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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unattested_substrata" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unattested_substrata"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Unattested substrata</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unattested_substrata-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concept_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concept_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Concept history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concept_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Superstratum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Superstratum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Superstratum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Superstratum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adstratum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adstratum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Adstratum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adstratum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_examples_of_possible_substrate_or_superstrate_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_examples_of_possible_substrate_or_superstrate_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notable examples of possible substrate or superstrate influence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notable_examples_of_possible_substrate_or_superstrate_influence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratum_(dil%C3%A7ilik)" title="Stratum (dilçilik) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Stratum (dilçilik)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2n_(gi%C3%A2n-g%C3%BA-ha%CC%8Dk)" title="Chân (giân-gú-ha̍k) – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chân (giân-gú-ha̍k)" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratum_(linguistik)" title="Stratum (linguistik) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Stratum (linguistik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalbinis_sluoksnis" title="Kalbinis sluoksnis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kalbinis sluoksnis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strato_(linguistica)" title="Strato (linguistica) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Strato (linguistica)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrato_(lingu%C3%ADstica)" title="Estrato (linguística) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Estrato (linguística)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strat_(lingvistic%C4%83)" title="Strat (lingvistică) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Strat (lingvistică)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Stratum (linguistics)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the term in linguistics. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Stratum (disambiguation)">Stratum (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2009</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, a <b>stratum</b> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for 'layer') or <b>strate</b> is a historical layer of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> that influences or is influenced by another language through <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">contact</a>. The notion of "strata" was first developed by the Italian linguist <a href="/wiki/Graziadio_Isaia_Ascoli" title="Graziadio Isaia Ascoli">Graziadio Isaia Ascoli</a> (1829–1907), and became known in the English-speaking world through the work of two different authors in 1932.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both concepts apply to a situation where an intrusive language establishes itself in the territory of another, typically as the result of <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migration</a>. Whether the superstratum case (the local language persists and the intrusive language disappears) or the substratum one (the local language disappears and the intrusive language persists) applies will normally only be evident after several generations, during which the intrusive language exists within a <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">diaspora</a> culture. </p><p>In order for the intrusive language to persist, the <i>substratum</i> case, the immigrant population will either need to take the position of a political <a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elite</a> or immigrate in significant numbers relative to the local population, i.e., the intrusion qualifies as an <a href="/wiki/Invasion" title="Invasion">invasion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Colonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonisation">colonisation</a>. An example would be the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> giving rise to <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> outside Italy, displacing <a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a> and many other <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>. </p><p>The <i>superstratum</i> case refers to elite invading populations that eventually adopt the language of the native lower classes. An example would be the <a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> in France, who eventually abandoned their Germanic dialects in favor of other Indo-European languages of the Romance branch, profoundly influencing the local speech in the process. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Substratum">Substratum <span class="anchor" id="Substratum"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Substratum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A substratum (plural: substrata) or substrate is a language that an intrusive language influences, which may or may not ultimately change it to become a new language. The term is also used of substrate interference, i.e. the influence the substratum language exerts on the replacing language. According to some classifications, this is one of three main types of <a href="/wiki/Language_transfer" title="Language transfer">linguistic interference</a>: substratum interference differs from both <a href="/wiki/Adstratum" class="mw-redirect" title="Adstratum">adstratum</a>, which involves no language replacement but rather mutual borrowing between languages of equal "value", and <a href="/wiki/Superstratum" class="mw-redirect" title="Superstratum">superstratum</a>, which refers to the influence a socially dominating language has on another, receding language that might eventually be relegated to the status of a substratum language. </p><p>In a typical case of substrate interference, a Language A occupies a given territory and another Language B arrives in the same territory, brought, for example, with migrations of population. Language B then begins to supplant language A: the speakers of Language A abandon their own language in favor of the other language, generally because they believe that it will help them achieve certain goals within government, the workplace, and in social settings. During the language shift, the receding language A still influences language B, for example, through the transfer of <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a>, <a href="/wiki/Place_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Place name">place names</a>, or grammatical patterns from A to B. </p><p>In most cases, the ability to identify substrate influence in a language requires knowledge of the structure of the substrate language. This can be acquired in numerous ways:<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The substrate language, or some later descendant of it, still survives in a part of its former range;</li> <li>Written records of the substrate language may exist to various degrees;</li> <li>The substrate language itself may be unknown entirely, but it may have surviving close relatives that can be used as a base of comparison.</li></ul> <p>One of the first-identified cases of substrate influence is an example of a substrate language of the second type: <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish</a>, from the ancient Celtic people the Gauls. The <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> lived in the modern French-speaking territory before the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman empire">Romans</a>, namely the invasion of Julius Caesar's army. Given the cultural, economic and political advantages that came with being a Latin speaker, the Gauls eventually abandoned their language in favor of the language brought to them by the Romans, which evolved in this region, until eventually it took the form of the French language that is known today. The Gaulish speech disappeared in the late Roman era, but remnants of its vocabulary survive in some French words, approximately 200, as well as place-names of Gaulish origin.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is posited that some structural changes in French were shaped at least in part by Gaulish influence<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including diachronic sound changes and <a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a> phenomena due to the retention of Gaulish phonetic patterns after the adoption of Latin,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a> such as <i>aveugle</i> ("blind", literally without eyes, from Latin <i>ab oculis</i>, which was a calque on the Gaulish word <span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">exsops</i></span> with the same semantic construction as modern French)<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with other Celtic calques possibly including "oui", the word for yes,<sup id="cite_ref-Matasovic_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matasovic-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while syntactic and morphological effects are also posited.<sup id="cite_ref-Matasovic_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matasovic-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other examples of substrate languages are the influence of the now extinct <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a> <a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn language</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> dialects of the <a href="/wiki/Shetland_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Shetland Islands">Shetland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orkney_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Orkney Islands">Orkney</a> islands. In the Arab <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, colloquial <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> dialects, most especially <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maghreb_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Maghreb Arabic">Maghreb</a> dialects, often exhibit significant substrata from other regional Semitic (especially <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>), Iranian, and Berber languages. <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni Arabic</a> has <a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern South Arabian">Modern South Arabian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">Old South Arabian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite language">Himyaritic</a> substrata. </p><p>Typically, <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole languages</a> have multiple substrata, with the actual influence of such languages being indeterminate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unattested_substrata">Unattested substrata</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Unattested substrata"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the absence of all three lines of evidence mentioned above, linguistic substrata may be difficult to detect. Substantial indirect evidence is needed to infer the former existence of a substrate. The nonexistence of a substrate is <a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_absence" title="Evidence of absence">difficult to show</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Matasovic14_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matasovic14-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to avoid digressing into speculation, <a href="/wiki/Burden_of_proof_(philosophy)" title="Burden of proof (philosophy)">burden of proof</a> must lie on the side of the scholar claiming the influence of a substrate. The principle of <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">uniformitarianism</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and results from the study of <a href="/wiki/Human_evolutionary_genetics" title="Human evolutionary genetics">human genetics</a> suggest that many languages have formerly existed that have since then been replaced under expansive language families, such as Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, Uralic or Bantu. However, it is not a given that such expansive languages would have acquired substratum influence from the languages they have replaced. </p><p>Several examples of this type of substratum have still been claimed. For example, the earliest form of the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> may have <a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">been influenced by a non-Indo-European language</a>, purportedly the source of about one quarter of the most ancient Germanic vocabulary. There are similar arguments for a <a href="/wiki/Substrate_in_Vedic_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate in Vedic Sanskrit">Sanskrit substrate</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Pre-Greek_substrate" title="Pre-Greek substrate">Greek one</a>, and a substrate underlying the <a href="/wiki/Sami_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sami languages">Sami languages</a>. Relatively clear examples are the <a href="/wiki/Finno-Ugric_languages" title="Finno-Ugric languages">Finno-Ugric languages</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chude" class="mw-redirect" title="Chude">Chude</a> and the "<a href="/wiki/Volga_Finns" title="Volga Finns">Volga Finns</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Merya_language" title="Merya language">Merya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muromian_language" title="Muromian language">Muromian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Meshchera_language" title="Meshchera language">Meshcheran</a>): while unattested, their existence has been noted in medieval chronicles, and one or more of them have left substantial influence in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Russian_dialects" title="Northern Russian dialects">Northern Russian dialects</a>. </p><p>By contrast, more contentious cases are the <a href="/wiki/Vasconic_substratum_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasconic substratum theory">Vasconic substratum theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_European_hydronymy" title="Old European hydronymy">Old European hydronymy</a>, which hypothesize large families of substrate languages across western Europe. Some smaller-scale unattested substrates that remain under debate involve alleged extinct branches of the Indo-European family, such as "<a href="/wiki/Nordwestblock" title="Nordwestblock">Nordwestblock</a>" substrate in the Germanic languages, and a "Temematic" substrate in <a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Balto-Slavic">Balto-Slavic</a>, proposed by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Holzer" title="Georg Holzer">Georg Holzer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Matasovic14_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matasovic14-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name <i>Temematic</i> is an abbreviation of "tenuis, media, media aspirata, tenuis", referencing a sound shift presumed common to the group. </p><p>When a substrate language or its close relatives cannot be directly studied, their investigation is rooted in the study of <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">linguistic typology</a>. The study of unattested substrata often begins from the study of <i>substrate words</i>, which lack a clear etymology.<sup id="cite_ref-Leschber16_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leschber16-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such words can in principle still be native inheritance, lost everywhere else in the language family, but they might in principle also originate from a substrate.<sup id="cite_ref-Schrijver97_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schrijver97-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sound structure of words of unknown origin — their <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> — can often suggest hints in either direction.<sup id="cite_ref-Matasovic14_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matasovic14-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>So can their meaning: words referring to the natural landscape, in particular indigenous fauna and flora, have often been found especially likely to derive from substrate languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Matasovic14_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matasovic14-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leschber16_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leschber16-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schrijver97_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schrijver97-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> None of these conditions, is sufficient by itself to claim any one word as originating from an unknown substratum.<sup id="cite_ref-Matasovic14_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matasovic14-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Occasionally words that have been proposed to be of substrate origin will be found out to have cognates in more distantly related languages after all, and therefore likely native: an example is Proto-Indo-European <i>*mori</i> 'sea', found widely in the northern and western Indo-European languages, but in more eastern Indo-European languages only in <a href="/wiki/Ossetic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ossetic language">Ossetic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schrijver97_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schrijver97-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concept_history">Concept history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Concept history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the influence of the prior language when a community speaks, and adopts, a new one may have been informally acknowledged beforehand, the concept was formalized and popularized initially in the late 19th century. As historical phonology emerged as a discipline, the initial dominant viewpoint was that influences from <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a> on phonology and grammar should be assumed to be marginal, and an internal explanation should always be favored if possible. As articulated by Max Mueller in 1870, <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Es gibt keine Mischsprache</i></span> ("there are no <a href="/wiki/Mixed_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed languages">mixed languages</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1880s, dissent began to crystallize against this viewpoint. Within Romance language linguistics, the 1881 <i>Lettere glottologiche</i> of <a href="/wiki/Graziadio_Isaia_Ascoli" title="Graziadio Isaia Ascoli">Graziadio Isaia Ascoli</a> argued that the early phonological development of <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance languages</a> was shaped by the retention by Celts of their "oral dispositions" even after they had switched to Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1884, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Schuchardt" title="Hugo Schuchardt">Hugo Schuchardt</a>'s related but distinct concept of <a href="/wiki/Creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Creole languages">creole languages</a> was used to counter Mueller's view. In modern historical linguistics, debate persists on the details of how language contact may induce structural changes. The respective extremes of "all change is contact" and "there are no structural changes ever" have largely been abandoned in favor of a set of conventions on how to demonstrate contact induced structural changes. These include adequate knowledge of the two languages in question, a historical explanation, and evidence that the contact-induced phenomenon did not exist in the recipient language before contact, among other guidelines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Superstratum">Superstratum</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Superstratum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A superstratum (plural: superstrata) or superstrate offers the counterpart to a substratum. When a different language influences a base language to result in a new language, linguists label the influencing language a superstratum and the influenced language a substratum. </p><p>A superstrate may also represent an imposed linguistic element akin to what occurred with <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a> after the Norman Conquest of 1066 when use of the English language carried low prestige. The <a href="/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary" title="International scientific vocabulary">international scientific vocabulary</a> coinages from Greek and Latin roots adopted by European languages (and subsequently by other languages) to describe scientific topics (sociology, zoology, philosophy, botany, medicine, all "<a href="/wiki/-logy" title="-logy">-logy</a>" words, etc.) can also be termed a superstratum,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> although for this last case, "<a href="/wiki/Adstratum" class="mw-redirect" title="Adstratum">adstratum</a>" might be a better designation (despite the prestige of science and of its language). In the case of <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, for example, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> is the superstrate and <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish</a> the substrate. </p><p>Some linguists contend that <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic languages</a> in general) consists of an <a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a> superstratum projected onto an <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Austronesian language">Austronesian</a> substratum.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars also argue for the existence of Altaic superstrate influences on <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_southern_China" title="Northern and southern China">Northern China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, however, the superstratum refers to influence, not language succession. Other views detect <i>sub</i>strate effects.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adstratum">Adstratum</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Adstratum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Special:EditPage/Stratum (linguistics)">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An adstratum (plural: adstrata) or adstrate is a language that influences another language by virtue of geographic proximity, not by virtue of its relative prestige. For example, early in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>'s history, <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Norse language">Old Norse</a> served as an adstrate, contributing to the lexical structure of <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The phenomenon is less common today in standardized linguistic varieties and more common in colloquial forms of speech since modern nations tend to favour one single linguistic variety, often corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Capital_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital (political)">capital</a> and other important regions, over others. In <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, where dozens of languages are widespread, many languages could be said to share an adstratal relationship, but <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> is certainly a dominant adstrate in <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a>. A different example would be the sociolinguistic situation in <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> languages have roughly the same status, and could justifiably be called adstrates to each other having each one provided a large set of lexical specifications to the other. </p><p>The term adstratum is also used to identify systematic influences or a layer of borrowings in a given language from another language, independently of whether the two languages continue coexisting as separate entities. Many modern languages have an appreciable adstratum from English, due to the cultural influence and economic preponderance of the United States on international markets and previously colonization by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> which made English a global <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>. The Greek and Latin coinages adopted by European languages, including English and now languages worldwide, to describe scientific topics, sociology, medicine, anatomy, biology, all the '-<a href="/wiki/Logy" class="mw-redirect" title="Logy">logy</a>' words, etc., are also justifiably called adstrata. </p><p>Another example is found in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, which contain a heavy Semitic, particularly Arabic, adstratum. <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a> is a linguistic variety of <a href="/wiki/High_German" class="mw-redirect" title="High German">High German</a> with adstrata from <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a>, mostly in the sphere of religion, and with <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>, which were linked geographically to Yiddish-speaking villages in Eastern Europe for centuries up until the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_examples_of_possible_substrate_or_superstrate_influence">Notable examples of possible substrate or superstrate influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notable examples of possible substrate or superstrate influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Substrate_influence_on_superstrate">Substrate influence on superstrate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Substrate influence on superstrate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Area </th> <th>Resultant language </th> <th>Substrate </th> <th>Superstrate </th> <th>Superstrate introduced by </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (<a href="/wiki/Baiyue" title="Baiyue">Baiyue</a>), Northern <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> (Viet), <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Au</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a> </td> <td>Various <a href="/wiki/Old_Yue_language" title="Old Yue language">Old Yue languages</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> </td> <td>Sinicisation (<a href="/wiki/Qin%27s_campaign_against_the_Yue_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Qin's campaign against the Yue tribes">Qin's campaign against the Yue tribes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Han_campaigns_against_Minyue" title="Han campaigns against Minyue">Han campaigns against Minyue</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Southward_expansion_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Southward expansion of the Han dynasty">Southward expansion of the Han dynasty</a>), between the first millennium BC and the first millennium AD </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Levant</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western Aramaic</a> </td> <td rowspan="4" valign="center"><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a> </td> <td rowspan="4" valign="center"><a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern Aramaic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> (North Africa)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Central_Cushitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Cushitic">Central Cushitic languages</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" valign="center"><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South Semitic languages</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" valign="center"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_people" title="Semitic people">Semitic</a> expansion </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigré</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez language">Ge'ez</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Central_Cushitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Cushitic">Central Cushitic</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Cushitic" class="mw-redirect" title="North Cushitic">North Cushitic languages</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Common Brittonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Latin" title="British Latin">British Latin</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">Ingvaeonic languages</a></td> <td rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cornish_dialect" title="Cornish dialect">Cornish English</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a></td> <td rowspan="4" valign="center"><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anglicisation" title="Anglicisation">Anglicisation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish people</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Irish English</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">the English</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland" title="Plantations of Ireland">Plantations of Ireland</a> in the 16th century </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a></td> <td>the English during <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scottish Reformation</a> in the 16th century </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Patois" title="Jamaican Patois">Jamaican Patois</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/African_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="African languages">African languages</a> of transported enslaved Africans </td> <td>the English during <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Jamaica" title="Colony of Jamaica">British colonial rule in Jamaica</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Singaporean Mandarin</a></td> <td>Southern Chinese varieties: <a href="/wiki/Min_Nan" class="mw-redirect" title="Min Nan">Min Nan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teochew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainanese</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Standard_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin">Standard Mandarin</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Singapore_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Singapore Government">Singapore Government</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Speak_Mandarin_Campaign" title="Speak Mandarin Campaign">Speak Mandarin Campaign</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish</a></td> <td rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a></td> <td rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a> who annexed it to the Roman Empire (1st century BC-7th century AD), </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a></td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Romance_languages" title="Iberian Romance languages">Ibero-Romance</a></td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Paleohispanic_languages" title="Paleohispanic languages">Paleohispanic languages</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Common_Romanian" title="Common Romanian">Common Romanian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Substrate_in_Romanian" title="Substrate in Romanian">Daco-Thracian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Canarian_Spanish" title="Canarian Spanish">Canarian Spanish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guanche_language" title="Guanche language">Guanche</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Andalusian_Spanish" title="Andalusian Spanish">Andalusian Spanish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Andalusian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalusian people">Andalusians</a> during the incorporation of the Canary Islands into the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Spanish" title="Mexican Spanish">Mexican Spanish</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous languages of Mexico">indigenous languages of Mexico</a> </td> <td rowspan="4" valign="center"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> of the 15th century </td> <td rowspan="4" valign="center"><a href="/wiki/Spaniards" title="Spaniards">Spaniards</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Conquest</a><br /> of the 15th century </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Central Andes</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Andean_Spanish" title="Andean Spanish">Andean Spanish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quechua_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Quechua language">Quechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Aymaran languages</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Paraguayan_Spanish" title="Paraguayan Spanish">Paraguayan Spanish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guaran%C3%AD_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Guaraní language">Guaraní</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chavacano_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Chavacano language">Chavacano</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilokano_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilokano language">Ilokano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hiligaynon_language" title="Hiligaynon language">Hiligaynon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cebuano_language" title="Cebuano language">Cebuano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangingi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangingi">Bangingi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sama_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sama language">Sama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tausug_language" title="Tausug language">Tausug</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yakan_language" title="Yakan language">Yakan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Portuguese" title="Brazilian Portuguese">Brazilian Portuguese</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tupi_language" title="Tupi language">Tupi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> of the 15th century</td> <td>the Portuguese during the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">colonial period</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Portuguese" title="Angolan Portuguese">Angolan Portuguese</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Umbundu" title="Umbundu">Umbundu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kimbundu" title="Kimbundu">Kimbundu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kikongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Kikongo">Kikongo</a></td> <td>the Portuguese during the colonial rule in Africa </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a> dialects, and other <a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a> and languages spoken by Jews</td> <td>Hebrew constructed from <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">mishnaic</a> Hebrew</td> <td>European <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Jewish immigrants</a> in the late 19th and early 20th centuries who <a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">modernized and reintroduced</a> Hebrew as a vernacular </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shetland" title="Shetland">Shetland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orkney" title="Orkney">Orkney</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Insular_Scots" title="Insular Scots">Insular Scots</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a></td> <td>Acquisition by <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> in the 15th century </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a></td> <td>Union with Danish crown, 1380–1814. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>/<a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rioplatense_Spanish" title="Rioplatense Spanish">Rioplatense Spanish</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_language" title="Neapolitan language">Neapolitan</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Italian Languages</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> </td> <td>Italian immigration to Uruguay and Argentina </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic languages</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_East_Slavic" title="Old East Slavic">Old East Slavic</a> </td> <td>Assimilation of East Balts by East Slavs in the Middle Ages </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Northwest_Russia" title="Northwest Russia">Russian North</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Russian_dialects" title="Northern Russian dialects">North Russian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Finno-Ugric_languages" title="Finno-Ugric languages">Finno-Ugric languages</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chud" title="Chud">Chudes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volga_Finns" title="Volga Finns">Volga Finns</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Superstrate_influence_on_substrate">Superstrate influence on substrate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Superstrate influence on substrate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Area </th> <th>Resultant language </th> <th>Substrate </th> <th>Superstrate </th> <th>Superstrate introduced by </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallo-Romance">Gallo-Romance</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Merovingians" class="mw-redirect" title="Merovingians">Merovingians</a>' dominance of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> around 500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest">Norman conquest</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Demotic_Greek" title="Demotic Greek">Demotic Greek</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Medieval Greek</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Ottoman Turkish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> and during the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greece" title="Ottoman Greece">occupation of Greece</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Spanish" title="Early Modern Spanish">Early Modern Spanish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_Spanish" title="Old Spanish">Old Spanish</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> (by way of <a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Romance" title="Andalusi Romance">Mozarabic</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">conquest of Hispania</a>, and the Arabic and Mozarabic speakers in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> who were absorbed into <a href="/wiki/Castile_(historical_region)" title="Castile (historical region)">Castille</a> and other Christian kingdoms during the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragonese</a> control, establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Knights of St. John</a> on the islands in the 16th century<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Modern_Romanian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Romanian language">Modern Romanian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Common_Romanian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Romanian language">Common Romanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Romanian_language" title="History of the Romanian language">Old Romanian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> (first <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a>, and later individual Slavic languages such as <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Slavic_migrations_to_the_Balkans" title="Slavic migrations to the Balkans">Slavic migrations to the Balkans</a>, rule by the <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empires</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kashubia" title="Kashubia">Kashubia</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kashubian_language" title="Kashubian language">Kashubian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_language" title="Pomeranian language">Pomeranian</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_German_settlement_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="History of German settlement in Central and Eastern Europe">German immigration to Pomerania</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Ostsiedlung</a>, and periods of <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Teutonic_Order" title="State of the Teutonic Order">Teutonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a> rule </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stratum" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:stratum">stratum</a></b></i>, <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/substratum" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:substratum">substratum</a></b></i>, <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/substrate" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:substrate">substrate</a></b></i>, <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/superstratum" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:superstratum">superstratum</a></b></i>, or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/superstrate" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:superstrate">superstrate</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">Language shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_transfer" title="Language transfer">Language transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Trans-cultural diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Greek_substrate" title="Pre-Greek substrate">Pre-Greek substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graziadio_Isaia_Ascoli" title="Graziadio Isaia Ascoli">Graziadio Isaia Ascoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relexification" title="Relexification">Relexification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Why Don't the English Speak Welsh?" Hildegard Tristram, chapter 15 in <i>The Britons in Anglo-Saxon England</i>, N. J. Higham (ed.), The Boydell Press 2007 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1843833123" title="Special:BookSources/1843833123">1843833123</a>, pp. 192–214. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.hildegard.tristram.de/media/tristram_manchester_30-07-07.pdf">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaarikivi2006" class="citation thesis cs1">Saarikivi, Janne (2006). <i>Substrata Uralica: Studies on Finno-Ugrian substrate influence in Northern Russian dialects</i> (Ph.D.). University of Helsinki. pp. 12–14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Substrata+Uralica%3A+Studies+on+Finno-Ugrian+substrate+influence+in+Northern+Russian+dialects&rft.inst=University+of+Helsinki&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Saarikivi&rft.aufirst=Janne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giovanni Battista Pellegrini, "Substrata", in <i>Romance Comparative and Historical Linguistics</i>, ed. Rebecca Posner et al. (The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter, 1980), 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giovanni Battista Pellegrini, "Substrata", in <i>Romance Comparative and Historical Linguistics</i>, ed. Rebecca Posner et al. (The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter, 1980), 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in <i>Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii</i>, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eugeen Roegiest, <i>Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania</i> (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Yves_Lambert" title="Pierre-Yves Lambert">Pierre-Yves Lambert</a>, <i>La Langue gauloise</i> (Paris: Errance, 1994), 46-7. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-87772-224-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-87772-224-7">978-2-87772-224-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Yves_Lambert" title="Pierre-Yves Lambert">Pierre-Yves Lambert</a>, <i>La Langue gauloise</i> (Paris: Errance, 1994), 158. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-87772-224-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-87772-224-7">978-2-87772-224-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matasovic-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Matasovic_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matasovic_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Matasović, Ranko. 2007. “Insular Celtic as a Language Area”. In Tristam, Hildegard L.C. 2007, <i>The Celtic Languages in Contact</i>. Bonn: Papers from the Workshop within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies. Page 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savignac, Jean-Paul. 2004. <i>Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois</i>. Paris: La Différence. Pages 26, 294-5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Filppula, Markku, Klemola, Juhani and Paulasto, Heli. 2008. <i>English and Celtic in Contact</i>. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Pages 77-82</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matasovic14-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Matasovic14_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matasovic14_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matasovic14_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matasovic14_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matasovic14_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatasović2014" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ranko_Matasovi%C4%87" title="Ranko Matasović">Matasović, Ranko</a> (2014). "Substratum words in Balto-Slavic". <i>Filologija</i> (60): 75–102.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Filologija&rft.atitle=Substratum+words+in+Balto-Slavic&rft.issue=60&rft.pages=75-102&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Matasovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Ranko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinge2009" class="citation web cs1">Ringe, Don (2009-01-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=980">"The Linguistic Diversity of Aboriginal Europe"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Language_Log" title="Language Log">Language Log</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-09-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Language+Log&rft.atitle=The+Linguistic+Diversity+of+Aboriginal+Europe&rft.date=2009-01-06&rft.aulast=Ringe&rft.aufirst=Don&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flanguagelog.ldc.upenn.edu%2Fnll%2F%3Fp%3D980&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leschber16-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leschber16_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leschber16_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeschber2016" class="citation book cs1">Leschber, Corinna (2016). "On the stratification of substratum languages". <i>Etymology and the European Lexicon: Proceedings of the 14th Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, 17–22 September 2012, Copenhagen</i>. Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+stratification+of+substratum+languages&rft.btitle=Etymology+and+the+European+Lexicon%3A+Proceedings+of+the+14th+Fachtagung+der+Indogermanischen+Gesellschaft%2C+17%E2%80%9322+September+2012%2C+Copenhagen&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Reichert+Verlag&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Leschber&rft.aufirst=Corinna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schrijver97-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schrijver97_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schrijver97_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schrijver97_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrijver1997" class="citation book cs1">Schrijver, Peter (1997). "Animal, vegetable and mineral: some Western European substratum words". In Lubotsky, A. (ed.). <i>Sound Law and Analogy</i>. Amsterdam/Atlanta. pp. 293–316.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Animal%2C+vegetable+and+mineral%3A+some+Western+European+substratum+words&rft.btitle=Sound+Law+and+Analogy&rft.place=Amsterdam%2FAtlanta&rft.pages=293-316&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Schrijver&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel1999" class="citation journal cs1">Witzel, Michael (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ewitzel/MT-Substrates.pdf">"Early Sources for South Asian Substrate Languages"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Mother Tongue</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mother+Tongue&rft.atitle=Early+Sources+for+South+Asian+Substrate+Languages&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F%257Ewitzel%2FMT-Substrates.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasonKaufmann1992" class="citation book cs1">Thomason, Sarah Grey; Kaufmann, Terrence (12 February 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b_6OMfZ1QpUC&q=Language+contact+substratum+theory+origin&pg=IA3"><i>Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 1–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520912793" title="Special:BookSources/9780520912793"><bdi>9780520912793</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Contact%2C+Creolization%2C+and+Genetic+Linguistics&rft.pages=1-3&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1992-02-12&rft.isbn=9780520912793&rft.aulast=Thomason&rft.aufirst=Sarah+Grey&rft.au=Kaufmann%2C+Terrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db_6OMfZ1QpUC%26q%3DLanguage%2Bcontact%2Bsubstratum%2Btheory%2Borigin%26pg%3DIA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoytOstlund2006" class="citation book cs1">Hoyt, David L.; Ostlund, Karen (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N8H7YPY4oswC&q=Ascoli+lettere+glottologiche+substrate+theory&pg=PA103"><i>The Study of Language and the Politics of Community in Global Context</i></a>. Lexington Books. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780739109557" title="Special:BookSources/9780739109557"><bdi>9780739109557</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+Language+and+the+Politics+of+Community+in+Global+Context&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780739109557&rft.aulast=Hoyt&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rft.au=Ostlund%2C+Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN8H7YPY4oswC%26q%3DAscoli%2Blettere%2Bglottologiche%2Bsubstrate%2Btheory%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benedict (1990), Lewin (1976), Matsumoto (1975), Miller (1967), Murayama (1976), Shibatani (1990).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcWhorter2007" class="citation book cs1">McWhorter, John (2007). "Mandarin Chinese: "Altaicization" or Simplification?". <i>Language Interrupted: Signs of Non-Native Acquisition in Standard Language Grammars</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mandarin+Chinese%3A+%22Altaicization%22+or+Simplification%3F&rft.btitle=Language+Interrupted%3A+Signs+of+Non-Native+Acquisition+in+Standard+Language+Grammars&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=McWhorter&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hashimoto (1986), Janhunen (1996), McWhorter (2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, <i>take</i> replaced earlier <i>niman</i> in the lexical slot of a transitive verb for "to take", though archaic forms of <i>to nim</i> survived in England.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://150.164.100.248/profs/helianamello/data1/arquivos/THE_GENESIS_AND_DEVELOPMENT_OF_BRAZILIAN_VERNACULAR_PORTUGUESE.pdf">The Genesis and Development of Brazilian Vernacular Portuguese</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010202740/http://150.164.100.248/profs/helianamello/data1/arquivos/THE_GENESIS_AND_DEVELOPMENT_OF_BRAZILIAN_VERNACULAR_PORTUGUESE.pdf">Archived</a> 2017-10-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Page 246, etc</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Lıngwa u lıngwıstıka</i>. Borg, Karl. Valletta, Malta: Klabb Kotba Maltin. 1998. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/99909-75-42-6" title="Special:BookSources/99909-75-42-6"><bdi>99909-75-42-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/82586980">82586980</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%C4%B1ngwa+u+l%C4%B1ngw%C4%B1st%C4%B1ka&rft.place=Valletta%2C+Malta&rft.pub=Klabb+Kotba+Maltin&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F82586980&rft.isbn=99909-75-42-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrincat,_Joseph_M.2000" class="citation book cs1">Brincat, Joseph M. (2000). <i>Il-Malti, elf sena ta' storja</i>. Malta: Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/99909-41-68-8" title="Special:BookSources/99909-41-68-8"><bdi>99909-41-68-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/223378429">223378429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il-Malti%2C+elf+sena+ta%27+storja&rft.place=Malta&rft.pub=Pubblikazzjonijiet+Indipendenza&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F223378429&rft.isbn=99909-41-68-8&rft.au=Brincat%2C+Joseph+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Benedict, Paul K. (1990). <i>Japanese/Austro-Tai</i>. Ann Arbor: Karoma.</li> <li>Cravens, Thomas D. (1994). "Substratum". <i>The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics</i>, ed. by R. E. Asher et al. Vol. 1, pp. 4396–4398. Oxford: Pergamon Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashimoto_Mantaro" title="Hashimoto Mantaro">Hashimoto, Mantaro J.</a> (1986). "The Altaicization of Northern Chinese". <i>Contributions to Sino-Tibetan studies</i>, eds John McCoy & Timothy Light, 76–97. Leiden: Brill.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juha_Janhunen" title="Juha Janhunen">Janhunen, Juha</a> (1996). <i>Manchuria: An Ethnic History</i>. Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian Society.</li> <li>Jungemann, Frédéric H. (1955). <i>La teoría del substrato y los dialectos Hispano-romances y gascones</i>. Madrid.</li> <li>Lewin, Bruno (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/132059">"Japanese and Korean: The Problems and History of a Linguistic Comparison"</a>. <i>Journal of Japanese Studies</i> 2:2.389–412</li> <li>Matsumoto, Katsumi (1975). "Kodai nihongoboin soshikikõ: naiteki saiken no kokoromi". <i>Bulletin of the Faculty of Law and Letters</i> (Kanazawa University) 22.83–152.</li> <li>McWhorter, John (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JH88DwAAQBAJ"><i>Language Interrupted: Signs of Non-Native Acquisition in Standard Language Grammars</i></a>. USA: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Miller, Roy Andrew (1967). <i>The Japanese language</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>Murayama, Shichiro (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/132060">"The Malayo-Polynesian Component in the Japanese Language"</a>. <i>Journal of Japanese Studies</i> 2:2.413–436</li> <li>Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990). <i>The languages of Japan</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.</li> <li>Singler, John Victor (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783112420102/pdf#page=71">"The influence of African languages on pidgins and creoles"</a>. <i>Current Approaches to African Linguistics (vol. 2)</i>, ed. by J. Kaye <i>et al.</i>, 65–77. Dordrecht.</li> <li>Singler, John Victor (1988). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/414784">The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis</a>". <i>Language</i> 64.27–51.</li> <li>Vovin, Alexander (1994). "Long-distance relationships, reconstruction methodology and the origins of Japanese". <i>Diachronica</i> 11:1.95–114.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWartburg1939" class="citation book cs1">Wartburg, Walter von (1939). <i>Réponses au Questionnaire du Ve Congrès international des Linguistes</i>. Bruges.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=R%C3%A9ponses+au+Questionnaire+du+Ve+Congr%C3%A8s+international+des+Linguistes&rft.place=Bruges&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=Wartburg&rft.aufirst=Walter+von&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinreich1979" class="citation book cs1">Weinreich, Uriel (1979) [1953]. <i>Languages in contact: findings and problems</i>. New York: Mouton Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-279-2689-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-279-2689-0"><bdi>978-90-279-2689-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Languages+in+contact%3A+findings+and+problems&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Mouton+Publishers&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-90-279-2689-0&rft.aulast=Weinreich&rft.aufirst=Uriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratum+%28linguistics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&oldid=1255617681#Superstratum">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stratum_(linguistics)&oldid=1255617681#Superstratum</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistic_strata" title="Category:Linguistic strata">Linguistic strata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_contact" title="Category:Language contact">Language contact</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_linguistics" title="Category:Historical linguistics">Historical linguistics</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">CS1 maint: others</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_in-text_citations_from_August_2009" title="Category:Articles lacking in-text citations from August 2009">Articles lacking in-text citations from August 2009</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_in-text_citations" title="Category:All articles lacking in-text citations">All articles lacking in-text citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Transalpine_Gaulish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Transalpine Gaulish-language text">Articles containing Transalpine Gaulish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_July_2019" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from July 2019">Articles needing additional references from July 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 5 November 2024, at 21:09<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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