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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Tone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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<li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kinyarwanda</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 83 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-83" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">83 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B7%D1%8D" title="Руандабзэ – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Руандабзэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Адыгэбзэ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE" title="किन्यारवांडा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="किन्यारवांडा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="لغة كينيارواندا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة كينيارواندا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%C3%B1aruanda" title="Kiñaruanda – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Kiñaruanda" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%C3%B1arru%C3%A1nda" title="Kiñarruánda – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Kiñarruánda" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="رواندا دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رواندا دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="কিনিয়ারোয়ান্ডা ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কিনিয়ারোয়ান্ডা ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda-g%C3%AD" title="Rwanda-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Rwanda-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0)" title="Руанда (мова) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Руанда (мова)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_(%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA)" title="Руанда (език) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Руанда (език)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruand%C3%A8s" title="Ruandès – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ruandès" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Руанда чĕлхи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Руанда чĕлхи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwand%C5%A1tina" title="Rwandština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rwandština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda_(iaith)" title="Kinyarwanda (iaith) – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Kinyarwanda (iaith)" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwandagiella" title="Kinyarwandagiella – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Kinyarwandagiella" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruanda_keel" title="Ruanda keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ruanda keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%C3%B1aruanda" title="Kiñaruanda – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Kiñaruanda" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruanda_lingvo" title="Ruanda lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ruanda lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyaruanda" title="Kinyaruanda – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kinyaruanda" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="زبان رواندایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان رواندایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda_bhasa" title="Kinyarwanda bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Kinyarwanda bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ruanda" title="Lingua ruanda – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua ruanda" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A5%B4%EC%99%84%EB%8B%A4%EC%96%B4" title="르완다어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="르완다어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Ռուանդերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռուանդերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="किन्यारुआण्डा भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="किन्यारुआण्डा भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda_jezik" title="Rwanda jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rwanda jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Kinyarwanda" title="Bahasa Kinyarwanda – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BAand%C3%ADska" title="Rúandíska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rúandíska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_kinyarwanda" title="Lingua kinyarwanda – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikinyarwanda" title="Ikinyarwanda – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ikinyarwanda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rn mw-list-item"><a href="https://rn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikinyarwanda" title="Ikinyarwanda – Rundi" lang="rn" hreflang="rn" data-title="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Ikirundi" data-language-local-name="Rundi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ikirundi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_(%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2)" title="Киняргванда (кыв) – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Киняргванда (кыв)" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%B9%D3%B9%D0%BB%D0%BC%D3%B9" title="Руанда йӹлмӹ – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Руанда йӹлмӹ" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кырык мары</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%C5%86aruanda" title="Kiņaruanda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kiņaruanda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinjaruanda" title="Kinjaruanda – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kinjaruanda" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olunyarwanda" title="Olunyarwanda – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Olunyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruandai_nyelv" title="Ruandai nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ruandai nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_(%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA)" title="Руанда (јазик) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Руанда (јазик)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_kiniaroanda" title="Fiteny kiniaroanda – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny kiniaroanda" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A6_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="കിന്യാർവന്ദ ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കിന്യാർവന്ദ ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%90" title="კინიარუანდა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კინიარუანდა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="كينيارواندا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كينيارواندا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="کینیارواندا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="کینیارواندا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Rwanda" title="Bahasa Rwanda – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AB%E3%83%AF%E3%83%B3%E3%83%80%E8%AA%9E" title="ルワンダ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ルワンダ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njaruanda" title="Njaruanda – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Njaruanda" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njaruanda" title="Njaruanda – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Njaruanda" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="کينيارواندا ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کينيارواندا ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Киняргванда – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Киняргванда" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Перем коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_Rwanda" title="Lenga Rwanda – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_rwanda" title="Język rwanda – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język rwanda" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_quiniaruanda" title="Língua quiniaruanda – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua quiniaruanda" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_kinyarwanda" title="Limba kinyarwanda – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda_simi" title="Rwanda simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rwanda simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_(%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA)" title="Руанда (язык) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Руанда (язык)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A3%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%B0%E1%B1%9F_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱠᱤᱱᱭᱟᱨᱣᱟᱱᱰᱟ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱠᱤᱱᱭᱟᱨᱣᱟᱱᱰᱟ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekinyarwanda" title="Sekinyarwanda – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Sekinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho sa Leboa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyarwanda" title="Kinyarwanda – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%95%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="کینیاڕواندا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کینیاڕواندا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinjaruanda" title="Kinjaruanda – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Kinjaruanda" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruandan_kieli" title="Ruandan kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ruandan kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda_(spr%C3%A5k)" title="Rwanda (språk) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rwanda (språk)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Kinyarwanda" title="Wikang Kinyarwanda – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Kinyarwanda" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="கின்யருவாண்டா மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கின்யருவாண்டா மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Киньяруанда – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Киньяруанда" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruandaca" title="Ruandaca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ruandaca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Руанда кыл – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Руанда кыл" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Руандійська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Руандійська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%88%D8%A7" title="کینیاروانڈا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کینیاروانڈا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Rwanda" title="Tiếng Rwanda – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%A2%E6%97%BA%E8%BE%BE%E8%AF%AD" title="卢旺达语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="卢旺达语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%A2%E6%97%BA%E8%BE%BE%E8%AF%AD" title="卢旺达语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="卢旺达语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q33573#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Bantu language official in Rwanda</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the 2011 film based on the Rwandan genocide, see <a href="/wiki/Kinyarwanda_(film)" title="Kinyarwanda (film)"><i>Kinyarwanda</i> (film)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">Kinyarwanda</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">Rwandan</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;"><i>Ikinyarwanda</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">DR Congo</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Banyarwanda" title="Banyarwanda">Banyarwanda</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">15 million (2014–2022)<sup id="cite_ref-e27_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e27-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a>? <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Atlantic%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Atlantic–Congo languages">Atlantic–Congo</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Volta-Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Volta-Congo">Volta-Congo</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Benue%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Benue–Congo languages">Benue–Congo</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Bantoid_languages" title="Bantoid languages">Bantoid</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bantoid_languages" title="Southern Bantoid languages">Southern Bantoid</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Bantu" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Bantu">Northeast Bantu</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Bantu" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Lakes Bantu">Great Lakes Bantu</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Rwanda-Rundi" title="Rwanda-Rundi">Rwanda-Rundi</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Kinyarwanda</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li>Bufumbwa</li> <li>Ikinyabwishya</li> <li>Igikiga</li> <li>Ikinyamurenge</li> <li>Ikirera</li> <li>Urufumbira</li> <li>Urutwatwa</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg/23px-Flag_of_Rwanda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg/35px-Flag_of_Rwanda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg/45px-Flag_of_Rwanda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=rw">rw</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=236">kin</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/kin" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:kin">kin</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/kiny1244">kiny1244</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Guthrie code</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code>JD.61</code><sup id="cite_ref-Guthrie_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guthrie-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=99-AUS-df">99-AUS-df</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="background:#fff6d9"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Person</th><td class="infobox-data"><b>Umu</b>nyarwanda</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">People</th><td class="infobox-data"><b>Aba</b>nyarwanda</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Language</th><td class="infobox-data"><b>Iki</b>nyarwanda</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Kinyarwanda</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>Rwandan</b> or <b>Rwanda</b>, officially known as <b>Ikinyarwanda</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Bantu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu language">Bantu language</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_language" title="National language">national language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a dialect of the <a href="/wiki/Rwanda-Rundi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Rwanda-Rundi language">Rwanda-Rundi language</a> that is also spoken in adjacent parts of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, where the dialect is known as <i>Rufumbira</i> or <i>Urufumbira</i>. Kinyarwanda is universal among the native population of Rwanda and is mutually intelligible with <a href="/wiki/Kirundi" title="Kirundi">Kirundi</a>, the national language of neighbouring Burundi.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kinyabwishya and Kinyamulenge are mutually intelligible dialects spoken in the <a href="/wiki/North_Kivu" title="North Kivu">North Kivu</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Kivu" title="South Kivu">South Kivu</a> provinces of neighbouring DR Congo. </p><p>In 2010, the Rwanda Academy of Language and Culture (RALC)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was established to help promote and sustain Kinyarwanda. The organization attempted an orthographic reform in 2014, but it was met with pushback due to their perceived top-down and political nature, among other reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geographic distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kinyarwanda is spoken in <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rwanda-Rundi#Comparison_of_Kinyarwanda_and_Kirundi" title="Rwanda-Rundi">Rwanda-Rundi § Comparison of Kinyarwanda and Kirundi</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The table below gives the consonants of Kinyarwanda. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">Labiodental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post-<br />alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a></span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span>) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span><sup>1</sup> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a></span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span>) </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_plosive" title="Voiced palatal plosive">ɟ</a></span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_affricate" title="Voiceless labiodental affricate">p͡f</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_glottal_fricative" title="Voiced glottal fricative">ɦ</a></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span> is only found in loanwords.</li> <li>Consonants in parentheses are allophones.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The table below gives the vowel sounds of Kinyarwanda. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a></span> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a></span> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span> <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tone">Tone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kinyarwanda is a <a href="/wiki/Tonal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonal language">tonal language</a>. Like many <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a>, it has a two-way contrast between high and low tones (low-tone syllables may be analyzed as toneless). The realization of tones in Kinyarwanda is influenced by a complex set of <a href="/wiki/Phonological_rule" title="Phonological rule">phonological rules</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Kinyarwanda" title="Special:EditPage/Kinyarwanda">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Kinyarwanda%22">"Kinyarwanda"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Kinyarwanda%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Kinyarwanda%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Kinyarwanda%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Kinyarwanda%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Kinyarwanda%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Letter(s) </th> <td>a</td> <td>b</td> <td>c</td> <td>cy</td> <td>d</td> <td>e</td> <td>f</td> <td>g</td> <td>h</td> <td>i</td> <td>j</td> <td>jy</td> <td>k</td> <td>m</td> <td>n</td> <td>ny</td> <td>o</td> <td>p</td> <td>pf</td> <td>r</td> <td>s</td> <td>sh</td> <td>shy</td> <td>t</td> <td>ts</td> <td>u</td> <td>v</td> <td>w</td> <td>y</td> <td>z </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a,<span class="wrap"> </span>aː</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">β,<span class="wrap"> </span>b</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t͡ʃ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">c</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e,<span class="wrap"> </span>eː</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">f</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɡ,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɟ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">h,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɦ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i,<span class="wrap"> </span>iː</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʒ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɟ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">k,<span class="wrap"> </span>c</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">m</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">n,<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɲ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o,<span class="wrap"> </span>oː</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">p</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">p͡f</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɾ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">s</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʃ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ç</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t͡s</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u,<span class="wrap"> </span>uː</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">v</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">w</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">j</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">z</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Except in a few morphological contexts, the sequences 'ki' and 'ke' may be pronounced interchangeably as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ki]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ke]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ci]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ce]</span> according to speaker's preference.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The letters <span class="nowrap">⟨a, e, i⟩</span> at the end of a word followed by a word starting with a vowel often follows a pattern of omission in common speech (<a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a>), though the orthography remains the same. Consider the following excerpt of the <a href="/wiki/Rwanda_Nziza" title="Rwanda Nziza">Rwandan anthem</a>: <span title="Kinyarwanda-language text"><i lang="rw">Reka tukurate tukuvuge ibigwi wowe utubumbiye hamwe twese Abanyarwanda uko watubyaye berwa, sugira, singizwa iteka.</i></span> would be pronounced as <span title="Kinyarwanda-language text"><i lang="rw">Reka tukurate tukuvug' ibigwi wow' utubumiye hamwe twes' abanyarwand' uko watubyaye berwa, sugira singizw' iteka.</i></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are some discrepancies in pronunciation from orthographic <i>Cw</i> and <i>Cy.</i> The glides <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w<span class="wrap"> </span>j/</span> strengthen to stops in consonant clusters. For example, <span title="Kinyarwanda-language text"><i lang="rw">rw</i></span> (as in <span title="Kinyarwanda-language text"><i lang="rw">Rwanda</i></span>) is normally pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾɡw]</span>. The differences are the following: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Orthography</th> <th>Pronunciation </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>mw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mŋ]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>nw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[nŋw]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>nyw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɲŋw]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋwa]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>pw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pk]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>fw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[fk]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>pfw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p͡fk]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bɡ]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>vw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[vɡ]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tkw]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>tsw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡skw]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>cw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ʃkw]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>sw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[skw]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>shw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃkw]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>dw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dɡw]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>zw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[zɡw]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>jw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʒɡw]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>rw</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾɡw]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>my</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mɲ]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>py</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pc]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ty</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tc]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>sy</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sc]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>by</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bɟ]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ndy</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ndɟ]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ry</i></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾɟ]</span> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>These are all sequences; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bɡ]</span>, for example, is not <a href="/wiki/Labial-velar_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Labial-velar consonant">labial-velar</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_plosive" title="Voiced labial–velar plosive">ɡ͡b</a>]</span>. Even when <span title="Kinyarwanda-language text"><i lang="rw">Rwanda</i></span> is pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾwaːnda]</span> rather than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾɡwaːnda]</span>, the onset is a sequence, not a <a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labialized</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾʷ]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kinyarwanda uses 16 of the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a> <a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">noun classes</a>. Sometimes these are grouped into 10 pairs so that most singular and plural forms of the same word are included in the same class. The table below shows the 16 noun classes and how they are paired in two commonly used systems. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Prefix </th> <th colspan="3">Classification </th> <th rowspan="2">Number </th> <th rowspan="2">Typical words </th> <th rowspan="2">Example </th></tr> <tr> <th>Bantu </th> <th>Cox </th> <th>??? </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>umu-</i> </td> <td align="center">1 </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" align="center">1 </td> <td>singular </td> <td rowspan="2">humans </td> <td><i>umuntu</i> – person </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>aba-</i> </td> <td align="center">2 </td> <td>plural </td> <td><i>abantu</i> – people </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>umu-</i> </td> <td align="center">3 </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" align="center">2 </td> <td>singular </td> <td rowspan="2">trees, shrubs and things that extend </td> <td><i>umusozi</i> – hill </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>imi-</i> </td> <td align="center">4 </td> <td>plural </td> <td><i>imisozi</i> – hills </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>iri-</i> </td> <td align="center">5 </td> <td align="center">5 </td> <td align="center">3 </td> <td>singular </td> <td rowspan="2">things in quantities, liquids </td> <td><i>iryinyo</i> – tooth </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ama-</i> </td> <td align="center">6 </td> <td align="center">5/8/9 </td> <td align="center">3/8/9 </td> <td>plural (also substances) </td> <td><i>amenyo</i> – teeth </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>iki-</i> </td> <td align="center">7 </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" align="center">4 </td> <td>singular </td> <td rowspan="2">generic, large, or abnormal things </td> <td><i>ikintu</i> – thing </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ibi-</i> </td> <td align="center">8 </td> <td>plural </td> <td><i>ibintu</i> – things </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>in-</i> </td> <td align="center">9 </td> <td align="center">3 </td> <td align="center">5 </td> <td>singular </td> <td rowspan="2">some plants, animals and household implements </td> <td><i>inka</i> – cow </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>in-</i> </td> <td align="center">10 </td> <td align="center">3/6 </td> <td align="center">5/6 </td> <td>plural </td> <td><i>inka</i> – cows </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>uru-</i> </td> <td align="center">11 </td> <td align="center" colspan="2">6 </td> <td>singular </td> <td>mixture, body parts </td> <td><i>urugo</i> – home </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>aka-</i> </td> <td align="center">12 </td> <td align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="2">7 </td> <td>singular </td> <td rowspan="2">diminutive forms of other nouns </td> <td><i>akantu</i> – little thing </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>utu-</i> </td> <td align="center">13 </td> <td>plural </td> <td><i>utuntu</i> – little things </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ubu-</i> </td> <td align="center">14 </td> <td align="center" colspan="2">8 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>abstract nouns, qualities or states </td> <td><i>ubuntu</i> – generosity </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>uku-</i> </td> <td align="center">15 </td> <td align="center" colspan="2">9 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>actions, verbal nouns and gerunds </td> <td><i>ukuntu</i> – means </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>aha-</i> </td> <td align="center">16 </td> <td align="center" colspan="2">10 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>places, locations </td> <td><i>ahantu</i> – place </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All Kinyarwanda verb <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitives</a> begin with <i>ku-</i> (morphed into <i>k(w)-</i> before vowels, and into <i>gu-</i> before stems beginning with a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless consonant</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Dahl%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Dahl's Law">Dahl's Law</a>). To <a href="/wiki/Conjugation_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjugation (grammar)">conjugate</a>, the infinitive prefix is removed and replaced with a prefix agreeing with the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>. Then a <a href="/wiki/Tense_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense (grammar)">tense</a> marker can be inserted. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="3">Singular </th> <th colspan="3">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th>Corresp.<br />Noun Class</th> <th><i>before consonants</i></th> <th><i>before vowels</i></th> <th>Corresp.<br />Noun Class</th> <th><i>before consonants</i></th> <th><i>before vowels</i> </th></tr> <tr> <td>1st person</td> <td></td> <td><i>n-/m-</i></td> <td><i>n-</i></td> <td></td> <td><i>tu-/du-</i></td> <td><i>tw-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2nd person</td> <td></td> <td><i>u-</i></td> <td><i>w-</i></td> <td></td> <td><i>mu-</i></td> <td><i>mw-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>I</td> <td>1</td> <td><i>a-</i></td> <td><i>y-</i></td> <td>2</td> <td><i>ba-</i></td> <td><i>b-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>II</td> <td>3</td> <td><i>u-</i></td> <td><i>w-</i></td> <td>4</td> <td><i>i-</i></td> <td><i>y-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>III</td> <td>5</td> <td><i>ri-</i></td> <td><i>ry-</i></td> <td>6</td> <td><i>a-</i></td> <td><i>y-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>IV</td> <td>7</td> <td><i>ki-</i></td> <td><i>cy-</i></td> <td>8</td> <td><i>bi-</i></td> <td><i>by-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>V</td> <td>9</td> <td><i>i-</i></td> <td><i>y-</i></td> <td>10</td> <td><i>zi-</i></td> <td><i>z-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VI</td> <td>11</td> <td><i>ru-</i></td> <td><i>rw-</i></td> <td>10</td> <td><i>zi-</i></td> <td><i>z-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VII</td> <td>12</td> <td><i>ka-</i></td> <td><i>k-</i></td> <td>13</td> <td><i>tu-</i></td> <td><i>tw-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VIII</td> <td>14</td> <td><i>bu-</i></td> <td><i>bw-</i></td> <td>16</td> <td><i>bu-</i></td> <td><i>bw-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>IX</td> <td>15</td> <td><i>ku-</i></td> <td><i>k(w)-</i></td> <td>16</td> <td><i>a-</i></td> <td><i>y-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>X</td> <td>16</td> <td><i>ha-</i></td> <td><i>h-</i></td> <td>16</td> <td><i>ha-</i></td> <td><i>h-</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The class I prefixes <i>y-/a-</i> and <i>ba-</i> correspond to the third person for persons. The personal prefix <i>n-</i> becomes <i>m-</i> before a labial sound (p, b, f, v), while personal prefix <i>tu-</i> becomes <i>du-</i> under Dahl's Law. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Singular </th> <th colspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th><i>Full pronoun</i></th> <th><i>Subject prefix</i></th> <th><i>Full pronoun</i></th> <th><i>Subject prefix</i> </th></tr> <tr> <td>1st person</td> <td>njye(we)</td> <td><i>n-/m-</i></td> <td>mwe(bwe)</td> <td><i>tu-/du-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2nd person</td> <td>wowe</td> <td><i>u-/w-</i></td> <td>twe(bwe)</td> <td><i>mu-/mw-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3rd person</td> <td>we</td> <td><i>a-/y-</i></td> <td>bo</td> <td><i>ba-</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Every regular verb has three stems: the imperfective (ending in the morpheme <i>-a</i>), the perfective (ending in the morpheme <i>-:ye</i>, which may trigger a variety of morphophonological changes in the preceding segment) and the subjunctive (ending in the morpheme <i>-e</i>). </p><p>According to Botne (1983), a verb may belong to any of eight Aktionsart categories, which may be broadly grouped into stative and dynamic categories. In the immediate tense, dynamic verbs take the imperfective stem while stative verbs take the perfective stem, while both use the imperfective stem in the habitual or gnomic tense. </p><p>Simple tense/mood markers include the following: </p> <ul><li>With the <i>present stem</i>: <ul><li>Present ('I do'): <i>-</i> (no infix)</li> <li>Present Progressive ('I am doing'): <i>-ra-</i> (assimilates to <i>-da-</i> when preceded by <i>n</i>)</li> <li>Habitual Past ('I used to do/was doing'): <i>-a-</i> plus <i>-ga</i> suffixed to the verb</li> <li>Future ('I will do'): <i>-za- </i></li></ul></li> <li>With the <i>past stem</i>: <ul><li>Polite Imperative ('Let me do'; 'please do'): <i>-</i> (no infix)</li> <li>Perfect ('I have done/I did'): <i>-a-</i></li> <li>Near Past ('I just did'): <i>-ra-</i> (assimilates to <i>-da-</i> when preceded by <i>n</i>)</li> <li>Preterite ('I did'): <i>-ara-</i></li> <li>Subjunctive ('that I do/did'): <i>-za- </i></li></ul></li></ul> <p>Object affixes corresponding to the noun classes of an object may be placed after the tense marker and before the verb stem: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="3">Singular </th> <th colspan="3">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th>Corresp.<br />Noun Class</th> <th><i>before consonants</i></th> <th><i>before vowels</i></th> <th>Corresp.<br />Noun Class</th> <th><i>before consonants</i></th> <th><i>before vowels</i> </th></tr> <tr> <td>1st person</td> <td></td> <td><i>-n-/-m-</i></td> <td><i>-ny-</i></td> <td></td> <td><i>-tu-/-du-</i></td> <td><i>-tw-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2nd person</td> <td></td> <td><i>-ku-/-gu-</i></td> <td><i>-kw-</i></td> <td></td> <td><i>-ba-</i></td> <td><i>-b-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>I</td> <td>1</td> <td><i>-mu-</i></td> <td><i>-mw-</i></td> <td>2</td> <td><i>-ba-</i></td> <td><i>-b-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>II</td> <td>3</td> <td><i>-wu-</i></td> <td><i>-w-</i></td> <td>4</td> <td><i>-yi-</i></td> <td><i>-y-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>III</td> <td>5</td> <td><i>-ri-</i></td> <td><i>-ry-</i></td> <td>6</td> <td><i>-ya-</i></td> <td><i>-y-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>IV</td> <td>7</td> <td><i>-ki-</i></td> <td><i>-cy-</i></td> <td>8</td> <td><i>-bi-</i></td> <td><i>-by-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>V</td> <td>9</td> <td><i>-yi-</i></td> <td><i>-y-</i></td> <td>16</td> <td><i>-zi-</i></td> <td><i>-z-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VI</td> <td>11</td> <td><i>-ru-</i></td> <td><i>-rw-</i></td> <td>10</td> <td><i>-zi-</i></td> <td><i>-z-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VII</td> <td>12</td> <td><i>-ka-/-ga-</i></td> <td><i>-k-</i></td> <td>13</td> <td><i>-tu-/-du-</i></td> <td><i>-tw-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VIII</td> <td>14</td> <td><i>-bu-</i></td> <td><i>-bw-</i></td> <td>16</td> <td><i>-ya-</i></td> <td><i>-y-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>IX</td> <td>15</td> <td><i>-ku-/-gu-</i></td> <td><i>-kw-</i></td> <td>16</td> <td><i>-ya-</i></td> <td><i>-y-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>X</td> <td>16</td> <td><i>-ha-</i></td> <td><i>-h-</i></td> <td>16</td> <td><i>-ha-</i></td> <td><i>-h-</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The personal object affixes are as follows: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">Singular </th> <th colspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th><i>Full pronoun</i></th> <th><i>Object affix</i></th> <th><i>Full pronoun</i></th> <th><i>Object affix</i> </th></tr> <tr> <td>1st person</td> <td>njye(we)</td> <td><i>-n-/-m-</i> (cons.)<br /><i>-ny-</i> (vowel)</td> <td>mwebwe</td> <td><i>tu-/du-</i> (cons.)<br /><i>-tw-</i> (vowel) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2nd person</td> <td>wowe</td> <td><i>-ku-/-gu-</i> (cons.)<br /><i>-kw-</i> (vowel)</td> <td>twe(bwe)</td> <td><i>-ba-</i> (cons.)<br /><i>-b-</i> (vowel) </td></tr> <tr> <td>3rd person</td> <td>we</td> <td><i>-mu-</i> (cons.)<br /><i>-mw-</i> (vowel)</td> <td>bo</td> <td><i>-ba-</i> (cons.)<br /><i>-b-</i> (vowel) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causatives">Causatives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Causatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kinyarwanda employs the use of periphrastic <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causatives</a>, in addition to morphological causatives. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Periphrastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Periphrastic">periphrastic</a> causatives use the verbs <i>-teer-</i> and <i>-tum-</i>, which mean <i>cause</i>. With <i>-teer-</i>, the original subject becomes the object of the main clause, leaving the original verb in the infinitive (just like in English):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980160–61_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980160–61-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(1a)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Ábáana</p><p style="margin: 0px;">children</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>b-a-gii-ye</b>.</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>they-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr>-go-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">Ábáana <b>b-a-gii-ye</b>.</p><p style="display: none;">children <b>they-PST-go-ASP</b></p><p style="clear: left;">"The children <b>left</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(1b)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Umugabo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">y-a-tee-ye</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr>-cause-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ábáana</p><p style="margin: 0px;">children</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>ku-geend-a</b>.</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="infinitive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INF</abbr>-go-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">Umugabo y-a-tee-ye ábáana <b>ku-geend-a</b>.</p><p style="display: none;">man he-PST-cause-ASP children <b>INF-go-ASP</b></p><p style="clear: left;">"The man caused the children <b>to go</b>.</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In this construction, the original S can be deleted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980161_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980161-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(2a)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Abantu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">people</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ba-rá-bon-a.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">they-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>-see-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Abantu ba-rá-bon-a.</p><p style="display: none;">people they-PRES-see-ASP</p><p style="clear: left;">"People see"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(2b)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Ku-geenda</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="infinitive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INF</abbr>-go</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gu-teer-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">it-cause-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">(abaantu)</p><p style="margin: 0px;">(people)</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ku-bona.</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="infinitive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INF</abbr>-see</p></div><p style="display: none;">Ku-geenda gu-teer-a (abaantu) ku-bona.</p><p style="display: none;">INF-go it-cause-ASP (people) INF-see</p><p style="clear: left;">"To travel causes to see."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>With <i>-túm-</i>, the original S remains in the embedded clause and the original verb is still marked for person and tense:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980161–2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980161–2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(3a)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>N-a-andits-e</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>I-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr>-write-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">amábárúwa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">letters</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">meênshi.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">many</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>N-a-andits-e</b> amábárúwa meênshi.</p><p style="display: none;"><b>I-PST-write-ASP</b> letters many</p><p style="clear: left;">"<b>I wrote</b> many letters."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(3b)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Umukoôbwa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">y-a-tum-ye</p><p style="margin: 0px;">she-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr>-cause-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>n-á-andik-a</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>I-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr>-write-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">amábárúwa</p><p style="margin: 0px;">letters</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">meênshi.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">many</p></div><p style="display: none;">Umukoôbwa y-a-tum-ye <b>n-á-andik-a</b> amábárúwa meênshi.</p><p style="display: none;">girl she-PST-cause-ASP <b>I-PST-write-ASP</b> letters many</p><p style="clear: left;">"The girl caused <b>me to write</b> many letters."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Derivational causatives use the instrumental marker <i>-iish-</i>. The construction is the same, but it is instrumental when the subject is inanimate and it is causative when the subject is animate:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980164_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980164-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(4a)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Umugabo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a-ra-andik-<b>iish</b>-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>-write-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr></b>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">umugabo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">íbárúwa.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">letter</p></div><p style="display: none;">Umugabo a-ra-andik-<b>iish</b>-a umugabo íbárúwa.</p><p style="display: none;">man he-PRES-write-<b>CAUS</b>-ASP man letter</p><p style="clear: left;">"The man is making the man write a letter."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(4b)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Umugabo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a-ra-andik-<b>iish</b>-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>-write-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INSTR</abbr></b>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">íkárámu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">pen</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">íbárúwa.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">letter</p></div><p style="display: none;">Umugabo a-ra-andik-<b>iish</b>-a íkárámu íbárúwa.</p><p style="display: none;">man he-PRES-write-<b>INSTR</b>-ASP pen letter</p><p style="clear: left;">"The man is writing a letter with the pen."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>This morpheme can be applied to intransitives (3) or transitives (4):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980164_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980164-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(3a)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Ábáana</p><p style="margin: 0px;">children</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ba-rá-ryáam-ye.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">they-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>-sleep-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Ábáana ba-rá-ryáam-ye.</p><p style="display: none;">children they-PRES-sleep-ASP</p><p style="clear: left;">"The children are sleeping."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(3b)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Umugóre</p><p style="margin: 0px;">woman</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a-ryaam-<b>iish</b>-ije</p><p style="margin: 0px;">she-sleep-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr></b>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ábáana</p><p style="margin: 0px;">children</p></div><p style="display: none;">Umugóre a-ryaam-<b>iish</b>-ije ábáana</p><p style="display: none;">woman she-sleep-<b>CAUS</b>-ASP children</p><p style="clear: left;">"The woman is <i>putting</i> the children to sleep."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(4a)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Ábáana</p><p style="margin: 0px;">children</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ba-ra-som-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">they-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>-read-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ibitabo.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">books</p></div><p style="display: none;">Ábáana ba-ra-som-a ibitabo.</p><p style="display: none;">children they-PRES-read-ASP books</p><p style="clear: left;">"The children are reading the books."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(4b)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Umugabo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a-ra-som-<i>eesh</i>-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>-read-<i><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr></i>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ábáana</p><p style="margin: 0px;">children</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ibitabo.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">books</p></div><p style="display: none;">Umugabo a-ra-som-<i>eesh</i>-a ábáana ibitabo.</p><p style="display: none;">man he-PRES-read-<i>CAUS</i>-ASP children books</p><p style="clear: left;">"The man is <i>making</i> the children read the books."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>However, there can only be one animate direct object. If a sentence has two, one or both is deleted and understood from context.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980165–166_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980165–166-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The suffix <i>-iish-</i> implies an indirect causation (similar to English <i>have</i> in "I had him write a paper), while other causatives imply a direct causation (similar to English <i>make</i> in "I made him write a paper").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980166_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980166-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of these more direct causation devices is the deletion of what is called a "neutral" morpheme <i>-ik-</i>, which indicates state or potentiality. Stems with the <i>-ik-</i> removed can take <i>-iish</i>, but the causation is less direct:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980166_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980166-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td><i>-mének-</i></td> <td>"be broken"</td> <td><i>-mén-</i></td> <td>"break"</td> <td>-<i>méneesh-</i></td> <td>"have (something) broken" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-sáduk-</i></td> <td>"be cut"</td> <td><i>-sátur-</i></td> <td>"cut"</td> <td><i>-sátuz-</i></td> <td>"have (something) cut" </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>Another direct causation maker is <i>-y-</i> which is used for some verbs:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980167_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980167-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(5a)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Ámáazi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">water</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a-rá-shyúuh-a.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">it-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>-warm-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Ámáazi a-rá-shyúuh-a.</p><p style="display: none;">water it-PRES-warm-ASP</p><p style="clear: left;">"The water is being warmed."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(5b)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Umugóre</p><p style="margin: 0px;">woman</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a-rá-shyúush-<b>y</b>-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">she-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>-warm-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr></b>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ámáazi.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">water</p></div><p style="display: none;">Umugóre a-rá-shyúush-<b>y</b>-a ámáazi.</p><p style="display: none;">woman she-PRES-warm-<b>CAUS</b>-ASP water</p><p style="clear: left;">"The woman is <b>warming</b> the water."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(5c)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Umugabo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a-rá-shyúuh-<b>iish</b>-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>-warm-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr></b>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ASP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">umugóre</p><p style="margin: 0px;">woman</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ámáazi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">water</p></div><p style="display: none;">Umugabo a-rá-shyúuh-<b>iish</b>-a umugóre ámáazi</p><p style="display: none;">man he-PRES-warm-<b>CAUS</b>-ASP woman water</p><p style="clear: left;">"The man is <b>having</b> the woman warm the water.</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e27-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kin">Kinyarwanda</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (27th ed., 2024) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guthrie-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Guthrie_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jouni Filip Maho, 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180203191542/http://goto.glocalnet.net/mahopapers/nuglonline.pdf">New Updated Guthrie List Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pronounced <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'w' in 'wind'">w</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/u/: 'u' in 'influence'">u</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/u/: 'u' in 'influence'">u</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>-/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Kinyarwanda_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinyarwanda language">Kinyarwanda</a>: <i lang="rw">Ikinyarwanda</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="rw-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[iciɲɑɾɡwɑːndɑ]</a></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Official Gazette n° Special of 24/12/2015</i>, p. 31, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.aripo.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/RWANDA_CONSTITUTION_NEW_2015_Official_Gazette_no_Special_of_24.12.2015.pdf">https://www.aripo.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/RWANDA_CONSTITUTION_NEW_2015_Official_Gazette_no_Special_of_24.12.2015.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Rwanda", <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a>, 27th Ed.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Rundi", <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a>, 27th Ed.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Official Gazette n° Special of 27/07/2012</i>, p. 37, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://docplayer.net/14679534-Ibirimo-summary-sommaire.html">https://docplayer.net/14679534-Ibirimo-summary-sommaire.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNiyomugaboUwizeyimana2017" class="citation journal cs1">Niyomugabo, Cyprien; Uwizeyimana, Valentin (20 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10993-016-9427-x">"A top–down orthography change and language attitudes in the context of a language-loyal country"</a>. <i>Language Policy</i>. <b>17</b> (3): 307–318. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10993-016-9427-x">10.1007/s10993-016-9427-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1568-4555">1568-4555</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151319065">151319065</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Policy&rft.atitle=A+top%E2%80%93down+orthography+change+and+language+attitudes+in+the+context+of+a+language-loyal+country&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=307-318&rft.date=2017-03-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151319065%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1568-4555&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10993-016-9427-x&rft.aulast=Niyomugabo&rft.aufirst=Cyprien&rft.au=Uwizeyimana%2C+Valentin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs10993-016-9427-x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinyarwanda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://golocalise.com/language-services/kinyarwanda-translation-and-voice-over-services/">"Kinyarwanda translation and voice over services"</a>. <i>golocalise.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=golocalise.com&rft.atitle=Kinyarwanda+translation+and+voice+over+services&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgolocalise.com%2Flanguage-services%2Fkinyarwanda-translation-and-voice-over-services%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinyarwanda" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980160–61-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980160–61_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKimenyi1980">Kimenyi 1980</a>, pp. 160–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980161-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980161_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKimenyi1980">Kimenyi 1980</a>, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980161–2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980161–2_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKimenyi1980">Kimenyi 1980</a>, pp. 161–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980164-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980164_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980164_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKimenyi1980">Kimenyi 1980</a>, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980165–166-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980165–166_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKimenyi1980">Kimenyi 1980</a>, pp. 165–166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980166-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980166_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980166_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKimenyi1980">Kimenyi 1980</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980167-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimenyi1980167_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKimenyi1980">Kimenyi 1980</a>, p. 167.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimenyi1980" class="citation book cs1">Kimenyi, Alexandre (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JDW1hzVqT7gC"><i>A Relational Grammar of Kinyarwanda</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-09598-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-09598-7"><bdi>0-520-09598-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Relational+Grammar+of+Kinyarwanda&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-520-09598-7&rft.aulast=Kimenyi&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJDW1hzVqT7gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinyarwanda" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>Original Thesis: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimenyi1976" class="citation thesis cs1">Kimenyi, Alexandre (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linguistics.ucla.edu/images/stories/Kimenyi.1976.pdf"><i>A Relational Grammar of Kinyarwanda</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (PhD dissertation). Los Angeles: University of California. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170506124246/http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/images/stories/Kimenyi.1976.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 6 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=A+Relational+Grammar+of+Kinyarwanda&rft.inst=University+of+California&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Kimenyi&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.ucla.edu%2Fimages%2Fstories%2FKimenyi.1976.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinyarwanda" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyd1979" class="citation journal cs1">Boyd, J. Barron (December 1979). "African Boundary Conflict: An Empirical Study". <i>African Studies Review</i>. <b>22</b> (3): 1–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F523892">10.2307/523892</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-0206">0002-0206</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/523892">523892</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145722128">145722128</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Studies+Review&rft.atitle=African+Boundary+Conflict%3A+An+Empirical+Study&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=1979-12&rft.issn=0002-0206&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145722128%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F523892%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F523892&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=J.+Barron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinyarwanda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrackMusoni2021" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Brack, Matthias; Musoni, Marie-Goretti (2021). <i>Wörterbuch Kinyarwanda–Deutsch. Mit einer Einführung in Sprache und Grammatik</i>. Study Books of African Languages (in German). Vol. 25. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89645-588-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89645-588-8"><bdi>978-3-89645-588-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=W%C3%B6rterbuch+Kinyarwanda%E2%80%93Deutsch.+Mit+einer+Einf%C3%BChrung+in+Sprache+und+Grammatik&rft.place=Cologne&rft.series=Study+Books+of+African+Languages&rft.pub=R%C3%BCdiger+K%C3%B6ppe+Verlag&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-3-89645-588-8&rft.aulast=Brack&rft.aufirst=Matthias&rft.au=Musoni%2C+Marie-Goretti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinyarwanda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHabumuremyiUwamahoro2006" class="citation book cs1">Habumuremyi, Emmanuel; Uwamahoro, Claudine (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webonary.org/kinyarwanda/files/keng.pdf"><i>IRIZA-STARTER 2006: A Bilingual Kinyarwanda–English and English–Kinyarwanda Dictionary</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (1st ed.). Kigali: Rwanda Community Net.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IRIZA-STARTER+2006%3A+A+Bilingual+Kinyarwanda%E2%80%93English+and+English%E2%80%93Kinyarwanda+Dictionary&rft.place=Kigali&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Rwanda+Community+Net&rft.date=2006-12&rft.aulast=Habumuremyi&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel&rft.au=Uwamahoro%2C+Claudine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webonary.org%2Fkinyarwanda%2Ffiles%2Fkeng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinyarwanda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJouannet1983" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jouannet, Francis, ed. (1983). <i>Le Kinyarwanda, langue bantu du Rwanda</i> (in French). Paris: SELAF.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Kinyarwanda%2C+langue+bantu+du+Rwanda&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=SELAF&rft.date=1983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinyarwanda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimenyi1979" class="citation book cs1">Kimenyi, Alexandre (1979). <i>Studies in Kinyarwanda and Bantu Phonology</i>. Carbondale, IL: Linguistic Research. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-887-83033-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-887-83033-1"><bdi>0-887-83033-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Kinyarwanda+and+Bantu+Phonology&rft.place=Carbondale%2C+IL&rft.pub=Linguistic+Research&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-887-83033-1&rft.aulast=Kimenyi&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinyarwanda" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRumford2020" class="citation book cs1">Rumford, James (2020). <i>Ikinyarwanda</i>. Honolulu: Manoa Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781891839245" title="Special:BookSources/9781891839245"><bdi>9781891839245</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ikinyarwanda&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=Manoa+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781891839245&rft.aulast=Rumford&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinyarwanda" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinyarwanda&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="rw:"> Kinyarwanda edition</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kinyarwanda_language" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kinyarwanda language">Kinyarwanda language</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kinyarwanda.net">Kinyarwanda.net Kinyarwanda–English dictionary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110819112711/http://kinyarwanda.net/">Archived</a> 19 August 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and grammar reference</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.laits.utexas.edu/phonology/kinyarwanda/index.html">Kinyarwanda phonology case study</a> by University of Texas</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070321212136/http://www.panafril10n.org/wikidoc/pmwiki.php/PanAfrLoc/RwandaRundi">PanAfrican localisation page on Kinyarwanda and Kirundi</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historical.fmcusa.org/wp-content/uploads/Dictionary_LoRes_Kinyarwanda-English-English-Kinyarwanda.pdf">Kinyarwanda–English Dictionary by Betty Ellen Cox</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/IrizaKinyarwandaEngishAndEnglishKinyarwandaDictionary">A Kinyarwanda-English and English-Kinyarwanda Dictionary</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Sign_Language" title="Rwandan Sign Language">Rwandan Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Uganda" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Uganda" title="Template:Languages of Uganda"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Uganda" title="Template talk:Languages of Uganda"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Uganda" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Uganda"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Uganda" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Uganda" title="Languages of Uganda">Languages of Uganda</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_English" title="Ugandan English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Sign_Language" title="Ugandan Sign Language">Ugandan Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous<br />languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amba_language_(Bantu)" title="Amba language (Bantu)">Amba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gungu_language" title="Gungu language">Gungu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwere_language" title="Gwere language">Gwere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khayo_language" title="Khayo language">Khayo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiga_language" title="Kiga language">Kiga</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kinyarwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luganda" title="Luganda">Luganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luhya_language" title="Luhya language">Luhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marachi_language" title="Marachi language">Marachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masaba_language" title="Masaba language">Masaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkore_language" title="Nkore language">Nkore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkore-Kiga_language" title="Nkore-Kiga language">Nkore-Kiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyole_language_(Uganda)" title="Nyole language (Uganda)">Nyole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyoro_language" title="Nyoro language">Nyoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyoro-Tooro_language" title="Nyoro-Tooro language">Nyoro-Tooro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruuli_language" title="Ruuli language">Ruuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samia_language" title="Samia language">Samia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singa_language" title="Singa language">Singa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soga_language" title="Soga language">Soga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talinga_language" title="Talinga language">Talinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tooro_language" title="Tooro language">Tooro</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acholi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Acholi language">Acholi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhola_dialect" title="Adhola dialect">Adhola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alur_language" title="Alur language">Alur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aringa_language" title="Aringa language">Aringa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bari_language" title="Bari language">Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elgon_languages" title="Elgon languages">Elgon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_language" title="Ik language">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karamojong_language" title="Karamojong language">Karamojong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuku_dialect" title="Kuku dialect">Kuku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lango_language_(Uganda)" title="Lango language (Uganda)">Lango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_language" title="Lugbara language">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyang%27i_language" title="Nyang'i language">Nyang'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%B6koot_language" title="Pökoot language">Pökoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soo_language" title="Soo language">Soo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Luo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Luo language">Southern Luo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teso_language" title="Teso language">Teso</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Runyakitara_language" title="Runyakitara language">Runyakitara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oropom_language" title="Oropom language">Oropom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immigrant languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi language">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_C–D)_(by_Guthrie_classification)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_C%E2%80%93D)" title="Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones C–D)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_C%E2%80%93D)" title="Template talk:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones C–D)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_C%E2%80%93D)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones C–D)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_C–D)_(by_Guthrie_classification)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Narrow <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> (Zones C–D) (by <a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Guthrie classification</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Zone C</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">C10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>C11 <a href="/wiki/Ngondi_language" title="Ngondi language">Ngondi</a></li> <li>C12a <a href="/wiki/Pande_language" title="Pande language">Pande</a></li> <li>C12b <a href="/wiki/Pande_language" title="Pande language">Bogongo</a></li> <li>C13 <a href="/wiki/Mbati_language" title="Mbati language">Mbati</a></li> <li>C14 <a href="/wiki/Bomitaba_language" title="Bomitaba language">Mbomotaba</a></li> <li>C15 <a href="/wiki/Bongili_language" title="Bongili language">Bongili</a></li> <li>C16 <a href="/wiki/Bala_language" title="Bala language">Lobala</a></li> <li>[C101 <a href="/wiki/Bole_language_(Bantu)" title="Bole language (Bantu)">Dibole</a></li> <li>C102 <a href="/wiki/Ngando_language_(Central_African_Republic)" title="Ngando language (Central African Republic)">Ngando</a></li> <li>C103 <a href="/wiki/Ngando_language_(Central_African_Republic)" title="Ngando language (Central African Republic)">Kota</a></li> <li>C104 <a href="/wiki/Aka_language" title="Aka language">Yaka</a></li> <li>C105 <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_Pygmy_languages#Mbenga" title="Classification of Pygmy languages">Mbenga</a></li> <li>C141 <a href="/wiki/Bomitaba_language" title="Bomitaba language">Enyele</a></li> <li>C142 <a href="/wiki/Bomitaba_language" title="Bomitaba language">Bondongo</a></li> <li>C143 <a href="/wiki/Bomitaba_language" title="Bomitaba language">Mbonzo</a></li> <li>C161 <a href="/wiki/Bomboli%E2%80%93Bozaba_language" title="Bomboli–Bozaba language">Bomboli</a></li> <li>C162 <a href="/wiki/Bomboli%E2%80%93Bozaba_language" title="Bomboli–Bozaba language">Bozaba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">C20</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>C21 <a href="/wiki/Mboko_language" title="Mboko language">Mboko</a></li> <li>C22 <a href="/wiki/Akwa_language" title="Akwa language">Akwa</a></li> <li>C23[21] <a href="/wiki/Mboko_language" title="Mboko language">Ngare</a></li> <li>C24 <a href="/wiki/Koyo_language_(Congo)" title="Koyo language (Congo)">Koyo</a></li> <li>C25 <a href="/wiki/Mbosi_language" title="Mbosi language">Mbosi</a></li> <li>C26 <a href="/wiki/Kwala_language" title="Kwala language">Kwala</a></li> <li>C27 <a href="/wiki/Kuba_language" title="Kuba language">Kuba</a></li> <li>[C201 <a href="/wiki/Bwenyi_language" title="Bwenyi language">Bwenyi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">C30</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>C31a <a href="/wiki/Ngiri_language" title="Ngiri language">Loi</a></li> <li>C31b <a href="/wiki/Ngiri_language" title="Ngiri language">Ngiri</a></li> <li>C31c <a href="/wiki/Ngiri_language" title="Ngiri language">Nunu</a></li> <li>C32 <a href="/wiki/Bangi_language" title="Bangi language">Bobangi</a></li> <li>C33 <a href="/wiki/Sengele_language" title="Sengele language">Sengele</a></li> <li>C34 <a href="/wiki/Sakata_language" title="Sakata language">Sakata</a></li> <li>C35a <a href="/wiki/Lia-Ntomba_language" title="Lia-Ntomba language">Ntomba</a></li> <li>C35b <a href="/wiki/Lia-Ntomba_language" title="Lia-Ntomba language">Bolia</a></li> <li>C36a <a href="/wiki/Losengo_language" title="Losengo language">Poto</a></li> <li>C36b <a href="/wiki/Losengo_language" title="Losengo language">Mpesa</a></li> <li>C36c <a href="/wiki/Losengo_language" title="Losengo language">Mbudza</a></li> <li>C36d <a href="/wiki/Lingala" title="Lingala">Mangala</a></li> <li>C36e <a href="/wiki/Loki_dialect" title="Loki dialect">Boloki</a></li> <li>C36f <a href="/wiki/Losengo_language" title="Losengo language">Kangana</a></li> <li>C36g <a href="/wiki/Ndolo_dialect" title="Ndolo dialect">Ndolo</a></li> <li>C37 <a href="/wiki/Budza_language" title="Budza language">Buja</a></li> <li>[C301 <a href="/wiki/Doko_language_(Bantu)" title="Doko language (Bantu)">Doko</a></li> <li>C302 <a href="/wiki/Londo_language" title="Londo language">Bolondo</a></li> <li>C311 <a href="/wiki/Ngiri_language" title="Ngiri language">Mabaale</a></li> <li>C312 <a href="/wiki/Ngiri_language" title="Ngiri language">Ndoobo</a></li> <li>C313 <a href="/wiki/Ngiri_language" title="Ngiri language">Litoka</a></li> <li>C314 <a href="/wiki/Ngiri_language" title="Ngiri language">Balobo</a></li> <li>C315 <a href="/wiki/Ngiri_language" title="Ngiri language">Enga</a></li> <li>C321 <a href="/wiki/Binza_language" title="Binza language">Binza</a></li> <li>C322 <a href="/wiki/Zamba_language" title="Zamba language">Dzamba</a></li> <li>C323 <a href="/wiki/Mpama_language" title="Mpama language">Mpama</a></li> <li>C371 <a href="/wiki/Budza_language" title="Budza language">Tembo</a></li> <li>C372 <a href="/wiki/Budza_language" title="Budza language">Kunda</a></li> <li>C373 <a href="/wiki/Budza_language" title="Budza language">Gbuta</a></li> <li>C374 <a href="/wiki/Budza_language" title="Budza language">Babale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">C40</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>C41 <a href="/wiki/Ngombe_language" title="Ngombe language">Ngombe</a></li> <li>C42 <a href="/wiki/Bwela_language" title="Bwela language">Bwela</a></li> <li>C43 <a href="/wiki/Bwa_language" title="Bwa language">Bati</a></li> <li>C44 <a href="/wiki/Bwa_language" title="Bwa language">Boa</a></li> <li>C45 <a href="/wiki/Ngelima_language" title="Ngelima language">Angba</a></li> <li>[C401 <a href="/wiki/Pagibete_language" title="Pagibete language">Pagibete</a></li> <li>C403 <a href="/wiki/Kango_language_(Bas-U%C3%A9l%C3%A9_District)" title="Kango language (Bas-Uélé District)">Kango</a></li> <li>C411 <a href="/wiki/Bomboma_language" title="Bomboma language">Bomboma</a></li> <li>C412 <a href="/wiki/Bamwe_language" title="Bamwe language">Bamwe</a></li> <li>C413 <a href="/wiki/Dzando_language" title="Dzando language">Dzando</a></li> <li>C414 <a href="/wiki/Gendza_language" title="Gendza language">Ligendza</a></li> <li>C415 <a href="/wiki/Kula_language_(Bantu)" title="Kula language (Bantu)">Likula</a></li> <li>C441 <a href="/wiki/Bango_language" title="Bango language">Bango</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">C50</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>C51 <a href="/wiki/Mbesa_language" title="Mbesa language">Mbesa</a></li> <li>C52 <a href="/wiki/Soko_language" title="Soko language">So</a></li> <li>C53 <a href="/wiki/Poke_language" title="Poke language">Poke</a></li> <li>C54 <a href="/wiki/Lombo_language" title="Lombo language">Lombo</a></li> <li>C55 <a href="/wiki/Kele-Foma_language" title="Kele-Foma language">Kele</a></li> <li>C56 <a href="/wiki/Kele-Foma_language" title="Kele-Foma language">Foma</a></li> <li>[C501 <a href="/wiki/Likile_language" title="Likile language">Likile</a></li> <li>C502 <a href="/wiki/Linga_language" title="Linga language">Linga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">C60</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>C61a <a href="/wiki/Mongo_language" title="Mongo language">Northeast Mongo</a></li> <li>C61b <a href="/wiki/Mongo_language" title="Mongo language">Northwest Mongo</a></li> <li>C62 <a href="/wiki/Lalia_language" title="Lalia language">Lalia</a></li> <li>[C63 <a href="/wiki/Ngando_language" title="Ngando language">Ngando</a></li> <li>C611 <a href="/wiki/Mongo_language" title="Mongo language">Bafoto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">C70</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>C71 <a href="/wiki/Tetela_language" title="Tetela language">Tetela</a></li> <li>C72 <a href="/wiki/Kusu_language" title="Kusu language">Kusu</a></li> <li>C73 <a href="/wiki/Nkutu_language" title="Nkutu language">Nkutu</a></li> <li>C74 <a href="/wiki/Yela-Kela_language" title="Yela-Kela language">Yela</a></li> <li>C75 <a href="/wiki/Yela-Kela_language" title="Yela-Kela language">Kela</a></li> <li>C76 <a href="/wiki/Ombo_language" title="Ombo language">Ombo</a></li> <li>[C701 <a href="/wiki/Langa_language" title="Langa language">Langa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">C80</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>C81 <a href="/wiki/Dengese_language" title="Dengese language">Dengese</a></li> <li>C82 <a href="/wiki/Hendo_language" title="Hendo language">Songomeno</a></li> <li>C83 <a href="/wiki/Bushong_language" title="Bushong language">Busoong</a></li> <li>C84 <a href="/wiki/Lele_language_(Bantu)" title="Lele language (Bantu)">Lele</a></li> <li>C85 <a href="/wiki/Wongo_language" title="Wongo language">Wongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Zone D</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">D10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>D11 <a href="/wiki/Mbole_language" title="Mbole language">Mbole</a></li> <li>D12 <a href="/wiki/Lengola_language" title="Lengola language">Lengola</a></li> <li>D13 <a href="/wiki/Mituku_language" title="Mituku language">Metoko</a></li> <li>D14 <a href="/wiki/Enya_language" title="Enya language">Enya</a></li> <li>[D141 <a href="/wiki/Enya_language" title="Enya language">Zura</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">D20</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>D21 <a href="/wiki/Bali_language_(DRC)" title="Bali language (DRC)">Bali</a></li> <li>D22 <a href="/wiki/Amba_language_(Bantu)" title="Amba language (Bantu)">Amba</a></li> <li>D23 <a href="/wiki/Komo_language_(Bantu)" title="Komo language (Bantu)">Komo</a></li> <li>D24 <a href="/wiki/Songola_language" title="Songola language">Songola</a></li> <li>D25 <a href="/wiki/Lega_language" title="Lega language">Lega</a></li> <li>D26 <a href="/wiki/Zimba_language" title="Zimba language">Zimba</a></li> <li>D27 <a href="/wiki/Bangubangu_language" title="Bangubangu language">Bangubangu</a></li> <li>D28a <a href="/wiki/Holoholo_language" title="Holoholo language">West Holoholo</a></li> <li>D28b <a href="/wiki/Holoholo_language" title="Holoholo language">East Holoholo</a></li> <li>[D201 <a href="/wiki/Lika_language" title="Lika language">Liko</a></li> <li>D211 <a href="/wiki/Bila_language" title="Bila language">Kango</a></li> <li>D251 <a href="/wiki/Lega_language" title="Lega language">Lega-Malinga</a></li> <li>D281 <a href="/wiki/Holoholo_language" title="Holoholo language">Tumbwe</a></li> <li>D282 <a href="/wiki/Holoholo_language" title="Holoholo language">Lumbwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">D30</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>D31 <a href="/wiki/Bhele_language" title="Bhele language">Peri</a></li> <li>D32 <a href="/wiki/Bira_language" title="Bira language">Bira</a></li> <li>D33 <a href="/wiki/Nyali_language" title="Nyali language">Nyali</a></li> <li>[D301 <a href="/wiki/Kari_language" title="Kari language">Kari</a></li> <li>D302 <a href="/wiki/Guru_language" title="Guru language">Guru</a></li> <li>D303 <a href="/wiki/Ngbinda_language" title="Ngbinda language">Ngbinda</a></li> <li>D304 <a href="/wiki/Homa_language" title="Homa language">Homa</a></li> <li>D305 <a href="/wiki/Nyanga-li_language" title="Nyanga-li language">Nyanga-li</a></li> <li>D306 <a href="/wiki/Nyanga-li_language" title="Nyanga-li language">Gbati-ri</a></li> <li>D307 <a href="/wiki/Nyanga-li_language" title="Nyanga-li language">Mayeka</a></li> <li>D308 <a href="/wiki/Bodo_language_(Bantu)" title="Bodo language (Bantu)">Bodo</a></li> <li>D311 <a href="/wiki/Bila_language" title="Bila language">Bila</a></li> <li>D312 <a href="/wiki/Kaiku_language" title="Kaiku language">Kaiku</a></li> <li>D313 <a href="/wiki/Bila_language" title="Bila language">Ibutu</a></li> <li>D331 <a href="/wiki/Vanuma_language" title="Vanuma language">Bvanuma</a></li> <li>D332 <a href="/wiki/Budu_language" title="Budu language">Budu</a></li> <li>D333 <a href="/wiki/Ndaka_language" title="Ndaka language">Ndaaka</a></li> <li>D334 <a href="/wiki/Mbo_language_(Congo)" title="Mbo language (Congo)">Mbo</a></li> <li>D335 <a href="/wiki/Beeke_language" title="Beeke language">Beeke</a></li> <li>D336 <a href="/wiki/Ngbee_language" title="Ngbee language">Ngbee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">[J]D40</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>[J]D41 <a href="/wiki/Konjo_language_(Bantu)" title="Konjo language (Bantu)">Konzo</a></li> <li>[J]D42 <a href="/wiki/Nande_language" title="Nande language">Ndandi</a></li> <li>[J]D43 <a href="/wiki/Nyanga_language" title="Nyanga language">Nyanga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">[J]D50</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>[J]D51 <a href="/wiki/Hunde_language" title="Hunde language">Hunde</a></li> <li>[J]D52 <a href="/wiki/Havu_language" title="Havu language">Haavu</a></li> <li>[J]D53 <a href="/wiki/Shi_language" title="Shi language">Nyabungu</a></li> <li>[J]D54 <a href="/wiki/Bembe_language_(Ibembe)" title="Bembe language (Ibembe)">Bembe</a></li> <li>[J]D55 <a href="/wiki/Buyu_language" title="Buyu language">Buyi</a></li> <li>[J]D56 <a href="/wiki/Kabwari_language" title="Kabwari language">Kabwari</a></li> <li>[JD501 <a href="/wiki/Shi_language" title="Shi language">Nyindu</a></li> <li>[J]JD502 <a href="/wiki/Yaka_language_(Kivu)" title="Yaka language (Kivu)">Yaka</a></li> <li>[J]JD531 <a href="/wiki/Tembo_(Kitembo)_language" title="Tembo (Kitembo) language">Tembo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">[J]D60</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>[J]D61 <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ruanda</a></li> <li>[J]D62 <a href="/wiki/Kirundi" title="Kirundi">Rundi</a></li> <li>[J]D63 <a href="/wiki/Fuliiru_language" title="Fuliiru language">Fuliiro</a></li> <li>[J]D64 <a href="/wiki/Shubi_language" title="Shubi language">Shubi</a></li> <li>[J]D65 <a href="/wiki/Hangaza_language" title="Hangaza language">Hangaza</a></li> <li>[J]D66 <a href="/wiki/Ha_language" title="Ha language">Ha</a></li> <li>[J]D67 <a href="/wiki/Vinza_language" title="Vinza language">Vinza</a></li> <li>[JD631 <a href="/wiki/Fuliiru_language" title="Fuliiru language">Vira</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a>.</li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Guthrie classification</a> is geographic and its groupings do not imply a relationship between the languages within them.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Narrow Bantu languages by Guthrie classification zone templates</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_A%E2%80%93B)" title="Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones A–B)">Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones A–B)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_C%E2%80%93D)" title="Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones C–D)">Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones C–D)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_E%E2%80%93H)" title="Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones E–H)">Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones E–H)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_J%E2%80%93M)" title="Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones J–M)">Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones J–M)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_N%E2%80%93S)" title="Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones N–S)">Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones N–S)</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_J–M)_(by_Guthrie_classification)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_J%E2%80%93M)" title="Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones J–M)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_J%E2%80%93M)" title="Template talk:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones J–M)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_J%E2%80%93M)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones J–M)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_J–M)_(by_Guthrie_classification)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Narrow <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> (Zones J–M) (by <a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Guthrie classification</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Zone J*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">[J]D40</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>[J]D41 <a href="/wiki/Konjo_language_(Bantu)" title="Konjo language (Bantu)">Konzo</a></li> <li>[J]D42 <a href="/wiki/Nande_language" title="Nande language">Ndandi</a></li> <li>[J]D43 <a href="/wiki/Nyanga_language" title="Nyanga language">Nyanga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">[J]D50</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>[J]D51 <a href="/wiki/Hunde_language" title="Hunde language">Hunde</a></li> <li>[J]D52 <a href="/wiki/Havu_language" title="Havu language">Haavu</a></li> <li>[J]D53 <a href="/wiki/Shi_language" title="Shi language">Nyabungu</a></li> <li>[J]D54 <a href="/wiki/Bembe_language_(Ibembe)" title="Bembe language (Ibembe)">Bembe</a></li> <li>[J]D55 <a href="/wiki/Buyu_language" title="Buyu language">Buyi</a></li> <li>[J]D56 <a href="/wiki/Kabwari_language" title="Kabwari language">Kabwari</a></li> <li>[JD501 <a href="/wiki/Shi_language" title="Shi language">Nyindu</a></li> <li>[J]JD502 <a href="/wiki/Yaka_language_(Kivu)" title="Yaka language (Kivu)">Yaka</a></li> <li>[J]JD531 <a href="/wiki/Tembo_(Kitembo)_language" title="Tembo (Kitembo) language">Tembo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">[J]D60</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>[J]D61 <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ruanda</a></li> <li>[J]D62 <a href="/wiki/Kirundi" title="Kirundi">Rundi</a></li> <li>[J]D63 <a href="/wiki/Fuliiru_language" title="Fuliiru language">Fuliiro</a></li> <li>[J]D64 <a href="/wiki/Subi_language" title="Subi language">Subi</a></li> <li>[J]D65 <a href="/wiki/Hangaza_language" title="Hangaza language">Hangaza</a></li> <li>[J]D66 <a href="/wiki/Ha_language" title="Ha language">Ha</a></li> <li>[J]D67 <a href="/wiki/Vinza_language" title="Vinza language">Vinza</a></li> <li>[JD631 <a href="/wiki/Fuliiru_language" title="Fuliiru language">Vira</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">[J]E10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>[J]E11 <a href="/wiki/Nyoro_language" title="Nyoro language">Nyoro</a></li> <li>[J]E12 <a href="/wiki/Tooro_language" title="Tooro language">Tooro</a></li> <li>[J]E13 <a href="/wiki/Nkore_language" title="Nkore language">Nyankore</a></li> <li>[J]E14 <a href="/wiki/Kiga_language" title="Kiga language">Ciga</a></li> <li>[J]E15 <a href="/wiki/Luganda" title="Luganda">Ganda</a></li> <li>[J]E16 <a href="/wiki/Soga_language" title="Soga language">Soga</a></li> <li>[J]E17 <a href="/wiki/Gwere_language" title="Gwere language">Gwere</a></li> <li>[J]E18 <a href="/wiki/Luhya_language" title="Luhya language">Nyala</a></li> <li>[JE101 <a href="/wiki/Gungu_language" title="Gungu language">Gungu</a></li> <li>JE102 <a href="/wiki/Talinga_language" title="Talinga language">Talinga-Bwisi</a></li> <li>JE103 <a href="/wiki/Ruuli_language" title="Ruuli language">Ruli</a></li> <li>JE121 <a href="/wiki/Hema_language" title="Hema language">Hema</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">[J]E20</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>[J]E21 <a href="/wiki/Nyambo_language" title="Nyambo language">Nyambo</a></li> <li>[J]E22 <a href="/wiki/Haya_language" title="Haya language">Ziba</a></li> <li>[J]E23 <a href="/wiki/Zinza_language" title="Zinza language">Dzindza</a></li> <li>[J]E24 <a href="/wiki/Kerewe_language" title="Kerewe language">Kerebe</a></li> <li>[J]E25 <a href="/wiki/Jita_language" title="Jita language">Jita</a></li> <li>[JE221 <a href="/wiki/Haya_language" title="Haya language">Rashi</a></li> <li>JE251 <a href="/wiki/Kwaya_language" title="Kwaya language">Kwaya</a></li> <li>JE252 <a href="/wiki/Kara_language_(Tanzania)" title="Kara language (Tanzania)">Kara</a></li> <li>JE253 <a href="/wiki/Kwaya_language" title="Kwaya language">Ruri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">[J]E30</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>[J]E31a <a href="/wiki/Masaba_language" title="Masaba language">Gisu</a></li> <li>[J]E31b <a href="/wiki/Masaba_language" title="Masaba language">Kisu</a></li> <li>[J]E31c <a href="/wiki/Bukusu_dialect" title="Bukusu dialect">Bukusu</a></li> <li>[J]E32a <a href="/wiki/Luhya_language" title="Luhya language">Hanga</a></li> <li>[J]E32b <a href="/wiki/Luhya_language" title="Luhya language">Tsotso</a></li> <li>[J]E33 <a href="/wiki/Nyole_language_(Kenya)" title="Nyole language (Kenya)">Nyore</a></li> <li>[J]E34 <a href="/wiki/Samia_language" title="Samia language">Saamia</a></li> <li>[J]E35 <a href="/wiki/Nyole_language_(Uganda)" title="Nyole language (Uganda)">Nyuli</a></li> <li>[JE341 <a href="/wiki/Khayo_language" title="Khayo language">Xaayo</a></li> <li>JE342 <a href="/wiki/Marachi_language" title="Marachi language">Marachi</a></li> <li>JE343 <a href="/wiki/Samia_language" title="Samia language">Songa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">[J]E40</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>[J]E41 <a href="/wiki/Logooli_language" title="Logooli language">Logooli</a></li> <li>[J]E42 <a href="/wiki/Gusii_language" title="Gusii language">Gusii</a></li> <li>[J]E43 <a href="/wiki/Kuria_language" title="Kuria language">Koria</a></li> <li>[J]E44 <a href="/wiki/Zanaki_language" title="Zanaki language">Zanaki</a></li> <li>[J]E45 <a href="/wiki/Ikoma_language" title="Ikoma language">Nata</a></li> <li>E46 <a href="/wiki/Sonjo_language" title="Sonjo language">Sonjo</a></li> <li>[JE401 <a href="/wiki/Ngoreme_language" title="Ngoreme language">Nguruimi</a></li> <li>JE402 <a href="/wiki/Ikizu_language" title="Ikizu language">Ikizu</a></li> <li>JE403 <a href="/wiki/Suba_language" title="Suba language">Suba</a>/<a href="/wiki/Suba-Simbiti_language" title="Suba-Simbiti language">Suba-Simbiti</a></li> <li>JE404 <a href="/wiki/Ikizu_language" title="Ikizu language">Shashi</a></li> <li>JE405 <a href="/wiki/Kabwa_language" title="Kabwa language">Kabwa</a></li> <li>JE406 <a href="/wiki/Singa_language" title="Singa language">Singa</a></li> <li>JE407 <a href="/wiki/Ware_language" title="Ware language">Ware</a></li> <li>JE411 <a href="/wiki/Idaxo-Isuxa-Tiriki_language" title="Idaxo-Isuxa-Tiriki language">Idaxo</a></li> <li>JE412 <a href="/wiki/Idaxo-Isuxa-Tiriki_language" title="Idaxo-Isuxa-Tiriki language">Isuxa</a></li> <li>JE413 <a href="/wiki/Idaxo-Isuxa-Tiriki_language" title="Idaxo-Isuxa-Tiriki language">Tiriki</a></li> <li>JE431 <a href="/wiki/Kuria_language" title="Kuria language">Simbiti</a></li> <li>JE432 <a href="/wiki/Kuria_language" title="Kuria language">Hacha</a></li> <li>JE433 <a href="/wiki/Kuria_language" title="Kuria language">Surwa</a></li> <li>JE434 <a href="/wiki/Kuria_language" title="Kuria language">Sweta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">[J]F20</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>[J]F21 <a href="/wiki/Sukuma_language" title="Sukuma language">Sukuma</a></li> <li>[J]F22 <a href="/wiki/Nyamwezi_language" title="Nyamwezi language">Nyamwezi</a></li> <li>[J]F23 <a href="/wiki/Sumbwa_language" title="Sumbwa language">Sumbwa</a></li> <li>[J]F24 <a href="/wiki/Kimbu_language" title="Kimbu language">Kimbu</a></li> <li>[J]F25 <a href="/wiki/Bungu_language" title="Bungu language">Bungu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Zone K</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">K10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>K11 <a href="/wiki/Chokwe_language" title="Chokwe language">Chokwe</a></li> <li>K12a <a href="/wiki/Luimbi_language" title="Luimbi language">Luimbi</a></li> <li>K12b <a href="/wiki/Luchazi" title="Luchazi">Nyemba</a></li> <li>K13 <a href="/wiki/Luchazi" title="Luchazi">Lucazi</a></li> <li>K14 <a href="/wiki/Luvale_language" title="Luvale language">Lwena</a></li> <li>K15 <a href="/wiki/Mbunda_language" title="Mbunda language">Mbunda</a></li> <li>K16 <a href="/wiki/Nyengo_language" title="Nyengo language">Nyengo</a></li> <li>K17 <a href="/wiki/Luchazi" title="Luchazi">Mbwela</a></li> <li>K18 <a href="/wiki/Mbunda_language" title="Mbunda language">Nkangala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">K20</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>K21 <a href="/wiki/Lozi_language" title="Lozi language">Lozi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">K30</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>K31 <a href="/wiki/Luyana_language" title="Luyana language">Luyana</a></li> <li>K32 <a href="/wiki/Mbowe_language" title="Mbowe language">Mbowe</a></li> <li>K33 <a href="/wiki/Kwangali_language" title="Kwangali language">Kwangali</a></li> <li>K34 <a href="/wiki/Mashi_language" title="Mashi language">Mashi</a></li> <li>K35 <a href="/wiki/Simaa_language" title="Simaa language">Simaa</a></li> <li>K36 <a href="/wiki/Shanjo_language" title="Shanjo language">Sanjo</a></li> <li>K37 <a href="/wiki/Kwangwa_language" title="Kwangwa language">Kwangwa</a></li> <li>[K321 <a href="/wiki/Mbowe_language" title="Mbowe language">Mbume</a></li> <li>K322 <a href="/wiki/Mbowe_language" title="Mbowe language">Liyuwa</a></li> <li>K332 <a href="/wiki/Dciriku_language" title="Dciriku language">Manyo</a></li> <li>K333 <a href="/wiki/Mbukushu_language" title="Mbukushu language">Mbukushu</a></li> <li>K334 <a href="/wiki/Dciriku_language" title="Dciriku language">Mbogedu</a></li> <li>K351 <a href="/wiki/Simaa_language" title="Simaa language">Mulonga</a></li> <li>K352 <a href="/wiki/Simaa_language" title="Simaa language">Mwenyi</a></li> <li>K353 <a href="/wiki/Simaa_language" title="Simaa language">Koma</a></li> <li>K354 <a href="/wiki/Simaa_language" title="Simaa language">Imilangu</a></li> <li>K371 <a href="/wiki/Kwangwa_language" title="Kwangwa language">Kwandi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">K40</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>K41 <a href="/wiki/Totela_language" title="Totela language">Totela</a></li> <li>K42 <a href="/wiki/Kuhane_language" title="Kuhane language">Subiya</a></li> <li>[K402 <a href="/wiki/Fwe_language" title="Fwe language">Fwe</a></li> <li>K411 <a href="/wiki/Totela_language" title="Totela language">Totela of Namibia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Zone L</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">L10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>L11 <a href="/wiki/Pende_language" title="Pende language">Pende</a></li> <li>L12 <a href="/wiki/Holu_language" title="Holu language">Samba</a> & <a href="/wiki/Holu_language" title="Holu language">Holu</a></li> <li>L13 <a href="/wiki/Kwese_language" title="Kwese language">Kwese</a></li> <li>[L101 <a href="/wiki/Sonde_language" title="Sonde language">Sonde</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">L20</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>L21 <a href="/wiki/Kete_language" title="Kete language">Kete</a></li> <li>L22 <a href="/wiki/Binji_language" title="Binji language">Binji</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lwalu_language" title="Lwalu language">Mbagani</a></li></ul></li> <li>L23 <a href="/wiki/Songe_language" title="Songe language">Songe</a></li> <li>L24 <a href="/wiki/Luna_language" title="Luna language">Luna</a></li> <li>[L201 <a href="/wiki/Budya_language" title="Budya language">Budya</a></li> <li>L202 <a href="/wiki/Hemba_language" title="Hemba language">Yazi</a></li> <li>L221 <a href="/wiki/Lwalu_language" title="Lwalu language">Lwalwa</a></li> <li>L231 <a href="/wiki/Binji_language" title="Binji language">Binji</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">L30</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>L31a <a href="/wiki/Luba-Kasai_language" title="Luba-Kasai language">Luba-Kasai</a></li> <li>L31b <a href="/wiki/Luba-Kasai_language" title="Luba-Kasai language">Lulua</a></li> <li>L32 <a href="/wiki/Kanyok_language" title="Kanyok language">Kanyoka</a></li> <li>L33 <a href="/wiki/Luba-Katanga_language" title="Luba-Katanga language">Luba-Katanga</a></li> <li>L34 <a href="/wiki/Hemba_language" title="Hemba language">Hemba</a></li> <li>L35 <a href="/wiki/Sanga_language_(Bantu)" title="Sanga language (Bantu)">Sanga</a></li> <li>[L301 <a href="/wiki/Kebwe_language" title="Kebwe language">Kebwe</a></li> <li>L331 <a href="/wiki/Zela_language" title="Zela language">Zeela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">L40</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>L41 <a href="/wiki/Kaonde_language" title="Kaonde language">Kaonde</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">L50</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>L51 <a href="/wiki/Salampasu_language" title="Salampasu language">Salampasu</a></li> <li>L52 <a href="/wiki/Lunda_language" title="Lunda language">Lunda</a></li> <li>L53 <a href="/wiki/Ruund_language" title="Ruund language">Ruund</a></li> <li>[L511 <a href="/wiki/Salampasu_language" title="Salampasu language">Luntu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">L60</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>L61 <a href="/wiki/Nkoya_language" title="Nkoya language">Mbwera</a></li> <li>L62 <a href="/wiki/Nkoya_language" title="Nkoya language">Nkoya</a></li> <li>[L601 <a href="/wiki/Nkoya_language" title="Nkoya language">Kolwe</a></li> <li>L602 <a href="/wiki/Nkoya_language" title="Nkoya language">Lushangi</a></li> <li>L603 <a href="/wiki/Nkoya_language" title="Nkoya language">Shasha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Zone M</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">M10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>M11 <a href="/wiki/Pimbwe_language" title="Pimbwe language">Pimbwe</a></li> <li>M12 <a href="/wiki/Rungwa_language" title="Rungwa language">Rungwa</a></li> <li>M13 <a href="/wiki/Fipa_language" title="Fipa language">Fipa</a></li> <li>M14 <a href="/wiki/Mambwe-Lungu_language" title="Mambwe-Lungu language">Rungu</a></li> <li>M15 <a href="/wiki/Mambwe-Lungu_language" title="Mambwe-Lungu language">Mambwe</a></li> <li>[M131 <a href="/wiki/Fipa_language" title="Fipa language">Kuulwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">M20</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>M21 <a href="/wiki/Wanda_language" title="Wanda language">Wanda</a></li> <li>M22 <a href="/wiki/Mwanga_language" title="Mwanga language">Mwanga</a></li> <li>M23 <a href="/wiki/Nyiha_language" title="Nyiha language">Nyiha</a></li> <li>M24 <a href="/wiki/Malila_language" title="Malila language">Malila</a></li> <li>M25 <a href="/wiki/Safwa_language" title="Safwa language">Safwa</a></li> <li>M26 <a href="/wiki/Mwanga_language" title="Mwanga language">Iwa</a></li> <li>M27 <a href="/wiki/Mwanga_language" title="Mwanga language">Tambo</a></li> <li>[M201 <a href="/wiki/Lambya_language" title="Lambya language">Lambya</a></li> <li>M202 <a href="/wiki/Lambya_language" title="Lambya language">Sukwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">M30</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>M31 <a href="/wiki/Nyakyusa_language" title="Nyakyusa language">Nyakyusa</a></li> <li>[M301 <a href="/wiki/Ndali_language" title="Ndali language">Ndali</a></li> <li>M302 <a href="/wiki/Penja_language" title="Penja language">Penja</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">M40</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>M41 <a href="/wiki/Taabwa_language" title="Taabwa language">Taabwa</a></li> <li>M42 <a href="/wiki/Bemba_language" title="Bemba language">Bemba</a></li> <li>[M401 <a href="/wiki/Bwile_language" title="Bwile language">Bwile</a></li> <li>M402 <a href="/wiki/Aushi_language" title="Aushi language">Aushi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">M50</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>M51 <a href="/wiki/Lala-Bisa_language" title="Lala-Bisa language">Biisa</a></li> <li>M52 <a href="/wiki/Lala-Bisa_language" title="Lala-Bisa language">Lala</a></li> <li>M53 <a href="/wiki/Lala-Bisa_language" title="Lala-Bisa language">Swaka</a></li> <li>M54 <a href="/wiki/Lamba_language" title="Lamba language">Lamba</a></li> <li>M55 <a href="/wiki/Seba_language" title="Seba language">Seba</a></li> <li>[M521 <a href="/wiki/Lala-Bisa_language" title="Lala-Bisa language">Ambo</a></li> <li>M522 <a href="/wiki/Lala-Bisa_language" title="Lala-Bisa language">Luano</a></li> <li>M541 <a href="/wiki/Lamba_language" title="Lamba language">Lima</a></li> <li>M542 <a href="/wiki/Lamba_language" title="Lamba language">Temba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">M60</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>M61 <a href="/wiki/Lenje_language" title="Lenje language">Lenje</a></li> <li>M62 <a href="/wiki/Soli_language" title="Soli language">Soli</a></li> <li>M63 <a href="/wiki/Ila_language" title="Ila language">Ila</a></li> <li>M64 <a href="/wiki/Tonga_language_(Zambia_and_Zimbabwe)" title="Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)">Tonga</a></li> <li>[M611 <a href="/wiki/Lenje_language" title="Lenje language">Lukanga Twa</a></li> <li>M631 <a href="/wiki/Ila_language" title="Ila language">Sala</a></li> <li>M632 <a href="/wiki/Ila_language" title="Ila language">Lundwe</a></li> <li>M633 <a href="/wiki/Kafwe_Twa" title="Kafwe Twa">Kafue Twa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a>.</li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Guthrie classification</a> is geographic and its groupings do not imply a relationship between the languages within them.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Narrow Bantu languages by Guthrie classification zone templates</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_A%E2%80%93B)" title="Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones A–B)">Template:Narrow Bantu 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