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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Revival of literary Hebrew</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Revival_of_literary_Hebrew-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Revival of literary Hebrew subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Revival_of_literary_Hebrew-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hebrew_during_the_Haskalah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hebrew_during_the_Haskalah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Hebrew during the Haskalah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hebrew_during_the_Haskalah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hebrew_writers_and_educators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hebrew_writers_and_educators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Hebrew writers and educators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hebrew_writers_and_educators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mendele_Mocher_Sfarim" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mendele_Mocher_Sfarim"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Mendele Mocher Sfarim</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mendele_Mocher_Sfarim-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Devorah_Baron" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devorah_Baron"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Devorah Baron</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devorah_Baron-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_figures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_figures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Other figures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_figures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continuation_of_the_literary_revival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continuation_of_the_literary_revival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Continuation of the literary revival</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continuation_of_the_literary_revival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revival_of_spoken_Hebrew" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revival_of_spoken_Hebrew"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Revival of spoken Hebrew</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Revival_of_spoken_Hebrew-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Revival of spoken Hebrew subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Revival_of_spoken_Hebrew-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Eliezer Ben-Yehuda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three_stages_of_revival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_stages_of_revival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Three stages of revival</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_stages_of_revival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hebrew_and_Yiddish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hebrew_and_Yiddish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Hebrew and Yiddish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hebrew_and_Yiddish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Aliyah_(1882–1903)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Aliyah_(1882–1903)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>First Aliyah (1882–1903)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Aliyah_(1882–1903)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Aliyah_(1904–1914)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Aliyah_(1904–1914)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Second Aliyah (1904–1914)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Aliyah_(1904–1914)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mandate_period_(1919–1948)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mandate_period_(1919–1948)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Mandate period (1919–1948)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mandate_period_(1919–1948)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_of_Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_of_Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>State of Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_of_Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Revival of the Hebrew language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="إحياء اللغة العبرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إحياء اللغة العبرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recuperaci%C3%B3n_del_idioma_hebr%C3%A9u" title="Recuperación del idioma hebréu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Recuperación del idioma hebréu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D1%9E%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Адраджэнне яўрэйскай мовы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Адраджэнне яўрэйскай мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Адраджэньне габрэйскай мовы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Адраджэньне габрэйскай мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recuperaci%C3%B3_de_l%27idioma_hebreu" title="Recuperació de l'idioma hebreu – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Recuperació de l'idioma hebreu" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recuperaci%C3%B3n_del_idioma_hebreo" title="Recuperación del idioma hebreo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Recuperación del idioma hebreo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="احیای زبان عبری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="احیای زبان عبری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recuperaci%C3%B3n_da_lingua_hebrea" title="Recuperación da lingua hebrea – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Recuperación da lingua hebrea" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%A2%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%BE%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A4" title="Եբրայերենի վերածնունդ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Եբրայերենի վերածնունդ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="हिब्रू भाषा का पुनरुद्धार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हिब्रू भाषा का पुनरुद्धार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keberhasilan_pelestarian_bahasa_Ibrani" title="Keberhasilan pelestarian bahasa Ibrani – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Keberhasilan pelestarian bahasa Ibrani" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="תחיית הלשון העברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תחיית הלשון העברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Volta_da_L%C3%ADngua_Hebraica" title="A Volta da Língua Hebraica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="A Volta da Língua Hebraica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Возрождение иврита – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Возрождение иврита" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soo_noolaynta_Af_Cibriga" title="Soo noolaynta Af Cibriga – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Soo noolaynta Af Cibriga" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="எபிரேய மொழிப் புத்துயிர்ப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எபிரேய மொழிப் புத்துயிர்ப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9" title="การฟื้นฟูภาษาฮีบรู – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การฟื้นฟูภาษาฮีบรู" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E4%BE%86%E8%AA%9E%E5%BE%A9%E8%88%88" title="希伯來語復興 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="希伯來語復興" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2917554#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Process of making Hebrew a lingua franca in Israel</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HATZVI%22_(RESPLENDENT_ISRAEL,_STAG),_DAILY_OF_THE_EARLY_%2220%27S%22..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/HATZVI%22_%28RESPLENDENT_ISRAEL%2C_STAG%29%2C_DAILY_OF_THE_EARLY_%2220%27S%22..jpg/220px-HATZVI%22_%28RESPLENDENT_ISRAEL%2C_STAG%29%2C_DAILY_OF_THE_EARLY_%2220%27S%22..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/HATZVI%22_%28RESPLENDENT_ISRAEL%2C_STAG%29%2C_DAILY_OF_THE_EARLY_%2220%27S%22..jpg/330px-HATZVI%22_%28RESPLENDENT_ISRAEL%2C_STAG%29%2C_DAILY_OF_THE_EARLY_%2220%27S%22..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/HATZVI%22_%28RESPLENDENT_ISRAEL%2C_STAG%29%2C_DAILY_OF_THE_EARLY_%2220%27S%22..jpg/440px-HATZVI%22_%28RESPLENDENT_ISRAEL%2C_STAG%29%2C_DAILY_OF_THE_EARLY_%2220%27S%22..jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Front page of <i><a href="/wiki/HaZvi" title="HaZvi">HaZvi</a></i> newspaper with a sub-headline reading "Newspaper for news, literature and science". <i>HaZvi</i> revolutionized Hebrew newspaper publishing in Jerusalem by introducing secular issues and techniques of modern journalism.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>revival of the Hebrew language</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> took place in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> region toward the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, through which the language's usage changed from purely the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">sacred language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken</a> and <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a> used for daily life among the <a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">Jews in Palestine</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda" title="Eliezer Ben-Yehuda">Eliezer Ben-Yehuda</a> is often regarded as the "reviver of the Hebrew language" having been the first to raise the concept of reviving Hebrew and initiating a project known as the <a href="/wiki/Ben-Yehuda_Dictionary" title="Ben-Yehuda Dictionary">Ben-Yehuda Dictionary</a>. The revitalization of Hebrew was then ultimately brought about by its usage in Jewish settlement in <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Palestine">Ottoman Palestine</a> that arrived in the waves of migration known as the <a href="/wiki/First_Aliyah" title="First Aliyah">First Aliyah</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Aliyah" title="Second Aliyah">Second Aliyah</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> became one of three <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official languages</a> and after the <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Israeli Declaration of Independence">Israeli Declaration of Independence</a> in 1948, one of two official languages of Israel, along with <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Arabic</a>. In July 2018, a <a href="/wiki/Basic_Law:_Israel_as_the_Nation-State_of_the_Jewish_People" title="Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People">new law</a> made Hebrew the sole official language of the State of Israel, while giving Arabic a "special status".<sup id="cite_ref-NYT_2018_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT_2018-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More than purely a linguistic process, the <a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">revival</a> of Hebrew was utilized by Jewish <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">modernization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">political movements</a>, led many people to <a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_surnames" title="Hebraization of surnames">change their names</a><sup id="cite_ref-JAI_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JAI-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and became a tenet of the ideology associated with <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">aliyah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_Palestinian_place_names" title="Hebraization of Palestinian place names">renaming of the land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Israeli policy. </p><p>The process of Hebrew's return to regular usage is unique; there are no other examples of a <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> without any native speakers subsequently acquiring several million native speakers, and no other examples of a sacred language becoming a <a href="/wiki/National_language" title="National language">national language</a> with millions of <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">native speakers</a>. </p><p>The language's revival eventually brought linguistic additions with it. While the initial leaders of the process insisted they were only continuing "from the place where Hebrew's vitality was ended", what was created represented a broader basis of language acceptance; it includes characteristics derived from all periods of Hebrew language, as well as from the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">non-Hebrew languages</a> used by the long-established European, North African, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities, with <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> being predominant. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1524_dictionary_by_Yuhanna_al-Asad_and_Jacob_Mantino_Arabic-Hebrew-Latin_p_alif.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/1524_dictionary_by_Yuhanna_al-Asad_and_Jacob_Mantino_Arabic-Hebrew-Latin_p_alif.jpg/220px-1524_dictionary_by_Yuhanna_al-Asad_and_Jacob_Mantino_Arabic-Hebrew-Latin_p_alif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/1524_dictionary_by_Yuhanna_al-Asad_and_Jacob_Mantino_Arabic-Hebrew-Latin_p_alif.jpg/330px-1524_dictionary_by_Yuhanna_al-Asad_and_Jacob_Mantino_Arabic-Hebrew-Latin_p_alif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/1524_dictionary_by_Yuhanna_al-Asad_and_Jacob_Mantino_Arabic-Hebrew-Latin_p_alif.jpg/440px-1524_dictionary_by_Yuhanna_al-Asad_and_Jacob_Mantino_Arabic-Hebrew-Latin_p_alif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="458" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>–<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a>, 1524</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MSKaufmannA77p1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/MSKaufmannA77p1.jpg/220px-MSKaufmannA77p1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/MSKaufmannA77p1.jpg/330px-MSKaufmannA77p1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/MSKaufmannA77p1.jpg/440px-MSKaufmannA77p1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1830" data-file-height="2659" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">written in Hebrew</a> by <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Historical records testify to the existence of Hebrew from the 10th century BCE<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the late <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a> (lasting to 70 CE), after which the language developed into <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a>. From about the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian Captivity</a> in the 6th century BCE until the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, many Jews spoke <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a>, a related Semitic language. From the 2nd century CE until the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:circa">circa</a></i> 1880, Hebrew served as a <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary</a> and official language and as the Judaic <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">language of prayer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the spoken usage of Mishnaic Hebrew ended in the 2nd century CE, Hebrew had not been spoken as a <a href="/wiki/Mother_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother tongue">mother tongue</a>. </p><p>Even so, during the Middle Ages, <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> used the language in a wide variety of disciplines. This usage kept alive a substantial portion of the traits characteristic of Hebrew. First and foremost, <a href="/wiki/Classical_Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Hebrew">Classical Hebrew</a> was preserved in full through well-recognized sources, chiefly the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a> (especially those portions used liturgically like the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haftarah" class="mw-redirect" title="Haftarah">Haftarot</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Five_Scrolls" class="mw-redirect" title="The Five Scrolls">Megilot</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Psalms" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Psalms">Book of Psalms</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>. Apart from these, Hebrew was known through <a href="/wiki/Hymns" class="mw-redirect" title="Hymns">hymns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prayers" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayers">prayers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midrashim" class="mw-redirect" title="Midrashim">midrashim</a>, and the like. </p><p>During the Middle Ages, Hebrew continued in use as a written language in Rabbinical literature, including in judgments of <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Responsa" title="Responsa">Responsa</a>, Biblical and Talmudic commentaries, and books of meditation. In most cases, certainly in the base of Hebrew's revival, 18th- and 19th-century Europe, the use of Hebrew was not at all natural, but heavy in flowery language and quotations, non-grammatical forms, and mixing-in of other languages, especially Aramaic. Hebrew also functioned as a language of secular high culture, and as a lingua franca between Jews from disparate countries. Jewish scientists and historians such as <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Zacuto" title="Abraham Zacuto">Abraham Zacuto</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Gans" title="David Gans">David Gans</a> wrote in Hebrew, as did travelers such as <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela" title="Benjamin of Tudela">Benjamin of Tudela</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Yosef_David_Azulai" title="Chaim Yosef David Azulai">Chaim Yosef David Azulai</a>. </p><p>Hebrew experienced a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_poetry_from_al-Andalus" title="Jewish poetry from al-Andalus">particular flourishing</a> in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Islamic Spain</a>, where, under the influence of contemporary Islamic culture, scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Naghrillah" title="Samuel ibn Naghrillah">Shmuel HaNagid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah HaLevi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra" title="Abraham ibn Ezra">Abraham Ibn Ezra</a> extensively engaged in secular Hebrew poetry, discussing topics such as love, nature, and wine. The works of these <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic</a> poets greatly influenced future attempts at Hebrew poetry, including the modern revival. Outside of Spain, the <a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews of Yemen">Jews of Yemen</a> were especially known until contemporary times for their <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jewish_poetry" title="Yemenite Jewish poetry">tradition of poetry</a>, exemplified by revered 17th century rabbi and poet <a href="/wiki/Shalom_Shabazi" title="Shalom Shabazi">Shalom Shabazi</a>. Other secular poets of the post-Spain era include <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_the_Roman" title="Immanuel the Roman">Immanuel the Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israel_ben_Moses_Najara" title="Israel ben Moses Najara">Israel ben Moses Najara</a>. </p><p>Otherwise, creative work in Hebrew was mostly limited to liturgical poems known as <a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">piyyut</a>, designed to be sung, chanted, or recited during <a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">religious services</a>. This form originated in late antique <a href="/wiki/Eretz_Yisrael" class="mw-redirect" title="Eretz Yisrael">Eretz Yisrael</a> with poets such as <a href="/wiki/Jose_ben_Jose" title="Jose ben Jose">Jose ben Jose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Kalir" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleazar ben Kalir">Eleazar ben Kalir</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yanai_(Payetan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanai (Payetan)">Yanai</a> and spread worldwide over subsequent centuries. The work of these early poets, often quite obscure, has been preserved mostly in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Nusach" title="Italian Nusach">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews#Nusach_and_Minhag" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote (old Greek)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nusach_Ashkenaz" title="Nusach Ashkenaz">Ashkenazi</a> rites; however, the general concept of religious poems to be sung during prayer is now common in all rites. </p><p>Hebrew was used not only in written form but also as an articulated language, in <a href="/wiki/Synagogues" class="mw-redirect" title="Synagogues">synagogues</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Beth_midrash" title="Beth midrash">batei midrash</a>. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew_phonology" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Hebrew phonology">Hebrew phonology</a> and the pronunciation of <a href="/wiki/Vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowels">vowels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonants">consonants</a> were preserved. Despite this, regional influences of other languages caused many changes, leading to the development of different forms of pronunciation: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi Hebrew</a>, used by Eastern and Western European Jews, maintained mostly the structure of vowels but may have moved the <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a> and lost the <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">gemination</a>, although this cannot be known for certain, as there are no recordings of how the language (or its respective dialects) sounded e.g. in Kana'an; Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation has a variation of vowels and consonants, which follows closely the variation of the vowel and consonant signs written down by the masoretes around the 7th century CE, indicating that there is a strong link with the language heard by them. For example, where we see two different vowel signs, or a consonant with or without a dogeish (<a href="/wiki/Dagesh" title="Dagesh">dagesh</a>), a difference is also heard in the various Ashkenazic pronunciations.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi Hebrew</a>, used by <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a>, preserved a structure different from the recognized <a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian Hebrew</a> <a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">niqqud</a> of only five vowels, but did preserve the consonants, the grammatical stress, the <a href="/wiki/Dagesh" title="Dagesh">dagesh</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a>; however, different ways of writing consonants are not always heard in all Sephardic pronunciations. For example, the Dutch Sephardic pronunciation does not distinguish between the beth with and without dagesh: both are pronounced as "b". The "taf" is always pronounced as "t", with or without dagesh. There are at least two possibilities to explain the merger: the difference disappeared over time in the Sephardic pronunciations, or it never was there in the first place: the pronunciation stems from a separate Hebrew dialect, which always was there, and which for example the Masoretes did not use as reference.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite Hebrew</a>, thought by Aaron Bar-Adon<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to preserve much of the Classical Hebrew pronunciation, was barely known when the revival took place.</li></ul> <p>Within each of these groups, there also existed different subsets of pronunciation. For example, differences existed between the Hebrew used by <a href="/wiki/Polish_Jewry" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Jewry">Polish Jewry</a> and that of <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Jews">Lithuanian Jewry</a> and of <a href="/wiki/German_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="German Jews">German Jewry</a>. </p><p>In the fifty years preceding the start of the revival process, a version of spoken Hebrew already existed in the markets of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. The Sephardic Jews who spoke <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> and the Ashkenazi Jews who spoke Yiddish needed a common language for commercial purposes. The most obvious choice was Hebrew. Although Hebrew was spoken in this case, it was not a native mother tongue, but more of a <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a>. </p><p>The linguistic situation against which background the revival process occurred was one of <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a>, when two languages—one of prestige and class and another of the masses—exist within one culture. In Europe, this phenomenon has waned, starting with <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> in the 16th century, but there were still differences between spoken street language and written language. Among the Jews of Europe, the situation resembled that of the general population, but with: </p> <ul><li>Yiddish as the spoken language</li> <li>the language of the broader culture (depending on the country), used for secular speech and writing</li> <li>Hebrew employed for liturgical purposes</li></ul> <p>In the Arab Middle East, <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> and Colloquial Arabic were the spoken languages most prevalent in Jewish communities (with Ladino more prevalent in the Mediterranean and Arabic, Aramaic, Kurdish, and Persian more widely spoken by Jews in the East), while <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> was used for secular writing, and Hebrew used for religious purposes (though some Jewish scholars from the Arab world, such as <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> (1135–1204), wrote primarily in Arabic or in <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic languages</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revival_of_literary_Hebrew">Revival of literary Hebrew</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Revival of literary Hebrew"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Special:EditPage/Revival of the Hebrew language">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Revival+of+the+Hebrew+language%22">"Revival of the Hebrew language"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Revival+of+the+Hebrew+language%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Revival+of+the+Hebrew+language%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Revival+of+the+Hebrew+language%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Revival+of+the+Hebrew+language%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Revival+of+the+Hebrew+language%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The revival of the Hebrew language in practice advanced in two parallel strains: The revival of written-literary Hebrew and the revival of spoken Hebrew. In the first few decades, the two processes were not connected to one another and even occurred in different places: Literary Hebrew was renewed in Europe's cities, whereas spoken Hebrew developed mainly in Palestine. The two movements began to merge only in the beginning of the 1900s, and an important point in this process was the immigration of <a href="/wiki/Haim_Nahman_Bialik" class="mw-redirect" title="Haim Nahman Bialik">Haim Nahman Bialik</a> to Palestine in 1924. But after the transfer of literary Hebrew to Palestine, a substantial difference between spoken and written Hebrew remained, and this difference persists today. The characteristics of spoken Hebrew only began to seep into literature in the 1940s, and only in the 1990s did spoken Hebrew start widely appearing in novels.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hebrew_during_the_Haskalah">Hebrew during the Haskalah</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hebrew during the Haskalah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shakspeare1816.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Shakspeare1816.png/220px-Shakspeare1816.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Shakspeare1816.png/330px-Shakspeare1816.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Shakspeare1816.png/440px-Shakspeare1816.png 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption>First known <a href="/wiki/Translation" title="Translation">translation</a> of <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a> to Hebrew by <a href="/wiki/Solomon_L%C3%B6wisohn" title="Solomon Löwisohn">Solomon Löwishn</a>, 1816. The "Are at this hour asleep!" <a href="/wiki/Monologue" title="Monologue">monologue</a> from <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_2" title="Henry IV, Part 2">Henry IV, Part 2</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A preceding process to the revival of literary Hebrew took place during the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a>, the Jewish movement paralleling the secular <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>. Members of this movement, called <i>maskilim</i> (משכילים), who sought to distance themselves from Rabbinic Judaism, decided that Hebrew, specifically <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>, was deserving of fine literature. They considered Mishnaic Hebrew and other varieties of Hebrew to be defective and unfit for writing. Particularly influential on the movement was early 18th century Italian rabbi <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Chaim_Luzzatto" title="Moshe Chaim Luzzatto">Moshe Chaim Luzzatto</a>. Writing <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> in a pure, Biblical style of Hebrew, he was greatly admired by the maskillim who deemed him the founder of modern Hebrew literature. </p><p>The Haskalah-era literature written in Hebrew based itself upon two central principles: <a href="/wiki/Purism_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Purism (language)">Purism</a> and flowery language. Purism was a principle that dictated that all words used should be of biblical origin (even if the meaning was not biblical). The principle of flowery language was based on bringing full verses and expressions as they were from the Tanakh, and the more flowery a verse was, the more quality it was said to possess. Another linguistic trait thought to increase a text's prestige was the use of <a href="/wiki/Hapax_legomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Hapax legomena">hapax legomena</a>, words appearing only once in the text. </p><p>But while it was easy to write stories taking place in the biblical period and dealing with biblical topics, Haskalah-era writers began to find it more and more difficult to write about contemporary topics. This was due mostly to the lack of a broad and modern <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>, meaning translating books about <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> or <a href="/wiki/European_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="European literature">European literature</a> was difficult. Although an earlier, little known attempt at scientific writing was made when Israel Wolf Sperling translated <a href="/wiki/Jules_Verne" title="Jules Verne">Jules Verne</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Twenty_Thousand_Leagues_Under_the_Seas" title="Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas">Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_Center_of_the_Earth" title="Journey to the Center of the Earth">Journey to the Center of the Earth</a></i> in 1877 and 1878,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this barrier was breached with more lasting effect in the 1880s by a writer named <a href="/wiki/Mendele_Mocher_Sfarim" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendele Mocher Sfarim">Mendele Mocher Sfarim</a>. </p><p>Another difficulty faced by Haskalah Hebrew writers was that the audience was exclusively male with profound study background, which meant that women and the less educated men were pushed against reading Hebrew by reading Yiddish literature, which led a number of writers to write in Yiddish to find audiences.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hebrew_writers_and_educators">Hebrew writers and educators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hebrew writers and educators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mendele_Mocher_Sfarim">Mendele Mocher Sfarim</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mendele Mocher Sfarim"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mendele_Mos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Mendele_Mos.jpg/220px-Mendele_Mos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Mendele_Mos.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mendele_Mocher_Sfarim" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendele Mocher Sfarim">Mendele Mocher Sfarim</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Ya'akov Abramovitch (1836–1917), is often known by the name of his main character, "Mendele Mocher Sfarim" (מוכר ספרים), meaning "bookseller". He began writing in Hebrew as a Haskalah writer and wrote according to all the conventions of Haskalah-era literature. At a certain point, he decided to write in Yiddish and caused a linguistic revolution, which was expressed in the widespread usage of Yiddish in Hebrew literature. After a long break he returned in 1886 to writing in Hebrew, but decided to ignore the rules of biblical Hebrew, and proponents of that style, like <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Mapu" title="Abraham Mapu">Abraham Mapu</a>, and added into the vocabulary a host of words from the Rabbinic Age and the Middle Ages. His new fluid and varied style of Hebrew writing reflected the Yiddish spoken around him, while still retaining all the historical strata of Hebrew. </p><p>Mendele's language was considered a synthetic one, as it consisted of different echelons of Hebrew development and was not a direct continuation of a particular echelon. However, today, his language is often considered a continuation of Rabbinic Hebrew, especially grammatically. He was considered as the representative figure who provided great literatures to whichever language he was associated with.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Devorah_Baron">Devorah Baron</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Devorah Baron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Devorah_Baron" title="Devorah Baron">Devorah Baron</a> (also spelled Dvora Baron and Deborah Baron) (1887–1956), was a Hebrew writer who fascinated her readers with her unique use of the language in Eastern Europe, which was dominated by Yiddish speakers. Her early writings mostly involve the feminine Yiddish traditions, and she worked on more feminist topics in her later writings. The topics were mostly divided into two sorts: (1) the marginalization of female in the religious and family life; (2) the tension between men and women, and between generation to generation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_figures">Other figures</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other figures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>See also <a href="/wiki/Robert_Alter" title="Robert Alter">Robert Alter</a>, and his book <i>The Invention of Hebrew Prose</i>, who has done significant work on modern Hebrew literature and the context that enabled the language to revive itself via creative writing. The book has a large section on Abramovitch. <a href="/wiki/Yael_S._Feldman" class="mw-redirect" title="Yael S. Feldman">Yael S. Feldman</a> also gives a short overview of Mendele and his milieu in her book <i>Modernism and Cultural Transfer</i>. She notes the influence of Yiddish on his Hebrew, and traces this language interaction to <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Preil" title="Gabriel Preil">Gabriel Preil</a>, the last Haskalah poet of America. Eventually, writers like <a href="/wiki/Yosef_Haim_Brenner" title="Yosef Haim Brenner">Yosef Haim Brenner</a> would break from Mendele's style, and utilize more experimental techniques. </p><p>In his book <i>Great Hebrew Educators</i> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">גדולי חינון בעמנו</span></span>, Rubin Mass Publishers, Jerusalem, 1964), <a href="/wiki/Zevi_Scharfstein" title="Zevi Scharfstein">Zevi Scharfstein</a> described the work of <a href="/wiki/Judah_Loew_ben_Bezalel" title="Judah Loew ben Bezalel">Maharal of Prague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naphtali_Hirz_Wessely" title="Naphtali Hirz Wessely">Naphtali Hirz Wessely</a> (Weisel), <a href="/wiki/Chaim_of_Volozhin" title="Chaim of Volozhin">R. Hayyim of Volozhin</a>, R. <a href="/wiki/Naftali_Zvi_Yehuda_Berlin" title="Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin">Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin</a>, R. <a href="/wiki/Israel_Salanter" title="Israel Salanter">Israel Salanter</a>, R. Israel Meir Ha-Kohen (the Hafes Hayyim), Aaron Kahnstam, Shalom Jonah Tscharno, Simha Hayyim Vilkomitz, <a href="/wiki/Yishaq_Epstein" title="Yishaq Epstein">Yishaq Epstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Yellin" title="David Yellin">David Yellin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samson_Benderly" title="Samson Benderly">Samson Benderly</a>, Nisson Touroff, <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Schenirer" title="Sarah Schenirer">Sarah Schenirer</a>, Yehiel Halperin, H. A. Friedland, and <a href="/wiki/Janusz_Korczak" title="Janusz Korczak">Janusz Korczak</a> as significant contributors to the movement.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continuation_of_the_literary_revival">Continuation of the literary revival</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Continuation of the literary revival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mendele's style was excitedly adopted by contemporary writers and spread quickly. It was also expanded into additional fields: <a href="/wiki/Asher_Ginsberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Asher Ginsberg">Ahad Ha'am</a> wrote an article in 1889 using the style entitled "This is not the Way", and <a href="/wiki/Haim_Nahman_Bialik" class="mw-redirect" title="Haim Nahman Bialik">Haim Nahman Bialik</a> expanded it into <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> with his poem "To the Bird" of the same year. Additionally, great efforts were taken to write scientific books in Hebrew, for which the vocabulary of scientific and technical terms was greatly increased. At the same time, Europe saw the rise of Hebrew language newspapers and magazines, while even sessions and discussions of Zionist groups were conducted and transcribed in Hebrew. In addition, poets and writers such as <a href="/wiki/David_Frischmann" title="David Frischmann">David Frischmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaul_Tchernichovsky" title="Shaul Tchernichovsky">Shaul Tchernichovsky</a> began avidly translating European works into Hebrew, from the Finnish epic the <a href="/wiki/Kalevala" title="Kalevala">Kalevala</a> to works by Molière, Goethe, Shakespeare, Homer, Byron, Lermontov, and Aeschylus. At the same time, writers like <a href="/wiki/Micha_Josef_Berdyczewski" title="Micha Josef Berdyczewski">Micah Yosef Berdichevsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uri_Nissan_Gnessin" title="Uri Nissan Gnessin">Uri Nissan Gnessin</a> began to write complex works of short fiction and novels in Hebrew, using the language to express psychological realism and interiority for the first time. As Hebrew poets and writers began arriving in Palestine armed with the new literary language, they exerted a certain amount of influence on the development of spoken Hebrew as well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revival_of_spoken_Hebrew">Revival of spoken Hebrew</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Revival of spoken Hebrew"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda">Eliezer Ben-Yehuda</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Eliezer Ben-Yehuda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eliezer_in_his_house_in_Talpiot_neighbourhood_(id.34235242_cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Eliezer_in_his_house_in_Talpiot_neighbourhood_%28id.34235242_cropped%29.jpg/220px-Eliezer_in_his_house_in_Talpiot_neighbourhood_%28id.34235242_cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Eliezer_in_his_house_in_Talpiot_neighbourhood_%28id.34235242_cropped%29.jpg/330px-Eliezer_in_his_house_in_Talpiot_neighbourhood_%28id.34235242_cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Eliezer_in_his_house_in_Talpiot_neighbourhood_%28id.34235242_cropped%29.jpg/440px-Eliezer_in_his_house_in_Talpiot_neighbourhood_%28id.34235242_cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1166" data-file-height="1166" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda" title="Eliezer Ben-Yehuda">Eliezer Ben-Yehuda</a>, working</figcaption></figure> <p>Jewish communities with different colloquial languages had used Hebrew to communicate with each other across Europe and the Near East since <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">the Middle Ages</a>. The use of Hebrew enabled Jews to flourish in international trade throughout Europe and Asia during the Middle Ages. In Jewish communities that existed throughout Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, Jewish merchants knew enough Hebrew to communicate, and thus had a much easier time trading with each other than non-Jews had trading internationally due to the language barrier.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Jews in Palestine spoke a variety of languages such as <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, inter-communal affairs that required verbal communication were handled in a modified form of Medieval Hebrew. Hebrew was used by Jews from different linguistic backgrounds in marketplaces in Jerusalem since at least the early 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda" title="Eliezer Ben-Yehuda">Eliezer Ben-Yehuda</a> (1858–1922) (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">אליעזר בן יהודה</span></span>) is often regarded as the "reviver of the Hebrew language" (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">"מחיה השפה העברית"</span></span>):<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he was the first to raise the concept of reviving Hebrew, to publish articles in newspapers on the topic, and he initiated the project known as the <a href="/wiki/Ben-Yehuda_Dictionary" title="Ben-Yehuda Dictionary">Ben-Yehuda Dictionary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, what finally brought about the revitalization of Hebrew were developments in the settlements of the <a href="/wiki/First_Aliyah" title="First Aliyah">First Aliyah</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Aliyah" title="Second Aliyah">Second Aliyah</a>. The first Hebrew schools were established in these settlements, Hebrew increasingly became a spoken language of daily affairs, and finally became a systematic and national language. Yet Ben-Yehuda's fame and notoriety stems from his initiation and symbolic leadership of the Hebrew revival. </p><p>Ben-Yehuda's main innovation in the revival of the Hebrew language lies in his having invented many new words to denote objects unknown in Jewish antiquity, or that had long been forgotten in their original Hebrew usage and context. He invented words such as <i>ḥatzil</i> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">חציל</span></span>) for an <a href="/wiki/Eggplant" title="Eggplant">eggplant</a> (aubergine) [adapted from Arabic <i>ḥayṣal</i> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">حَيْصَل‎</span></span>)]<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>ḥashmal</i> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">חשמל</span></span>) [adapted from Akkadian <i>elmešu</i>]<sup id="cite_ref-auto_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for electricity,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the latter word (<i>ḥashmal</i>), found in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezekiel" title="Book of Ezekiel">Book of Ezekiel</a>, chapter 1, has been explained by <a href="/wiki/Rabbi_Yehuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbi Yehuda">Rabbi Yehuda</a> in the 1st-century CE as meaning "fiery creatures who speak."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As no Hebrew equivalent could be found for the names of certain produce native to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, he devised new Hebrew words for <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomato</a>, calling them <i>tiras</i> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">תירס</span></span>) and <i>ʿagvaniyyah</i> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">עגבניה</span></span>), respectively. The former word derives from the name of a son of <a href="/wiki/Japheth" title="Japheth">Japheth</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tiras" title="Tiras">Ṯīrās</a>) listed in <a href="/wiki/Generations_of_Noah" title="Generations of Noah">Genesis 10</a> who was sometimes identified with the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turkish people</a>, who have been traditionally considered as the main source of distribution of maize in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter word was calqued from the German <i>Liebesapfel</i> (literally “love apple”), from the triconsonantal Hebrew root <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">ע־ג־ב</span></span> meaning lust. The new name, suggested by <a href="/wiki/Yechiel_Michel_Pines" title="Yechiel Michel Pines">Yechiel Michel Pines</a>, was rejected by Ben-Yehudah, who thought it too vulgar, suggesting instead that it be called <i>badūrah</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually the name <i>ʿagvaniyyah</i> supplanted the other name. </p><p>Sometimes, old Hebrew words took on different meanings altogether. For example, the Hebrew word <i>kǝvīš</i> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">כביש</span></span>), which now denotes a "street" or a "road," is actually an <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> adjective meaning "trodden down; blazed", rather than a common noun. It was originally used to describe "a <i>blazed</i> trail".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In what most rabbis view as an error, Ben-Yehuda is accredited with introducing the new Hebrew word <i>ribah</i> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">ריבה</span></span>) for "confiture; marmalade", believing it to be derived from the lexical root <i>reḇaḇ</i>, and related to the Arabic word <i>murabba</i> (jam; fruit conserves; marmalade).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also invented the word <i>tapuz</i> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">תפוז</span></span>) for the citrus fruit orange, which is a combination of <i>tapuaḥ</i> (apple) + <i>zahav</i> (golden), or "golden apple". </p><p>The word <i>tirosh</i> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">תירוש</span></span>), mentioned 38 times in the Hebrew Bible, is now widely used in Modern Hebrew to signify "grape-juice", although in its original usage, it is merely a synonym for vintage wine.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three_stages_of_revival">Three stages of revival</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Three stages of revival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The revival of spoken Hebrew can be separated into three stages, which are concurrent with (1) the First Aliyah, (2) the Second Aliyah, and (3) the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine" title="Mandate for Palestine">British Mandate</a> period. In the first period, the activity centered on Hebrew schools in the Settlements and in the Pure Language Society;<sup id="cite_ref-:32_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the second period, Hebrew was used in assembly meetings and public activities; and in the third period, it became the language used by the <a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">Yishuv</a>, the Jewish population during the Mandate Period, for general purposes. At this stage, Hebrew possessed both spoken and written forms, and its importance was reflected in the official status of Hebrew during the British Mandate.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of the stages were characterized by the establishment of many organizations that took an active and ideological part in Hebrew activities. This resulted in the establishment of Hebrew high schools (גימנסיות), the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew University">Hebrew University</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Legion" title="Jewish Legion">Jewish Legion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Histadrut" title="Histadrut">Histadrut</a> labor organization, and in <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a>—the first Hebrew city. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hebrew_and_Yiddish">Hebrew and Yiddish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Hebrew and Yiddish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout all periods, Hebrew signified for both its proponents and detractors the <a href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">antithesis</a> of Yiddish. Against the exilic Yiddish language stood revived Hebrew, the language of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>, of grassroots pioneers, and above all, of the transformation of the Jews into a Hebrew nation with its own land. Yiddish was degradingly referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Jargon" title="Jargon">jargon</a>, and its speakers encountered harsh opposition, which finally led to a Language War between Yiddish and Hebrew.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, some linguists, such as <a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Ghil'ad Zuckermann</a> believe that "Yiddish is a primary contributor to <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli Hebrew">Israeli Hebrew</a> because it was the <a href="/wiki/Mother_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother tongue">mother tongue</a> of the vast majority of language revivalists and first pioneers in <a href="/wiki/Eretz_Yisrael" class="mw-redirect" title="Eretz Yisrael">Eretz Yisrael</a> at the crucial period of the beginning of Israeli Hebrew".<sup id="cite_ref-See_p_2006_pp._57-71_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-See_p_2006_pp._57-71-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Zuckermann, although the revivalists wished to speak Hebrew with <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation">pronunciation</a>, they could not avoid the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi">Ashkenazi</a> <a href="/wiki/Mindset" title="Mindset">mindset</a> arising from their <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> background. He argues that their attempt to deny their <a href="/wiki/European_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="European ethnic groups">European</a> roots, negate <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">diasporism</a> and avoid <a href="/wiki/Hybridity" title="Hybridity">hybridity</a> (as reflected in Yiddish) failed. "Had the language revivalists been <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> (e.g. from <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>), Israeli Hebrew would have been a totally different language—both <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetically</a> and <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">typologically</a>, much more <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>. The impact of the founder population on Israeli Hebrew is incomparable with that of later <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigrants</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-See_p_2006_pp._57-71_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-See_p_2006_pp._57-71-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Aliyah_(1882–1903)"><span id="First_Aliyah_.281882.E2.80.931903.29"></span>First Aliyah (1882–1903)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: First Aliyah (1882–1903)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/First_Aliyah" title="First 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.sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Aliyah" title="Category:Aliyah">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_20841_The_Palmach.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/PikiWiki_Israel_20841_The_Palmach.jpg/220px-PikiWiki_Israel_20841_The_Palmach.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/PikiWiki_Israel_20841_The_Palmach.jpg/330px-PikiWiki_Israel_20841_The_Palmach.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/PikiWiki_Israel_20841_The_Palmach.jpg/440px-PikiWiki_Israel_20841_The_Palmach.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2127" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Promised_Land" title="Promised Land">Promised Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_of_Israel" title="Gathering of Israel">Gathering of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negation_of_the_Diaspora" title="Negation of the Diaspora">Negation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Jews who remained in the Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeland_for_the_Jewish_people" title="Homeland for the Jewish people">Homeland for the Jewish people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_question" title="Jewish question">Jewish question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Return" title="Law of Return">Law of Return</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Pre-Modern_Aliyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Modern Aliyah">Pre-Modern Aliyah</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Return_to_Zion" title="Return to Zion">Return to Zion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perushim" title="Perushim">Perushim</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Aliyah_in_modern_times" title="Chronology of Aliyah in modern times">Aliyah in modern times</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Aliyah" title="First Aliyah">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Aliyah" title="Second Aliyah">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah_and_Yishuv_during_World_War_I" title="Aliyah and Yishuv during World War I">during World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Aliyah" title="Third Aliyah">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Aliyah" title="Fourth Aliyah">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Aliyah" title="Fifth Aliyah">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah_Bet" title="Aliyah Bet">Aliyah Bet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricha" title="Bricha">Bricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">from Muslim countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Magic_Carpet_(Yemen)" title="Operation Magic Carpet (Yemen)">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ezra_and_Nehemiah" title="Operation Ezra and Nehemiah">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_of_Moroccan_Jews_to_Israel" title="Migration of Moroccan Jews to Israel">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_migration_from_Lebanon_post-1948" title="Jewish migration from Lebanon post-1948">Lebanon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970s_Soviet_Union_aliyah" title="1970s Soviet Union aliyah">from the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="1990s post-Soviet aliyah">post-Soviet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">from Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah_from_Ethiopia" title="Aliyah from Ethiopia">from Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emigration_from_Romania" title="Jewish emigration from Romania">from Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah_from_Latin_America_in_the_2000s" title="Aliyah from Latin America in the 2000s">from Latin America</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Absorption</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revival of the Hebrew language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_surnames" title="Hebraization of surnames">Hebraization of surnames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_Palestinian_place_names" title="Hebraization of Palestinian place names">Hebraization of place names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulpan" title="Ulpan">Ulpan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kibbutz" title="Kibbutz">Kibbutz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_village" title="Youth village">Youth village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Million_Plan" title="One Million Plan">One Million Plan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_camps_(Israel)" title="Immigrant camps (Israel)">Immigrant camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27abarot" title="Ma'abarot">Ma'abarot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_town" title="Development town">Development town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austerity_in_Israel" title="Austerity in Israel">Austerity</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Zionist_Organization" title="World Zionist Organization">World Zionist Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_National_Fund" title="Jewish National Fund">Jewish National Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel" title="Jewish Agency for Israel">Jewish Agency for Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_Aliyah" title="Youth Aliyah">Youth Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mossad_LeAliyah_Bet" title="Mossad LeAliyah Bet">Mossad LeAliyah Bet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Al" title="El Al">El Al</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Aliyah_and_Integration" title="Ministry of Aliyah and Integration">Ministry of Aliyah and Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nefesh_B%27Nefesh" title="Nefesh B'Nefesh">Nefesh B'Nefesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am_Yisrael_Foundation" title="Am Yisrael Foundation">Am Yisrael Foundation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabra_(person)" title="Sabra (person)">Sabra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerida" title="Yerida">Yerida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsions_and_exoduses_of_Jews" title="Expulsions and exoduses of Jews">Jewish refugees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">History of the Jews in the Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Palestine_(region)" title="Demographic history of Palestine (region)">Demographic history of Palestine (region)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population" title="Historical Jewish population">Historical Jewish population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_HaAliyah" title="Yom HaAliyah">Yom HaAliyah</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aliyah" title="Template:Aliyah"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aliyah" title="Template talk:Aliyah"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aliyah" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aliyah"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HavivSchool03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/HavivSchool03.jpg/220px-HavivSchool03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/HavivSchool03.jpg/330px-HavivSchool03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/HavivSchool03.jpg/440px-HavivSchool03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2566" data-file-height="1926" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Haviv_elementary_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Haviv elementary school">Haviv elementary school</a></figcaption></figure> <p>With the rise of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Jewish nationalism</a> in 19th-century Europe, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda was captivated by the innovative ideas of Zionism. At that time, it was believed that one of the criteria needed to define a <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a> worthy of national rights was its use of a common language spoken by both the society and the individual. On 13 October 1881, while in Paris, Ben-Yehuda began speaking Hebrew with friends in what is believed to be the first modern conversation using the language.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later that year, he made <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">aliyah</a> and came to live in Jerusalem. </p><p>In Jerusalem, Ben-Yehuda tried to garner support for the idea of speaking Hebrew. He determined that his family would only speak Hebrew, and raised his children to be native Hebrew speakers. His first child, a son named <a href="/wiki/Itamar_Ben-Avi" title="Itamar Ben-Avi">Itamar Ben-Avi</a>, who was born in Jerusalem on 31 July 1882, became the first native speaker of Modern Hebrew. Ben-Yehuda attempted to convince other families to do so as well, founded associations for speaking Hebrew, began publishing the Hebrew newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/HaZvi" title="HaZvi">HaZvi</a></i>, and for a short while taught at Hebrew schools, for the first time making use of the method of "Hebrew in Hebrew". In 1889, there were plays in Hebrew and schools teaching children to speak Hebrew.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ben-Yehuda's efforts to persuade Jewish families to use only Hebrew in daily life at home met very limited success. According to Ben-Yehuda, ten years after his immigration to Palestine, there were only four families in Jerusalem that used Hebrew exclusively. According to the <i>Hashkafa</i> newspaper, there were ten such families in 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, during the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Palestine">Ottoman era</a>, widespread activity began in the <i><a href="/wiki/Moshava" title="Moshava">moshavot</a></i>, or agricultural settlements, of the First Aliyah, which was concentrated in the Hebrew schools. A Hebrew boarding school was established by <a href="/wiki/Aryeh_Leib_Frumkin" title="Aryeh Leib Frumkin">Aryeh Leib Frumkin</a> in 1884, where religious studies were conducted in Hebrew and students spoke Hebrew with their teachers and among themselves. In 1886, the <a href="/wiki/Haviv_elementary_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Haviv elementary school">Haviv elementary school</a> was established in the Jewish settlement of <a href="/wiki/Rishon_LeZion" title="Rishon LeZion">Rishon LeZion</a>, where the classes were taught exclusively in Hebrew. The Haviv school is recognized as the first Hebrew school of modern times. From the 1880s onward, schools in the agricultural settlements gradually began teaching general subjects in Hebrew. In 1889, <a href="/wiki/Israel_Belkind" title="Israel Belkind">Israel Belkind</a> opened a school in <a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a> that taught Hebrew and used it as the primary language of instruction. It survived for three years.<sup id="cite_ref-segal_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-segal-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Literature Council, which was based on the Clear Language Society was founded in 1890 to experiment in the municipal and rural schools. It showed the possibility to make Hebrew the only language in the settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this point, progress was slow, and it encountered many difficulties: parents were opposed to their children learning in an impractical language, useless in <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a>; the four-year schools for farmers' children were not of a high caliber; and a great lack of linguistic means for teaching Hebrew plus the lack of words to describe day-to-day activities, not to mention the absence of Hebrew schoolbooks. Added to these, there was no agreement on which accent to use, as some teachers taught Ashkenazi Hebrew while others taught Sephardi Hebrew. </p><p>In 1889, Ben-Yehuda, together with rabbis <a href="/wiki/Yaakov_Meir" title="Yaakov Meir">Yaakov Meir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Hirschensohn" title="Chaim Hirschensohn">Chaim Hirschensohn</a> and educator Chaim Kalmi, founded the Clear Language Society, with the goal of teaching Hebrew. The company taught Hebrew and encouraged Hebrew education in schools, <a href="/wiki/Heder" class="mw-redirect" title="Heder">heders</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">yeshivas</a>. Initially, it hired Hebrew-speaking women to teach Jewish women and girls spoken and written Hebrew. In 1890, the company established the Hebrew Language Committee, which coined new Hebrew words for everyday use and for a wide variety of modern uses and encouraged the use of grammatically correct Hebrew. Although the organization collapsed in 1891, the Hebrew Language Committee continued to function. It published books, dictionaries, bulletins, and periodicals, inventing thousands of new words.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Hebrew Language Committee continued to function until 1953, when it was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language" title="Academy of the Hebrew Language">Academy of the Hebrew Language</a>. </p><p>A Hebrew boys' school opened in Jaffa in 1893, followed by a Hebrew girls' school. Although some subjects were taught in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, Hebrew was the primary language of instruction. Over the next decade, the girls' school became a major center of Hebrew education and activism. In 1898, the first Hebrew kindergarten opened in Rishon LeZion.<sup id="cite_ref-segal_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-segal-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was followed by a second one in Jerusalem in 1903. </p><p>In 1903, the Union of Hebrew Teachers was founded, and sixty educators participated in its inaugural assembly. Though not extremely impressive from a quantitative viewpoint, the Hebrew school program did create a nucleus of a few hundred fluent Hebrew speakers and proved that Hebrew could be used in the day-to-day context. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Aliyah_(1904–1914)"><span id="Second_Aliyah_.281904.E2.80.931914.29"></span>Second Aliyah (1904–1914)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Second Aliyah (1904–1914)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Second_Aliyah" title="Second Aliyah">Second Aliyah</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herzliya_Hebrew_Gymnasium,_Tel_Aviv.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Herzliya_Hebrew_Gymnasium%2C_Tel_Aviv.jpg/220px-Herzliya_Hebrew_Gymnasium%2C_Tel_Aviv.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Herzliya_Hebrew_Gymnasium%2C_Tel_Aviv.jpg/330px-Herzliya_Hebrew_Gymnasium%2C_Tel_Aviv.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Herzliya_Hebrew_Gymnasium%2C_Tel_Aviv.jpg/440px-Herzliya_Hebrew_Gymnasium%2C_Tel_Aviv.jpg 2x" data-file-width="985" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Herzliya_Hebrew_Gymnasium" title="Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium">Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As the Second Aliyah began, Hebrew usage began to break out of the family and school framework into the public venue. Motivated by an ideology of rejecting the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a> and its Yiddish culture, the members of the Second Aliyah established relatively closed-off social cells of young people with a common world view. In these social cells—mostly in the moshavot—Hebrew was used in all public assemblages. Though not spoken in all homes and private settings yet, Hebrew had secured its place as the exclusive language of assemblies, conferences, and discussions. Educated Second Aliyah members already were familiar with the literary Hebrew that had developed in Europe, and they identified with the notion that Hebrew could serve as an impetus for the national existence for the Jewish people in Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This group was joined by the aforementioned graduates of Hebrew schools, who had already begun to raise native-born speakers of Hebrew in their families. During this period, the <a href="/wiki/World_Zionist_Congress" title="World Zionist Congress">World Zionist Congress</a> also adopted Hebrew as its official language. </p><p>Hebrew education continued to expand, as more and more Hebrew educational institutions came about. The number of Hebrew kindergartens continued to grow. In 1905, Yehuda Leib and Fania Matman-Cohen, a couple of educators, began teaching the first high school classes in Hebrew in their apartment in Jaffa.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hebrew teachers recreated the Hebrew Language Committee, which began to determine uniform linguistic rules, as opposed to the disjointed ones that had arisen previously.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Council declared as its mission "to prepare the Hebrew language for use as a spoken language in all affairs of life," formulated rules of pronunciation and grammar, and offered new words for use in schools and by the general public. </p><p>The widespread production of Hebrew schoolbooks also began, and <a href="/wiki/Mother_Goose" title="Mother Goose">Mother Goose</a>-style rhymes were written for children. During the first decade of 20th century, Epstein's and Wilkomitz's Hebrew education, which restricted the children from speaking Yiddish not only in school but also at home and on the street, made progress toward wider use of Hebrew.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first native speakers of Hebrew, who had mainly learned it in the Hebrew schools of the First Aliyah period and came to speak it as their primary language, reached adulthood during this time. Aside from rare exceptions who had been born prior such as Itamar Ben-Avi, the first generation of children who acquired Modern Hebrew as native speakers at home from their parents rather than mainly learning it at school were born during this decade, to parents who had attended the Hebrew schools of the First Aliyah period.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, many of the Jewish immigrants during this period had reasonable Hebrew reading proficiency acquired from their education prior to arriving in the country. Most still learned it as a second language. Due to the growth of the number of native speakers and proficiency among second-language speakers, the Hebrew press was able to grow. During this period, it greatly increased in popularity and circulation. In 1912, it was observed that there was hardly a young Jew in the country who could not read a Hebrew newspaper. </p><p>In 1909, the first Hebrew city, <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a>, was established. In its streets and in cafes, Hebrew was already widely spoken. The entire administration of the city was carried out in Hebrew, and new <i>olim</i> or those not yet speaking Hebrew were forced to speak in Hebrew. Street signs and public announcements were written in Hebrew. A new building for the <a href="/wiki/Herzliya_Hebrew_Gymnasium" title="Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium">Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium</a>, a continuation of the first Hebrew high school established by the Matman-Cohens, was built in the city that same year. </p><p>The pinnacle of Hebrew's development during this period came in 1913, in the so-called "<a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Languages" title="War of the Languages">War of the Languages</a>": The Company for Aiding German Jews, then planning the establishment of a school for <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineers</a> (first known as the Technikum and for which construction had begun in 1912),<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> insisted that <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> should be its language of instruction, arguing among other things that German possessed an extensive scientific and technical vocabulary while a parallel vocabulary drawn from Hebrew would need to be created from scratch, often using <a href="/wiki/Calques" class="mw-redirect" title="Calques">calques</a> or translations of terms anyway. Substantial unanimity of opinion in the Yishuv ran against this proposal, which was defeated, leading to the founding of Israel's foremost institute of <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Technion" class="mw-redirect" title="Technion">Technion</a>, with a curriculum taught in Hebrew. This incident is seen as a watershed marking the transformation of Hebrew into the official language of the Yishuv. </p><p>Also in 1913, the Language Committee voted to establish the official pronunciation of Hebrew - a pronunciation loosely based on the Hebrew pronunciation of Sephardic communities because it sounded more "authentic" to their ears than the Ashkenazic pronunciation of European Jewish communities.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a greater number of children passed through Hebrew language schools, the number of people who spoke Hebrew as their <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first language</a> grew. As the number of people whose primary language was Hebrew increased, so did the demand for Hebrew reading materials and entertainment such as books, newspapers, and plays. During World War I, about 34,000 Jews in Palestine recorded Hebrew as their native language.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mandate_period_(1919–1948)"><span id="Mandate_period_.281919.E2.80.931948.29"></span>Mandate period (1919–1948)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mandate period (1919–1948)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a></div> <p>After <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, when Palestine came under British rule, first under the <a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">Occupied Enemy Territory Administration</a> and then under the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine" title="Mandate for Palestine">Mandate for Palestine</a>, Hebrew continued to develop as the main language of the <a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">Yishuv</a>, or Jewish population of Palestine. It was legislated under the Mandate that English, Hebrew, and Arabic would be the official spoken languages of Palestine.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1919, a centralized Jewish school system in which the language of instruction was Hebrew was established. As the Yishuv grew, the immigrants arriving from the diaspora did not speak Hebrew as a mother tongue, and learned it as a <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> either prior to their immigration or in Palestine, while their children picked up Hebrew as their native language. At this time, the use of Hebrew as the <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> of the Yishuv was already a<i> fait accompli</i>, and the revival process was no longer a process of creation, but a process of expansion. In Tel Aviv, the <a href="/wiki/Battalion_for_the_Defence_of_the_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Battalion for the Defence of the Language">Battalion for the Defence of the Language</a> was established, which worked to enforce Hebrew use. Jews who were overheard speaking other languages on the street were admonished: "Jew, speak Hebrew" (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">יהודי, דבר עברית</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">Yehudi, daber ivrit</i></span>), or, more alliteratively, "Hebrew [man], speak Hebrew" (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">עברי, דבר עברית</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">Ivri, daber ivrit</i></span>) was a campaign initiated by Ben-Yehuda's son, <a href="/wiki/Itamar_Ben-Avi" title="Itamar Ben-Avi">Itamar Ben-Avi</a>. </p><p>The Academy of Hebrew Language focused on the structure and the spelling of Hebrew and prompted the issues about the further expansion of the use of Hebrew in Mandatory Palestine. The Academy worked with the Language College to publish the Ben-Sira in a scientific form.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1922_census_of_Palestine" title="1922 census of Palestine">1922 census of Palestine</a> lists 80,396 Hebrew speakers in Mandatory Palestine (829 in the Southern District, 60,326 in Jerusalem-Jaffa, 706 in Samaria, and 18,625 in the Northern District), including 65,447 in municipal areas (32,341 in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, 19,498 in <a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a>, 5,683 in <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a>, 44 in <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>, 425 in <a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a>, 15 in <a href="/wiki/Nablus" title="Nablus">Nablus</a>, 2,937 in <a href="/wiki/Safed" title="Safed">Safad</a>, 6 in <a href="/wiki/Lydda" class="mw-redirect" title="Lydda">Lydda</a>, 43 in <a href="/wiki/Nazareth" title="Nazareth">Nazareth</a>, 27 in <a href="/wiki/Ramleh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramleh">Ramleh</a>, 4,280 in <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a>, 13 in <a href="/wiki/Akko" class="mw-redirect" title="Akko">Acre</a>, 21 in <a href="/wiki/Tulkarem" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulkarem">Tulkarem</a>, 7 in <a href="/wiki/Ramallah" title="Ramallah">Ramallah</a>, 2 in <a href="/wiki/Jenin" title="Jenin">Jenin</a>, 86 in <a href="/wiki/Beersheba" title="Beersheba">Beersheba</a>, and 13 in <a href="/wiki/Beit_She%27an" title="Beit She'an">Baisan</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_of_Israel">State of Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: State of Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Israel_Hebrew_Proficiency_1948.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Israel_Hebrew_Proficiency_1948.png/220px-Israel_Hebrew_Proficiency_1948.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Israel_Hebrew_Proficiency_1948.png/330px-Israel_Hebrew_Proficiency_1948.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Israel_Hebrew_Proficiency_1948.png/440px-Israel_Hebrew_Proficiency_1948.png 2x" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="1110" /></a><figcaption>Spoken Language and Hebrew proficiency, by Sex in Israel according to the 1948 Census</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Israel_Spoken_languages_Non_Hebrew_Speakers_1948.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Israel_Spoken_languages_Non_Hebrew_Speakers_1948.png/220px-Israel_Spoken_languages_Non_Hebrew_Speakers_1948.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Israel_Spoken_languages_Non_Hebrew_Speakers_1948.png/330px-Israel_Spoken_languages_Non_Hebrew_Speakers_1948.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Israel_Spoken_languages_Non_Hebrew_Speakers_1948.png/440px-Israel_Spoken_languages_Non_Hebrew_Speakers_1948.png 2x" data-file-width="2090" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Israel: Day to Day Spoken Language, Among Non-Hebrew Speakers in the Jewish Population (1948)</figcaption></figure> <p>By the time <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> was established in 1948, 80.9% of Jews who had been born in Palestine spoke Hebrew as their only language in daily life, and another 14.2% of Palestine-born Jews used it as a first among two or more languages. The small minority of Jews who had been born in Palestine but did not use Hebrew as a first language had mainly grown up before the development of the Hebrew school system.<sup id="cite_ref-Helman_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Helman-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following Israeli independence, large waves of Jewish refugees came from Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and other parts of the world. The Israeli population increased significantly, doubling within a short period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These immigrants spoke a variety of languages and had to be taught Hebrew. While immigrant children were expected to learn Hebrew through school, much effort was put into ensuring adults would learn the language. The institution of the <a href="/wiki/Ulpan" title="Ulpan">ulpan</a>, or intensive Hebrew-language school, was established to teach immigrants basic Hebrew language skills, and an ulpan course became a major feature of the experience of immigrating to Israel. </p><p>Young adult immigrants picked up much of their Hebrew through mandatory military service in the <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">Israel Defense Forces</a>, which aimed to teach soldiers Hebrew so they could function in the military and post-military civilian life. During the 1950s, Hebrew was taught in most military bases by recruited teachers and female soldiers. A 1952 order demanded that soldiers be taught Hebrew until they could converse freely on everyday matters, write a letter to their commander, understand a basic lecture, and read a <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_diacritics" title="Hebrew diacritics">vowelized</a> newspaper. Soldiers also absorbed Hebrew through their regular service. Soldiers who were about to finish their service without a grasp of Hebrew deemed sufficient were sent to a special Hebrew school founded by the army for the last three months of their service. Immigrants from Arab countries tended to pick up Hebrew faster than European immigrants, due to <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> being a <a href="/wiki/Semitic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Semitic language">Semitic language</a> like Hebrew. </p><p>In daily life, immigrants largely limited their use of Hebrew to when they needed to, most often in their working lives, and to a somewhat lesser extent to satisfy cultural needs. They tended to use their native languages more when socializing and interacting with family. In 1954, about 60% of the population reported the use of more than one language. The children of these immigrants tended to pick up Hebrew as their first language, while their parents' native languages were either used as second languages or lost to them altogether. The <a href="/wiki/Arab_citizens_of_Israel" title="Arab citizens of Israel">Israeli Arab</a> minority also began learning Hebrew, as Hebrew lessons were introduced into Arab schools.<sup id="cite_ref-Helman_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Helman-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1948, the study of Hebrew was made compulsory in Arab schools from the third grade to high school, though the general language of instruction remained Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This created a situation in which the Arab minority would continue to use Arabic as its native language but also become proficient in Hebrew. </p><p>Yiddish was also a common language among immigrants to Israel from Eastern Europe and the Yiddish as a cultural language and in daily use continued despite Israel's efforts to promote Hebrew as the common vernacular through having Hebrew as the language of instruction in schools.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many in the new state's administration denigrated Yiddish and enacted policies to promote Hebrew and remove resources from Yiddish-language cultural activities. A year after its establishment in 1948, the state of Israel banned Yiddish theater and periodicals under their legal powers to control material published and presented in foreign languages (with the important exception of poet Avrom Sutkever’s literary magazine Di goldene kayt).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">תחיית השפה העברית</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">tachayat hashfa ha'avrit</i></span>. It is also called <b>Hebrew Revitalization</b> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">התחדשות עברית</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">hitchadshot ivrit</i></span>).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Language revitalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish Renaissance">Yiddish Renaissance</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NYT_2018-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT_2018_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHalbfingerKershner2018" class="citation news cs1">Halbfinger, David M.; Kershner, Isabel (19 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/19/world/middleeast/israel-law-jews-arabic.html">"Israeli Law Declares the Country the 'Nation-State of the Jewish People'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Israeli+Law+Declares+the+Country+the+%27Nation-State+of+the+Jewish+People%27&rft.date=2018-07-19&rft.aulast=Halbfinger&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft.au=Kershner%2C+Isabel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2018%2F07%2F19%2Fworld%2Fmiddleeast%2Fisrael-law-jews-arabic.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JAI-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JAI_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721143456/http://www.jewish-world.org.il/Roots/English/2/InfoPages/IvrotLastName.asp?Language=English&PageLink=&unit=2&session=3&lesson=2&CF=152&CFS=1.3">"The Hebraization of Surnames"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel" title="Jewish Agency for Israel">Jewish Agency for Israel</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewish-world.org.il/Roots/English/2/InfoPages/IvrotLastName.asp?Language=English&PageLink=&unit=2&session=3&lesson=2&CF=152&CFS=1.3">the original</a> on 21 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Hebraization+of+Surnames&rft.pub=Jewish+Agency+for+Israel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewish-world.org.il%2FRoots%2FEnglish%2F2%2FInfoPages%2FIvrotLastName.asp%3FLanguage%3DEnglish%26PageLink%3D%26unit%3D2%26session%3D3%26lesson%3D2%26CF%3D152%26CFS%3D1.3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Paul Johnson</a>, <i>A History of the Jews</i>, p. 442. "Yet in all [of young <a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a>'s] activity, three salient principles remained constant. First, Jews must make it their priority to return to the land; ‘the settlement of the land is the only true Zionism, all else being self-deception, empty verbiage and merely a pastime’. [Quoted in Encyclopaedia Judaica, iv 506.] Second, the structure of the new community must be designed to assist this process within a socialist framework. Third, the cultural binding of the Zionist society must be the Hebrew language.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hebrewbibleacademy.org/single-post/The-Origin-of-the-Hebrew-Language">The Origin of the Hebrew Language</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Short History of the Hebrew Language,</i> <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Rabin" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaim Rabin">Chaim Rabin</a>, Jewish Agency and Alpha Press, Jerusalem, 1973</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBar-Adon1975" class="citation book cs1">Bar-Adon, Aaron (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mC80vwEACAAJ"><i>The Rise and Decline of a Dialect: A Study in the Revival of Modern Hebrew</i></a>. Mouton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783111803661" title="Special:BookSources/9783111803661"><bdi>9783111803661</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Decline+of+a+Dialect%3A+A+Study+in+the+Revival+of+Modern+Hebrew&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=9783111803661&rft.aulast=Bar-Adon&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmC80vwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEliav1978" class="citation book cs1">Eliav, Mordechai (1978). <i>Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv in the 19th Century, 1777–1917</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eretz+Israel+and+Its+Yishuv+in+the+19th+Century%2C+1777%E2%80%931917&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Eliav&rft.aufirst=Mordechai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIzre'el" class="citation web cs1">Izre'el, Shlomo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tau.ac.il/~izreel/publications/Emergence_Hary2003(corr).pdf">"The Emergence of Spoken Israeli Hebrew"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Emergence+of+Spoken+Israeli+Hebrew&rft.aulast=Izre%27el&rft.aufirst=Shlomo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tau.ac.il%2F~izreel%2Fpublications%2FEmergence_Hary2003%28corr%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupname?key=Sperling%2C%20Israel%20Wolf">"Online Books by Israel Wolf Sperling"</a>. <i>onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu</i>. University of Pennsylvania<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu&rft.atitle=Online+Books+by+Israel+Wolf+Sperling&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fonlinebooks.library.upenn.edu%2Fwebbin%2Fbook%2Flookupname%3Fkey%3DSperling%252C%2520Israel%2520Wolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeidman1997" class="citation book cs1">Seidman, Naomi (1997). <i>A Marriage Made in Heaven – The Sexual Politics of Hebrew and Yiddish</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-20193-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-20193-0"><bdi>0-520-20193-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Marriage+Made+in+Heaven+%E2%80%93+The+Sexual+Politics+of+Hebrew+and+Yiddish&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-520-20193-0&rft.aulast=Seidman&rft.aufirst=Naomi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRin1966" class="citation journal cs1">Rin, Svi (April 1966). "<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">גדולי הינוך בעמנו</span></span> Book Review". <i>Jewish Social Studies</i>. <b>28</b>: 127–128.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Social+Studies&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Hebrew-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22he%22+dir%3D%22rtl%22%3E%D7%92%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99+%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9A+%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Hebrew-language+text+Book+Review&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=127-128&rft.date=1966-04&rft.aulast=Rin&rft.aufirst=Svi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/china-virtual-jewish-history-tour#a">"China Virtual Jewish History Tour"</a>. <i>www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=China+Virtual+Jewish+History+Tour&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fchina-virtual-jewish-history-tour%23a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-News/This-week-in-history-Revival-of-the-Hebrew-language">"This week in history: Revival of the Hebrew language"</a>. 15 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=This+week+in+history%3A+Revival+of+the+Hebrew+language&rft.date=2010-10-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2FJewish-World%2FJewish-News%2FThis-week-in-history-Revival-of-the-Hebrew-language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/eliezer-ben-yehuda/">"Eliezer Ben-Yehuda and the Making of Modern Hebrew"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eliezer+Ben-Yehuda+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Hebrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.myjewishlearning.com%2Farticle%2Feliezer-ben-yehuda%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarshav2009" class="citation cs2">Harshav, Benjamin (February 2009), "Flowers Have No Names: The revival of Hebrew as a living language after two thousand years was no miracle", <i>Natural History</i>, <b>118</b> (1): 24–29</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+History&rft.atitle=Flowers+Have+No+Names%3A+The+revival+of+Hebrew+as+a+living+language+after+two+thousand+years+was+no+miracle&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-29&rft.date=2009-02&rft.aulast=Harshav&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%B5%D9%84">"حيصل - Wiktionary"</a>. <i>en.wiktionary.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=en.wiktionary.org&rft.atitle=%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%B5%D9%84+-+Wiktionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2F%25D8%25AD%25D9%258A%25D8%25B5%25D9%2584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2001" class="citation journal cs1">Black, Jeremy (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4200510">"Amethysts"</a>. <i>Iraq</i>. <b>63</b>: 183–186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4200510">10.2307/4200510</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-0889">0021-0889</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4200510">4200510</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232249061">232249061</a>. <q>On the origin of the Near Eastern archaeological amber (Akkadian elmesu; Hebrew hasmal).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iraq&rft.atitle=Amethysts&rft.volume=63&rft.pages=183-186&rft.date=2001&rft.issn=0021-0889&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232249061%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4200510%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4200510&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4200510&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These words are marked as "New Words" in the <a href="/wiki/Even-Shoshan_Dictionary" title="Even-Shoshan Dictionary">Even-Shoshan Hebrew Dictionary</a>, s.v. <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">חצילים</span></span>; see: <a href="/wiki/Nathan_ben_Abraham_I#Modern_Hebrew_usages" title="Nathan ben Abraham I">Modern Hebrew usages</a>. <i>Ḥashmal</i> is found only once in the Hebrew Bible, in Ezekiel's vision of the chariot (Ezek. 1:4; 1:27), but has been explained in a medieval Judeo-Arabic lexicon (reprinted in the book, <i>Jewish Culture in Muslim Lands and Cairo Geniza Studies</i>, ed. Yosef Tobi, Tel-Aviv University: Tel-Aviv 2006, p. 61 [note 114]) as being some angelic entity that had "utmost strength". Others have explained it to mean an angel that changes hues.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Moses_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Moses de León">Moses de León</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Zohar" class="mw-redirect" title="The Zohar">The Zohar</a></i> (Book of Exodus): Aramaic: <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">חיות אשא ממללא</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.balashon.com/2006/02/tiras.html">"tiras"</a>. <i>Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Balashon+-+Hebrew+Language+Detective&rft.atitle=tiras&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.balashon.com%2F2006%2F02%2Ftiras.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilologos2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philologos" title="Philologos">Philologos</a> (25 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://forward.com/news/103373/at-last-pomedorn/">"At Last, Pomedorn!"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Forward" title="The Forward">The Forward</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220807231101/https://forward.com/news/103373/at-last-pomedorn/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Forward&rft.atitle=At+Last%2C+Pomedorn%21&rft.date=2009-02-25&rft.au=Philologos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforward.com%2Fnews%2F103373%2Fat-last-pomedorn%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a>'s commentary on Exodus 9:17, where he says the word <i>mesilah</i> is translated in Aramaic <i>oraḥ kevīsha</i> (a blazed trail), the word "kevīsh" being only an adjective or descriptive word, but not a common noun as it is used today. It is said that <a href="/wiki/Ze%27ev_Yavetz" title="Ze'ev Yavetz">Ze'ev Yavetz</a> (1847–1924) is the one that coined this modern Hebrew word for “road.” See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/jewish-world-features/with-tu-bishvat-near-a-tree-grows-in-zichron-yaakov.premium-1.496141">Haaretz, Contributions made by Ze'ev Yavetz</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaltz2013" class="citation news cs1">Maltz, Judy (25 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/features/with-tu-bishvat-near-a-tree-grows-in-zichron-yaakov.premium-1.496141?=&ts=_1490626484939">"With Tu Bishvat Near, a Tree Grows in Zichron Yaakov"</a>. Haaretz<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=With+Tu+Bishvat+Near%2C+a+Tree+Grows+in+Zichron+Yaakov&rft.date=2013-01-25&rft.aulast=Maltz&rft.aufirst=Judy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fjewish%2Ffeatures%2Fwith-tu-bishvat-near-a-tree-grows-in-zichron-yaakov.premium-1.496141%3F%3D%26ts%3D_1490626484939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jpress.nli.org.il/Olive/APA/NLI_heb/SharedView.Article.aspx?parm=7rbZiRNBBORpwR15m80VYK4gT1Ndb8RkGXchrgpc%2Ff5euYFY4pa9VCQjKBuszzvpYw%3D%3D&mode=image&href=HZV%2F1888%2F03%2F09&page=4&rtl=true">Eliezer Ben-Yehuda on the use of the word <i>ribah</i> for confiture (in Hebrew)</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/HaZvi" title="HaZvi">Ha-Zvi</a></i>, 9 March 1888.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Professor <a href="/wiki/Zohar_Amar" title="Zohar Amar">Zohar Amar</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Bar-Ilan_University" title="Bar-Ilan University">Bar-Ilan University</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6fGXXZTyxds"><span class="plainlinks">The Wine of our ancestors in Ancient Times</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>, Lecture published by The Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology. Bar-Ilan University / 20 February 2020, minutes 20:29–20:38. (in Hebrew)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:32-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:32_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_26-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaulson1979" class="citation book cs1">Saulson, Scott B. (1979). <i>Institutionalized Language Planning – Documents and Analysis of the Revival of Hebrew</i>. Mouton Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-279-7567-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-279-7567-1"><bdi>90-279-7567-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutionalized+Language+Planning+%E2%80%93+Documents+and+Analysis+of+the+Revival+of+Hebrew&rft.pub=Mouton+Publishers&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=90-279-7567-1&rft.aulast=Saulson&rft.aufirst=Scott+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mandate over Palestine, 24 July 1922</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-See_p_2006_pp._57-71-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-See_p_2006_pp._57-71_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-See_p_2006_pp._57-71_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">See p. 63 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", <i>Journal of Modern Jewish Studies</i> 5 (1), pp. 57–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmer-Man2011" class="citation news cs1">Omer-Man, Michael (12 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jpost.com/Features/InThespotlight/Article.aspx?id=241523">"This Week in History: Hebrew goes conversational"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post" title="The Jerusalem Post">The Jerusalem Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post&rft.atitle=This+Week+in+History%3A+Hebrew+goes+conversational&rft.date=2011-10-12&rft.aulast=Omer-Man&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2FFeatures%2FInThespotlight%2FArticle.aspx%3Fid%3D241523&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hagege, Claude: <i>On the Death and Life of Languages</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-segal-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-segal_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-segal_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Segal, Myriam: <i>A New Sound in Hebrew Poetry: Poetics, Politics, Accent</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hZqpCrG3qw0C&pg=PA504">The New Jewish Encyclopedia</a> – Vaad Ha-Lashon Ha-Ivrit</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaramati1979" class="citation book cs1">Haramati, Sh (1979). <i>Reshit hachinuch ha'ivri ba'arec utrumato lehachya'at halashon</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reshit+hachinuch+ha%27ivri+ba%27arec+utrumato+lehachya%27at+halashon&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Haramati&rft.aufirst=Sh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/1909-1st-hebrew-high-school-in-pre-state-israel-founded-1.5416785">"1909: First Hebrew high school in pre-state Israel is founded"</a>. <i>Haaretz</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=1909%3A+First+Hebrew+high+school+in+pre-state+Israel+is+founded&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fjewish%2F1909-1st-hebrew-high-school-in-pre-state-israel-founded-1.5416785&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lepschy, Giulio C.: <i>Mother Tongues and Other Reflections on the Italian Language</i>, p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Technion Israel Institute of Technology. "Technion History: A story of how one stone changed the world [Web page]." (n.d.) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.technion.ac.il/en/about/history-of-the-technion/">http://www.technion.ac.il/en/about/history-of-the-technion/</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">HNet Humanities and Social Sciences Online, Haim Rechnitzer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/28655/reviews/30937/rechnitzer-segal-new-sound-hebrew-poetry-poetics-politics-accent">"Rechnitzer on Segal, 'A New Sound in Hebrew Poetry: Poetics, Politics, Accent'"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strazny, Philip: <i>Encyclopedia of Linguistics</i>, p. 541</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/PalestineCensus1922"><i>Palestine Census (1922)</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palestine+Census+%281922%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FPalestineCensus1922&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Helman-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Helman_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Helman_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Helman, Anat: <i>Becoming Israeli: National Ideals and Everyday Life in the 1950s,</i> p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-mass-migration-of-the-1950s/">"The Mass Migration to Israel of the 1950s"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mass+Migration+to+Israel+of+the+1950s&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.myjewishlearning.com%2Farticle%2Fthe-mass-migration-of-the-1950s%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmaraMar'i2006" class="citation book cs1">Amara, M.; Mar'i, Abd Al-Rahman (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aZIRBwAAQBAJ&q=Arabic+schools+Hebrew+third+grade+1948"><i>Language Education Policy: The Arab Minority in Israel</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-47588-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-47588-7"><bdi>978-0-306-47588-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Education+Policy%3A+The+Arab+Minority+in+Israel&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-306-47588-7&rft.aulast=Amara&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Mar%27i%2C+Abd+Al-Rahman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaZIRBwAAQBAJ%26q%3DArabic%2Bschools%2BHebrew%2Bthird%2Bgrade%2B1948&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRojanski2020" class="citation book cs1">Rojanski, Rachel (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7U-_DwAAQBAJ"><i>Yiddish in Israel: a History</i></a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253045171" title="Special:BookSources/9780253045171"><bdi>9780253045171</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yiddish+in+Israel%3A+a+History&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780253045171&rft.aulast=Rojanski&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7U-_DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolden2023" class="citation web cs1">Golden, Zach (11 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://forward.com/forverts-in-english/560390/how-yiddish-became-foreign-language-israel/">"How Yiddish became a 'foreign language' in Israel despite being spoken there since the 1400s"</a>. Forverts.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Yiddish+became+a+%27foreign+language%27+in+Israel+despite+being+spoken+there+since+the+1400s&rft.pub=Forverts&rft.date=2023-09-11&rft.aulast=Golden&rft.aufirst=Zach&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforward.com%2Fforverts-in-english%2F560390%2Fhow-yiddish-became-foreign-language-israel%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevival+of+the+Hebrew+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrewtoc.htm">History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language</a>, David Steinberg.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110916161700/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1242212397385&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull">Let my people know!</a>, Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Jerusalem Post, 18 May 2009.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zuckermann.org/pdf/Hybridity_versus_Revivability.pdf">Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns</a>, Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2, pp. 40–67 (2009).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.in-hebrew.co.il/index.html">Learn Hebrew Phrases with Audio</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hebrew_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hebrew_language" title="Template:Hebrew language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hebrew_language" title="Template talk:Hebrew language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hebrew_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hebrew language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hebrew_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Hebrew_alphabet" title="History of the Hebrew alphabet">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">Ancient inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">Transliteration to English</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_English" title="Hebraization of English">from English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gematria" title="Gematria">Gematria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">northern dialect</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews#Romaniote_Hebrew" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Jews#Pronunciation_of_Hebrew" title="Syrian Jews">Syrian</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(extinct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(extinct)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(extinct)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Orthography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew_orthography" title="Biblical Hebrew orthography">Biblical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tag_(Hebrew_writing)" title="Tag (Hebrew writing)">Crowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Alphabet</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">Alef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)" title="Bet (letter)">Bet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel" title="Gimel">Gimel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet" title="Dalet">Dalet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">Hei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)" title="Waw (letter)">Vav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">Zayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">Ḥet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth" title="Teth">Tet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh" title="Yodh">Yud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph" title="Kaph">Kaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh" title="Lamedh">Lamed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem" title="Mem">Mem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)" title="Nun (letter)">Nun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">Samech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">Ayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">Pei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade" title="Tsade">Tsadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph" title="Qoph">Kuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh" title="Resh">Resh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">Shin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw" title="Taw">Tav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">Niqqud</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_vocalization" title="Samaritan vocalization">Samaritan</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shva" title="Shva">Shva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiriq" title="Hiriq">Hiriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzere" title="Tzere">Tzere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segol" title="Segol">Segol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patach" title="Patach">Pataḥ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamatz" title="Kamatz">Kamatz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holam" title="Holam">Holam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kubutz_and_shuruk" title="Kubutz and shuruk">Kubutz/shuruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagesh" title="Dagesh">Dagesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappiq" title="Mappiq">Mappiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_punctuation#Hyphen_and_maqaf" title="Hebrew punctuation">Maqaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafe" title="Rafe">Rafe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Sin_and_Shin_dot" title="Shin (letter)">Sin/Shin dot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_spelling" title="Hebrew spelling">Spelling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ktiv_menuqad" title="Ktiv menuqad">with Niqqud</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ktiv_hasar_niqqud#Ktiv_haser" title="Ktiv hasar niqqud">missing</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ktiv_hasar_niqqud" title="Ktiv hasar niqqud">full</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_abbreviations" title="Hebrew abbreviations">Abbreviations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plene_scriptum" title="Plene scriptum">Plene scriptum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_punctuation" title="Hebrew punctuation">Punctuation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_diacritics" title="Hebrew diacritics">Diacritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteg" title="Meteg">Meteg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">Cantillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geresh" title="Geresh">Geresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gershayim" title="Gershayim">Gershayim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverted_nun" title="Inverted nun">Inverted nun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shekel_sign" title="Shekel sign">Shekel sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_numerals" title="Hebrew numerals">Numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_phonology" title="Modern Hebrew phonology">Modern Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippi%27s_law" title="Philippi's law">Philippi's law</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">Law of attenuation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language#Hebrew_grammar" title="Hebrew language">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew#Grammar" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Modern</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_verbs" title="Modern Hebrew verbs">Verbal morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic roots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefixes_in_Hebrew" title="Prefixes in Hebrew">Prefixes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffixes_in_Hebrew" title="Suffixes in Hebrew">Suffixes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segolate" title="Segolate">Segolate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vav-consecutive" title="Vav-consecutive">Vav-consecutive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language" title="Academy of the Hebrew Language">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Study of the Hebrew language">Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulpan" title="Ulpan">Ulpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_keyboard" title="Hebrew keyboard">Keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hebrew_writings" title="Ancient Hebrew writings">ancient</a> / <a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">modern Israeli</a> literature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_name" title="Hebrew name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_surnames" title="Hebraization of surnames">Surnames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicode_and_HTML_for_the_Hebrew_alphabet" title="Unicode and HTML for the Hebrew alphabet">Unicode and HTML</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reference works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gesenius-Kautsch-Cowley" class="mw-redirect" title="Gesenius-Kautsch-Cowley">Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Gesenius" title="Wilhelm Gesenius">Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown%E2%80%93Driver%E2%80%93Briggs" title="Brown–Driver–Briggs">Brown–Driver–Briggs</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strong%27s_Concordance" title="Strong's Concordance">Strong's Concordance</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_and_Aramaic_Lexicon_of_the_Old_Testament" title="Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament">Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Zionism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Zionism" title="Template:Zionism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Zionism" title="Template talk:Zionism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Zionism" 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of Return">Law of Return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Territorial_Organization" title="Jewish Territorial Organization">Territorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promised_Land" title="Promised Land">Promised Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_of_Israel" title="Gathering of Israel">Gathering of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_and_Stockade" title="Tower and Stockade">Settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negation_of_the_Diaspora" title="Negation of the Diaspora">Negation of the Diaspora</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revival of the Hebrew language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebraization_of_surnames" title="Hebraization of surnames">Hebraization of surnames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaization" title="Judaization">Judaization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism,_race_and_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionism, race and genetics">Zionism, race and genetics</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zionism-template.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Theodor Herzl, Israel's flag and its declaration of independence"><img alt="Theodor Herzl, Israel's flag and its declaration of independence" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Zionism-template.png/45px-Zionism-template.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Zionism-template.png/68px-Zionism-template.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Zionism-template.png 2x" data-file-width="83" data-file-height="274" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_Zionism" title="Types of Zionism">Ideologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Zionism" title="Reform Zionism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Zionism" title="Cultural Zionism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Zionism" title="Federal Zionism">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Zionism" title="Post-Zionism">Post-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Zionism" title="Proto-Zionism">Proto-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Zionism" title="Neo-Zionism">Neo-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Zionism" title="Non-Zionism">Non-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Zionism" title="Green Zionism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Zionism" title="Christian Zionism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanism" title="Canaanism">Canaanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddishist_movement" title="Yiddishist movement">Yiddishist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golus_nationalism" title="Golus nationalism">Golus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Zionist_organizations" title="Category:Zionist organizations">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histadrut" title="Histadrut">Histadrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hovevei_Zion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hovevei Zion">Hovevei Zion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilu_(movement)" title="Bilu (movement)">Bilu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Zionist_Organization" title="World Zionist Organization">World Zionist Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_General_Council" title="Zionist General Council">Zionist General Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_Federation_of_Germany" title="Zionist Federation of Germany">Zionist Federation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_Organization_of_America" title="Zionist Organization of America">Zionist Organization of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_Organization_of_Canada" title="Zionist Organization of Canada">Zionist Organization of Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionists_of_America" title="Religious Zionists of America">Religious Zionists of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_National_Fund" title="Jewish National Fund">Jewish National Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poale_Zion" title="Poale Zion">Poale Zion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel" title="Jewish Agency for Israel">Jewish Agency for Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_National_Council" title="Jewish National Council">Jewish National Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrachi_(political_party)" title="Mizrachi (political party)">Mizrachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bnei_Akiva" title="Bnei Akiva">Bnei Akiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habonim_Dror" title="Habonim Dror">Habonim Dror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashomer_Hatzair" title="Hashomer Hatzair">Hashomer Hatzair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haganah" title="Haganah">Haganah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HaNoar_HaTzioni" title="HaNoar HaTzioni">HaNoar HaTzioni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Agudath_Israel" title="World Agudath Israel">World Agudath Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irgun" title="Irgun">Irgun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betar" title="Betar">Betar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)" title="Lehi (militant group)">Lehi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Party_(Czechoslovakia)" title="Jewish Party (Czechoslovakia)">Jewish Party (Czechoslovakia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Party_(Romania)" title="Jewish Party (Romania)">Jewish Party (Romania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Resistance_Movement" title="Jewish Resistance Movement">Jewish Resistance Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmach" title="Palmach">Palmach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_International_Zionist_Organization" title="Women's International Zionist Organization">Women's International Zionist Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadassah_Women%27s_Zionist_Organization_of_America" title="Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America">Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aytzim" title="Aytzim">Aytzim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Zionist_Movement" title="American Zionist Movement">American Zionist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am_Yisrael_Foundation" title="Am Yisrael Foundation">Am Yisrael Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_Federation_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland">Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Zionist_Strategies" title="Institute for Zionist Strategies">Institute for Zionist Strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Fellowship_of_Christians_and_Jews" title="International Fellowship of Christians and Jews">International Fellowship of Christians and Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nefesh_B%27Nefesh" title="Nefesh B'Nefesh">Nefesh B'Nefesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birthright_Israel" title="Birthright Israel">Birthright Israel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">History and<br />timelines</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">History of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Aliyah_in_modern_times" title="Chronology of Aliyah in modern times">Chronology of Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">History of Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balfour_Declaration" title="Balfour Declaration">Balfour Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_3379" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379">UN General Assembly Resolution 3379</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_46/86" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 46/86">UN General Assembly Resolution 46/86</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Zionism" title="Timeline of Zionism">Timeline of Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_process" title="Israeli–Palestinian peace process">Israeli–Palestinian peace process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Arab–Israeli conflict">Timeline of the Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Holidays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yom_HaZikaron" title="Yom HaZikaron">Yom HaZikaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(Israel)" title="Independence Day (Israel)">Independence Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Day" title="Jerusalem Day">Jerusalem Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_HaAliyah" title="Yom HaAliyah">Yom HaAliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herzl_Day" title="Herzl Day">Herzl Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabotinsky_Day" title="Jabotinsky Day">Jabotinsky Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben-Gurion_Day" title="Ben-Gurion Day">Ben-Gurion Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabin_Day" title="Rabin Day">Rabin Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Zionists" title="List of Zionists">List of Zionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Not_one_inch" title="Not one inch">Not one inch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomism" title="Jewish Autonomism">Jewish Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Jewish emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Israel" title="Greater Israel">Greater Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_Judaism" title="Muscular Judaism">Muscular Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_supporters_of_Israel" title="Muslim supporters of Israel">Muslim supporters of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_except_Palestine" title="Progressive except Palestine">Progressive except Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_antisemitism" title="Zionist antisemitism">Zionist antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_political_violence" title="Zionist political violence">Zionist political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zio_(pejorative)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zio 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