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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Observational astrophysics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Observational_astrophysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_astrophysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_astrophysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theoretical astrophysics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_astrophysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popularization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popularization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Popularization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popularization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Astrophysics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 101 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-101" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">101 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisika" title="Astrofisika – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Astrofisika" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فيزياء فلكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فيزياء فلكية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="জ্যোতিৰ্পদাৰ্থ বিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="জ্যোতিৰ্পদাৰ্থ বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrof%C3%ADsica" title="Astrofísica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Astrofísica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizika" title="Astrofizika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Astrofizika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%83%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="জ্যোতিঃপদার্থবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জ্যোতিঃপদার্থবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisika" title="Astrofisika – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Astrofisika" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Астрафізіка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Астрафізіка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Астрофизика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Астрофизика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizika" title="Astrofizika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Astrofizika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrof%C3%ADsica" title="Astrofísica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Astrofísica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Астрофизика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Астрофизика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofyzika" title="Astrofyzika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Astrofyzika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisica" title="Astrofisica – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Astrofisica" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chavacano de Zamboanga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astroffiseg" title="Astroffiseg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Astroffiseg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofysik" title="Astrofysik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Astrofysik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysik" title="Astrophysik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Astrophysik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrof%C3%BC%C3%BCsika" title="Astrofüüsika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Astrofüüsika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Αστροφυσική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αστροφυσική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrof%C3%ADsica" title="Astrofísica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Astrofísica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofiziko" title="Astrofiziko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Astrofiziko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisika" title="Astrofisika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Astrofisika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="اخترفیزیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اخترفیزیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysique" title="Astrophysique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Astrophysique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9altfhisic" title="Réaltfhisic – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Réaltfhisic" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrof%C3%ADsica" title="Astrofísica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Astrofísica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%9C%EC%B2%B4%EB%AC%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="천체물리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="천체물리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%86%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Աստղաֆիզիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աստղաֆիզիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="खगोलभौतिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खगोलभौतिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizika" title="Astrofizika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Astrofizika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofiziko" title="Astrofiziko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Astrofiziko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisika" title="Astrofisika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Astrofisika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysica" title="Astrophysica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Astrophysica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisica" title="Astrofisica – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Astrofisica" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stjarne%C3%B0lisfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Stjarneðlisfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stjarneðlisfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisica" title="Astrofisica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Astrofisica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="אסטרופיזיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אסטרופיזיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisika" title="Astrofisika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Astrofisika" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%96%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%A4_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಖಭೌತ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಖಭೌತ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ასტროფიზიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ასტროფიზიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Астрофизика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Астрофизика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%AArfiz%C3%AEk" title="Stêrfizîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Stêrfizîk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Астрофизика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Астрофизика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysica" title="Astrophysica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Astrophysica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizika" title="Astrofizika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Astrofizika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysik" title="Astrophysik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Astrophysik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizika" title="Astrofizika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Astrofizika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofixica" title="Astrofixica – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Astrofixica" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisica" title="Astrofisica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Astrofisica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asztrofizika" title="Asztrofizika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Asztrofizika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Астрофизика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Астрофизика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="ഖഗോള ഭൗതികം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഖഗോള ഭൗതികം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="खगोलभौतिकी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="खगोलभौतिकी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ასტროფიზიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ასტროფიზიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D9%83" title="فيزيا الفلك – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فيزيا الفلك" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizik" title="Astrofizik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Astrofizik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%95ng-%C3%B9ng_%C5%ACk-l%C4%AB-h%C5%8Fk" title="Tiĕng-ùng Ŭk-lī-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Tiĕng-ùng Ŭk-lī-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Астрофизик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Астрофизик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%80%E1%80%B9%E1%80%81%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="နက္ခတ္တရူပဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နက္ခတ္တရူပဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofysica" title="Astrofysica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Astrofysica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E4%BD%93%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="天体物理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="天体物理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofysikk" title="Astrofysikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Astrofysikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofysikk" title="Astrofysikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Astrofysikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisike" title="Astrofisike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Astrofisike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisica" title="Astrofisica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Astrofisica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizika" title="Astrofizika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Astrofizika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%81_%D9%81%D8%B2%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="تارہ فزکس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تارہ فزکس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88_%D9%81%D8%B2%D9%8A%DA%A9" title="د ستورو فزيک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ستورو فزيک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizyka" title="Astrofizyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Astrofizyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrof%C3%ADsica" title="Astrofísica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Astrofísica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizic%C4%83" title="Astrofizică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Astrofizică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Астрофизика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Астрофизика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysik" title="Astrophysik – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Astrophysik" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizika" title="Astrofizika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Astrofizika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrof%C3%ACsica" title="Astrofìsica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Astrofìsica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%9E%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="තාරකා භෞතික විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="තාරකා භෞතික විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Astrophysics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofyzika" title="Astrofyzika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Astrofyzika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizika" title="Astrofizika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Astrofizika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8E%D8%B1%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="ستێرفیزیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ستێرفیزیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Астрофизика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Астрофизика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizika" title="Astrofizika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Astrofizika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofisika" title="Astrofisika – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Astrofisika" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofysiikka" title="Astrofysiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Astrofysiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofysik" title="Astrofysik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Astrofysik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astropisika" title="Astropisika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Astropisika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="வானியற்பியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வானியற்பியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasngama_tasnaggurt" title="Tasngama tasnaggurt – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasngama tasnaggurt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ฟิสิกส์ดาราศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฟิสิกส์ดาราศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Ахтарфизик – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ахтарфизик" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizik" title="Astrofizik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Astrofizik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrofizika" title="Astrofizika – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Astrofizika" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Астрофизика – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Астрофизика" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Астрофізика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrophysicist&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrophysicist">Astrophysicist</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Subfield of astronomy</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the academic journal, see <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics_(journal)" title="Astrophysics (journal)">Astrophysics (journal)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NIEdot362.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/NIEdot362.jpg/220px-NIEdot362.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/NIEdot362.jpg/330px-NIEdot362.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/NIEdot362.jpg/440px-NIEdot362.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1264" /></a><figcaption>Early 1900s comparison of elemental, solar, and stellar spectra</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/100px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/150px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/200px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.15em 0.15em 0.25em; display:block; background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_physics_articles" title="Index of physics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physics" title="Outline of physics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" title="Glossary of physics">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics" title="Mechanics">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">Physicist</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_physicists" title="List of physicists">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_physics_awards" title="List of physics awards">List of physics awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_physics_journals" title="List of physics journals">List of journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">List of unsolved problems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/14px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/21px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/28px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physics" title="Category:Physics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Physics" title="Template:TopicTOC-Physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Physics" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Astrophysics</b> is a science that employs the methods and principles of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> in the study of <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">astronomical objects</a> and phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As one of the founders of the discipline, <a href="/wiki/James_Edward_Keeler" title="James Edward Keeler">James Keeler</a>, said, astrophysics "seeks to ascertain the nature of the heavenly bodies, rather than their positions or motions in space–<i>what</i> they are, rather than <i>where</i> they are",<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is studied in <a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">celestial mechanics</a>. </p><p>Among the subjects studied are the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> (<a href="/wiki/Solar_physics" title="Solar physics">solar physics</a>), other <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extrasolar_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planets</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">cosmic microwave background</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa.gov_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa.gov-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emissions from these objects are examined across all parts of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>, and the properties examined include <a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">luminosity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemical</a> composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, <i>astrophysicists</i> apply concepts and methods from many disciplines of physics, including <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear</a> and <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">atomic and molecular physics</a>. </p><p>In practice, modern astronomical research often involves a substantial amount of work in the realms of <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical</a> and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include their attempts to determine the properties of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_holes" class="mw-redirect" title="Black holes">black holes</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Celestial_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial bodies">celestial bodies</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">origin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">ultimate fate of the universe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa.gov_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa.gov-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Solar System formation and evolution</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stellar_dynamics" title="Stellar dynamics">stellar dynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">evolution</a>; <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">galaxy formation and evolution</a>; <a href="/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics" title="Magnetohydrodynamics">magnetohydrodynamics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_structure_of_the_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale structure of the universe">large-scale structure</a> of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> in the universe; origin of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>; <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">quantum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">physical cosmology</a> (the physical study of the largest-scale structures of the universe), including <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string</a> cosmology and <a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">astroparticle physics</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrophysics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Astronomy is an ancient science, long separated from the study of terrestrial physics. In the <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> worldview, bodies in the sky appeared to be unchanging <a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">spheres</a> whose only motion was uniform motion in a circle, while the earthly world was the realm which underwent <a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption" title="On Generation and Corruption">growth and decay</a> and in which natural motion was in a straight line and ended when the moving object reached its <a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">goal</a>. Consequently, it was held that the celestial region was made of a fundamentally different kind of matter from that found in the terrestrial sphere; either <a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">Fire</a> as maintained by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">Aether</a> as maintained by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle#Physics" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 17th century, natural philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> began to maintain that the celestial and terrestrial regions were made of similar kinds of material and were subject to the same <a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">natural laws</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Burtt_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burtt-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their challenge was that the tools had not yet been invented with which to prove these assertions.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For much of the nineteenth century, astronomical research was focused on the routine work of measuring the positions and computing the motions of astronomical objects.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A new astronomy, soon to be called astrophysics, began to emerge when <a href="/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston" title="William Hyde Wollaston">William Hyde Wollaston</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_von_Fraunhofer" title="Joseph von Fraunhofer">Joseph von Fraunhofer</a> independently discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of <a href="/wiki/Fraunhofer_lines" title="Fraunhofer lines">dark lines</a> (regions where there was less or no light) were observed in the <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">spectrum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1860 the physicist, <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Gustav Kirchhoff</a>, and the chemist, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bunsen" title="Robert Bunsen">Robert Bunsen</a>, had demonstrated that the <a href="/wiki/Absorption_spectroscopy#Absorption_spectrum" title="Absorption spectroscopy">dark lines</a> in the solar spectrum corresponded to <a href="/wiki/Emission_spectrum" title="Emission spectrum">bright lines</a> in the spectra of known gases, specific lines corresponding to unique <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kirchhoff deduced that the dark lines in the solar spectrum are caused by <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption (optics)">absorption</a> by <a href="/wiki/Chemical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical elements">chemical elements</a> in the Solar atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this way it was proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun and stars were also found on Earth. </p><p>Among those who extended the study of solar and stellar spectra was <a href="/wiki/Norman_Lockyer" title="Norman Lockyer">Norman Lockyer</a>, who in 1868 detected radiant, as well as dark lines in solar spectra. Working with chemist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Frankland" title="Edward Frankland">Edward Frankland</a> to investigate the spectra of elements at various temperatures and pressures, he could not associate a yellow line in the solar spectrum with any known elements. He thus claimed the line represented a new element, which was called <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, after the Greek <a href="/wiki/Helios" title="Helios">Helios</a>, the Sun personified.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1885, <a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Pickering" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward C. Pickering">Edward C. Pickering</a> undertook an ambitious program of stellar spectral classification at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College_Observatory" title="Harvard College Observatory">Harvard College Observatory</a>, in which a team of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">woman computers</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Williamina_Fleming" title="Williamina Fleming">Williamina Fleming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonia_Maury" title="Antonia Maury">Antonia Maury</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon" title="Annie Jump Cannon">Annie Jump Cannon</a>, classified the spectra recorded on photographic plates. By 1890, a catalog of over 10,000 stars had been prepared that grouped them into thirteen spectral types. Following Pickering's vision, by 1924 Cannon expanded the <a href="/wiki/Henry_Draper_Catalogue" title="Henry Draper Catalogue">catalog</a> to nine volumes and over a quarter of a million stars, developing the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification#Harvard_spectral_classification" title="Stellar classification">Harvard Classification Scheme</a> which was accepted for worldwide use in 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1895, <a href="/wiki/George_Ellery_Hale" title="George Ellery Hale">George Ellery Hale</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_E._Keeler" class="mw-redirect" title="James E. Keeler">James E. Keeler</a>, along with a group of ten associate editors from Europe and the United States,<sup id="cite_ref-Hale1895_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hale1895-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> established <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal"><i>The Astrophysical Journal: An International Review of Spectroscopy and Astronomical Physics</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was intended that the journal would fill the gap between journals in astronomy and physics, providing a venue for publication of articles on astronomical applications of the spectroscope; on laboratory research closely allied to astronomical physics, including wavelength determinations of metallic and gaseous spectra and experiments on radiation and absorption; on theories of the Sun, Moon, planets, comets, meteors, and nebulae; and on instrumentation for telescopes and laboratories.<sup id="cite_ref-Hale1895_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hale1895-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 1920, following the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram" title="Hertzsprung–Russell diagram">Hertzsprung–Russell diagram</a> still used as the basis for classifying stars and their evolution, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a> anticipated the discovery and mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> processes in <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, in his paper <i>The Internal Constitution of the Stars</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-eddington_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eddington-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eddington2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eddington2-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a> of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to Einstein's equation <i>E = mc<sup>2</sup></i>. This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even that stars are largely composed of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">metallicity</a>), had not yet been discovered.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1925 Cecilia Helena Payne (later <a href="/wiki/Cecilia_Payne-Gaposchkin" title="Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin">Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin</a>) wrote an influential doctoral dissertation at <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe_College" title="Radcliffe College">Radcliffe College</a>, in which she applied <a href="/wiki/Saha_ionization_equation" title="Saha ionization equation">Saha's ionization theory</a> to stellar atmospheres to relate the spectral classes to the temperature of stars.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most significantly, she discovered that hydrogen and helium were the principal components of stars, not the composition of Earth. Despite Eddington's suggestion, discovery was so unexpected that her dissertation readers (including <a href="/wiki/Henry_Norris_Russell" title="Henry Norris Russell">Russell</a>) convinced her to modify the conclusion before publication. However, later research confirmed her discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the 20th century, studies of astronomical spectra had expanded to cover wavelengths extending from radio waves through optical, x-ray, and gamma wavelengths.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 21st century, it further expanded to include observations based on <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational waves">gravitational waves</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Observational_astrophysics">Observational astrophysics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrophysics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Observational astrophysics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:N_63A-_Chandra_and_Hubble_-_Heic0507f.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/N_63A-_Chandra_and_Hubble_-_Heic0507f.tif/lossy-page1-200px-N_63A-_Chandra_and_Hubble_-_Heic0507f.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/N_63A-_Chandra_and_Hubble_-_Heic0507f.tif/lossy-page1-300px-N_63A-_Chandra_and_Hubble_-_Heic0507f.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/N_63A-_Chandra_and_Hubble_-_Heic0507f.tif/lossy-page1-400px-N_63A-_Chandra_and_Hubble_-_Heic0507f.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Supernova remnant LMC N 63A imaged in x-ray (blue), optical (green) and radio (red) wavelengths. The X-ray glow is from material heated to about ten million degrees Celsius by a shock wave generated by the supernova explosion.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational astronomy</a> is a division of the astronomical science that is concerned with recording and interpreting data, in contrast with <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_astrophysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical astrophysics">theoretical astrophysics</a>, which is mainly concerned with finding out the measurable implications of physical <a href="/wiki/Model_(abstract)" class="mw-redirect" title="Model (abstract)">models</a>. It is the practice of observing <a href="/wiki/Celestial_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial object">celestial objects</a> by using <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopes</a> and other astronomical apparatus. </p><p>Most astrophysical observations are made using the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio astronomy</a> studies radiation with a <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> greater than a few millimeters. Example areas of study are <a href="/wiki/Radio_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio waves">radio waves</a>, usually emitted by cold objects such as <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar gas">interstellar gas</a> and dust clouds; the cosmic microwave background radiation which is the <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">redshifted</a> light from the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsars</a>, which were first detected at <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> frequencies. The study of these waves requires very large <a href="/wiki/Radio_telescope" title="Radio telescope">radio telescopes</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared astronomy</a> studies radiation with a wavelength that is too long to be visible to the naked eye but is shorter than radio waves. Infrared observations are usually made with telescopes similar to the familiar <a href="/wiki/Optical" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical">optical</a> telescopes. Objects colder than stars (such as planets) are normally studied at infrared frequencies.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical astronomy">Optical astronomy</a> was the earliest kind of astronomy. Telescopes paired with a <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> or <a href="/wiki/Spectroscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectroscope">spectroscopes</a> are the most common instruments used. The Earth's <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> interferes somewhat with optical observations, so <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_optics" title="Adaptive optics">adaptive optics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">space telescopes</a> are used to obtain the highest possible image quality. In this wavelength range, stars are highly visible, and many chemical spectra can be observed to study the chemical composition of stars, galaxies, and <a href="/wiki/Nebula" title="Nebula">nebulae</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a>, <a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma ray astronomy">gamma ray astronomy</a> study very energetic processes such as <a href="/wiki/Binary_pulsar" title="Binary pulsar">binary pulsars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">magnetars</a>, and many others. These kinds of radiation do not penetrate the Earth's atmosphere well. There are two methods in use to observe this part of the electromagnetic spectrum—<a href="/wiki/Space-based_telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Space-based telescope">space-based telescopes</a> and ground-based <a href="/wiki/Imaging_air_Cherenkov_telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Imaging air Cherenkov telescope">imaging air Cherenkov telescopes</a> (IACT). Examples of <a href="/wiki/Observatory" title="Observatory">Observatories</a> of the first type are <a href="/wiki/RXTE" class="mw-redirect" title="RXTE">RXTE</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory" title="Chandra X-ray Observatory">Chandra X-ray Observatory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Compton_Gamma_Ray_Observatory" title="Compton Gamma Ray Observatory">Compton Gamma Ray Observatory</a>. Examples of IACTs are the <a href="/wiki/High_Energy_Stereoscopic_System" title="High Energy Stereoscopic System">High Energy Stereoscopic System</a> (H.E.S.S.) and the <a href="/wiki/MAGIC_(telescope)" title="MAGIC (telescope)">MAGIC</a> telescope.</li></ul> <p>Other than electromagnetic radiation, few things may be observed from the Earth that originate from great distances. A few <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational wave</a> observatories have been constructed, but gravitational waves are extremely difficult to detect. <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">Neutrino</a> observatories have also been built, primarily to study the Sun. Cosmic rays consisting of very high-energy particles can be observed hitting the Earth's atmosphere. </p><p>Observations can also vary in their time scale. Most optical observations take minutes to hours, so phenomena that change faster than this cannot readily be observed. However, historical data on some objects is available, spanning <a href="/wiki/Century" title="Century">centuries</a> or <a href="/wiki/Millennia" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennia">millennia</a>. On the other hand, radio observations may look at events on a millisecond timescale (<a href="/wiki/Millisecond_pulsar" title="Millisecond pulsar">millisecond pulsars</a>) or combine years of data (<a href="/wiki/Rotation-powered_pulsar" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotation-powered pulsar">pulsar deceleration</a> studies). The information obtained from these different timescales is very different. </p><p>The study of the Sun has a special place in observational astrophysics. Due to the tremendous distance of all other stars, the Sun can be observed in a kind of detail unparalleled by any other star. Understanding the Sun serves as a guide to understanding of other stars. </p><p>The topic of how stars change, or stellar evolution, is often modeled by placing the varieties of star types in their respective positions on the <a href="/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram" title="Hertzsprung–Russell diagram">Hertzsprung–Russell diagram</a>, which can be viewed as representing the state of a stellar object, from birth to destruction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_astrophysics">Theoretical astrophysics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrophysics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Theoretical astrophysics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_astronomy" title="Theoretical astronomy">Theoretical astronomy</a></div> <p>Theoretical astrophysicists use a wide variety of tools which include <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">analytical models</a> (for example, <a href="/wiki/Polytrope" title="Polytrope">polytropes</a> to approximate the behaviors of a star) and <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computational</a> <a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">numerical simulations</a>. Each has some advantages. Analytical models of a process are generally better for giving insight into the heart of what is going on. Numerical models can reveal the existence of phenomena and effects that would otherwise not be seen.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theorists in astrophysics endeavor to create theoretical models and figure out the observational consequences of those models. This helps allow observers to look for data that can refute a model or help in choosing between several alternate or conflicting models. </p><p>Theorists also try to generate or modify models to take into account new data. In the case of an inconsistency, the general tendency is to try to make minimal modifications to the model to fit the data. In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to total abandonment of a model. </p><p>Topics studied by theoretical astrophysicists include stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation and evolution; magnetohydrodynamics; large-scale structure of matter in the universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity and physical cosmology, including <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string</a> cosmology and astroparticle physics. Relativistic astrophysics serves as a tool to gauge the properties of large-scale structures for which gravitation plays a significant role in physical phenomena investigated and as the basis for <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a> (<i>astro</i>)physics and the study of <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational waves">gravitational waves</a>. </p><p>Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astrophysics, now included in the <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a>, are the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a>, dark matter, dark energy and fundamental theories of physics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Popularization">Popularization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrophysics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Popularization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The roots of astrophysics can be found in the seventeenth century emergence of a unified physics, in which the same laws applied to the celestial and terrestrial realms.<sup id="cite_ref-Burtt_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burtt-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were scientists who were qualified in both physics and astronomy who laid the firm foundation for the current science of astrophysics. In modern times, students continue to be drawn to astrophysics due to its popularization by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Royal Astronomical Society">Royal Astronomical Society</a> and notable <a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">educators</a> such as prominent professors <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Krauss" title="Lawrence Krauss">Lawrence Krauss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Reeves" title="Hubert Reeves">Hubert Reeves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Moore" title="Patrick Moore">Patrick Moore</a>. The efforts of the early, late, and present scientists continue to attract young people to study the history and science of astrophysics.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The television sitcom show <i><a href="/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory" title="The Big Bang Theory">The Big Bang Theory</a></i> popularized the field of astrophysics with the general public, and featured some well known scientists like <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neil_deGrasse_Tyson" title="Neil deGrasse Tyson">Neil deGrasse Tyson</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrophysics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> – Study of molecules in the Universe and their reactions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories" title="List of astronomical observatories">Astronomical observatories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_spectroscopy" title="Astronomical spectroscopy">Astronomical spectroscopy</a> – Study of astronomy using spectroscopy to measure the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">Astroparticle physics</a> – Branch of particle physics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational-wave astronomy</a> – Branch of astronomy using gravitational waves</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram" title="Hertzsprung–Russell diagram">Hertzsprung–Russell diagram</a> – Scatter plot of stars showing the relationship of luminosity to stellar classification</li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy astronomy</a> – Study of astronomical objects that release highly energetic electromagnetic radiation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_physics#Astrophysics" title="List of important publications in physics">Important publications in astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomers" title="List of astronomers">List of astronomers</a> – (includes astrophysicists)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">Neutrino astronomy</a> – Observing low-mass stellar particles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_gravitational_physics_and_relativity" title="Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity">Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_knowledge_about_galaxies,_clusters_of_galaxies,_and_large-scale_structure" title="Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure">Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_white_dwarfs,_neutron_stars,_and_supernovae" title="Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae">Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae</a> – Chronological list of developments in knowledge and records</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrophysics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMaoz2016" class="citation book cs1">Maoz, Dan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bmBeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1"><i>Astrophysics in a Nutshell</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 272. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400881178" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400881178"><bdi>978-1400881178</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astrophysics+in+a+Nutshell&rft.pages=272&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1400881178&rft.aulast=Maoz&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbmBeCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrophysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/astrophysics">"astrophysics"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-07-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Galileo%2C+Descartes%2C+and+Newton+%E2%80%93+Founders+of+the+Language+of+Physics&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Ladislav+Kvasz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physics.sk%2Faps%2Fpubs%2F2012%2Faps-12-06%2Faps-12-06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrophysics" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCase2015" class="citation cs2">Case, Stephen (2015), "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Land-marks of the universe': John Herschel against the background of positional astronomy", <i>Annals of Science</i>, <b>72</b> (4): 417–434, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015AnSci..72..417C">2015AnSci..72..417C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033790.2015.1034588">10.1080/00033790.2015.1034588</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26221834">26221834</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205397708">205397708</a>, <q>The great majority of astronomers working in the early nineteenth century were not interested in stars as physical objects. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-07-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hubert+Reeves+%E2%80%93+Astronomy%2C+Astrophysics+and+Space+Science&rft.pub=GCS+Research+Society&rft.date=2015&rft.au=The+science.ca+team&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.ca%2Fscientists%2Fscientistprofile.php%3FpID%3D213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrophysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/">"Neil deGrasse Tyson"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hayden_Planetarium" class="mw-redirect" title="Hayden Planetarium">Hayden Planetarium</a>. 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-07-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Neil+deGrasse+Tyson&rft.pub=Hayden+Planetarium&rft.date=2015&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haydenplanetarium.org%2Ftyson%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrophysics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrophysics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongair2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_S._Longair" class="mw-redirect" title="Malcolm S. Longair">Longair, Malcolm S.</a> (2006), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cosmiccenturyhis0000long"><i>The Cosmic Century: A History of Astrophysics and Cosmology</i></a></span>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47436-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47436-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47436-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cosmic+Century%3A+A+History+of+Astrophysics+and+Cosmology&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47436-8&rft.aulast=Longair&rft.aufirst=Malcolm+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcosmiccenturyhis0000long&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrophysics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Encyclopedia:Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scholarpedia" title="Scholarpedia">Scholarpedia</a> Expert articles</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrophysics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scienceresourceworld.com/publications/journals/astronomy_journals.html">List and directory of peer-reviewed Astronomy / Astrophysics Journals</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmolog.htm">Ned Wright's Cosmology Tutorial, UCLA</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newtonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_mechanics" title="Analytical mechanics">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">Acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Classical electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical optics">Classical optics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geometrical_optics" title="Geometrical optics">Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_optics" title="Physical optics">Wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a 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physics">Particle physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optics#Modern_optics" title="Optics">Modern optics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Applied_and_interdisciplinary_physics" title="Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics">Interdisciplinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Atmospheric physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Ocean physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">Timeline of physics discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_subfields_of_astronomy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Astronomy_subfields" title="Template:Astronomy subfields"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Astronomy_subfields" title="Template talk:Astronomy subfields"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy_subfields" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy subfields"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_subfields_of_astronomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major subfields of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_mechanics" title="Orbital mechanics">Orbital mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Solar astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy#Stellar_astronomy" title="Astronomy">Stellar astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Astronomy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Astronomy_navbox" title="Template:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Astronomy_navbox" title="Template talk:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Astronomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy" title="Outline of astronomy">Outline</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">Timeline</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">Astronomer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_symbols" title="Astronomical symbols">Astronomical symbols</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">Astronomical object</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Glossary</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Astronomy by</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Manner</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">Amateur</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sidewalk_astronomy" title="Sidewalk astronomy">Sidewalk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Celestial subject</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Galactic_astronomy" title="Galactic astronomy">Galactic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_astronomy" title="Extragalactic astronomy">Extragalactic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Local system</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Solar</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">EM methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">Radio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy" title="Submillimetre astronomy">Submillimetre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">Infrared</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Far-infrared_astronomy" title="Far-infrared astronomy">Far-infrared</a></span>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Visible-light_astronomy" title="Visible-light astronomy">Visible-light <span style="font-size:85%;">(optical)</span></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_astronomy" title="Ultraviolet astronomy">Ultraviolet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">X-ray</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_X-ray_astronomy" title="History of X-ray astronomy">History</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">Gamma-ray</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Other methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">Neutrino</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy" title="Cosmic ray astronomy">Cosmic rays</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational radiation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">High-energy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radar_astronomy" title="Radar astronomy">Radar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spherical_astronomy" title="Spherical astronomy">Spherical</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Multi-messenger_astronomy" title="Multi-messenger astronomy">Multi-messenger</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_astronomy" title="Cultural astronomy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_astronomy" title="Australian Aboriginal astronomy">Australian Aboriginal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuit_astronomy" title="Inuit astronomy">Inuit</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Maya</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_Serbia" title="Astronomy in Serbia">Serbian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Serbian_folk_astronomy" title="Serbian folk astronomy">folk</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_astronomy" title="Tibetan astronomy">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">Optical<br />telescopes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_optical_telescopes" title="List of optical telescopes">List</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Telescopes" title="Category:Telescopes">Category</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_large_telescope" title="Extremely large telescope">Extremely large telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Extremely_Large_Telescope" title="Extremely Large Telescope">Extremely Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gran_Telescopio_Canarias" title="Gran Telescopio Canarias">Gran Telescopio Canarias</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hale_Telescope" title="Hale Telescope">Hale Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._M._Keck_Observatory" title="W. M. Keck Observatory">Keck Observatory</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Large_Binocular_Telescope" title="Large Binocular Telescope">Large Binocular Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Large_Telescope" title="Southern African Large Telescope">Southern African Large Telescope</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Telescope" title="Very Large Telescope">Very Large Telescope</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astroinformatics" title="Astroinformatics">Astroinformatics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astrophysics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy" title="Astrology and astronomy">Astrology and astronomy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Astronomers_Monument" title="Astronomers Monument">Astronomers Monument</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">Astroparticle physics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Binoculars" title="Binoculars">Binoculars</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">Constellation</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a 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