on factors such as <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, pressure and salinity (as shown in a <a href="/wiki/Bjerrum_plot" title="Bjerrum plot">Bjerrum plot</a>). These different forms of <a href="/wiki/Total_inorganic_carbon" title="Total inorganic carbon">dissolved inorganic carbon</a> are transferred from an ocean's surface to its interior by the ocean's <a href="/wiki/Solubility_pump" title="Solubility pump">solubility pump</a>. The resistance of an area of ocean to absorbing atmospheric CO 2 is known as the <a href="/wiki/Revelle_factor" title="Revelle factor">Revelle factor</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_effects">Main effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Main effects">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">ocean's chemistry</a> is changing due to the uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2).<a href="#cite_note-Jian2019-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:43-21">[21]</a>: 395  Ocean pH, carbonate ion concentrations ([CO32−]), and calcium carbonate mineral saturation states (Ω) have been declining as a result of the uptake of approximately 30% of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions over the past 270 years (since around 1750). This process, commonly referred to as "ocean acidification", is making it harder for <a href="/wiki/Marine_biogenic_calcification" title="Marine biogenic calcification">marine calcifiers</a> to build a shell or skeletal structure, endangering coral reefs and the broader marine ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-Jian2019-5">[5]</a> Ocean acidification has been called the "evil twin of <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>" and "the other CO2 problem".<a href="#cite_note-rsc-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Increased ocean temperatures and oxygen loss act concurrently with ocean acidification and constitute the "deadly trio" of climate change pressures on the marine environment.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The impacts of this will be most severe for coral reefs and other shelled marine organisms,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> as well as those populations that depend on the ecosystem services they provide. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduction_in_pH_value">Reduction in pH value</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Reduction in pH value">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ocean#pH_and_alkalinity" title="Ocean">Ocean § pH and alkalinity</a></div> Dissolving CO 2 in seawater increases the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> ion (H+ ) concentration in the ocean, and thus decreases ocean pH, as follows:<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-27">[27]</a><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">CO2 (aq) + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3− + H+ ⇌ CO32− + 2 H+.</div> In shallow coastal and shelf regions, a number of factors interplay to affect air-ocean CO2 exchange and resulting pH change.<a href="#cite_note-Carstensen2019-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> These include biological processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and respiration,<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> as well as water upwelling.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Also, <a href="/wiki/Stream_metabolism" title="Stream metabolism">ecosystem metabolism</a> in freshwater sources reaching coastal waters can lead to large, but local, pH changes.<a href="#cite_note-Carstensen2019-28">[28]</a> Freshwater bodies also appear to be acidifying, although this is a more complex and less obvious phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-Gies2018-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weiss2018-33">[33]</a> The absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere does not affect the ocean's <a href="/wiki/Alkalinity" title="Alkalinity">alkalinity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-34">[34]</a>: 2252  This is important to know in this context as alkalinity is the capacity of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> to resist <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_acidification" title="Freshwater acidification">acidification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_alkalinity_enhancement" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean alkalinity enhancement">Ocean alkalinity enhancement</a> has been proposed as one option to add alkalinity to the ocean and therefore buffer against pH changes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decreased_calcification_in_marine_organisms">Decreased calcification in marine organisms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Decreased calcification in marine organisms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foraminifera_(265_36)_Various.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Foraminifera_%28265_36%29_Various.jpg/220px-Foraminifera_%28265_36%29_Various.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Foraminifera_%28265_36%29_Various.jpg/330px-Foraminifera_%28265_36%29_Various.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Foraminifera_%28265_36%29_Various.jpg/440px-Foraminifera_%28265_36%29_Various.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3750" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Various types of <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminifera</a> observed through a microscope using differential interference contrast.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbonate_system_of_seawater.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Carbonate_system_of_seawater.svg/260px-Carbonate_system_of_seawater.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Carbonate_system_of_seawater.svg/390px-Carbonate_system_of_seawater.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Carbonate_system_of_seawater.svg/520px-Carbonate_system_of_seawater.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bjerrum_plot" title="Bjerrum plot">Bjerrum plot</a>: Change in carbonate system of seawater from ocean acidification</figcaption></figure> Changes in ocean chemistry can have extensive direct and indirect effects on organisms and their habitats. One of the most important repercussions of increasing ocean acidity relates to the production of shells out of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">CaCO3).<a href="#cite_note-raven05-4">[4]</a> This process is called calcification and is important to the biology and survival of a wide range of marine organisms. Calcification involves the <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitation</a> of dissolved ions into solid <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">CaCO3 structures, structures for many marine organisms, such as <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminifera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crustacea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crustacea">crustaceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">mollusks</a>, etc. After they are formed, these <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">CaCO3 structures are vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">dissolution</a> unless the surrounding seawater contains <a href="/wiki/Saturated_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturated solution">saturating</a> concentrations of carbonate ions (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">CO2−3). Very little of the extra carbon dioxide that is added into the ocean remains as dissolved carbon dioxide. The majority dissociates into additional bicarbonate and free hydrogen ions. The increase in hydrogen is larger than the increase in bicarbonate,<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell-36">[36]</a> creating an imbalance in the reaction: <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">HCO−3 ⇌ CO2−3 + H+</dd></dl> To maintain chemical equilibrium, some of the carbonate ions already in the ocean combine with some of the hydrogen ions to make further bicarbonate. Thus the ocean's concentration of carbonate ions is reduced, removing an essential building block for marine organisms to build shells, or calcify: <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">Ca2+ + CO2−3 ⇌ CaCO3</dd></dl> The increase in concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide and bicarbonate, and reduction in carbonate, are shown in the <a href="/wiki/Bjerrum_plot" title="Bjerrum plot">Bjerrum plot</a>. Disruption of the food chain is also a possible effect as many marine organisms rely on calcium carbonate-based organisms at the base of the food chain for food and habitat. This can potentially have detrimental effects throughout the food web and potentially lead to a decline in availability of fish stocks which would have an impact on human livelihoods.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decrease_in_saturation_state">Decrease in saturation state</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Decrease in saturation state">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CalciumAragoniteSaturation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/CalciumAragoniteSaturation.jpg/330px-CalciumAragoniteSaturation.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/CalciumAragoniteSaturation.jpg/495px-CalciumAragoniteSaturation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/CalciumAragoniteSaturation.jpg/660px-CalciumAragoniteSaturation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of (A) aragonite and (B) calcite saturation depth in the global oceans<a href="#cite_note-Feely04-38">[38]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Saturated_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturated solution">saturation</a> state (known as Ω) of seawater for a mineral is a measure of the thermodynamic potential for the mineral to form or to dissolve, and for calcium carbonate is described by the following equation: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\Omega }={\frac {\left[{\ce {Ca^2+}}\right]\left[{\ce {CO3^2-}}\right]}{K_{sp}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Ω</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mtext>Ca</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\Omega }={\frac {\left[{\ce {Ca^2+}}\right]\left[{\ce {CO3^2-}}\right]}{K_{sp}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0422ec8bbb280ae8547a20d486b928b0c21846f4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:20.871ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\Omega }={\frac {\left[{\ce {Ca^2+}}\right]\left[{\ce {CO3^2-}}\right]}{K_{sp}}}}"></dd></dl> Here Ω is the product of the concentrations (or <a href="/wiki/Activity_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Activity (chemistry)">activities</a>) of the reacting ions that form the mineral (Ca2+ and CO32−), divided by the apparent solubility product at <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a> (Ksp), that is, when the rates of precipitation and dissolution are equal.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In seawater, dissolution boundary is formed as a result of temperature, pressure, and depth, and is known as the saturation horizon.<a href="#cite_note-raven05-4">[4]</a> Above this saturation horizon, Ω has a value greater than 1, and CaCO 3 does not readily dissolve. Most calcifying organisms live in such waters.<a href="#cite_note-raven05-4">[4]</a> Below this depth, Ω has a value less than 1, and CaCO 3 will dissolve. The <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_compensation_depth" title="Carbonate compensation depth">carbonate compensation depth</a> is the ocean depth at which carbonate dissolution balances the supply of carbonate to sea floor, therefore sediment below this depth will be void of calcium carbonate.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Increasing CO2 levels, and the resulting lower pH of seawater, decreases the concentration of CO32− and the saturation state of CaCO 3 therefore increasing CaCO 3 dissolution. Calcium carbonate most commonly occurs in two common <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">polymorphs</a> (crystalline forms): <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a>. Aragonite is much more soluble than calcite, so the aragonite saturation horizon, and aragonite compensation depth, is always nearer to the surface than the calcite saturation horizon.<a href="#cite_note-raven05-4">[4]</a> This also means that those organisms that produce aragonite may be more vulnerable to changes in ocean acidity than those that produce calcite.<a href="#cite_note-orr05-41">[41]</a> Ocean acidification and the resulting decrease in carbonate saturation states raise the saturation horizons of both forms closer to the surface.<a href="#cite_note-raven05-4">[4]</a> This decrease in saturation state is one of the main factors leading to decreased calcification in marine organisms because the inorganic precipitation of CaCO 3 is directly proportional to its saturation state and calcifying organisms exhibit stress in waters with lower saturation states.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_variability_and_climate_feedbacks">Natural variability and climate feedbacks</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Natural variability and climate feedbacks">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_compensation_depth" title="Carbonate compensation depth">Carbonate compensation depth</a></div> Already now large quantities of water undersaturated in <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a> are <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> close to the Pacific <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a> area of North America, from <a href="/wiki/Vancouver" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a> to <a href="/wiki/Northern_California" title="Northern California">Northern California</a>.<a href="#cite_note-feeley08-43">[43]</a> These continental shelves play an important role in marine ecosystems, since most <a href="/wiki/Marine_organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine organisms">marine organisms</a> live or are <a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">spawned</a> there. Other shelf areas may be experiencing similar effects.<a href="#cite_note-feeley08-43">[43]</a> At depths of 1000s of meters in the ocean, calcium carbonate shells begin to dissolve as increasing pressure and decreasing temperature shift the chemical equilibria controlling calcium carbonate precipitation.<a href="#cite_note-:13-44">[44]</a> The depth at which this occurs is known as the <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_compensation_depth" title="Carbonate compensation depth">carbonate compensation depth</a>. Ocean acidification will increase such dissolution and shallow the carbonate compensation depth on timescales of tens to hundreds of years.<a href="#cite_note-:13-44">[44]</a> Zones of <a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">downwelling</a> are being affected first.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In the North Pacific and North Atlantic, saturation states are also decreasing (the depth of saturation is getting more shallow).<a href="#cite_note-:43-21">[21]</a>: 396  Ocean acidification is progressing in the open ocean as the CO2 travels to deeper depth as a result of ocean mixing. In the open ocean, this causes carbonate compensation depths to become more shallow, meaning that dissolution of calcium carbonate will occur below those depths. In the North Pacific these carbonate saturations depths are shallowing at a rate of 1–2 m per year.<a href="#cite_note-:43-21">[21]</a>: 396  It is expected that ocean acidification in the future will lead to a significant decrease in the burial of carbonate sediments for several centuries, and even the dissolution of existing carbonate sediments.<a href="#cite_note-ridgwell07-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measured_and_estimated_values">Measured and estimated values</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Measured and estimated values">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Present_day_and_recent_history">Present day and recent history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Present day and recent history">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Co2_time_series_aloha_08-09-2023.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Co2_time_series_aloha_08-09-2023.jpg/220px-Co2_time_series_aloha_08-09-2023.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Co2_time_series_aloha_08-09-2023.jpg/330px-Co2_time_series_aloha_08-09-2023.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Co2_time_series_aloha_08-09-2023.jpg/440px-Co2_time_series_aloha_08-09-2023.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3238" data-file-height="2526" /></a><figcaption>Time series of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa (in parts per million volume, ppmv; red), surface ocean pCO2 (μatm; green) and surface ocean pH (blue) at Ocean Station ALOHA in the subtropical North Pacific Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_(GLODAP).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="World map showing the varying change to pH across different parts of different oceans" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png/290px-Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png/435px-Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png/580px-Estimated_change_in_annual_mean_sea_surface_pH_from_1770s-1990s_%28GLODAP%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1683" data-file-height="1133" /></a><figcaption>Estimated change in seawater <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_impact" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic impact">anthropogenic impact</a> on <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO 2</a> levels between the 1700s and the 1990s, from the <a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a> (GLODAP) and the <a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></figcaption></figure>Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH value of the ocean surface is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.15 to 8.05.<a href="#cite_note-role-2">[2]</a> This represents an increase of around 26% in hydrogen ion concentration in the world's oceans (the pH scale is logarithmic, so a change of one in pH unit is equivalent to a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration).<a href="#cite_note-:19-49">[49]</a> For example, in the 15-year period 1995–2010 alone, acidity has increased 6 percent in the upper 100 meters of the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii to Alaska.<a href="#cite_note-2010aug_sciam-50">[50]</a> The <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> in 2021 stated that "present-day surface pH values are unprecedented for at least 26,000 years and current rates of pH change are unprecedented since at least that time.<a href="#cite_note-:82-51">[51]</a>: 76  The pH value of the ocean interior has declined over the last 20–30 years everywhere in the global ocean.<a href="#cite_note-:82-51">[51]</a>: 76  The report also found that "pH in open ocean surface water has declined by about 0.017 to 0.027 pH units per decade since the late 1980s".<a href="#cite_note-:2-52">[52]</a>: 716  The rate of decline differs by region. This is due to complex interactions between different types of forcing mechanisms:<a href="#cite_note-:2-52">[52]</a>: 716  "In the tropical Pacific, its central and eastern upwelling zones exhibited a faster pH decline of minus 0.022 to minus 0.026 pH unit per decade." This is thought to be "due to increased <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> of CO2-rich sub-surface waters in addition to anthropogenic CO2 uptake."<a href="#cite_note-:2-52">[52]</a>: 716  Some regions exhibited a slower acidification rate: a pH decline of minus 0.010 to minus 0.013 pH unit per decade has been observed in warm pools in the western tropical Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-:2-52">[52]</a>: 716  The rate at which ocean acidification will occur may be influenced by the rate of <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">surface ocean warming</a>, because warm waters will not absorb as much CO2.<a href="#cite_note-humphreys20162-53">[53]</a> Therefore, greater seawater warming could limit CO2 absorption and lead to a smaller change in pH for a given increase in CO2.<a href="#cite_note-humphreys20162-53">[53]</a> The difference in changes in temperature between basins is one of the main reasons for the differences in acidification rates in different localities. Current rates of ocean acidification have been likened to the greenhouse event at the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene%E2%80%93Eocene_Thermal_Maximum" title="Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum">Paleocene–Eocene</a> boundary (about 56 million years ago), when surface ocean temperatures rose by 5–6 degrees <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a>. In that event, surface ecosystems experienced a variety of impacts, but bottom-dwelling organisms in the deep ocean actually experienced a major extinction.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Currently, the rate of carbon addition to the atmosphere-ocean system is about ten times the rate that occurred at the Paleocene–Eocene boundary.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Extensive observational systems are now in place or being built for monitoring seawater CO2 chemistry and acidification for both the global open ocean and some coastal systems.<a href="#cite_note-:14-18">[18]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Rates of increasing acidity in different marine regions </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Location</th> <th>Change in pH units per decade</th> <th>Period</th> <th>Data source </th> <th>Year of publication </th></tr> <tr> <td>Iceland<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></td> <td>minus 0.024</td> <td>1984–2009</td> <td>Direct measurements </td> <td>2009 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Drake Passage<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></td> <td>minus 0.018</td> <td>2002–2012</td> <td>Direct measurements </td> <td>2012 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Canary (ESTOC)<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></td> <td>minus 0.017</td> <td>1995–2004</td> <td>Direct measurements </td> <td>2010 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hawaii (<a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Ocean_Time-series" title="Hawaii Ocean Time-series">HOT</a>)<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></td> <td>minus 0.019</td> <td>1989–2007</td> <td>Direct measurements </td> <td>2009 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bermuda (<a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Atlantic_Time-series_Study" title="Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study">BATS</a>)<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></td> <td>minus 0.017</td> <td>1984–2012</td> <td>Direct measurements </td> <td>2012 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Coral Sea<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></td> <td>minus 0.002</td> <td>~1700 – ~1990</td> <td>Proxy reconstruction </td> <td>2005 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Eastern Mediterranean<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></td> <td>minus 0.023</td> <td>1964–2005</td> <td>Proxy reconstruction </td> <td>2016 </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Rates of pH change for some regions of the world (Many more regions available in source table)<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a>: Table 5.SM.3  </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Station, region </th> <th>Study period </th> <th>pH change per decade </th></tr> <tr> <td>Equatorial Pacific </td> <td>TAO </td> <td>2004–2011 </td> <td>−0.026 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> </td> <td>IO-STPS </td> <td>1991–2011 </td> <td>−0.027 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> </td> <td>Dyfamed (43.42°N, 7.87°E) </td> <td>1995–2011 </td> <td>−0.03 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic">North Atlantic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iceland_Sea" title="Iceland Sea">Iceland Sea</a> (68°N, 12.67°W) </td> <td>1985–2008 1985–2010 </td> <td>−0.024 −0.014 </td></tr> <tr> <td>North Atlantic </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Irminger_Sea" title="Irminger Sea">Irminger Sea</a> (64.3°N, 28°W) </td> <td>1983–2004 </td> <td>−0.026 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="North Pacific">North Pacific</a> </td> <td>NP-STSS </td> <td>1991–2011 </td> <td>−0.01 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> </td> <td>PAL-LTER, west Antarctic Peninsula </td> <td>1993–2012 </td> <td>+0.02 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geologic_past">Geologic past</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Geologic past">edit</a>]</div> Ocean acidification has occurred previously in Earth's history.<a href="#cite_note-:9-14">[14]</a> It happened during the <a href="/wiki/Capitanian_mass_extinction_event" title="Capitanian mass extinction event">Capitanian mass extinction</a>,<a href="#cite_note-bond15-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-6th_extinction-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-bbc15BerezowAlex-66">[66]</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Permian-Triassic_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Permian-Triassic extinction event">end-Permian extinction</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ClarksonP-TAcid-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-PayneOceanAcidPermian-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-PayneEtAl2015OceanAcid-69">[69]</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">end-Triassic extinction</a>,<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreeneOceanAcidTriassic-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-72">[72]</a> and during the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PNAS-20191021-73">[73]</a> Three of the big five mass extinction events in the geologic past were associated with a rapid increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, probably due to <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a> and/or thermal dissociation of marine <a href="/wiki/Clathrate_hydrate" title="Clathrate hydrate">gas hydrates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:8-74">[74]</a> Elevated CO2 levels impacted biodiversity.<a href="#cite_note-Zachos2005-75">[75]</a> Decreased <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">CaCO3 saturation due to seawater uptake of volcanogenic CO2 has been suggested as a possible kill mechanism during the marine mass extinction at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> The end-Triassic biotic crisis is still the most well-established example of a marine mass extinction due to ocean acidification, because (a) carbon isotope records suggest enhanced volcanic activity that decreased the carbonate sedimentation which reduced the carbonate compensation depth and the carbonate saturation state, and a marine extinction coincided precisely in the stratigraphic record,<a href="#cite_note-:4-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreeneOceanAcidTriassic-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> and (b) there was pronounced selectivity of the extinction against organisms with thick aragonitic skeletons,<a href="#cite_note-:4-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> which is predicted from experimental studies.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Ocean acidification has also been suggested as a one cause of the end-Permian mass extinction<a href="#cite_note-PayneOceanAcidPermian-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-ClarksonP-TAcid-67">[67]</a> and the end-Cretaceous crisis.<a href="#cite_note-PNAS-20191021-73">[73]</a> Overall, multiple climatic stressors, including ocean acidification, was likely the cause of geologic extinction events.<a href="#cite_note-:8-74">[74]</a> The most notable example of ocean acidification is the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene%E2%80%93Eocene_Thermal_Maximum" title="Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum">Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum</a> (PETM), which occurred approximately 56 million years ago when massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere, and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments across many ocean basins.<a href="#cite_note-Zachos2005-75">[75]</a> Relatively new geochemical methods of testing for pH in the past indicate the pH dropped 0.3 units across the PETM.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> One study that solves the marine carbonate system for saturation state shows that it may not change much over the PETM, suggesting the rate of carbon release at our best geological analogy was much slower than human-induced carbon emissions. However, stronger <a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">proxy</a> methods to test for saturation state are needed to assess how much this pH change may have affected calcifying organisms. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Predicted_future_values">Predicted future values</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Predicted future values">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oa-sami.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Oa-sami.jpg/170px-Oa-sami.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Oa-sami.jpg/255px-Oa-sami.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Oa-sami.jpg/340px-Oa-sami.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>In situ CO 2 concentration sensor (SAMI-CO2), attached to a Coral Reef Early Warning System station, utilized in conducting ocean acidification studies near coral reef areas (by <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanographic_and_Meteorological_Laboratory" title="Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory">AOML</a>))</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oa-buoy-enrique-reef.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Oa-buoy-enrique-reef.jpg/220px-Oa-buoy-enrique-reef.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Oa-buoy-enrique-reef.jpg/330px-Oa-buoy-enrique-reef.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Oa-buoy-enrique-reef.jpg/440px-Oa-buoy-enrique-reef.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1964" data-file-height="1144" /></a><figcaption>A moored autonomous CO 2 buoy used for measuring CO 2 concentration and ocean acidification studies (<a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> (by <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Marine_Environmental_Laboratory" title="Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory">PMEL</a>))</figcaption></figure> Importantly, the rate of change in ocean acidification is much higher than in the geological past. This faster change prevents organisms from gradually adapting, and prevents climate cycle feedbacks from kicking in to mitigate ocean acidification. Ocean acidification is now on a path to reach lower pH levels than at any other point in the last 300 million years.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20191021-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-PNAS-20191021-73">[73]</a> The rate of ocean acidification (i.e. the rate of change in pH value) is also estimated to be unprecedented over that same time scale.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-14">[14]</a> These expected changes are considered unprecedented in the geological record.<a href="#cite_note-yale_ridgwell_acidrate-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-87">[87]</a> In combination with other ocean <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogeochemical">biogeochemical</a> changes, this drop in pH value could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean, beginning as early as 2100.<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[88]</a> The extent of further ocean chemistry changes, including ocean pH, will depend on <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> efforts taken by nations and their governments.<a href="#cite_note-:82-51">[51]</a> Different scenarios of projected <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">socioeconomic</a> global changes are modelled by using the <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a> (SSP) scenarios. Under a <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">very high emission scenario (SSP5-8.5)</a>, model projections estimate that surface ocean pH could decrease by as much as 0.44 units by the end of this century, compared to the end of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a>: 608  This would mean a pH as low as about 7.7, and represents a further increase in H+ concentrations of two to four times beyond the increase to date. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Estimated past and future global mean surface pH for different emission scenarios<a href="#cite_note-:82-51">[51]</a>: values estimated from Figure TS.11 (d)  </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Time period </th> <th>Ocean surface pH value (approx.) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Pre-industrial (1850) </td> <td>8.17 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Current (2021) </td> <td>8.08 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Future (2100) with low emission scenario (<a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">SSP</a> 1–2.6) </td> <td>8.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Future (2100) with very high emission scenario (<a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">SSP</a> 5–8.5) </td> <td>7.7 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts_on_oceanic_calcifying_organisms">Impacts on oceanic calcifying organisms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Impacts on oceanic calcifying organisms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marine_biogenic_calcification" title="Marine biogenic calcification">Marine biogenic calcification</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_pteropod_shell_is_shown_dissolving_over_time.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/A_pteropod_shell_is_shown_dissolving_over_time.jpg/220px-A_pteropod_shell_is_shown_dissolving_over_time.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/A_pteropod_shell_is_shown_dissolving_over_time.jpg/330px-A_pteropod_shell_is_shown_dissolving_over_time.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/A_pteropod_shell_is_shown_dissolving_over_time.jpg/440px-A_pteropod_shell_is_shown_dissolving_over_time.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Pteropoda" title="Pteropoda">pteropod</a> shell is shown dissolving over time in seawater with a lower pH. When carbon dioxide is absorbed by the ocean from the atmosphere, the chemistry of the seawater is changed (source: <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">NOAA</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pterapod_shell_dissolved_in_seawater_adjusted_to_an_ocean_chemistry_projected_for_the_year_2100.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pterapod_shell_dissolved_in_seawater_adjusted_to_an_ocean_chemistry_projected_for_the_year_2100.jpg/220px-Pterapod_shell_dissolved_in_seawater_adjusted_to_an_ocean_chemistry_projected_for_the_year_2100.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pterapod_shell_dissolved_in_seawater_adjusted_to_an_ocean_chemistry_projected_for_the_year_2100.jpg/330px-Pterapod_shell_dissolved_in_seawater_adjusted_to_an_ocean_chemistry_projected_for_the_year_2100.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pterapod_shell_dissolved_in_seawater_adjusted_to_an_ocean_chemistry_projected_for_the_year_2100.jpg/440px-Pterapod_shell_dissolved_in_seawater_adjusted_to_an_ocean_chemistry_projected_for_the_year_2100.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1362" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>Pterapod shell dissolved in seawater adjusted to an <a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">ocean chemistry</a> projected for the year 2100 (source: <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">NOAA</a>).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fis01026_(27555118153).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg/220px-Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg/330px-Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg/440px-Fis01026_%2827555118153%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2718" data-file-height="2362" /></a><figcaption>Unhealthy pteropod showing effects of ocean acidification including ragged, dissolving shell ridges on upper surface, a cloudy shell in lower right quadrant, and severe abrasions and weak spots at 6:30 position on lower whorl of shell (source: <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">NOAA</a>).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complexity_of_research_findings">Complexity of research findings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Complexity of research findings">edit</a>]</div> The full ecological consequences of the changes in calcification due to ocean acidification are complex but it appears likely that many calcifying species will be adversely affected by ocean acidification.<a href="#cite_note-:14-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-:43-21">[21]</a>: 413  Increasing ocean acidification makes it more difficult for shell-accreting organisms to access carbonate ions, essential for the production of their hard exoskeletal shell.<a href="#cite_note-:11-90">[90]</a> Oceanic <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcifying</a> organism span the <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a> from <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophs</a> to <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophs</a> and include organisms such as <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminifera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crustacea" class="mw-redirect" title="Crustacea">crustaceans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">molluscs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-91">[91]</a> Overall, all marine ecosystems on Earth will be exposed to changes in acidification and several other ocean biogeochemical changes.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Ocean acidification may force some organisms to reallocate resources away from productive endpoints in order to maintain calcification.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> For example, the oyster <a href="/wiki/Pacific_oyster" title="Pacific oyster">Magallana gigas</a> is recognized to experience metabolic changes alongside altered <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcification</a> rates due to energetic tradeoffs resulting from pH imbalances.<a href="#cite_note-:6-94">[94]</a> Under normal conditions, calcite and aragonite are stable in surface waters since the carbonate ions are <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturated</a> with respect to seawater. However, as ocean pH falls, the concentration of carbonate ions also decreases. Calcium carbonate thus becomes undersaturated, and structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to calcification stress and dissolution.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> In particular, studies show that corals,<a href="#cite_note-ocean-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-97">[97]</a> coccolithophores,<a href="#cite_note-:0-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carstensen2019-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-gatt98-98">[98]</a> coralline algae,<a href="#cite_note-gatt99-99">[99]</a> foraminifera,<a href="#cite_note-lan05-100">[100]</a> shellfish and <a href="/wiki/Pteropoda" title="Pteropoda">pteropods</a><a href="#cite_note-rieb00-101">[101]</a> experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated CO2. Even with active <a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">marine conservation</a> practices it may be impossible to bring back many previous shellfish populations.<a href="#cite_note-gaz07-102">[102]</a> Some studies have found different responses to ocean acidification, with coccolithophore calcification and photosynthesis both increasing under elevated atmospheric <a href="/wiki/PCO2" title="PCO2">pCO2</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Iglesias2008-103">[103]</a> and an equal decline in <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> and calcification in response to elevated CO2,<a href="#cite_note-sciandra03-104">[104]</a> or the direction of the response varying between species.<a href="#cite_note-langer06-105">[105]</a> Similarly, the sea star, <a href="/wiki/Pisaster_ochraceus" title="Pisaster ochraceus">Pisaster ochraceus</a>, shows enhanced growth in waters with increased acidity.<a href="#cite_note-Turley_278–2862-106">[106]</a> Reduced calcification from ocean acidification may affect the ocean's biologically driven sequestration of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> from the atmosphere to the ocean interior and <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_sediment" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafloor sediment">seafloor sediment</a>, weakening the so-called <a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biological pump</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PNAS-20191021-73">[73]</a> Seawater acidification could also reduce the size of Antarctic phytoplankton, making them less effective at storing carbon.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Such changes are being increasingly studied and synthesized through the use of physiological frameworks, including the <a href="/wiki/Adverse_outcome_pathway" title="Adverse outcome pathway">Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP)</a> framework.<a href="#cite_note-:6-94">[94]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg/220px-Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg/330px-Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg/440px-Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Coccolithus pelagicus, a species of <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophore</a> sampled from the North Atlantic Ocean.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coccolithophores">Coccolithophores</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Coccolithophores">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">Coccolithophore</a></div> A coccolithophore is a <a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">unicellular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">alga</a>). Understanding calcification changes in coccolithophores may be particularly important because a decline in the coccolithophores may have secondary effects on climate: it could contribute to global warming by decreasing the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> via their effects on oceanic cloud cover.<a href="#cite_note-Stony2010-108">[108]</a> A study in 2008 examined a <a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">sediment core</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">North Atlantic</a> and found that the species composition of coccolithophorids remained unchanged over the past 224 years (1780 to 2004). But the average coccolith mass had increased by 40% during the same period.<a href="#cite_note-Iglesias2008-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corals">Corals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Corals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">Coral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></div> Warm water corals are clearly in decline, with losses of 50% over the last 30–50 years due to multiple threats from ocean warming, ocean acidification, <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">pollution</a> and physical damage from activities such as fishing, and these pressures are expected to intensify.<a href="#cite_note-:32-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-:43-21">[21]</a>: 416  The fluid in the internal compartments (the coelenteron) where corals grow their <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a> is also extremely important for calcification growth. When the saturation state of aragonite in the external seawater is at ambient levels, the corals will grow their aragonite crystals rapidly in their internal compartments, hence their exoskeleton grows rapidly. If the saturation state of aragonite in the external seawater is lower than the ambient level, the corals have to work harder to maintain the right balance in the internal compartment. When that happens, the process of growing the crystals slows down, and this slows down the rate of how much their exoskeleton is growing. Depending on the aragonite saturation state in the surrounding water, the corals may halt growth because pumping aragonite into the internal compartment will not be energetically favorable.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Under the current progression of carbon emissions, around 70% of North Atlantic cold-water corals will be living in corrosive waters by 2050–60.<a href="#cite_note-Perez2018-111">[111]</a> Acidified conditions primarily reduce the coral's capacity to build dense exoskeletons, rather than affecting the linear extension of the exoskeleton. The density of some species of corals could be reduced by over 20% by the end of this century.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> An in situ experiment, conducted on a 400 m2 patch of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>, to decrease seawater CO2 level (raise pH) to near the preindustrial value showed a 7% increase in net calcification.<a href="#cite_note-Albright2016-113">[113]</a> A similar experiment to raise in situ seawater CO2 level (lower pH) to a level expected soon after the 2050 found that net calcification decreased 34%.<a href="#cite_note-Albright2018-114">[114]</a> However, a field study of the coral reef in <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a> from 2007 to 2012 found that corals are more resistant to the environmental pH changes than previously thought, due to internal <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a> regulation; this makes thermal change (<a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">marine heatwaves</a>), which leads to <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a>, rather than acidification, the main factor for coral reef vulnerability due to climate change.<a href="#cite_note-MUNDAY-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Studies_at_carbon_dioxide_seep_sites">Studies at carbon dioxide seep sites</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Studies at carbon dioxide seep sites">edit</a>]</div> In some places carbon dioxide bubbles out from the sea floor, locally changing the pH and other aspects of the chemistry of the seawater. Studies of these carbon dioxide seeps have documented a variety of responses by different organisms.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18536730-116">[116]</a> Coral reef communities located near carbon dioxide seeps are of particular interest because of the sensitivity of some corals species to acidification. In <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>, declining pH caused by carbon dioxide seeps is associated with declines in coral species diversity.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> However, in <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> carbon dioxide seeps are not associated with reduced species diversity of corals, although <a href="/wiki/Bioerosion" title="Bioerosion">bioerosion</a> of coral skeletons is much higher at low pH sites. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pteropods_and_brittle_stars">Pteropods and brittle stars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Pteropods and brittle stars">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Pteropoda" title="Pteropoda">Pteropods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brittle_star" title="Brittle star">brittle stars</a> both form the base of the Arctic <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food webs</a> and are both seriously damaged from acidification. Pteropods shells dissolve with increasing acidification and the brittle stars lose muscle mass when re-growing <a href="/wiki/Appendage" title="Appendage">appendages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> For pteropods to create shells they require aragonite which is produced through carbonate ions and dissolved calcium and strontium. Pteropods are severely affected because increasing acidification levels have steadily decreased the amount of water supersaturated with carbonate.<a href="#cite_note-biogeosciences-119">[119]</a> The degradation of organic matter in Arctic waters has amplified ocean acidification; some Arctic waters are already undersaturated with respect to aragonite.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> The brittle star's eggs die within a few days when exposed to expected conditions resulting from Arctic acidification.<a href="#cite_note-:02-123">[123]</a> Similarly, when exposed in experiments to pH reduced by 0.2 to 0.4, larvae of a temperate <a href="/wiki/Brittle_star" title="Brittle star">brittle star</a>, a relative of the common <a href="/wiki/Sea_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea star">sea star</a>, fewer than 0.1 percent survived more than eight days.<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_impacts_on_ecosystems">Other impacts on ecosystems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other impacts on ecosystems">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans,_1880-2012_(US_EPA).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans%2C_1880-2012_%28US_EPA%29.png/330px-Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans%2C_1880-2012_%28US_EPA%29.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans%2C_1880-2012_%28US_EPA%29.png/495px-Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans%2C_1880-2012_%28US_EPA%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans%2C_1880-2012_%28US_EPA%29.png/660px-Changes_in_aragonite_saturation_of_the_world%27s_oceans%2C_1880-2012_%28US_EPA%29.png 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="454" /></a><figcaption>This map shows changes in the aragonite saturation level of ocean surface waters between the 1880s and 2006–2015. Aragonite is a form of calcium carbonate that many marine animals use to build their skeletons and shells. The lower the saturation level, the more difficult it is for organisms to build and maintain their skeletons and shells. A negative change represents a decrease in saturation.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_biological_impacts">Other biological impacts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other biological impacts">edit</a>]</div> Aside from the slowing and/or reversal of calcification, organisms may suffer other adverse effects, either indirectly through negative impacts on food resources, or directly as reproductive or physiological effects.<a href="#cite_note-raven05-4">[4]</a> For example, the elevated oceanic levels of CO2 may produce CO 2-induced acidification of body fluids, known as <a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">hypercapnia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Increasing acidity has been observed to reduce metabolic rates in <a href="/wiki/Jumbo_squid" class="mw-redirect" title="Jumbo squid">jumbo squid</a><a href="#cite_note-Rosa-126">[126]</a> and depress the immune responses of blue mussels.<a href="#cite_note-Bibby-127">[127]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Atlantic_longfin_squid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atlantic longfin squid (page does not exist)">Atlantic longfin squid</a> eggs took longer to hatch in acidified water, and the squid's <a href="/wiki/Statocyst" title="Statocyst">statolith</a> was smaller and malformed in animals placed in sea water with a lower pH.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> However, these studies are ongoing and there is not yet a full understanding of these processes in marine organisms or <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ocean_Acidification_and_Krill-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Acoustic_properties">Acoustic properties</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Acoustic properties">edit</a>]</div> Another potential route to ecosystem impacts is through <a href="/wiki/Bioacoustics" title="Bioacoustics">bioacoustics</a>. This may occur as ocean acidification can alter the <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustic</a> properties of seawater, allowing sound to propagate further, and increasing ocean noise.<a href="#cite_note-Hester-130">[130]</a> This impacts all animals that use sound for <a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">echolocation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Whale_song" class="mw-redirect" title="Whale song">communication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-npr-threat-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Algae_and_seagrasses">Algae and seagrasses</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Algae and seagrasses">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></div> Another possible effect would be an increase in <a href="/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom" title="Harmful algal bloom">harmful algal bloom</a> events, which could contribute to the accumulation of toxins (<a href="/wiki/Domoic_acid" title="Domoic acid">domoic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brevetoxin" title="Brevetoxin">brevetoxin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">saxitoxin</a>) in small organisms such as <a href="/wiki/Anchovies" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchovies">anchovies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</a>, in turn increasing occurrences of <a href="/wiki/Amnesic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Amnesic shellfish poisoning">amnesic shellfish poisoning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning">neurotoxic shellfish poisoning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paralytic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Paralytic shellfish poisoning">paralytic shellfish poisoning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ocean_Acidification_Promotes_Disruptive_and_Harmful_Algal_Blooms_on_Our_Coasts-132">[132]</a> Although algal blooms can be harmful, other beneficial photosynthetic organisms may benefit from increased levels of carbon dioxide. Most importantly, seagrasses will benefit.<a href="#cite_note-Turley_278–286-133">[133]</a> Research found that as seagrasses increased their photosynthetic activity, calcifying algae's calcification rates rose, likely because localized photosynthetic activity absorbed carbon dioxide and elevated local pH.<a href="#cite_note-Turley_278–286-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fish_larvae">Fish larvae</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Fish larvae">edit</a>]</div> Ocean acidification can also have effects on marine <a href="/wiki/Fish_larvae" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish larvae">fish larvae</a>. It internally affects their olfactory systems, which is a crucial part of their early development. <a href="/wiki/Orange_clownfish" title="Orange clownfish">Orange clownfish</a> larvae mostly live on oceanic reefs that are surrounded by vegetative islands[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>].<a href="#cite_note-MUNDAY-115">[115]</a> Larvae are known to use their sense of smell to detect the differences between reefs surrounded by vegetative islands and reefs not surrounded by vegetative islands.<a href="#cite_note-MUNDAY-115">[115]</a> Clownfish larvae need to be able to distinguish between these two destinations to be able to find a suitable area for their growth. Another use for marine fish olfactory systems is to distinguish between their parents and other adult fish, in order to avoid inbreeding. In an experimental aquarium facility, clownfish were sustained in non-manipulated seawater with pH 8.15 ± 0.07, which is similar to our current ocean's pH.<a href="#cite_note-MUNDAY-115">[115]</a> To test for effects of different pH levels, the seawater was modified to two other pH levels, which corresponded with climate change models that predict future atmospheric CO2 levels.<a href="#cite_note-MUNDAY-115">[115]</a> In the year 2100 the model projects possible CO2 levels of 1,000 ppm, which correlates with the pH of 7.8 ± 0.05. This experiment showed that when larvae are exposed to a pH of 7.8 ± 0.05 their reaction to environmental cues differs drastically from their reaction to cues at pH equal to current ocean levels.<a href="#cite_note-MUNDAY-115">[115]</a> At pH 7.6 ± 0.05 larvae had no reaction to any type of cue. However, a <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> published in 2022 found that the <a href="/wiki/Effect_size" title="Effect size">effect sizes</a> of published studies testing for ocean acidification effects on fish behavior have declined by an order of magnitude over the past decade, and have been negligible for the past five years.<a href="#cite_note-Clements_e3001511-134">[134]</a> Eel embryos, a "critically endangered" species<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> yet profound[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] in aquaculture, are also being affected by ocean acidification, specifically the <a href="/wiki/European_eel" title="European eel">European eel</a>. Although they spend most of their lives in fresh water, usually in rivers, streams, or estuaries, they go to spawn and die in the <a href="/wiki/Sargasso_Sea" title="Sargasso Sea">Sargasso Sea</a>. Here is where European eels are experiencing the effects of acidification in one of their key life stages. Fish embryos and larvae are usually more sensitive to pH changes than adults, as organs for pH regulation are not full developed.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Because of this, European eel embryos are more vulnerable to changes in pH in the Sargasso Sea. A study of the European Eel in the Sargasso Sea was conducted in 2021 to analyze the specific effects of ocean acidification on embryos. The study found that exposure to predicted end-of-century ocean pCO2 conditions may affect normal development of this species in nature during sensitive early life history stages with limited physiological response capacities, while extreme acidification would negatively influence embryonic survival and development under hatchery conditions.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compounded_effects_of_acidification,_warming_and_deoxygenation">Compounded effects of acidification, warming and deoxygenation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Compounded effects of acidification, warming and deoxygenation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Effects of climate change on oceans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">Ocean deoxygenation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg/370px-Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg/555px-Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg/740px-Drivers_of_hypoxia_and_acidification_in_upwelling_shelf_systems.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="429" data-file-height="348" /></a><figcaption> Drivers of <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">hypoxia</a> and ocean acidification intensification in <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> shelf systems. Equatorward winds drive the upwelling of low <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolved oxygen">dissolved oxygen</a> (DO), high nutrient, and high <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_inorganic_carbon" title="Dissolved inorganic carbon">dissolved inorganic carbon</a> (DIC) water from above the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_minimum_zone" title="Oxygen minimum zone">oxygen minimum zone</a>. Cross-shelf gradients in productivity and bottom water residence times drive the strength of DO (DIC) decrease (increase) as water transits across a productive <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chan2019-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></figcaption></figure> There is a substantial body of research showing that a combination of ocean acidification and elevated <a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">ocean temperature</a> have a compounded effect on marine life and the ocean environment. This effect far exceeds the individual harmful impact of either.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> In addition, ocean warming, along with increased productivity of phytoplankton from higher CO2 levels exacerbates <a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">ocean deoxygenation</a>. Deoxygenation of ocean waters is an additional stressor on marine organisms that increases <a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">ocean stratification</a> therefore limiting nutrients over time and reducing biological gradients.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Meta analyses have quantified the direction and magnitude of the harmful effects of combined ocean acidification, warming and deoxygenation on the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> These meta-analyses have been further tested by <a href="/wiki/Mesocosm" title="Mesocosm">mesocosm</a> studies that simulated the interaction of these stressors and found a catastrophic effect on the marine food web: thermal stress more than negates any primary producer to herbivore increase in productivity from elevated CO2.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts_on_the_economy_and_societies">Impacts on the economy and societies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Impacts on the economy and societies">edit</a>]</div> The increase of ocean acidity decelerates the rate of calcification in salt water, leading to smaller and slower growing <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a> which supports approximately 25% of marine life.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-:05-148">[148]</a> Impacts are far-reaching from fisheries and coastal environments down to the deepest depths of the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-:14-18">[18]</a> The increase in ocean acidity in not only killing the coral, but also the wildly diverse population of marine inhabitants which coral reefs support.<a href="#cite_note-:72-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fishing_and_tourism_industry">Fishing and tourism industry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Fishing and tourism industry">edit</a>]</div> The threat of acidification includes a decline in <a href="/wiki/Commercial_fishing" title="Commercial fishing">commercial fisheries</a> and the coast-based <a href="/wiki/Tourism_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourism industry">tourism industry</a>. Several ocean goods and services are likely to be undermined by future ocean acidification potentially affecting the livelihoods of some 400 to 800 million people, depending upon the <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">greenhouse gas emission scenario</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[88]</a> Some 1 billion people are completely or partially dependent on the fishing, tourism, and coastal management services provided by coral reefs. Ongoing acidification of the oceans may therefore threaten future <a href="/wiki/Food_chains" class="mw-redirect" title="Food chains">food chains</a> linked with the oceans.<a href="#cite_note-auto-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:18-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arctic">Arctic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Arctic">edit</a>]</div> In the Arctic, commercial fisheries are threatened because acidification harms calcifying organisms which form the base of the Arctic food webs (pteropods and brittle stars, see above).  Acidification threatens Arctic food webs from the base up. Arctic food webs are considered simple, meaning there are few steps in the food chain from small organisms to larger predators. For example, pteropods are "a key prey item of a number of higher predators – larger plankton, fish, seabirds, whales".<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Both pteropods and sea stars serve as a substantial food source and their removal from the simple food web would pose a serious threat to the whole ecosystem. The effects on the calcifying organisms at the base of the food webs could potentially destroy fisheries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="US_commercial_fisheries">US commercial fisheries</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: US commercial fisheries">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:R0023623_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/R0023623_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/220px-R0023623_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/R0023623_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/330px-R0023623_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/R0023623_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/440px-R0023623_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1752" data-file-height="1188" /></a><figcaption>An adult <a href="/wiki/American_lobster" title="American lobster">American lobster</a> rests on the sea floor. Rhode Island, Dutch Island, Newport County.</figcaption></figure> The value of fish caught from US commercial fisheries in 2007 was valued at $3.8 billion and of that 73% was derived from calcifiers and their direct predators.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Other organisms are directly harmed as a result of acidification. For example, decrease in the growth of marine calcifiers such as the <a href="/wiki/American_lobster" title="American lobster">American lobster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arctica_islandica" title="Arctica islandica">ocean quahog</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scallop" title="Scallop">scallops</a> means there is less shellfish meat available for sale and consumption.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Red king crab fisheries are also at a serious threat because crabs are also calcifiers. Baby red king crab when exposed to increased acidification levels experienced 100% mortality after 95 days.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> In 2006, red king crab accounted for 23% of the total guideline harvest levels and a serious decline in red crab population would threaten the crab harvesting industry.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Possible_responses">Possible responses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Possible responses">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change_mitigation">Climate change mitigation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Climate change mitigation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Sequestration_techniques_in_oceans" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration § Sequestration techniques in oceans</a></div> Reducing carbon dioxide emissions (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> measures) is the only solution that addresses the root cause of ocean acidification. For example, some mitigation measures focus on <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> (CDR) from the atmosphere (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">direct air capture</a> (DAC), <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a> (BECCS)). These would also slow the rate of acidification. Approaches that remove carbon dioxide from the ocean include <a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">ocean nutrient fertilization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_upwelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial upwelling">artificial upwelling</a>/downwelling, <a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming" title="Seaweed farming">seaweed farming</a>, ecosystem recovery, ocean alkalinity enhancement, <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_weathering" title="Enhanced weathering">enhanced weathering</a> and electrochemical processes.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_12-155">[155]</a>: 12–36  All of these methods use the ocean to remove CO2 from the atmosphere to store it in the ocean. These methods could assist with mitigation but they can have side-effects on marine life. The research field for all CDR methods has grown a lot since 2019.<a href="#cite_note-:10-87">[87]</a> In total, "ocean-based methods have a combined potential to remove 1–100 gigatons of CO2 per year".<a href="#cite_note-:12-156">[156]</a>: TS-94  Their costs are in the order of USD40–500 per ton of CO2. For example, <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_weathering" title="Enhanced weathering">enhanced weathering</a> could remove 2–4 gigatons of CO2 per year. This technology comes with a cost of 50–200 USD per ton of CO2.<a href="#cite_note-:12-156">[156]</a>: TS-94  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_removal_technologies_which_add_alkalinity">Carbon removal technologies which add alkalinity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Carbon removal technologies which add alkalinity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Adding_bases_to_neutralize_acids" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration § Adding bases to neutralize acids</a></div> Some <a href="/wiki/Carbon_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon removal">carbon removal</a> techniques add alkalinity to the ocean and therefore immediately buffer pH changes which might help the organisms in the region that the extra alkalinity is added to. The two technologies that fall into this category are ocean alkalinity enhancement and electrochemical methods.<a href="#cite_note-:10-87">[87]</a> Eventually, due to diffusion, that alkalinity addition will be quite small to distant waters. This is why the term local ocean acidification mitigation is used. Both of these technologies have the potential to operate on a large scale and to be efficient at removing carbon dioxide.<a href="#cite_note-:10-87">[87]</a>: Table 9.1  However, they are expensive, have many risks and side effects and currently have a low <a href="/wiki/Technology_readiness_level" title="Technology readiness level">technology readiness level</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_12-155">[155]</a>: 12–36  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ocean_alkalinity_enhancement">Ocean alkalinity enhancement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Ocean alkalinity enhancement">edit</a>]</div> Ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE) is a proposed "carbon dioxide removal (CDR) method that involves deposition of alkaline minerals or their dissociation products at the ocean surface".<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-34">[34]</a>: 2241  The process would increase surface total alkalinity. It would work to increase ocean absorption of CO2. The process involves increasing the amount of <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a> (HCO3-) through accelerated weathering (<a href="/wiki/Enhanced_weathering" title="Enhanced weathering">enhanced weathering</a>) of rocks (<a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quicklime" class="mw-redirect" title="Quicklime">quicklime</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:10-87">[87]</a>: 181  This process mimics the silicate-carbonate cycle. The CO2 either becomes bicarbonate, remaining in that form for more than 100 years, or may precipitate into calcium carbonate (CaCO3). When calcium carbonate is buried in the deep ocean, it can hold the carbon indefinitely when utilizing silicate rocks. Enhanced weathering is one type of ocean alkalinity enhancement. Enhanced weathering increases alkalinity by scattering fine rock particles. This can happen on land and in the ocean (even though the outcome eventually affects the ocean). In addition to sequestering CO2, alkalinity addition buffers the pH of the ocean therefore reducing ocean acidification. However, little is known about how organisms respond to added alkalinity, even from natural sources.<a href="#cite_note-:10-87">[87]</a> For example, weathering of some silicate rocks could release a large amount of trace metals at the weathering site. Cost and energy consumed by ocean alkalinity enhancement (mining, pulverizing, transport) is high compared to other CDR techniques.<a href="#cite_note-:10-87">[87]</a> The cost is estimated to be 20–50 USD per ton of CO2 (for "direct addition of alkaline minerals to the ocean").<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_12-155">[155]</a>: 12–50  Carbon sequestered as bicarbonate in the ocean amounts to about 30% of carbon emissions since the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Experimental materials include limestone, <a href="/wiki/Brucite" title="Brucite">brucite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a> and alkaline solutions. Another approach is to use electricity to raise alkalinity during desalination to capture waterborne CO2.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electrochemical_methods">Electrochemical methods</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Electrochemical methods">edit</a>]</div> Electrochemical methods, or <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a>, can strip carbon dioxide directly from seawater.<a href="#cite_note-:10-87">[87]</a> Electrochemical process are a type of ocean alkalinity enhancement, too. Some methods focus on direct CO2 removal (in the form of carbonate and CO2 gas) while others increase the alkalinity of seawater by precipitating metal hydroxide residues, which absorbs CO2 in a matter described in the ocean alkalinity enhancement section. The hydrogen produced during direct carbon capture can then be upcycled to form hydrogen for energy consumption, or other manufactured laboratory reagents such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a>. However, implementation of electrolysis for carbon capture is expensive and the energy consumed for the process is high compared to other CDR techniques.<a href="#cite_note-:10-87">[87]</a> In addition, research to assess the environmental impact of this process is ongoing. Some complications include toxic chemicals in wastewaters, and reduced DIC in effluents; both of these may negatively impact marine life.<a href="#cite_note-:10-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Policies_and_goals">Policies and goals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Policies and goals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Save_our_ocean,_People%27s_Climate_March,_29_April_2017_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Save_our_ocean%2C_People%27s_Climate_March%2C_29_April_2017_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Save_our_ocean%2C_People%27s_Climate_March%2C_29_April_2017_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Save_our_ocean%2C_People%27s_Climate_March%2C_29_April_2017_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Save_our_ocean%2C_People%27s_Climate_March%2C_29_April_2017_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Save_our_ocean%2C_People%27s_Climate_March%2C_29_April_2017_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Save_our_ocean%2C_People%27s_Climate_March%2C_29_April_2017_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1568" data-file-height="2218" /></a><figcaption>Demonstrator calling for action against ocean acidification at the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Climate_March_(2017)" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Climate March (2017)">People's Climate March (2017)</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_policies">Global policies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Global policies">edit</a>]</div> As awareness about ocean acidification grows, policies geared towards increasing monitoring efforts of ocean acidification have been drafted.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Previously in 2015, ocean scientist <a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Gattuso" title="Jean-Pierre Gattuso">Jean-Pierre Gattuso</a> had remarked that "The ocean has been minimally considered at previous climate negotiations. Our study provides compelling arguments for a radical change at the UN conference (in Paris) on climate change".<a href="#cite_note-:1-159">[159]</a> International efforts, such as the Wider Caribbean's <a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Protection_and_Development_of_the_Marine_Environment_of_the_Wider_Caribbean_Region" title="Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region">Cartagena Convention</a> (entered into force in 1986),<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> may enhance the support provided by regional governments to highly vulnerable areas in response to ocean acidification.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Many countries, for example in the Pacific Islands and Territories, have constructed regional policies, or National Ocean Policies, National Action Plans, National Adaptation Plans of Action and Joint National Action Plans on Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction, to help work towards <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_14" title="Sustainable Development Goal 14">SDG 14</a>. Ocean acidification is now starting to be considered within those frameworks.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="UN_Ocean_Decade">UN Ocean Decade</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: UN Ocean Decade">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/UN_Decade_of_Ocean_Science_for_Sustainable_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development">UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development</a></div> The UN Ocean Decade has a program called "Ocean acidification research for sustainability". It was proposed by the Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network (GOA-ON) and its partners, and has been formally endorsed as a program of the <a href="/wiki/UN_Decade_of_Ocean_Science_for_Sustainable_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development">UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> The OARS program builds on the work of GOA-ON and has the following aims: to further develop the science of ocean acidification; to increase observations of ocean chemistry changes; to identify the impacts on marine ecosystems on local and global scales; and to provide decision makers with the information needed to mitigate and adapt to ocean acidification. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Global_Climate_Indicators">Global Climate Indicators</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Global Climate Indicators">edit</a>]</div> The importance of ocean acidification is reflected in its inclusion as one of seven Global Climate Indicators.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> These Indicators are a set of parameters that describe the changing climate without reducing climate change to only <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">rising temperature</a>. The Indicators include key information for the most relevant domains of climate change: temperature and energy, atmospheric composition, ocean and water as well as the cryosphere. The Global Climate Indicators have been identified by scientists and communication specialists in a process led by <a href="/wiki/Global_Climate_Observing_System" title="Global Climate Observing System">Global Climate Observing System</a> (GCOS).<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The Indicators have been endorsed by the <a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">World Meteorological Organization</a> (WMO). They form the basis of the annual WMO Statement of the State of the Global Climate, which is submitted to the <a href="/wiki/Conferences_of_the_Parties_of_UNFCCC_and_the_Kyoto_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Conferences of the Parties of UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol">Conference of Parties</a> (COP) of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> (UNFCCC). Additionally, the <a href="/wiki/Copernicus_Climate_Change_Service" title="Copernicus Climate Change Service">Copernicus Climate Change Service</a> (C3S) of the European Commission uses the Indicators for their annual "European State of the Climate". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sustainable_Development_Goal_14">Sustainable Development Goal 14</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Sustainable Development Goal 14">edit</a>]</div> In 2015, the United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda and a set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), including a goal dedicated to the ocean, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_14" title="Sustainable Development Goal 14">Sustainable Development Goal 14</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:5-167">[167]</a> which calls to "conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development". Ocean acidification is directly addressed by the target SDG 14.3. The full title of Target 14.3 is: "Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels".<a href="#cite_note-:17-168">[168]</a> This target has one indicator: Indicator 14.3.1 which calls for the "Average marine acidity (<a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>) measured at agreed suite of representative sampling stations".<a href="#cite_note-:42-169">[169]</a>  The <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Oceanographic_Commission" title="Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission">Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission</a> (IOC) of <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> was identified as the custodian agency for the SDG 14.3.1 Indicator. In this role, IOC-UNESCO is tasked with developing the SDG 14.3.1 Indicator Methodology, the annual collection of data towards the SDG 14.3.1 Indicator and the reporting of progress to the United Nations.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Policies_at_country_level">Policies at country level</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Policies at country level">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> In the United States, the Federal Ocean Acidification Research And Monitoring Act of 2009 supports government coordination, such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration</a>'s (NOAA) "Ocean Acidification Program".<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> In 2015, USEPA denied a citizens petition that asked EPA to regulate CO2 under the <a href="/wiki/Toxic_Substances_Control_Act_of_1976" title="Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976">Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976</a> in order to mitigate ocean acidification.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> In the denial, the EPA said that risks from ocean acidification were being "more efficiently and effectively addressed" under domestic actions, e.g., under the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan" title="Presidential Climate Action Plan">Presidential Climate Action Plan</a>, and that multiple avenues are being pursued to work with and in other nations to reduce emissions and deforestation and promote clean energy and energy efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Research into the phenomenon of ocean acidification, as well as awareness raising about the problem, has been going on for several decades. The fundamental research really began with the creation of the <a href="/wiki/PH_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="PH scale">pH scale</a> by <a href="/wiki/Danish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Danish people">Danish</a> chemist <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Peder_Lauritz_S%C3%B8rensen" class="mw-redirect" title="Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen">Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen</a> in 1909.<a href="#cite_note-Sørensen-177">[177]</a> By around the 1950s the massive role of the ocean in absorbing fossil fuel CO2 was known to specialists, but not appreciated by the greater scientific community.<a href="#cite_note-:16-178">[178]</a> Throughout much of the 20th century, the dominant focus has been the beneficial process of oceanic CO2 uptake, which has enormously ameliorated climate change. The concept of "too much of a good thing" has been late in developing and was triggered only by some key events, and the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">oceanic sink</a> for heat and CO2 is still critical as the primary buffer against climate change.<a href="#cite_note-:16-178">[178]</a> In the early 1970s questions over the long-term impact of the accumulation of fossil fuel CO2 in the sea were already arising around the world and causing strong debate. Researchers commented on the accumulation of fossil CO2 in the atmosphere and sea and drew attention to the possible impacts on marine life. By the mid-1990s, the likely impact of CO2 levels rising so high with the inevitable changes in pH and carbonate ion became a concern of scientists studying the fate of coral reefs.<a href="#cite_note-:16-178">[178]</a> By the end of the 20th century the trade-offs between the beneficial role of the ocean in absorbing some 90 % of all heat created, and the accumulation of some 50 % of all fossil fuel CO2 emitted, and the impacts on marine life were becoming more clear. By 2003, the time of planning for the "First Symposium on the Ocean in a High-CO2 World" meeting to be held in Paris in 2004, many new research results on ocean acidification were published.<a href="#cite_note-:16-178">[178]</a> In 2009, members of the <a href="/wiki/InterAcademy_Panel" class="mw-redirect" title="InterAcademy Panel">InterAcademy Panel</a> called on world leaders to "Recognize that reducing the build up of CO2 in the atmosphere is the only practicable solution to mitigating ocean acidification".<a href="#cite_note-iap_statement-179">[179]</a> The statement also stressed the importance to "Reinvigorate action to reduce stressors, such as <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">pollution</a>, on <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">marine ecosystems</a> to increase resilience to ocean acidification".<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> For example, research in 2010 found that in the 15-year period 1995–2010 alone, acidity had increased 6 percent in the upper 100 meters of the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii to Alaska.<a href="#cite_note-2010aug_sciam-50">[50]</a> According to a statement in July 2012 by <a href="/wiki/Jane_Lubchenco" title="Jane Lubchenco">Jane Lubchenco</a>, head of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> "surface waters are changing much more rapidly than initial calculations have suggested. It's yet another reason to be very seriously concerned about the amount of carbon dioxide that is in the atmosphere now and the additional amount we continue to put out."<a href="#cite_note-HPost-181">[181]</a> A 2013 study found acidity was increasing at a rate 10 times faster than in any of the evolutionary crises in Earth's history.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> The "Third Symposium on the Ocean in a High-CO2 World" took place in Monterey, California, in 2012. The summary for policy makers from the conference stated that "Ocean acidification research is growing rapidly".<a href="#cite_note-ocean-96">[96]</a> In a synthesis report published in Science in 2015, 22 leading marine scientists stated that CO2 from burning fossil fuels is changing the oceans' chemistry more rapidly than at any time since the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Great Dying</a> (Earth's most severe known extinction event).<a href="#cite_note-:1-159">[159]</a> Their report emphasized that the 2 °C maximum temperature increase agreed upon by governments reflects too small a cut in emissions to prevent "dramatic impacts" on the world's oceans.<a href="#cite_note-:1-159">[159]</a> A study done in 2020 argues that ocean acidification is not only negatively affecting marine life, but also human health. Food quality, respiratory issues, and human health are all negatively affected by ocean acidification.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ocean_acidification&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Environmental+Research+and+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Ocean+Acidification+and+Human+Health&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=4563&rft.date=2020-06-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7344635%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1660-4601&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32599924&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fijerph17124563&rft.aulast=Falkenberg&rft.aufirst=Laura+J.&rft.au=Bellerby%2C+Richard+G.+J.&rft.au=Connell%2C+Sean+D.&rft.au=Fleming%2C+Lora+E.&rft.au=Maycock%2C+Bruce&rft.au=Russell%2C+Bayden+D.&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+Francis+J.&rft.au=Dupont%2C+Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7344635&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOcean+acidification" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a 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.navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Possible_impacts">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">Climate engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-economic_decoupling" title="Eco-economic decoupling">Decoupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">Environmental mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation_banking" title="Mitigation banking">Mitigation banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental impact">Commons</a></li> <li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_source" title="Category:Environmental impact by source">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_country" title="Category:Environmental impact by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Category:Environmental impact assessment">assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_mitigation" title="Category:Environmental mitigation">mitigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Climate_change" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change" title="Template:Climate change"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Climate_change" title="Template talk:Climate change"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Climate_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Climate change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Climate_change" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Marine_pollution" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Marine_pollution" title="Template:Marine pollution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Marine_pollution" title="Template talk:Marine pollution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Marine_pollution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Marine pollution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Marine_pollution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_eutrophication" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural eutrophication">Cultural eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">Cyanotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_shipping" title="Environmental impact of shipping">Environmental impact of shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_diseases_and_parasites" title="Fish diseases and parasites">Fish diseases and parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_kill" title="Fish kill">Fish kill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendly_Floatees" class="mw-redirect" title="Friendly Floatees">Friendly Floatees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbage_patch" title="Garbage patch">Garbage patch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_garbage_patch" title="Indian Ocean garbage patch">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_garbage_patch" title="North Atlantic garbage patch">North Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_garbage_patch" title="South Pacific garbage patch">South Pacific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Atlantic_Sargassum_Belt" title="Great Atlantic Sargassum Belt">GASB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">Marine debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_in_fish" title="Mercury in fish">Mercury in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbead" title="Microbead">Microbead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">Ocean deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-out_of_lightweight_plastic_bags" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase-out of lightweight plastic bags">Plastic bags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pellet_pollution" title="Plastic pellet pollution">Plastic pellet pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">Shutdown of thermohaline circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_silver_nanoparticles" title="Environmental impact of silver nanoparticles">Silver nanoparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Global_catastrophic_risks" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template talk:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Global_catastrophic_risks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">Cyberattack</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybergeddon" title="Cybergeddon">Cybergeddon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_goo" title="Gray goo">Gray goo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_applications_of_nanotechnology#Weapons" title="Industrial applications of nanotechnology">Nanoweapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_bombardment" title="Kinetic bombardment">Kinetic bombardment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy_weapon" title="Kinetic energy weapon">Kinetic energy weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Hand" title="Dead Hand">Dead Hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_Clock" title="Doomsday Clock">Doomsday Clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">Doomsday device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_weapon" title="Antimatter weapon">Antimatter weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a> (EMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_of_high-energy_particle_collision_experiments" title="Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments">Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_black_hole" title="Micro black hole">Micro black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">Strangelet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_intelligence" title="Synthetic intelligence">Synthetic intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI_takeover" title="AI takeover">AI takeover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic hazard">Anthropogenic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collapsology" title="Collapsology">Collapsology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_argument" title="Doomsday argument">Doomsday argument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-indication_assumption_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-referencing_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">Economic collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order (conspiracy theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" title="Cobalt bomb">cobalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_collapse" title="State collapse">State collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_III" title="World War III">World War III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_apocalypse" title="Climate apocalypse">Ecological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate change</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_pole_shift_hypothesis" title="Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis">Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Climate change and civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">Flood basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_terrestrial_stilling" title="Global terrestrial stilling">Global terrestrial stilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">Ice age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_winter" title="Volcanic winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verneshot" title="Verneshot">Verneshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Human extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinction_events" title="List of extinction events">List of extinction events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">Colony collapse disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_contamination" title="Interplanetary contamination">Interplanetary contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">Pollinator decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Rip" title="Big Rip">Big Rip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_phase_transition" title="Cosmological phase transition">Cosmological phase transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_vacuum_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="False vacuum decay">False vacuum decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">Proton decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">Virtual black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Impact event</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_winter" title="Impact winter">winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">Rogue planet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_supernova" title="Near-Earth supernova">Near-Earth supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision" title="Stellar collision">Stellar collision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">Three Ages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalki" title="Kalki">Kalki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali_Yuga" title="Kali Yuga">Kali Yuga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">1 Enoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abomination_of_desolation" title="Abomination of desolation">Abomination of desolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy_of_Seventy_Weeks" title="Prophecy of Seventy Weeks">Prophecy of Seventy Weeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Futurism_(Christianity)" title="Futurism (Christianity)">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(Christianity)" title="Historicism (Christianity)">Historicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicist_interpretations_of_the_Book_of_Revelation" title="Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation">Interpretations of Revelation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)"> Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterism" title="Preterism">Preterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Esdras" title="2 Esdras">2 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="Second Epistle to the Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_sin" title="Man of sin">Man of sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katechon" title="Katechon">Katechon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Events_of_Revelation" title="Events of Revelation">Events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_of_fire" title="Lake of fire">Lake of fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Number_of_the_beast" title="Number of the beast">Number of the Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_bowls" title="Seven bowls">Seven bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_seals" title="Seven seals">Seven seals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(Revelation)" title="The Beast (Revelation)">The Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_witnesses" title="Two witnesses">Two witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">War in Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon" title="Whore of Babylon">Whore of Babylon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">Great Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_(Christianity)" title="New Earth (Christianity)">New Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivet_Discourse" title="Olivet Discourse">Olivet Discourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tribulation" title="Great Tribulation">Great Tribulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_perdition" title="Son of perdition">Son of perdition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sheep_and_the_Goats" title="The Sheep and the Goats">Sheep and Goats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qa%27im_Al_Muhammad" title="Qa'im Al Muhammad">Al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn" title="Dhu al-Qarnayn">Dhu al-Qarnayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhul-Suwayqatayn" title="Dhul-Suwayqatayn">Dhul-Suwayqatayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masih_ad-Dajjal" title="Al-Masih ad-Dajjal">Dajjal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israfil" title="Israfil">Israfil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufyani" title="Sufyani">Sufyani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">War of Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Temple" title="Third Temple">Third Temple</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saoshyant" title="Saoshyant">Saoshyant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_end_times_prediction" title="2011 end times prediction">2011 end times prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">Apocalyptic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">Armageddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_moon_prophecy" title="Blood moon prophecy">Blood moon prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Changes" title="Earth Changes">Earth Changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">End time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dates_predicted_for_apocalyptic_events" title="List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events">List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messianic_Age" title="Messianic Age">Messianic Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">Millenarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">Millennialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Premillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amillennialism" title="Amillennialism">Amillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmillennialism" title="Postmillennialism">Postmillennialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis (hypothetical star)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapture" title="Rapture">Rapture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rapture#Prewrath_premillennialism" title="Rapture">Prewrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-tribulation_rapture" title="Post-tribulation rapture">Post-tribulation rapture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_resurrection" title="Universal resurrection">Resurrection of the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_to_come" title="World to come">World to come</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alien_invasion" title="Alien invasion">Alien invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_films" title="List of apocalyptic films">List of apocalyptic films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">Climate fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_film" title="Disaster film">Disaster films</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disaster_films" title="List of disaster films">List of disaster films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_doomsday_devices" title="List of fictional doomsday devices">List of fictional doomsday devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie_apocalypse" title="Zombie apocalypse">Zombie apocalypse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zombie" title="Zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Threat_Initiative" title="Nuclear Threat Initiative">Nuclear Threat Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_crisis" title="Social crisis">Social crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivalism" title="Survivalism">Survivalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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